1 Electromagnetic Induction

MAGNETIC FLUX Induced i, q and P

(1) The total number of magnetic lines of force Induced Induced charge Induced power
passing normally through an area placed in a current (i) (q) (P)
magnetic field is equal to the magnetic flux linked 2
 N e 2 N 2  dφ 
with that area. dA 
e N dφ
dq = i dt = - × dφ P = =  
B
i= =- . R R R  dt 
i.e. dφ = B.dA = BdAcosθ 
R R dt Induced charge is It depends on
(2) Net flux through the surface time independent. time & resistance
φ =  B.dA = BAcosθ Ex.2 A coil is placed in a
( is the angle bet area vector & magnetic field constant magnetic field. The
W

vector) If  = 0o then  = BA, If  = 90o then  = 0 magnetic field is parallel to the

(3) Unit and Dimension: Magnetic flux is a plane of the coil as shown in figure.
scalar quantity.
Find the emf induced in the coil.
It‟s S.I. unit is weber (wb), CGS unit is Maxwell
Ex.3 Find the emf induced in
or Gauss × cm2; ( 1 wb = 10 8 Maxwell ).
the coil shown in figure. The
(4) Other units:
N × m Joule Volt ×Coulomb magnetic field is perpendicular to
Tesla × m 2 = = = = Volt × sec the plane of the coil and is constant.
Amp Amp Amp
= Ohm ×Coulomb = Henry × Amp. Ex.4 Show that if the flux of magnetic induction
through a coil changes from 1 to 2, then the charge q
(5) It‟s dimensional formula [] = [ML2T–2A–1]
that flows through the circuit of total resistance R is
(6) Area vector is  to the surface.
(7) For closed surfaces outward normal is taken given by q = φ2 - φ1 , where R = resistance of the coil.
as area vector direction. R
(8) For open surface choose one direction as the LENZ'S LAW
area vector direction and stick to it for the whole This law gives the direction of induced
problem. emf/induced current. According to this law, the
(9) Flux is basically count of number of magnetic direction of induced emf or current in a circuit is
lines crossing a surface. such as to oppose the cause that produces it. This
(10) φ =  B.dA = 0 because magnetic field lines law is based upon law of conservation of energy.
(1) When N-pole of a bar magnet moves towards
exists in closed loop.
the coil, the flux associated with loop increases and
FARADAY'S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
an emf is induced in it. Since the circuit of loop is
INDUCTION
closed, induced current also flows in it.
(1) First law: Whenever the number of
(2) Cause of this induced current, is approach of
magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux) passing
north pole and therefore to oppose the cause, i.e., to
through a circuit changes an emf is produced in the
repel the approaching north pole, the induced
circuit called induced emf. The induced emf persists
current in loop is in such a direction so that the front
only as long as there is change or cutting of flux.
face of loop behaves as north pole. Therefore
(2) Second law: The induced emf is given by rate
induced current as seen by observer O is in
of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
anticlockwise direction. (figure) v
dφ N dφ
i.e. e = - . For N turns e = - ;
dt dt S N N

Negative sign indicates that induced emf (e)

Observer
opposes the change of flux.
(3) If the loop is free to move the cause of
The emf so produced drives an electric current
induced emf in the coil can also be termed as
through the loop. If the resistance of the loop is R,
relative motion. Therefore to oppose the cause, the
e 1 dφ
then the current i = = - relative motion between the approaching magnet
R R dt
and the loop should be opposed. For this, the loop
(3) Other formulae:  = BA cos ;
will itself start moving in the direction of motion of
Hence  will change if either, B, A or  will change
the magnet.
dφ N(φ2 - φ1 ) NA(B2 - B1 )cosθ
So e = -N =- =- (4) It is important to remember that whenever
dt Δt Δt
cause of induced emf is relative motion, the new
NBA(cosθ2 - cosθ1 ) motion is always in the direction of motion of the
=-
Δt cause.
2 Electromagnetic Induction
The various positions of relative motion between the magnet and the coil

S N G N S G N S G
S N G
Position of magnet
Observer Observer Observer
Observer

Direction of induced Anticlockwise Clockwise Clockwise Anticlockwise

current direction direction direction direction
Behaviour of face of the
As a north pole As a south pole As a south pole As a north pole
coil
Type of magnetic force
Repulsive force Attractive force Repulsive force Attractive force
opposed
Magnetic field linked with
Cross (×), Cross (×), Dots ()
the coil and it’s progress Dots () Increases
Increases Decreases Decreases
as viewed from left
Direction of induced current in a loop volts is applied to the larger as shown. Find out the
current in the smaller loop?
when flux linked Upper face of Induced current
Ex.11 A rectangular wire frame of length 0.2 m, is
with the loop is the loop treat in the loop is
increasing as N-pole anticlockwise. located at a distance of 5×10-2 m from a long straight
when flux linked Upper face of Induced current wire carrying a current of 10 A as shown in the figure.
with the loop is the loop treat in the loop is The width of the frame = 0.05 m. The wire is in the
decreasing as S-pole clockwise. plane of the rectangle. Find the magnetic flux through
the rectangular circuit. If the current decays uniformly
CALCULATION OF INDUCED EMF
to 0 in 0.2 s, find the emf induced in the circuit.
As we know that magnetic flux () linked with a closed
conducting loop = BAcos where B is the strength of Sol. A current, i=10 A is flowing in the long
the magnetic field, A is the magnitude of the area straight wire. Consider a small rectangular strip (in
vector and  is the angle between B and A . Hence the rectangular wire frame) of width dx at a distance
flux will be affected by change in any of them, x from the straight wire.
(1) By changing the magnetic field: The magnetic flux at
Ex.7 Figure shows a coil the location of the strip,
μi
placed in decreasing magnetic Bx = 0
field applied perpendicular to 2πx
The flux linked with
the plane of coil. The magnetic
the infinitesimally small
field is decreasing at a rate of 10 rectangular strip
T/s. Find out current in magnitude and direction. μi
Ex.8 The magnetic flux (2 ) in a closed circuit of dφx = Bx × area of the strip = 0  ldx 
2πx
resistance 20 varies with time (t) according to the Where, l is the length of the rectangular wire circuit.
equation φ = 7t 2 - 4t ,  is in weber and t is in seconds. Hence, the total magnetic flux linked with the
The magnitude of the induced current at t = 0.25 s is rectangular frame
(A) 25 mA (B) 0.025 mA (C) 47 mA (D) 175 mA r2 μ il  dx  μ il μ il   r  
φnet =  dφx =  0   = 0  log r2  0 log  2  
r

Ex.9 Consider a long infinite wire carrying a time r1 2π

 x  2π 1
2π   r1  
varying current i = kt (k > 0). A circular loop of
Substituting values, we get
radius a and resistance R is placed with its centre at a
distance d from the wire (a << d). Find out the induced net 
φ = 2  10 -7   10  2 101  log2 = 2.772 × 10 -7 Wb
current in the loop? Induced e.m.f.
Ex.10 Two concentric coplanar dφnet μ0 l   r2    di 
circular loops have diameters 20 cm ε = - = -  log     - 
dt 2π   r1    dt 
and 2 m and resistance of unit length
 10 
of the wire = 10-4 /m. A time -  ε = φnet =  2 × 10 -7  × 2 × 10 -1 × log2   = 1.386 μV
dependent voltage V =  4 + 2.5 t   0.2 
3 Electromagnetic Induction
Ex.12 Figure shows a wire (b) When the loop is entering the region II, the
frame PQSTXYZ placed in a time inward flux linked with it will increase, so in
varying magnetic field given as B accordance with Lenz‟s law an anticlockwise current
= t, where  is a positive will be induced in it.
(c) Taking induced emf
constant. Resistance per unit
to the negative when flux
length of the wire is  . Draw its
linked with the loop is
electrical equivalent diagram and increasing and positive
Find the current induced in the wire. when decreasing, the emf
dφ versus time graph will be, as shown in figure.
Sol. Induced emf in part PQST εPQST = - PQST = -βa 2
dt Ex.14 Two parallel, long, straight conductors lie
(in anticlockwise direction, from Lenz‟s Law) on a smooth plane surface. Two other parallel
similarly, induced emf in part TXYZ εTXYZ = -βb 2 (in conductors rest on them at right angles so as to form a
anticlockwise direction, from Lenz‟s Law) square of side ‘a’ initially. A uniform magnetic field B
Total resistance of the part PQST= RPQST = λ  4a  exists at right angles to the plane containing the
Total resistance of the part PQST= RTXYZ = λ  4b  conductors. Now they start moving out with a constant
velocity (v). (a) Will the induced emf be time
The equivalent circuit it is
dependent? (b) Will the current be time dependent?
shown in the diagram.
Sol. (a) Yes,  (instantaneous flux) = B  a + 2vt 
2
Writing KVL along the
current flow dφ
 ε = - = -4Bv  a + 2vt 
βb - βa =  4bλ + 4aλ  i
2 2
dt
β  b2 - a 2  β b - a  (b) No, (instantaneous current) i = ε R
i= =
4λ  b + a  4λ
Now R = 4  a + 2vt  r [ r=resistance per unit length]
(2) BY CHANGING THE AREA
ε 4Bv  a + 2vt  Bv
Ex.13 A space is divided by the line AD into two  i=    a constant 
regions. Region I is field free and the region II has a R 4r  a + 2vt  r
uniform magnetic field B directed into the paper. ACD The current will be time independent
is a semicircular conducting loop of radius r with Ex.15 Find the direction of induced
centre at O, the plane of the loop being in the plane of of current in the wire AB. When
the paper. The loop is now made to rotate with a rotated anticlockwise through angle 
constant angular velocity  about an axis passing if it is placed initially as shown in the
through O, and perpendicular to the plane of the paper figure.
in the clockwise direction. The effective resistance of DYNAMIC (MOTIONAL) EMI DUE TO
the loop is R. (a) Obtain an expression for the TRANSLATORY MOTION
(1) Consider a conducting rod of length l moving
magnitude of the induced current in the loop. (b) Show
with a uniform velocity v perpendicular to a
the direction of the current when the loop is entering
uniform magnetic field B , directed into the plane of
into the region II. (c) Plot a graph between the induced
the paper. Let the rod be moving to the right as
emf and the time of rotation for two periods of rotation. shown in figure. The conducting electrons also move
Sol. (a) As in time t, the arc swept by the loop in the to the right as they are trapped within the rod.
1 1 × × × P × × ×
field, i.e., region II. A = r  rdθ  = r 2 ωt ++
2 2 × × × × ×  × ×
e v
So the flux linked with the ×
× × × × × ×
rotating loop at time t, F
– –
1 × × ×
Q
× × ×
 = BA = Br 2 ωt
2 An electron inside the conductor experiences a
Hence, the induced emf in
dφ 1 2

magnetic force Fm = -e v  B directed downward 
the loop, ε = - = - Br ω along the rod. i.e. they move from P to Q within the
dt 2
As the resistance of the loop is R, the induced rod. As a result electrons migrate towards the lower
end and leave unbalanced positive charges at the
current in it, i = ε = - Br ω
2

R 2R top. This redistribution of charges sets up an electric

4 Electromagnetic Induction
field E directed downward. i.e. The end P of the rod The forces acting on the bar are shown in
becomes positively charged while end Q becomes following figure. The rod will move down with
negatively charged. This electric field exerts a force constant velocity only if
Fe = -eE on free electrons in the upward direction. Fm cosθ = mgcos(90 - θ) = mgsinθ
As redistribution continues electric field grows in  Bilcosθ = mgsinθ
magnitude until a situation, when  Bv lcosθ  mgRsinθ
B T  lcosθ = mgsinθ  vT = 2 2 2

Fm = Fe  e v  B = eE   R  B l cos θ
MOTIONAL EMI IN LOOP BY GENERATED
After this, there is no resultant force on the free
AREA If conducting rod moves on two parallel
electrons and the potential difference across the
conducting rails as shown in following figure then
 dV 
 
conductor is  dε = -  E.dl  -  v  B .dl  E = - 
 dr 
phenomenon of induced emf can also be
understand by the concept of generated area (The
So e.m.f. developed across the ends of the rod area swept of conductor in magnetic field, during it‟s
moving perpendicular to magnetic field with velocity motion)
perpendicular to the rod, As shown in figure in time P ×
 Induced emf e = -El = -Bvl t distance travelled by
× × × × × ×

As this emf is produced due to the conductor = vt × ×

l
× × × ×

R v v
motion of the conductor, it is called Area generated A = lvt. × × × × × ×

motional emf. In the problems related to Flux linked with this area × × × × × × ×
Q
motional e.m.f. we can replace the rod by φ = BA = Blvt .
vt

a battery of e.m.f. Bvl . The moving rod dφ

can be represented (or equivalent) as Hence induced emf | e |= = Bvl
dt
electrical circuit as shown in figure. ε Bvl
Alternate Method (1) Induced current: i = =
R R
When a rod of length l moves with velocity v in a (2) Magnetic force: Conductor PQ experiences
magnetic field B, as shown, the rod sweeps an area a magnetic force in opposite direction of it‟s motion
equal to  l  vdt  in time interval dt .
 Bvl  B 2 vl 2
Fm = Bil = B  l
Thus, Flux through this area = φ = B  l vdt 
=
 R  R
dφ (3) Power dissipated in moving the
Hence, the induced emf in the rod ε = = Bvl
dt conductor: For uniform motion of rod PQ, the rate
(2) If rod is moving by making an angle  with of doing mechanical work by external agent or
the direction of magnetic field or length. mech. Power delivered by external source is given as
 Induced emf e = Bvlsinθ dW B 2 vl 2 B2v 2 l 2
Pmech = Pext = = Fext .v = ×v =
    dt R R
   
(4) Electrical power: Also electrical power
v sin l  v l sin dissipated in resistance or rate of heat dissipation

v
   
across resistance is given as
v cos 2
    H  Bvl  B2v 2 l 2
Pthermal = = i2R =   .R ; P thermal =
(A) (B) t  R  R
(3) Motion of conducting rod on an inclined (It is clear that Pmech. = Pthermal which is consistent
plane: When conductor start sliding from the top of with the principle of conservation of energy.)
an inclined plane as shown, it moves perpendicular (5) Motion of conductor rod in a vertical
to it‟s length but at an angle (90 - θ) with the plane: If conducting rod released from rest (at t =
direction of magnetic field. 0) as shown in figure then with rise in it‟s speed (v),
Fm cos
Q

B R induces emf (e), induced current (i), magnetic force
Fm  (90 – )
(Fm) increases but it‟s weight remains constant.
v
P mg cos (90–) Rod will achieve a constant maximum (terminal)
 mg 
(A)
R
(B)
velocity vT if Fm = mg × × ×
R
× ×

Hence induced emf across the ends of conductor B 2 vT2 l 2 × × × × l × × ×

e = Bvsin(90 - θ)l = Bvlcosθ So = mg t = 0

R × × × Fm mg × ×
Bvlcosθ
So induced current i = (from Q to P).  vT = 2 2
mgR
× × × × mg × ×
R B l
5 Electromagnetic Induction
Special cases connected to a network of resistance each of value 3
Motion of train and aero-plane in earth's ohm. The resistances of the lead wires OS and PQ are
magnetic field negligible. What should be the speed of the loop so as
to have a steady current of 1 milli-Ampere in the loop?
Find the direction of current in the loop?

(A) (B)
Induced emf across the axle of the wheels of
the train and it is across the tips of the wing of the
aero-plane is given by e = Bv lv where l = length of
the axle or distance between the tips of the wings of
plane, Bv = vertical component of earth's magnetic Ex.20 A rod of length l is kept parallel to a long wire
field and v = speed of train or plane. carrying constant current i. It is moving away from the
Ex.16 Find the value of emf induced in the rod for wire with a velocity v. Find the emf induced in the wire
the following cases. The figures are self-explanatory. when its distance from the long
wire is x.
Ex.21 A rectangular loop,
as shown in the figure, moves
away from an infinitely long
wire carrying a current i. Find
the emf induced in the
rectangular loop.
Sol. The moving
(d)
rectangular loop can be
Sol.(d) Figure shows a closed coil ABCA moving in represented (or equivalent)
a uniform magnetic field B with a velocity v. The as electrical circuit as
flux passing through the coil is a constant and shown in figure.
therefore the induced emf is zero.
Now consider rod AB, which is a part of the coil. Net induced e.m.f. εnet = B1vL - B2 vL
Emf induced in the rod = ε = BvL . Now suppose the  μ0 i   μ0 i  μ0 iLbV
emf induced in part ACB is ε , as shown in figure.  ε =   vL -   vL =
 2π  x + b   2πx  x + b 
net
 2πx 
Since the emf in the coil is zero,
Emf  in ACB  + Emf  in BA = 0 Ex.22 A rod of length l is placed perpendicular to a
long wire carrying current i. The rod is moved parallel
 - ε + BvL = 0 to the wire with a velocity v. Find the emf induced in
the rod, if nearest end is at a distance ‘a’ from the wire.
 ε = BvL
Sol. Consider a segment of rod of length dx, at a
Thus emf induced in any path joining A and B is distance x from the wire as shown.
same, provided the magnetic field is uniform. Also Emf induced in the segment
the equivalent emf between A and B is BvL (here  μi
the two emf‟s are in parallel) dε =  0  vdx
 2πx 
Ex.17 Figure shows an irregular
μ iv a+l dx μ0 iv a+l 
shaped with AB moving with velocity v, ε =  dε = 0  = log  
as shown. Find the emf induced in the 2π a x 2π  a 
wire. Direction of induced current is shown in fig. [Trick]
Ex.18 A 0.4 meter long straight conductor moves in
a magnetic field of magnetic induction 0.9 Wb/m2 with
a velocity of 7 m/sec. Calculate the emf induced in the
Ex.23 Two parallel wires AL and BM placed at a
conductor under the condition when it is maximum.
distance l are connected by a resistor R and placed in a
Ex.19 A square metal wire loop of side 10 cm and
magnetic field B which is perpendicular to the plane
resistance 1 ohm is moved with a constant velocity v0
2 containing the wires. Another wire CD now connects
in a uniform magnetic field of induction B = 2 Wb/m
the two wires perpendicularly and made to slide with
as shown in figure. The magnetic field lines are
velocity v. Calculate the work done per second needed
perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The loop is
to slide the wire CD. Neglect the resistance of wires.
6 Electromagnetic Induction
Sol. When a rod of length l moves in a magnetic Ex.25 In the above question if a constant force F is
field with velocity v as shown in figure, an emf applied on the rod. Find the velocity of the rod as a
ε = Bvl will be induced in it. function of time assuming it started with zero initial
Due to this induced emf, a velocity.
ε Bvl Ex.28 In the above question if
current i = = will flow one resistance is replaced by a
R R
capacitor of capacitance C as
in the circuit as shown in
shown. Find the velocity of the
figure. Due to this induced moving rod at time t if the
current, the wire will initial velocity of the rod is v
experience a magnetic force and a constant force F is applied on the rod. Neglect
B2 l 2v the resistance of the rod.
FM = Bil = which will oppose its motion, So to
R Sol. At any time t, let the velocity of the rod be v.
maintain the motion of the wire CD, a force F = FM Applying Newton‟s law: F - Bil = ma ......(i)
must be applied in the direction of motion. The work q
done per second, i.e., power needed to slide the Also Bvl = i1 R = [they are in parallel combination]
c
wire is given by
dq
dW 0 B 2 l 2v 2 Applying KCL, i = i1 +
P= = Fvcos180 = -FM v = - dt
dt R Bvl d
Ex.24 A rod of mass m and i= +  BvlC 
R dt
resistance r is placed on fixed,
Bvl
resistance less, smooth conducting i= +  BvC  a
rails (closed by a resistance R) and R
Putting the value of i in equation (i)
it is projected with an initial velocity u,
B2v 2 l
=  m + B 2 l 2C  a =  m + B 2 l 2C 
Find its velocity as a function of time. dv
F-
Sol. Let at an instant the velocity of R dt
the rod be v. The emf induced in the Integrating both sides, and solving we get
 
2 2
rod will be ε = Bvl . The electrically tB l
FR  R m+ B 2 l 2 C  
equivalent circuit is shown in the v = 2 2 1-e
following diagram. B l  
 
ε Bvl
 Current in the circuit i = = MOTIONAL EMI DUE TO ROTATIONAL MOTION
R+ r R+ r (1) Conducting rod: A conducting rod of
At time t, Magnetic force acting on the rod is F = Bil length l whose one end is fixed, is rotated about the
, opposite to the motion of the rod. axis passing through it‟s fixed  
dv B2 l 2v end and perpendicular to it‟s
    B 
Now the equN motion becomes m = -Bil = -
dt R length with constant angular      
Q P
velocity. Magnetic field (B) 
2 2
dv B l dt l 
 -   

v R+ rm is perpendicular to the plane     

of the paper.
v dv B2l 2 t
 =-  dt e.m.f induces across the ends of the rod
u v R+ rm 0 1 1  2π  2 1
ε= Bωl 2 = B   l = B  2πν  l
2
v B2l 2t 2 2 T  2
 ln   = -
u R+ rm where  = frequency and T = Time period.
B2l 2 Derivation:
 v = ue -kt where, k = Consider a conducting rod of length l rotating in
R+ rm a uniform magnetic field.
Ex.27 A rod PQ of mass m and resistance r is Emf induced in a small segment of length dl, of
moving on two fixed,
the rod = dε = Bvdl = B  ωl  dl
resistance less, smooth
conducting rails (closed on  Total Emf induced in the rod
both sides by resistances R1 l 1
ε =  dε = Bω ldl  Bωl 2
and R2). Find the current in 0 2
the rod at the instant its Electrical equivalent diagram this
velocity is v. rod is shown above.
7 Electromagnetic Induction
Otherwise Emf induced in the rod is as following Ex.30 A rod PQ of length 2l is rotating about one
flux through the area swept end P in a uniform magnetic field B which is
dφ by the rod in time dt perpendicular to the plane of rotation of the rod. Point
| ε |= =
dt dt M is the mid-point of the rod. Find induced emf
1  1  between M and Q if that between P & Q =100 volt.
B  lvdt  B  ωl 2  dt 2
 | ε |=  = 2  = Bωl
2 Ex.31 A rod of length L and resistance r rotates
dt dt 2 about one end as shown in figure. Its
(2) Cycle wheel: A conducting wheel each other end touches a conducting ring
spoke of length l is rotating with angular velocity  a of negligible resistance. A
in a given magnetic field as shown below in fig.
resistance R is connected between
Due to flux cutting each metal spoke becomes
centre and periphery. Draw the electrical equivalence
identical cell of emf ε    
B
 

(say), all such identical      

and find the current in the resistance R. There is a
O l uniform magnetic field B directed as shown.
cells connected in parallel      

fashion εnet = ε (emf of      

Ex.32 Solve the above question if
single cell).       the length of rod is 2L and
Let N be the number of spokes hence resistance 2r and it is rotating about
1 its centre. Both ends of the rod now
εnet = Bωl 2 ; ω = 2πν touch the conducting ring.
2
Here εnet  N i.e. total emf does not depends on
o Ex.33 A rod of length l is
number of spokes „N‟. rotating with an angular speed 
(3) Faraday copper disc generator: A metal about its one end which is at a
disc can be assumed to made of 
distance ‘a’ from an infinitely long
uncountable radial conductors wire carrying current i. Find the
when metal disc rotates in emf induced in the rod at the instant as shown.
transverse magnetic field these O r
Sol. Consider a small segment of rod of length dx,
radial conductors cuts away at a distance x from one end of the rod.
magnetic field lines and because Emf induced in the segment
of this flux cutting all becomes identical cells each of
 μ0 i 
1
emf „ ε ‟ where ε = Bωr 2 , and εnet = ε = Bωr 2
1 dε = Bvdx =    ωx  dx
2 2  2π  x + a  
(4) Semicircular conducting loop: If a semi-  μ iω  l xdx
circular conducting loop  ε =  dε =  0  
   2π  0  x + a 
(ACD) of radius „r‟ with C S A
centre at O, the plane of loop
r  
 μ0 iω    l + a 
 r B ε=   l - a.ln  
being in the plane of paper. O
  
 2π    a 
The loop is now made to 
 = t
 
(3) BY CHANGING THE ANGLE
rotate with a constant angular B
Let us consider the case when the magnitude of
velocity , about an axis passing through O and the magnetic field strength and the area of the coil
perpendicular to the plane of paper. The effective remain constant. When the coil is rotated relative to
resistance of the loop is R. the direction of the field, an induced current is
In time t the area swept by the loop in the field produced which lasts as long as the coil is rotating.
1 1
i.e. region II A = r(rθ) = r 2 ω t ; 
dA r 2 ω
= We have, φ = BAcosθ [where B is the magnetic
2 2 dt 2 field strength, A is the magnitude of the area vector
Flux link with the rotating loop at time t, φ = BA &  is the angle between them]
Hence induced emf in the loop in magnitude If the angular velocity with which the coil is
dφ dA Bωr 2 2 rotating is ω , then ω = θt
| e |= =B = & induced current i = | e | = Bωr
dt dt 2 R 2R Induced e.m.f. in the coil
dφ
ε=- = BAωsinω t
Ex.29 Find out the potential dt
difference between A & B: Induced current in the coil
8 Electromagnetic Induction
ε BωAsinω t Sol. (i) When r < R
i= = [R: resistance of the coil]
R R Let at a distance r electric field is E
Ex.34 A ring rotates with dφ d BA
ε =  Ein .dl = - = -
angular velocity  about an axis in dt dt
the plane of the ring and which d Bπr 2 
passes through the center of the  E  2πr  = -
dt
ring. A constant magnetic field B
r dB B0 r
exists perpendicular to the plane of E= =
the ring. Find the emf induced in the ring as a function 2 dt 2
(i) When r > R
of time.
dφ d BA
(4) INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A ε =  Ein .dl = - = -
TIME VARYING MAGNETIC FIELD dt dt
Consider a conducting loop placed at rest in a d BπR 2 
 E  2πr  =
magnetic field B . Suppose, the field is constant till t=0 dt
and then changes with time. An induced current starts R dB B0 R 2
2

in the loop at t=0. The free electrons were at rest till E= =
2r dt 2r
t=0 (we are not interested in the random motion of
Ex.37 A thin, non-conducting ring of mass m,
the electrons.) The magnetic field cannot exert force
carrying a charge q, can rotate freely about its axis. At
on electrons at rest. Thus, the magnetic force cannot
start the induced current. The electrons may be forced the instant t = 0 the ring was at rest and no magnetic
to move only by an electric field. So we conclude that field was present. Then suddenly a magnetic field B
an electric field appears at time t=0. was set perpendicular to the plane. Find the angular
This electric field is produced by the changing velocity acquired by the ring.
magnetic field and not by charged particles. The Sol. Due to the sudden change of flux, an electric
electric field produced by the changing magnetic field is set up and the ring experiences an impulsive
field is non-electrostatic and non-conservative in torque and suddenly acquires an angular velocity.
nature. We cannot define a potential corresponding d BA
dφ
to this field. We call it induced electric field. The lines Induced emf ε =  Ein .dl = - = -
dt dt
of induced electric field are closed curves. There are
no staring and terminating points on the field lines. d Bπr 2  r dB
 E  2πr  = - E=-
If Ein be the induced electric field, the force on the dt 2 dt
charge q placed in the field of qEin . The work done Force experienced by the ring = F = q E
per unit charge as the charge moves through dl .
The emf developed in the loop is, therefore, Torque experienced by the ring τ =  
q E r =
qr 2 dB
2 dt
dφ
ε =  Ein .dl = - ..…(i)  Angular impulse experienced by the ring
dt
qr 2 dB qr 2 B
L =  τdt =
2  dt
dφ dt =
From Faraday's second laws ε = - ..…(ii) 2
dt
Also angular impulse acquired L = Iω . Where,
dφ I : Moment of inertia of the ring about its axis = mr 2
From (i) and (ii) ε =  Ein .dl = - This is
dt qr 2 B qB
 mr 2 ω = ω=
known as integral form of Faraday‟s laws of EMI. 2 2m
The presence of a conducting loop is not INDUCTANCE
necessary to have an induced electric field. As long (1) Inductance is that property of electrical circuits
as B keeps changing, the induced electric field is which opposes any change in the current in the circuit.
present. If a loop is there, the free electrons start (2) Inductance is inherent property of electrical
drifting and consequently induced current results. circuits. It will always be found in an electrical circuit
Ex.35 What will be the electric whether we want it or not.
(3) A straight wire carrying current with no iron part
field at a distance r from axis of
in the circuit will have lesser value of inductance.
changing cylindrical magnetic field (4) Inductance is analogous to inertia in mechanics,
B, which is parallel to the axis of because inductance of an electrical circuit opposes any
cylinder? change of current in the circuit.
9 Electromagnetic Induction
Self-Induction (6) The various formulae for L
Whenever the electric current passing through a Condition Figure
coil or circuit changes, the magnetic flux linked with
Circular coil
it will also change. As a result of this, in accordance
μ πN 2 r
with Faraday‟s laws of electromagnetic induction, an L= 0
emf is induced in the coil or the circuit which 2
opposes the change that causes it. This
phenomenon is called „self-induction‟ and the emf Solenoid
l
induced is called back emf, current so produced in μ μ N 2 A μN 2 A
the coil is called induced current. L= 0 r =
Induced current
l l
Induced current
(μ = μ0 μr ) i

Toroid
Winding
μ N 2r Core
Key Key
L= 0
Rheostat Rheostat 2 r
(A) Main current increasing (B) Main current decreasing
i
(1) Coefficient of self-induction: Total
number of flux linkages with the coil is proportional
to the current i. i.e. Nφ  i or Nφ = Li Square coil
(N is the number of turns in coil and N – total 2 2 μ0 N 2 a
L=
flux linkage). π O

Nφ
Hence L = = coefficient of self-induction. Coaxial cylinders r1
i
(2) If i = 1amp, N = 1 then, L =  i.e. the coeff. μ r r
L = 0 loge 2
of self-induction of a coil is equal to the flux linked 2πr r1
with the coil when the current in it is 1 amp. 2.303 r
μ0 log10 2 l
r2
(3) By Faraday‟s second law induced emf 2πr r1
dφ di
ε = -N . Which gives ε = -L ;
dt dt (7) Self-Inductance of solenoid
If
di
= 1amp / sec then | ε |= L. Let the volume of
dt the solenoid be V , the
Hence coefficient of self-induction is equal to the number of turns per unit
emf induced in the coil when the rate of change of length be n = N l .
current in the coil is unity.
(4) Units and dimensional formula of ‘L’: Let a current I be flowing in the solenoid.
It's S.I. unit Magnetic field in the solenoid is given as B = μ0 nI .
weber Tesla × m 2 N × m Joule Coulomb× volt The magnetic flux through one turn of solenoid
φ =  μ0 nI  A . The total magnetic flux through the
= = = =
Amp Amp Amp 2 Amp 2 Amp 2
volt × sec solenoid = Nφ .
= = ohm × sec .
amp Nφ Nμ0 nIA
 Self-Inductance of solenoid L = =
But practical unit is henry (H).[weber/Amp] I I
It‟s dimensional formula [L] = [ML2T–2A–2]  L = μ0 n  lA = μ0 n  lπr  = μ0 n2V
2 2 2

(5) Dependence of self-inductance (L): „L‟  Inductance per unit volume = μ0 n 2

does not depend upon current flowing or change in
current flowing. The inductance L is purely a
geometrical property i.e., we can tell the inductance
value even if a coil is not connected in a circuit.
Inductance depends upon number of turns (N), Area
of cross section (A) and permeability of medium ().
„L‟ does not play any role till there is a constant
current flowing in the circuit. „L‟ comes in to the
picture only when there is a change in current.
(8) Magnetic potential energy of inductor:
Whenever the current passing through a coil or
circuit changes, the source emf has to do work
against of self-inductance of coil and energy
consumed for this work stored in magnetic field of
coil this energy called as magnetic potential energy
(U) of coil.
10 Electromagnetic Induction
If current in an inductor at an instant is i and is (ii) Current i = 2A and is increasing at the rate of 1
increasing at the rate di/dt, the induced emf will amp/sec. (iii) Current i = 2A and is decreasing at the
oppose the current. Its behaviour is shown in the fig. rate of 1 amp/sec.
Ex.40 Find current i, i1
di
Power consumed by the inductor = iL & i2 in the following
dt
circuit.
 di 
Energy consumed in dt time =  iL  dt Sol. At t = 0, Inductor is
 dt 
in open condition.
 Total energy consumed as the current increases
V
i 1
from 0 to i =  iLdi = Li 2
1
 U = (Li)i =
Nφi i = i2 = and i1 = 0
0 2 2 2 2R
Note: At t=  , Inductor
This energy is stored in the magnetic field with behaves as a conductor.
i V
dU 1 B 2 1 B 2 i1 = i2 = =
energy density uV = = = 2 2R
dV 2 μ 2 μ0 μr
device condition effect
Ex.38 The current in a coil of self-inductance
t=0 Closed conductor
L = 2H is increasing according to the law i = 2sint 2 capacitor
t=  Open circuit
Find the amount of energy spent during the period t=0 Open circuit
Inductor
when the current changes from 0 to 2 ampere. t=  Closed conductor
Sol. When the instantaneous current is i, the self- MUTUAL INDUCTION
di
induced emf is ε = L . If the amount of charge Consider two coils P and S placed close to each
dt other as shown in the figure. Whenever the current
that is displaced in time dt is dq, then the passing through a coil or circuit changes, the
elementary work done magnetic flux linked with a neighboring coil or circuit
 di   di  will also change. Hence an induced e.m.f. is
dW =  L  dq =  L  idt = Lidi
 dt   dt  developed in neighboring coil or circuit. This
2 1 phenomenon is called „mutual induction‟. This coil
 W =  dW =  Lidi = × 2 × 4 = 4 joule in which current is passed is known as primary (P)
0 2
INDUCTOR and the other in which e.m.f. is developed is called
It is represent by as secondary (S). i1 i2

Electrical equivalence Variable

Current
of loop  P S
Load
R

If current i through the inductor is increasing the M

induced emf will oppose the increase in current and

hence will be opposite to the current. (1) Coefficient of mutual induction:
Induced current Induced current Let the current through the primary coil at any
instant be i1 . Then Total magnetic flux N 2 2 in the
secondary at any time will be proportional to i 1 .
(A) Main current increasing (B) Main current decreasing
i.e. N 2 φ2  Mi1  N 2 φ2 = Mi1
If current i through the inductor is decreasing the
induced emf will oppose the decrease in current and Where, N1 - Number of turns in primary; N2 -
hence will be in the direction of the current. Number of turns in secondary; 2 - Flux linked
Overall result with each turn of secondary; i1 - Current flowing
through primary; M-Coefficient of mutual
induction or mutual inductance.
di di (2) According to Faraday‟s second law emf
 VA -VB  = L  VA -VB  = L + iR dφ di
dt dt induces in secondary ε2 = -N 2 2 ;  ε2 = -M 1
Ex.39 AB is a part of circuit. Find the potential dt dt
di1 1Amp
difference (vA - vB) if (3) If = then ε2 = M . Hence coefficient
dt sec
(i) Current i = 2A of mutual induction is equal to the emf induced in
and is constant the secondary coil when rate of change of current in
primary coil is unity.
11 Electromagnetic Induction
(4) Units and dimensional formula of M: To calculate mutual inductance M between them,
Similar to self-inductance (L) let us assume a current i1 through the inner solenoid
(5) Dependence of mutual inductance: S1 There is no magnetic field outside the solenoid
(i) Number of turns (N1, N2) of both coils N 
(ii) Coefficient of self-inductances (L1, L2) of both and the field inside has magnitude B = μ0  1  i1
 l1 
the coils
and is directed parallel to the solenoid‟s axis.
(iii) Area of cross-section of coils
Therefore, total magnetic flux N22 through the
(iv) Magnetic permeability of medium between
μ N i 
the coils (r) or nature of material on which two coils surrounding coil is given as N 22 = N 2  0 1 1  πR12
are wound  l1 
(v) Distance between two coils (As d increases so N 22 N 2  μ0 N 1 i1  μ0 N 1 N 1 πR12
M decreases) M= =  πR
 1 =
i1 i1  l1  l1
(vi) Orientation between primary and secondary
Notice that: „M‟ is independent of the radius R2 of
coil (for 90o orientation no flux relation M = 0)
the surrounding coil. This is because solenoid‟s
(vii) Coupling factor „K‟ between primary and
magnetic field is confined to its interior.
secondary coil
Ex.48 Find the mutual inductance
(6) Relation between M, L1 and L2: For two
of two concentric coils of radii a1 and
magnetically coupled coils M = k L1 L2 ; where k –
a2 (a1 << a2) if the planes of coils are
coefficient of coupling or coupling factor which is
same.
defined as
Magnetic flux linked in secondary Sol.
k= ; 0  k  1 Let a current i flow in coil of radius a2.
Magnetic flux linked in primary
 
Air
S Magnetic field at the centre of coil B = μ0  i 
P S P S P 2  a2 
gap
Therefore, total magnetic flux 1 through the
μi
inner coil is given as 2 = 0  πa12 
(A) k = 1 (B) 0 < k < 1 (C) k = 0 2a2
 μ
(7) The various formulae for M:  M = 2 = 0  πa12 
Condition Figure i 2a2
Two concentric i Ex.50 Solve the above problem if the planes of coils
coplanar circular coils make  angle with each other.
R P
πμ N N r 2
r Ex.51 Find the mutual
M= 0 1 2 S
2R inductance between two rectangular
loops, shown in figure.
l
Two Solenoids Sol. Let current i flow in the loop
i1 having  long sides. Consider a
μ0 N 1 N 2 A Primary
Secondary
segment of width dx at a distance
M= (N1 turns)
(N2 turns)
l x as shown flux through the regent is given as
Two concentric μi μ0 i 
(1) d =  0 -   b × dx 
coplanar square coils
i
(2)  2πx 2π  x + a  
μ0 2 2 N 1 N 2 l 2
M= μ ib c+b  1 1 
πL l  = 0   -  dx
2π c  x  x + a  
L

(8) Mutual Inductance of a Pair of Solenoids   = μ0 ib  ln c + d - ln a + b + c 

one surrounding the other coil: 2π  c a + c 
Figure shows a Ex.52 Figure shows two
coil of N2 turns concentric coplanar coils with radii a
and radius R2 and b (a << b). A current i = 2t flows
surrounding a in the smaller loop. Neglecting self-
long solenoid of length l1, radius R1 and number of inductance of larger loop
turns N1.
(a) Find the mutual inductance of the two coils
12 Electromagnetic Induction
(b) Find the emf induced in the larger coil Growth and Decay of Current In LR- Circuit
(c) If the resistance of the larger loop is R, find the If a circuit containing a pure inductor L and a
current in it as a function of time. resistor R in series with a battery and a key then on
Sol. (a) To find mutual inductance, it does not closing the circuit current through the circuit rises
matter in which coil we consider current and in exponentially and reaches up to a certain maximum
which flux is calculated. value (steady state). If circuit is opened from it‟s
Let current i be flowing in the larger coil. steady state condition then current through the
circuit decreases exponentially.
Magnetic field at the centre of coil B = μ0  i  L L
2 b Induced Induced
current current
Total flux through the smaller coil  = μ0 i  πa 2 
2b
 μ Main
 M = = 0  πa 2 
Main
current + +
current
i 2b B K B K
 d  (A) Growth of current (B) Decay of current
(b) |emf induced in larger coil|= M  
 dt  (1) The value of current at any instant of time t
μ πa 2
μ πa 2 after closing the circuit (i.e. during the rising of
ε= 0  2  0  - t
R
2b b current) is given by i = i0 1 - e L  ;
ε μ πa 2  
(c) Current in the larger coil i = = 0
R bR E
where i0 = imax = = steady state current.
Ex.53 If the current in the inner R
loop changes according to i = 2t 2 then, (2) The value of current at any instant of time t
find the current in the capacitor as a after opening from the steady state condition (i.e.
function of time. -
R
t
COMBINATION OF INDUCTANCE during the decaying of current) is given by i = i0 e L

(1) Series: If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L

(3) Time constant (): It is given as τ = ; It‟s
L2 having mutual inductance are in series and are far R
from each other, so that the mutual induction unit is second. In other words the time interval,
between them is negligible, during which the current in an inductive circuit rises
to 63% of its maximum value at make, is defined as
time constant or it is the time interval, during which
the current after opening an inductive circuit falls to
In series combination V = L1 + L2
37% of its maximum value.
di di di i
 Leq = L1 + L2 i0
i
dt dt dt i0
i = 0.63i0
then net self-inductance Leq = L1 + L2
When they are situated close to each other, then i = 0.37i0
t=
net inductance LS = L1 + L2 ± 2M t t= t
(A) (B)
(2) Parallel: If two coils of self-inductances L1 LC- Oscillation
and L2 having mutual inductance are connected in When a charged capacitor C having an initial
parallel and are far from each other, charge q0 is discharged through an inductance L, the
In series combination charge and current in the circuit start oscillating
di di di simple harmonically. If the resistance of the circuit is
i = i1 + i2  = 1 + 2 zero, no energy is dissipated as heat. We also
dt dt dt
V V V assume an idealized situation in which energy is not
 = + radiated away from the circuit. The total energy
Leq L1 L2
associated with the circuit is constant.
1 1 1 LL Frequency of oscillation is given by
Then net inductance = +  Leq = 1 2 L
Leq L1 L2 L1 + L2 1 rad
ω=
When they are situated close to each other, LC sec
L1 L2 - M 2 1 q0
Then LP = or ν = Hz + –
L1 + L2 ± 2M 2π LC C
13
EDDY CURRENT
When a changing magnetic flux is applied to a
bulk piece of conducting material then circulating
currents called eddy currents are induced in the
material. Because the resistance of the bulk
conductor is usually low, eddy currents often have
large magnitudes and heat up the conductor.
(1) These are circulating currents like eddies in
water.
(2) Experimental concept given by Foucault
hence also named as “Foucault current”.
(3) The production of eddy currents in a metallic
block leads to the loss of electric energy in the form
of heat.
(4) By Lamination, slotting processes the
resistance path for circulation of eddy current
increases, resulting in to weakening them and also
reducing losses causes by them
Plane metal
plate
×
× ×
× × × ×
× ×
× ×
× ×
(A) Strong eddies produced (B) Feeble eddies
Cause excessive electro Gradual damping
magnetic damping
B Feeble eddy currents
Strong
eddy
currents
(C) Solid metallic (D) Laminated core
core
(5) Application of eddy currents: Though
most of the times eddy currents are undesirable but
they find some useful applications as enumerated
below
(i) Dead-beat galvanometer: A dead beat
galvanometer means one whose pointer comes to rest
in the final equilibrium position immediately without
any oscillation about the equilibrium position when a
current is passed in its coil.
This is achieved by winding the coil on a metallic
frame the large eddy currents induced in the frame
provide electromagnetic damping.
(ii) Electric-brakes: When the train is running its
wheel is moving in air and when the train is to be
stopped by electric breaks the wheel is made to move
in a field created by electromagnet. Eddy currents
induced in the wheels due to the changing flux oppose
the cause and stop the train.
(iii) Induction furnace: Joule's heat causes the
melting of a metal piece placed in a rapidly changing
magnetic field.
(iv) Speedometer: In the speedometer of an
automobile, a magnet is geared to the main shaft of
the vehicle and it rotates according to the speed of the
Electromagnetic Induction
vehicle. The magnet is mounted in an aluminium
cylinder with the help of hair springs. When the
magnet rotates, it produces eddy currents in the drum
and drags it through an angle, which indicates the
speed of the vehicle on a calibrated scale.
(v) Energy meter: In energy meters, the armature
coil carries a metallic Aluminium disc which rotates
between the poles of a pair of permanent horse shoe
magnets. As the armature rotates, the current induced
in the disc tends to oppose the motion of the armature
coil. Due to this braking effect, deflection is
proportional to the energy consumed.
DC MOTOR
It is an electrical machine
which converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy.
(1) Principle: It is based on the fact that a
current carrying coil placed in the magnetic field
Slotted metal experiences a torque. This torque rotates the coil.
plate (2) Construction: It consists of the following
× × components figure.
× B C C B
×
×
N S N S
A R1 R2 D D R2 R1 A
B1 B2 B1 B2
(A) (B)
ABCD = Armature coil.
S1, S2 = split ring comutators.
B1, B2 = Carbon brushes.
N, S = Strong magnetic poles.
(3) Working: Force on any arm of the coil is
given by F = i(l × B) in fig., force on AB will be
perpendicular to plane of the paper and pointing
inwards. Force on CD will be equal and opposite.
So coil rotates in clockwise sense when viewed from
top [NDE] in fig. The current in AB reverses due to
commutation keeping the force on AB and CD in
such a direction that the coil continues to rotate in
the same direction.
(4) Back emf in motor: Due to the rotation of
armature coil in magnetic field a back emf is induced
in the circuit. Which is given by e = E – iR.
Back emf directly depends upon the angular
velocity  of armature and magnetic field B. But for
constant magnetic field B, value of back emf e is
given by e  
or e = k (e = NBA sint)
E - e E -ωk
(5) Current in the motor: i = = ;
R R
When motor is just switched on i.e.  = 0 so e = 0.
14 Electromagnetic Induction
E (iii) Slip rings: The two ends of the armature
Hence i = = maximum and at full speed,  is
R coil are connected to two brass slip rings R1 and R2.
maximum so back emf e is maximum and i is These rings rotate along with the armature coil.
minimum. Thus, maximum current is drawn when (iv) Brushes: Two carbon brushes (B1 and B2),
the motor is just switched on which decreases when are pressed against the slip rings. The brushes are
motor attains the speed. fixed while slip rings rotate along with the armature.
(6) Motor starter: At the time of start a large These brushes are connected to the load through
current flows through the motor which may burn out which the output is obtained.
it. Hence a starter is used for starting a dc motor (3) Working: When the armature coil ABCD
safely. Its function is to introduce a suitable rotates in the magnetic field provided by the strong
resistance in the circuit at the time of starting of the field magnet, it cuts the magnetic lines of force. Thus
motor. This resistance decreases gradually and the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes and
reduces to zero when the motor runs at full speed. hence induced emf is set up in the coil. The direction
The value of starting of the induced emf or the current in the coil is
resistance is maximum R R R
determined by the Fleming‟s right hand rule.
R R
at time t = 0 & its value C
The current flows out through the brush B1 in
is controlled by spring H 1 2 3 4 5 6 one direction of half of the revolution and through
and electromagnetic Spring E the brush B2 in the next half revolution in the reverse
system and is made to direction. This process is repeated. Therefore, emf
M
zero when the motor dc mains produced is of alternating nature.
attains its safe speed. Ndφ
Net induced emf in the coil e = - = NBAωsinωt
(7) Mechanical power and Efficiency of dc dt
motor:  e = e0 sinωt Where, e0 = NBAω
P P e Back e.m.f. e e0
Efficiency η = mechanical = out = = i= = sinωt = i0 sinωt
Psupplied Pin E Supply voltage R R
(8) Uses of dc motors: They are used in Where, R  Resistance of the circuit.
electric locomotives, electric ears, rolling mills, DC GENERATOR
electric cranes, electric lifts, dc drills, fans and If the current produced by the generator is direct
blowers, centrifugal pumps and air compressors, etc. current, then the generator is called dc generator.
Dc generator consists of (i) Armature (coil) (ii)
AC GENERATOR/ALTERNATOR/DYNAMO
Magnet (iii) Commutator (iv) Brushes
An electrical machine used to convert mechanical
In dc generator
energy into electrical energy is known as ac Armatur (Coil
commutator is used in e )
generator/alternator.
place of slip rings. The
(1) Principle: It works on the principle of
commutator rotates
electromagnetic induction i.e., when a coil is rotated
along with the coil so
in uniform magnetic field, an induced emf is S N
that in every cycle when Commutator
produced in it.
direction of „e‟ reverses, Brushes
(2) Construction: The main components of ac +
the commutator also –
generator are B C
reverses or makes
(i) Armature:
contact with the other
Armature coil (ABCD) Load
brush so that in the external load the current remains
consists of large
in the some direction giving dc current.
number of turns of N A D S
TRANSFORMER
insulated copper wire B1
R1 It is a device which raises or lowers the voltage
wound over a soft iron
RL Output in ac circuits through mutual induction.
core.
It consists of Laminated sheets
R2
(ii) Strong field magnet: B2 two coils wound on
A strong permanent magnet or an electromagnet the same core.
Load

Source ~ Input Output

whose poles (N and S) are cylindrical in shape in a The alternating
field magnet. The armature coil rotates between the current passing Iron core

pole pieces of the field magnet. The uniform through the primary creates a continuously changing
magnetic field provided by the field magnet is flux through the core. This changing flux induces an
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the coil. alternating emf in the secondary.
15 Electromagnetic Induction
(1) Transformer works on ac only & never on dc. (9) Losses in transformer: In transformers
(2) It can increase or decrease either voltage or some power is always lost due to, heating effect, flux
current but not both simultaneously. leakage eddy currents, hysteresis and humming.
(3) Transformer does not change the frequency (i) Cu loss (i 2 R): When current flows through the
of input ac. transformer windings some power is wasted in the
(4) There is no electrical connection between the form of heat (H = i 2 Rt). To minimize this loss windings
winding but they are linked magnetically. are made of thick Cu wires (To reduce resistance)
(5) Effective resistance between primary and (ii) Eddy current loss: Some electrical power is
secondary winding is infinite. wasted in the form of heat due to eddy currents,
(6) The flux per turn of each coil must be same induced in core, to minimize this loss transformers core
dφ dφ are laminated and silicon is added to the core material
i.e. φS = φP ; - S = - P .
dt dt as it increases the resistivity. The material of the core is
(7) If NP = number of turns in primary, NS = then called silicon-iron (steel).
number of turns in secondary, VP = applied (input) (iii) Hysteresis loss: The alternating current
voltage to primary, VS = Voltage across secondary flowing through the coils magnetizes and demagnetizes
(load voltage or output), eP = induced emf in primary the iron core again and again. Therefore, during each
; eS = induced emf in secondary,  = flux linked cycle of magnetization, some energy is lost due to
with primary as well as secondary, iP = current in hysteresis. However, the loss of energy can be
primary; iS = current in secondary (or load current) minimized by selecting the material of core, which has
a narrow hysteresis loop. Therefore core of transformer
As in an ideal transformer there is no loss of
is made of soft iron. Now a day it is made of “Perm-
power
alloy” (Fe-22%, Ni-78%).
i.e. Pout = Pin so VS iS = VP iP and VP  eP , VS  eS . (iv) Magnetic flux leakage: Magnetic flux
Hence
eS N S VS iP
= = = =k; produced in the primary winding is not completely
eP N P VP iS linked with secondary because few magnetic lines of
k = Transformation ratio (or turn ratio) force complete their path in air only. To minimize this
Types of transformer loss secondary winding is kept inside the primary
winding.
Step up transformer Step down transformer
(v) Humming losses: Due to the passage of
It increases voltage and It decreases voltage and
alternating current, the core of the transformer starts
decreases current increases current vibrating and produces humming sound. Thus, some
part (may be very small) of the electrical energy is
P S P S wasted in the form of humming sounds produced by
the vibrating core of the transformer.
(10) Uses of transformer: A transformer is
V S > VP VS < VP
used in almost all ac operations e.g.
NS > NP NS < NP
(i) In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerator,
ES > EP ES < EP
computer, air conditioner etc.
i S < iP iS > iP
(ii) In the induction furnaces.
RS > RP RS < RP
(iii) Step down transformer is used for welding
tS > tP tS > tP
purposes.
k>1 k<1
(iv) In the transmission of ac over long distance.
(8) Efficiency of transformer (): Efficiency is Transmission lines
defined as the ratio of output power and input Low
G
Low High V V Load House or
power V High V factory
P V i
i.e. η% = out × 100 = S S × 100 Power Step up Step down
Pin VP i P Station transformer transformer

For an ideal transformer Pout = Pin so η= 100% (v) Step down and step up transformers are used
(But efficiency of practical transformer lies between in electrical power distribution.
70% – 90%) (vi) Audio frequency transformers are used in
For practical transformer Pin = Pout + Plosses radiography, television, radio, telephone etc.
(vii) Radio frequency transformers are used in
P Pout (Pin - PL )
so η= out × 100 = × 100 = × 100 radio communication.
Pin (Pout + PL ) Pin (viii) Transformers are also used in impedance
matching.
16 Electromagnetic Induction
 Due to inherent presence of self-inductance in all
electrical circuits, a resistive circuit with no
capacitive or inductive element in it, also
 If a bar magnet moves towards a fixed conducting has some inductance associated with it.
coil, then due to the flux changes an emf, current and The effect of self-inductance can be
charge induces in the coil. If speed of magnet increases eliminated as in the coils of a resistance
then induced emf and induced current increases but box by doubling back the coil on itself.
induced charge remains same  It is not possible to have mutual inductance
v1 i1 v2 (> v1) i2 without self-inductance but it may or may not be
possible self-inductance without mutual inductance.
S N S N
di
 If main current through a coil increases (i) so
dt
Induced parameter: will be positive (+ve), hence induced emf e will be
e1, i1, q1 e2 (> e1), i2( > i1), q2 (= q1) negative (i.e. opposite emf)  Enet = E - ε
 Can ever electric lines of force be closed curve? E K E

Yes, when produced by a changing magnetic field.

 No flux cutting No EMI Circuit is made on 
or i increasing
 Vector form of motional emf : ε = (v × B).l
e i i
 In motional emf B,v and l are three vectors. If
 Sometimes at sudden opening of key, because of
any two vector are parallel – No flux cutting. high inductance of circuit a high momentarily
    

     v induced emf produced and a sparking occurs at key

v
l v position. To avoid sparking a capacitor is connected
l l
     across the key.
      Sometimes at sudden opening of key, because of
so  = 0 so  = 0 so = 0 high inductance of circuit a high momentarily
 A piece of metal and a piece of non-metal are induced emf produced and a sparking occurs at key
dropped from the same height near the surface of the position. To avoid sparking a capacitor is connected
earth. The non-metallic piece will reach the ground across the key.
first because there will be no induced current in it.  Dc motor is a highly versatile energy conversion
 If an aero-plane is landing down or taking off and device. It can meet the demand of loads requiring high
its wings are in the east-west direction, then the starting torque, high accelerating and decelerating
potential difference or emf will be induced across the torque.
wings. If an aero-plane is landing down or taking off  When a source of emf is connected across the two
and its wings are in the north-south direction, then no ends of the primary winding alone or across the two
potential difference or emf will be induced. ends of secondary winding alone, ohm‟s law can be
 When a conducting rod moving horizontally on applied. But in the transformer as a whole, ohm‟s law
equator of earth no emf induces because there is no should not be applied because primary winding and
vertical component of earth's magnetic field. But at secondary winding are not connected electrically.
poles BV is maximum so maximum flux cutting hence  Even when secondary circuit of the transformer is
emf induces. open it also draws some current called no load
 When a conducting rod falling freely in earth's primary current for supplying no load Cu and iron
magnetic field such that it's length lies along East - loses.
West direction then induced emf continuously  Transformer has highest possible efficiency out of
increases w.r.t. time and induced current flows from all the electrical machines.
West - East.
 1 henry = 109 emu of inductance or 109 ab-henry.
 Inductance at the ends of a solenoid is half of it's
1
the inductance at the centre. i.e Lend = Lcentre .
2
 A thin long wire made up of material of high
resistivity behaves predominantly as a resistance. But
it has some amount of inductance as well as
capacitance in it. It is thus difficult to obtain pure
resistor. Similarly it is difficult to obtain pure capacitor
as well as pure inductor.