LESSON 1:

History of cell discovery

Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1655) - simple microscope(single lens and were hand-held)
● who in 1674 described the alga Spirogyra. He probably also saw bacteria.

Robert Hooke (1665) – cells

● The cell was first discovered and named by Robert Hooke in 1665. He remarked
that it looked strangely similar to “cellula” or small rooms which monks inhabited.
★ Hooke actually saw was the dead cell walls of plant cells (cork)

Robert Brown (1833) – “nucleus”

Felix Dujardin (1836) – “sarcode”

Jan Evangelista Purkinje (1839) - “protoplasm”

Matthias Schleiden (1838) – “all plants are composed of cells”

Theodor Schwann (1839) – “all animals are composed of cells”

Rudolf Virchow (1855) – observed cell, division/“biogenesis” theory

Four generalizations constitute the cell theory:

1. Every living organism consists of one or more cells
2. A cell is the smallest unit of life, individually alive even as part of a multi-celled
organism
3. All living cells come from division of pre-existing cells
4. Cells contain hereditary material, which they pass to their offspring during division

2 Additional parts of the cell theory:

5. Energy flows through cells
6. All cells have the same chemical compositions
Formulation of the Cell Theory
The cell theory - states that all organisms are composed of similar units of organization
called cells.

LESSON 2:

Structure of The Cell Membrane

Consists of:
- Phospholipid bi-layer
- Proteins
- Cholesterol
- Carbohydrates

Functions of the Cell Membrane

- Protects the cell
- Regulates the flow of materials, hence there is homeostasis
- Semi-permeable
- Exhibits fluid mosaic model

1. Protoplasm of the Cell - “the living substance of the cell”

Includes:
- Cytoplasm
- Nucleoplasm (Nucleus)

2. Cytoplasm
- Mostly water
- Colloid and viscous
- With different kinds of compounds (RNA, enzymes, hormones, etc.)

Functions of the cytoplasm

● Suspends cell organelles
● Site of metabolic reactions and other cell activities

1. Nucleoplasm (NUCLEUS)
● The “command center” or “brain” of the cell
 ● Houses the DNA

Parts of the nucleus

1. Nuclear membrane or envelope
2. Nuclear pores
3. Nucleoplasm
4. Nucleolus
5. Chromatin

Functions of the nucleus

● Controls cell activities such as cell growth and repair of parts
● Essential for cell division (without the nucleus, a cell cannot
divide)like these RBC’s

2. Cell wall
● present in plant and fungal cells
● a non-living secretion of the cell membrane, composed of cellulose

Functions of the cell wall

● Protects the cell from injury
● Gives fix shape to plant cells
● Provides skeletal support to the cell

Organelles in the cytoplasm:

1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
● forms a tubular network throughout the cell
● transporting chemicals between cells and within cells.

2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

● Continuous with RER but does not have ribosomes on its membrane
● Synthesize lipids/fats and steroids
● involve in detoxification
3. Ribosomes
● small round structures
● involve in the synthesis of proteins “(protein factories of the cell)”

4. Golgi apparatus
● Consists of stacks of flattened spaces of unit membrane
● Modifies substances made by ER
● Stores and packages these substances
● “chemical factory of the cell”

5. Mitochondria
● Small, oval, sausage-shaped structures
● Serve as sites of aerobic cell respiration (production of ATP).
● Also called as “powerhouses of the cell”

6. Chloroplasts
● Oval structures in plant cells
● Contain chlorophyll pigments
● Sites of photosynthesis

7. Vacuoles
● Fluid-filled space enclosed by a membrane (tonoplast)
● Many, smaller in animal cells
● Large central vacuole in plant cells

8. Lysosomes
● Membrane-bound sacs
● Contain digestive enzymes
● Breaks waste products of the cell and foreign bodies like bacteria
● “suicide bags”

9. Centrioles
● nine triplets of microtubules form one centriole
● two centrioles form one centrosome
● It forms spindle fibers to separate chromosomes during cell division
Cell modifications
● Cell structures that are modified for specific or specialized functions
● Classified as: Apical, lateral, and basal.

1. Cilia
● Short hair-like structures
● move substances over the surface of cells
● Found in cells lining the trachea, bronchi, and uterine tubes
● Means of locomotion in some protists

2. Flagella
● Whip-like structures
● much longer than cilia
● propel sperm cells
● Used as a means of locomotion in single-celled organisms such as protists and
bacteria

3. Pseudopods
● Irregular lobes that bulge outward in protists like Amoeba
● Used to move the cell and engulf a prey or food.

4. microvilli
● Fingerlike extensions in epithelial cells
● increase the surface area of cell and aid in absorption and secretion

5. Plasmodesmata
● Microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells
● Function for transport and communication b/n cells

Basal and Lateral modifications:

Cell Junctions in Animal Cells:

1. Tight junctions
● Arrays of fibrous proteins that join epithelial cells
 ● collectively prevent fluids from leaking between them

2. Desmosomes
● Also known as anchoring junction
● Cell junction that anchors cells to each other or to extracellular matrix

3. Gap junctions
● Known as communicating junctions
● forms a channel across the plasma membranes of adjoining animal cells
● Allows ions, molecules, and electrical signals to pass through.

4. Adhering junctions
● initiate cell-cell contacts
● mediate the maturation and maintenance of the contact.
5. Hemidesmosomes

LESSON 3:
CELL DIVISION
- Type of asexual reproduction in cells
- Cells divides either by mitosis or meiosis

The two types of cells comprising the body

Somatic cells
- pertains to the cells composing the bulk of the body (body cells) such as the
nerve cell, muscle cells, kidney cell, etc.

Germ cells
– pertains to the reproductive cells/sex cells such as the ova of female and the
spermatocytes of male.
Cell Cycle
- The cycle of growth and asexual reproduction of a cell.
- Includes:
● Interphase
● Mitosis
● Cytokinesis

Interphase
- “resting stage”
- “interkinesis”
- Cell is very active
- Occurs between mitosis or meiosis
- Divided into G1, S phase, & G2

Gap 1 (G1)
- active protein synthesis and inhibition of materials resulting in cell growth
- duplicates organelles
- centriole replication

S phase
- Characterized by DNA duplication, which is the process of copying genetic
material.
- Chromosome duplication results from replication of DNA

Gap 2 (G2)
- protein synthesis for formation of spindle fibers, asters, and other
materials needed for cell division.
- centriole and organelles are replicated completely

The control points of the cell cycle

 ● Cell cycle control system involves protein kinases called cyclins
● These are controlled by enzymes and other proteins

Importance of control or checkpoints

● Ensures that DNA replication are complete
● Prevent transmission of genetic errors to daughter cells
● Damage DNA may result to growth arrest or cell death
● Disruption of the cell cycle can lead to different types of cancer.

M Phase or Mitosis
● Involves the division of the nucleus (karyokinesis)
● It has four Stages:
○ Prophase - Chromatins condense into chromosomes.
○ Metaphase - The cell's chromosomes align themselves
○ Anaphase - Centromeres are split, forming daughter chromosomes
○ Telophase - Reformation of the nuclear envelop and reappearance of the
nucleoli

● Gr. “mitos” which means “thread” to describe the threadlike chromosomes

● described as the “dance of the chromosomes”.
● Chromosome number is maintained in the daughter cells

Cytokinesis
● Division of the cytoplasm
● Cleavage furrow forms in anaphase or telophase & constricts original cell into two
smaller animal cells
● Cell plate divides a plant cell into two smaller cells.

Importance of Mitosis
● For growth and development
● To replace worn out or damage tissues of the body
● To prepare an individual for sexual reproduction.
 ● To maintain the number of chromosomes into diploid.

Importance of Meiosis
● Involve in formation of haploid gametes or sex cells to ensure sexual reproduction
● Produce genetic variation in gametes, hence, there is genetic diversity of species
● Variations are the differences among members of a population.

Meiosis I
● Homologous chromosomes pair (synapsis)
● Crossing over of chromatids
● Results in 2 haploid cells with 1 chromosome from each pair.

Meiosis II
● Same series of steps
● In anaphase II, sister chromatids separate to become daughter chromosomes
● 4 haploid cells that result in telophase have unduplicated chromosomes

Similarities of meiosis with mitosis

● Occurs only in eukaryotic cells
● Has the four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

Differences of meiosis with mitosis

● Meiosis produce half the number (haploid) of chromosomes of the parent cell
(diploid)
● Daughter cells produced are not alike
● Number of daughter cells produced in meiosis are 4 unlike in mitosis which are 2.
● Parent cell divides twice so there is meiosis I and II.
LESSON 4:
FUNCTIONS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
➢ Maintain the cell’s homeostasis
➢ Acts as a gatekeeper, controlling movement of ions, electrolytes, nutrients, and
wastes
➢ Selectively permeable

How are materials transported across the plasma membrane?

1. By passive transport
➢ Transport process that does not require energy
➢ Include simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis

2. By active transport
➢ Transport process that requires energy of ATP
➢ Movement of materials is against concentration gradient

Simple Diffusion
➢ movement of molecules from higher to lower concentration gradient
➢ Such as lipid-soluble molecules and gases

EXAMPLES OF DIFFUSION
➢ Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the lungs, &
the blood and body tissues
➢ Kidney and wastes

Facilitated diffusion
➢ transport of molecules through a channel protein or with the assistance of a
carrier protein
➢ Such as glucose molecules
Osmosis
➢ Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a solution of higher
water potential to a solution of lower water potential, through a partially
permeable membrane

A cell with higher water potential.

➢ Hypotonic solution, has a low solute concentration, results in
➢ lysis (bursting) of RBC’s
➢ plant cells to swell (turgid)

A cell with lower water potential

➢ Hypertonic solution, has a high solute concentration
➢ causes shrinkage (crenation) of the RBC’s
➢ causes plasmolysis in plant cells

A cell in a solution of the same water potential

➢ Isotonic solution, has concentration of solutes equal to that inside the cells.

Solution Water Movement of Effect to Effect to

outside the Potential Water animal cell plant cell
Cell outside the
cell

Hypertonic Low Out of the Crenate/Shrink Plasmolyzed

solution cell

Hypotonic High Into the cell Swell/Burst Turgid

solution
Isotonic Equal to No net Normal cells Flaccid
solution inside movement or
equal amount
moves in and
out of the
cell

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
➢ Movement of molecules against concentration gradient
➢ Includes:
➢ Na-K ionic pump
➢ Bulk transport or Transport by vesicle

Sodium-potassium ionic exchange(balance)

➢ Na+ ions are pumped out of the cell in exchange of K+ to maintain concentration
differences
➢ through a protein called sodium-potassium pump.
➢ Maintain osmotic equilibrium and membrane potentials

Bulk Transport or Transport by Vesicle

➢ Large molecules such as polypeptides, polysaccharides, or polynucleotides are moved
into and out of the cell by vesicle formation
➢ Types:
○ Endocytosis
○ Exocytosis

Endocytosis
➢ process of taking substances into the cell
Types of Endocytosis
1. Phagocytosis(eat)
a. materials that are taken into the cell are solid particles
b. Also known as “cell eating”
c. Phagocytic vesicle

2. Pinocytosis(drink)
a. process in which cells engulf(drink) liquids.
b. The liquids may or may not contain dissolved materials.
c. Known as “cell drinking”
d. Pinocytic vesicle

Exocytosis(excretion)
➢ the process of taking substances out of the cell, such as wastes, hormones, or
other proteins that cells produce.