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Damming of large river by debris flow: Dynamic process and particle

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DOI: 10.1007/s11629-012-2568-2

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J. Mt. Sci. (2014) 11(3): 634-643 e-mail: jms@imde.ac.cn http://jms.imde.ac.cn
DOI: 10.1007/s11629-012-2568-2

Damming of Large River by Debris Flow: Dynamic Process

and Particle Composition

DU Cui1, YAO Ling-kan1,2,3*, SHAKYA Subhashsagar1, LI Lun-gui1, SUN Xiao-dan1

1 School of Civil Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China

2 MOE Key Laboratory of High-speed Railway Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China
3 Road and Railway Engineering Research Institute, Sichuan Key Laboratory of Aseismic Engineering and Technology,
Chengdu 610031, China

*Corresponding Author, e-mail: yaolk@home.swjtu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86(028)87634664;

First author, e-mail: ducui0125@163.com

Citation: Du C, Yao LK, Shakya S, et al. (2014) Damming of large river by debris flow: Dynamic process and particle
composition. Journal of Mountain Science 11(3). DOI: 10.1007/s11629-012-2568-2

© Science Press and Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, CAS and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014

Abstract: The frequency and extent of debris flows Introduction

have increased tremendously due to the extreme
weather and the Wenchuan earthquake on May 12,
2008. Previous studies focused on the debris flow
from gullies damming the mountain streams. In this
paper, an equation for the run-out distance of debris
flow in the main river is proposed based on the
dynamic equation of debris flow at different slopes
given by Takahashi. By undertaking field
investigations and flume experiments, a new
calculation method of the volume of debris flow
damming large river is obtained. Using the
percolation theory and the renormalization group
theory it was deduced that the large particles should
comprise more than 50% for forming a stable debris
flow dam. Hence, the criteria of damming large river
by debris flow is presented in terms of run-out
distance and grain composition which was then
validated through the event of damming river by
debris flow at Gaojia gully, the upper reaches of the
Minjiang River, Sichuan, China, on July 3, 2011.
Keywords: Debris flow; Damming large river;
Criteria; Run-out distance; Grain composition
Received: 23 October 2012
Accepted: 4 March 2013
In recent years, the frequency and extent of
debris flows have greatly increased due to the
extreme weather conditions and earthquakes. The
damming large river by debris flows in
mountainous areas is prone to pose widespread
hazards. There are mainly three disaster modes
that can arise in such mentioned event, the first
one is flood disaster due to massive amounts of
water pooling up behind the barrier dam. The
second one is flow scouring the opposite bank due
to partial damming of large river by debris flow.
Lastly, if debris flow dam break up, it will have
devastating effects on the economic construction,
and people’s lives and property at the downstream
(Cui 2008; Wang 2008; Ma 2011; Xie 2009; Guo
2010; Zhang 2007).
Due to the limited cases of damming large
river by debris flow, previous studies focused on
damming streams.
Xu (2002) proposed a new calculation
equation of dangerous decision index of debris
flows rushing into the main channel by comparison

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 J. Mt. Sci. (2014) 11(3): 634-643

of assessment methods of danger degree between as Hengduan Mountains, Nujiang river and
debris flow in single gully and regional debris flow. Lancangjiang river (Luo and Mao 1995). Those
Chen et al. (2002), by undertaking flume areas are prone to damming large river by debris
experiments of blocking streams by debris flow, flow. In this section, the run-out distance equation
formulated a critical momentum ratio for blockage of debris flow in the main river will be given.
of the river. Dang et al. (2009) through flume The dynamic equation of debris flow in gully at
experiments and analysis of the critical conditions different slope (Figure 1) was given by Takahashi
for dam-forming obtained a dimensionless critical (Takahashi and Yoshida 1979) as follow:
index for dam-forming on the basis of model test
and other documents related to dam-forming and
d ⎡1
dt ⎢⎣ 2
( h + h f ) x γg0 v ⎤⎥ =
complete blockage in mainstream. He (2003) by ⎦
1 γ
undertaking flume experiments, proposed the
effects on mainstream blockage by considering the 2
( h + h f ) xγ 0 sin θ + 0 qT vu cos (θ u − θ ) +
g (1)
angle, unit weight, the ratio of mainstream and 1 2
ghu cos θ u cos (θu − θ ) ⎡⎣(σ − ρ ) cdu ka + ρ ⎤⎦
unit width of debris flow. Based on which an 2
empirical equation to calculate the maximum −F
junction angle which could not cause main flow
where t is time, g is the gravitational acceleration,
blockage was induced, which could be used as a
γ 0 ( γ 0 = γ s − γ w , where γ s is the unit weight of soil,
guideline for the construction of debris flow
γ w is the unit weight of water) is the unit weight of
mitigation engineering. Zhang and Xie (2008),
debris flow, ρ is the density of water, cdu is the
undertaking different cases of debris flow blocking
concentration of debris flow, ka=tan2(45°- ϕ /2) is
streams, formulated an experimental equation
the coefficient of active earth pressure. The
assessing the possibility of debris flow blocking
dynamic friction angle ϕ of debris flow is less than
streams.
the internal friction angle ϕ s of loose earth in
These results based on damming streams by
saturated state. Because it is difficult to measure ϕ ,
debris flow, which are critical phenomenon studies
using ϕ s instead of ϕ is reliable, F is bottom
based on the energy balance are not suitable for the
friction, θ u and θ are the different slope angles of
case of damming large river (partly and
debris flow gully, h is the height of the debris flow
completely). The disasters caused by damming the
head, hf is the height of the debris flow tail, vu is the
large river have increased, therefore, how to
velocity of forward debris flow, hu is the height of
establish universal criteria for damming large river
forward debris flow.
(partly and completely) is a new scientific problem.
Considering the resistance of water and river
The characteristics of damming large river by
bed, the following one-dimensional dynamic
debris flow are as follows, 1) The flow resistance
equation is obtained by adding flow resistance f in
has effect on the movement of the debris flow. 2)
equation (1).
The composition of debris flow dam shall have the
anti erosion ability to form a stable debris flow dam.
Based on the above characteristics, this paper
examines the comprehensive criteria of damming
large river by debris flow (Liu and Yao 2012).

1 Run-out Distance

In this paper, it is assumed that the angle of

gully and Main River is 90°. Trellis drainage
controlled by tectonic geology is universal
landscape in fold mountains. There are many fold Figure 1 Front velocity retardation on the flatter
mountains in the southwest region of China, such channel.

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J. Mt. Sci. (2014) 11(3): 634-643

d 1 γ time is obtained by
[ (h + h f ) x 0 v] =
dt 2 g 1 2
x=− St + Qt (8)
1 γ 4
( h + h f ) xγ 0 sin θ + 0 qT vu cos(θ u − θ ) Substituting (7) into (8), the run-out distance
2 g (2)
of the debris flow in the main river is obtained
1
+ ghu2 cos θ u cos(θ u − θ )[(σ − ρ )cdu k a + ρ ] 2
2 L = xmax = Q (9)
S
−F − f From above conclusion the damming
The initial condition is v(0) = V . coefficient (the ratio of the run-out distance to the
In Equation (2), θ u is the slope angle at gully width of the main river) is R = L / B , where B is the
mouth, θ is the slope angle of river, vu is the width of river.
velocity of debris flow at gully mouth. Assume the angle of gully and river is α . if the
1 angle is lower than 90° (inverse cross), the flow
F = (σ − ρ ) gcdu ( h f + h ) x cos θ ⋅ n ,
2 resistance should be considered and added in
ρ vu2 1 equation (2). If the angle is more than 90°, the flow
f = CD hu cos θ + ghu2 ρ cos θ .
8 2 resistance should not be considered for safety and
where f is flow resistance (drag and hydrostatic the run-out distance L should be replaced
force), n is roughness parameter, CD is resistance by sin α ⋅ L .
coefficient, which is related to Re and the shape of
subjects ( 0.5 ≤ CD ≤ 2.0 ).
Based on the mass conservation and 2 Volume of Debris Flow
eliminating minimal term, the following equation
is valid (the equation 3’s proof process in the reply The total volume of debris flow is an important
to the comment) factor for damming large river. In traditional studies,
d 1 γ there are many methods to calculate the debris flow
[ (h + h f ) x 0 v] = qT (= vu hu ) (3)
dt 2 g deposition in the main river based on its geometric
Integrating (3) from 0 to t , we have the shape (Zhou et al. 1991; Zhuang et al. 2009).
following expression at t = 0, x = 0 , In this section, by analyzing the data of the
1 field investigations and flume experiments, the
( h + h f ) x = qT ⋅ t (4)
2 relationship between damming coefficient and the
Combining (2), (3) and (4), we have total volume of debris flow has been established.
dv v Q The thrust force of the follow-up debris flow is
= − + −S (5) the main dynamic force driving the debris flow in
dt t t
the main river, which is an important factor while
(γ − γ w ) gcdu cos θ ⋅ n
where S = s − g sin θ ， establishing equation (2). Field investigations and
(γ s − γ w )cdu + γ w
flume experiments show that, after damming
Q = vu cos(θu − θ ) + happens, a considerable volume of debris flow
cos θu cos(θ u − θ )[(γ s − γ w )cdu ka + γ w ]ghu deposits in gullies, provide a continuous thrust for
2[(γ s − γ w )cdu + γ w ]vu the debris flow in the main river. The phenomena
γ w cos θ ghu CD γ w vu cos θ demonstrate that the thrust force of follow-up
− − debris flow exist throughout the movement process
2[(γ s − γ w )cdu + γ w ]vu 8[(γ s − γ w )cdu + γ w ]
of the debris flow. This is one condition of
Integrating (5) from 0 to t , we obtain damming large river by debris flow. Accordingly,
1 the total volume of debris flow should include two
v (t ) = − St + Q (6)
2 parts, Part I—debris flow volume in the main river,
Letting v (t ) = 0 in equation (6), we have Part II—debris flow in gully, as illustrated in Figure
2Q 2. For Part I, there are numerous methods to
tL = (7)
S calculate the volume of debris flow in the main
Integrating (6) from 0 to t , the run-out river which have been provided in references, such
distance of the debris flow in the main river at any as Zhou (1991). For Part II, the volume can be

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 J. Mt. Sci. (2014) 11(3): 634-643

Table 1 Data of damming coefficient and the

volume of debris flow from field
investigations and flume experiments
Field investigations Flume experiments
Volume Coefficient Coefficient
Volume(m3)
(104 m3) (R) (R)
31.6034 0.7 1.0368 0.75
12.1978 0.6 1.253 0.8
36.0389 0.78 0.9504 0.75
18.0195 0.54 0.864 0.6
18.0195 0.67 0.72 0.6
11.0889 0.57 0.576 0.6
13.8611 0.6 0.569 0.5
11.6433 0.54 0.47824 0.55
41.0288 1 1.4148 0.85
* * 2.225 1

Figure 2 The total volume of debris flow (include two
parts).
Figure 3 Damming of upper reaches of Mingjiang
River by debris flow on August 13, 2011.
Figure 4 The relationship between damming
coefficient and the volume of debris flow.
calculated according to the topography of the
debris flow gully.
Data of damming coefficient and volume of
debris flow are given in Table 1 by undertaking
field measurement and investigations. The Figure 3
shows the sites which were investigated.
Fitting the above data, the relationship
between damming coefficient and volume of debris
flow is given in Figure 4. Using regression analysis
the above field data can be best fit by the equation
y=76x-30 (where x is damming coefficient, y is
total volume of debris flow).
The next step is to prove the universality of the
above fitted line using flume experiments. The
flume experiment instruments as shown in Figure
5 are provided by Southwest Jiaotong University
(Sichuan Province, China). The width, length and
gradient ratio of main channel are 2m, 15m and
0.2% respectively. The angle between branch and
the main channel is 90°, the width, length and
slope of branch are 0.33m, 4.8m, 10° respectively.
The data of flume experiments are shown in Table 1,
which can be best fit by the equation y=3.2x-1.2
(where x is damming coefficient, y is total volume
of debris flow) using regression analysis method.
Normalizing the experimental and field data,
two fitted lines are obtained as shown in Figure 6.
It shows that when R is more than or equal to 0.5,
the volume of damming large river is increasing
tremendously. The results are in close resemblance
with the realistic phenomenon.
The above results show that the linearity and
the slope of the line deduced by field investigation
data are universal. In conclusion the damming
coefficient (R) and the volume of debris flow are

637
J. Mt. Sci. (2014) 11(3): 634-643
Figure 5 Flume experiment instruments in Southwest
Jiaotong University, Sichuan Province, China.
Figure 6 Fitted lines of field and experiment data.
related by the equation on y=76x+b. In one river, if
we get one data of debris flow volume & damming
coefficient, substituting the data in above equation
the variable b of the fitted line can be obtained. In
638
other sites, the volume (y) can be calculated by
above equation when the coefficient (x) is given.
3 Stability of Debris Flow Dams
After the damming large river by debris flow,
debris flow dam will be formed in the main river
(Zeng 2007). Kuang (1995) has suggested the
formation condition of the debris flow dam by
using theoretical analysis and experimental
investigation (Kuang 1995). Wang (2009, 2012)
proposed that the particle composition and the
proportion of large particle are very important for
the stability of landslide dams (Wang et al. 2009,
2009; Wang 2012). Their investigations of
landslide dams show that, if the proportion of the
particle larger than 1m is more than 10%, the dams
remain stable (Figure 7). However, if the
proportion of the particle larger than 0.1m is less
than 50%, the dams failed. Therefore, the stability
of dams increases with the proportion of the large
particles. In this section, the critical condition of
the stability of debris flow dams will be proposed.
From above discussion, it is clear that the
proportion of large particles has significant effect
on the stability of debris flow dams. One important
character of debris flow is that debris flow contains
particles of varying size. The debris flow particles
are divided into two main categories in order to
solve the problem regarding to debris flow
damming large rivers: small particles (unstable
particles) will be flushed away by the river flow,
while large particles (stable particles) will not.
When the proportion of the large particles is low,
they will be suspended in the small ones (Figure 8),
and the framework structure cannot be formed.
With an increasing proportion of the large particles,
the debris flow dam becomes stable. When the
proportion of large particles reaches the threshold,
an intact framework structure will be formed by the
interlocking large particles. The small particles are
filled in the interspace of large ones (Figure 9). The
integral strength of debris flow dams depends on
the proportion of the large particles. If the
proportion of the large particles exceeds the critical
condition, the dams will keep stable under the
scouring of the large river. By considering the
formation of the framework structure as a critical
phenomenon, the percolation theory and

renormalization group theory (Zhang 1986; Wilson
1971) can be used to analyze the variation of debris
flow dam strength as the proportion of large
particles increases.
The percolation theory (Stauffer and Aharony
1994; Wierman 1984) is used to analyze the
framework structure model, which is a single point
structure simplified as point to point connections.
The stress transfer through the contact point is
defined as inter-granular stress. The large particles
of debris flow dam are simplified to spherical
particles.
The propagation path of the stress between
two particles is an imaginary line which connects
Figure 7 Sediment grading curves of different barrier dams (Cui et al. 2011).
Figure 8 Suspension frame structure model.
J. Mt. Sci. (2014) 11(3): 634-643
the center of the spherical particles. The line
segment is defined as “bond” and its ends (i.e.
centre of spherical particles) are defined as “sites”
of inter-granular stress network. The set of sites
and bonds constitutes the inter-granular stress
network. The interaction of the particles obeys the
laws of the probability. It is defined that the value
of bond connection probability is P, which depends
on the character and contact state of the large
particles. Therefore, the stress phenomenon of the
inter-granular stress network can be simplified to a
3-dimensional mechanism. When P=1, the
mechanical strength of the mechanism is
maximum.When P<1, different networks have
Figure 9 Overlay frame structure model.
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J. Mt. Sci. (2014) 11(3): 634-643
different critical value Pc, when P<Pc, the network
cannot bear any stress; when P>Pc, the infinite
expansive stress network can be formed, the value
Pc is percolation threshold.
According to the above simplified model, the
layout of the large spherical particles of the debris
flow dam can be illustrated as Figure 10a. The
inter-granular stress network is a two-dimensional
triangular lattice.
In order to deduce the percolation threshold
using renormalization group theory, there is a
treatment for above model as follows, when large
particles are missing, the small particles occupy the
space of the missing large particles, as shown in
Figure 10b. However, a “hole” appears in the place
of the large particle, which means that bonds are
broken (dotted lines in Figure 10b). The operating
process of the renormalization group
transformation is as follows,
1) A triangular lattice can be defined as a
secondary cellular by a Kandanoff transformation
as shown in Figure 11.
2) According to the definition of the inter-
granular stress network, the stress of cellular is in
the conducting state as long as two or more
particles connect well. Considering the conducting
states of 3 particles, a cellular have 8 different
kinds of configurations, among which 4 are
conducted. The conducting probability of the
secondary cellular is P(2)can be expressed by
P (2) = [ P (1) ]3 + 3[ P (2) ]2 (1 − P (1) )
Figure 10 Inter-granular stress network diagram. (a) The complete Inter-
granular stress network diagram; (b) The large particles of the Inter-granular
stress network diagram are missing.
Figure 11 Triangular lattice renormalization transformation.
640
The conducting probability of the advanced
cellular is P ( r +1) can be expressed by
P ( r +1) = [ P ( r ) ]3 + 3[ P ( r +1) ]2 [1 − P ( r ) ] (11)
The renormalization group equations (10) and
(11) can be used when the debris flow is composed
of large particles.
3) The effect of small particles is considered by
the following renormalization group equation. The
probability of the hole is defined as h . Then the
probability of the holes does not exist is 1 − h .
Therefore, the conducting probability is P (1 − h) .
The value of the fixed point is defined as P* , and
then the equation (11) can be re-written
P* = [ P* (1 − h)]3 + 3[ P* (1 − h)]2 [1 − P(1 − h)] + P* h (12)
4) Substituting the fixed value h in Equation
(12), the value P* can be obtained. By the definition
of the fixed point theory of the renormalization
group, the unstable fixed point corresponds to the
critical point, then P* equal to Pc. The relationship
between h and Pc is obtained from calculated the
equation (12) which is shown as follows, for h=0.1,
Pc=0.556; h=0.2, Pc=0.625; h=0.3, Pc=0.714;
h=0.4, Pc=0.833; h=0.5, Pc=1.
The above results show that the Pc increases
with the increase of h. When h=0.5, Pc=1.
When h > 0.5 , the stress network (is failure) fails
even if the connectivity probability Pc=1. Therefore,
the condition for forming the stress network the
proportion of the large particles should be more
(10) than 50%.
In conclusion, the stable
condition of debris flow dams in
the main river is satisfied when
the proportion of the large
particles is more than 50%.
4 Verification
After the May, 12
Wenchuan earthquake, there
are numerous cases regarding
damming large river by debris
flow, among which Gaojia gully
is a typical example. Its
detailed analysis is presented
in this section.
May, 12 Wenchun
 J. Mt. Sci. (2014) 11(3): 634-643

earthquake and aftershocks have caused damages
to mountains. Huge volume of loose mass was
piled up in the gully. Dozens of events of damming
Minjiang River by debris flows after Wenchuan
earthquake in Sichuan Province. Gaojia gully is
located at the Duwen Highway (National Highway
213) from Dujiangyan to Wenchuan (k16+202-
k16+700). Its longitude is 103.497°E and the
latitude is 31.204°N. The drainage area is 4.5 km2.
The length, gradient ratio and average slope of the
gully are 2.11 km, 340.38‰ and 43.01°,
respectively. The annual average flow discharge of
Minjiang River is 600 m3/s. The total volume of
debris flow is 36×104 m3, and the damming
coefficient is 0.78.
4.1 Theoretical Calculation
4.1.1 Run-out distance
The following data were obtained from the
investigation of the Gaojia gully debris flow.
cdu = 0.60, g = 10, hu = 10, CD = 1, vu = 6,
θu = 15° , θ = 0° , ka = 0.33, n = 0.070, γ s = 1.95, γ w = 1.
Substituting the above data into Equation (9)
yielded, L = 137.1822 m ＜ L’ = 150 m (the width of
the river).
river is at least 38.4×104 m3.
4) In order to form stable debris flow dams,
the proportion of large particles i.e. particle size
larger than 13cm shall be more than 50%.
4.2 Field investigation at Gaojia gully
July 3, 2011, Gaojia gully debris flow blocked
Minjiang river partially, which caused the high-
velocity river water scour the opposite bank
seriously. The roadbed approximately 500 m in
length along National Highway 213 was severely
damaged. A channel was excavated through the
debris flow dam, so that the Minjiang River can
flow through the channel (Figures 12 and 13). It is
the only case of the river flowing on the debris flow
fan. The debris flow particles were re-separated by
river. The small particles were washed away, and
the larger particles remain intact. After the analysis

4.1.2 Particle size

Schoklitsch (1934) proposed the incipient Figure 12 Gaojia gully debris flow at the Duwen
motion of sediment qc = 0.0194D/J4/3 (13). Where qc Highway (National Highway 213) from Dujiangyan to
is the unit width flux, J is the gradient ratio of the Wenchuan (k16+202 - k16+700), Sichuan Province,
China, July 3, 2011.
main river, and D is the particle size. From the field
testing of Gaojia gully’s debris flow, qc = 3(m3/s)/m,
J = 5%. The particle size can be calculated from the
equation (13), D = 0.13 m = 13 cm.

4.1.3 Volume
From 4.1.1, damming coefficient of Gaojia
gully debris flow is 0.91, by y = 76x－30, the total
debris flow volume is 38.4×104 m3.

4.1.4 Results
1) From the above calculation of the run-out
distance L , the debris flow cannot block Minjiang
River totally.
2) The damming coefficient, L/L′, is about 0.91. Figure 13 Minjiang River flowing through Gaojia gully
3) The volume of debris flow damming the debris flow fan in Sichuan Province, China, 2012.

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J. Mt. Sci. (2014) 11(3): 634-643
Figure 14 Field investigation of debris flow fan and
the debris flow in the channel of Gaojia gully, Sichuan
Province, China, 2012.
Figure 15 Sediment size distributions of debris flow in
the channel and the debris flow fan.
of the field data (Figure 14), the grading curves of
the debris flow in the channel and the slope of the
debris flow fan are presented in Figure 15, which
show that the proportions of the particles with size
larger than 20cm is more than 80% in the channel,
642
neglecting the particle size less than 20 cm.
The theoretical calculation and field
investigation show that the theoretical models (run-
out distance, volume and particle composition) are
valid.
5 Conclusions
1) Criteria of damming large river by debris flow
Based on the Equation (2), the run-out
distance L is calculated. Then the damming
coefficient is obtained by R = L / L ' , where L ' is the
width of the river. If 0.5 < R < 1 , the debris flow may
dam the main river, scouring of the opposite bank
should be considered. If R ≥ 1 , the debris flow may
block the main river and form dammed lakes or
change river route. The run-out distance is a
dynamical condition of damming large river by
debris flow. The total volume of debris flow is an
important factor for damming large river which can
be calculated from the relationship between
damming coefficient and volume of debris flow.
The stability of debris flow dams is a
requirement for damming large river which
depends on its composition. If the proportion of
large particles (which cannot be taken away by
river) is more than 50%, the dam may keep stable.
Debris flow dams were regarded dangerous
because massive amounts of water pooling
upstream of dam, which might eventually fail
under the action of dam-outburst flooding,
potentially endangering the lives of thousands of
people at downstream. On the contrary, if the
proportion of large particles is lower than 50%, the
debris flow cannot form a stable dam in the main
river and the damage is modest.
2) A new empirical formula for calculating the
volume of debris flow that dams the large river
Based on field data of damming Minjiang river
by debris flow, the relationship between damming
coefficient and volume is obtained, y=76x-30, where
x is damming coefficient, y is the volume of debris
flow. Flume experiments proved that the slope and
linearity of above equation are universal. In a river,
if you get a site of debris flow damming river with
not enough data, the equation y=76x+b (b is
unknown) can be used to estimate the volume of
debris flow. However, if we can get enough data, a
new linear equation can be established.

Acknowledgements
This study is financially supported by the
National Basic Research and Development Program
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