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I ...

Guide to Flat Slab

Formwork and Falsework
concrete structures group

CONSTRUCT is an association of member companies dedicated to the task

of improving the construction efficiency of in-situ concrete frames and
associated structures. The membership focuses on Specialist Concrete Frame
Contractors, supported by other associated market leaders especially in the
formwork, reinforcement and concrete industries.

The aims and objectives of CONSTRUCT are to:

promote excellence in the design and construction of reinforced concrete
frames and structures
identify and address issues which impede best practice and buildability
actively work with clients, designers and others in the project team
to maximise benefits in speed and economy during the design and
construction of in-situ concrete frames and structures
promote innovation in the use of concrete in reinforced concrete frames
and structures
co-ordinate the views of CONSTRUCT members and to act in their interest
promote and encourage training and education initiatives

For further information contact:

Colin Cleverly, Executive Secretary, CONSTRUCT,
Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berkshire RG45 6YS, UK
Tel: 01344 725744, Fax: 01344 772426,
E-mail: enquiries@construct.org.uk,www.construct.org.uk
Guide to Flat Slab
Formwork and Falsework

Eur I n g P. F. Pallett BSc CEng FICE FCS

Ternporary Works ConsuItant

This Guide is the result of a collaborative Partners in Technology programme

between CONSTRUCT (Concrete Structures Group), the University of Birmingham,
the University of Leeds and the Building Research Establishment. The research
study of the construction of the seven-storey in situ European Concrete Building
Project has informed this Guide.

Published by The Concrete Society on behalf of CONSTRUCT

concrete s ~ ~ u c t ~ r e s
Keywords
Formwork, Falsework, Striking, Backpropping, Building, Best practice, Concrete structures, Floors, Flat slabs, Loading,
Safety, Concept selection, Strength assessment
Reader interest Classification
Building clients, developers, permanent works Availability Unrestricted
and temporary works design engineers, frame con- Content Best practice guidance
structors’ technical and supervisory staff, planning
Status Committee guided
supervisors, proprietary equipment suppliers and
main contractors involved in building. User Clients, developers, engineers and building constructors

Guide to Flat Slab Formwork and Falsework

ISBN 0 946691 90 8
Order Reference CS 140

0CONSTRUCT Concrete Structures Group 2003

Published by The Concrete Society on behalf of CONSTRUCT, Concrete Structures Group

The Concrete Society, Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berkshire RG45 6YS, UK
Tel: +44 (0) 1344 466007, Email: enquiries@concrete.0rg.uk, www.concrete,org.uk

Further copies may be obtained from The Concrete Bookshop. Email: enquiries@concretebookshop.com
www.concretebookshop.com

All rights reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part of this work may be photocopied,
stored in a retrieval system, published, performed in public, adapted, broadcast, transmitted, recorded or
reproduced in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Enquiries
should be addressed to The Concrete Society.

Although The Concrete Society (limited by guarantee) does its best to ensure that any advice, recommen-
dations or information it may give either in this publication or elsewhere is accurate, .no liability or
responsibility of any kind (including liability for negligence) howsoever and from whatsoever cause arising,
is accepted in this respect by the Society, its servants or agents.
 Summary and Foreword

Summary
Formwork and falsework play a significant part in the overall benefits achievable in the
construction of in situ concrete buildings. Process control and an improved understanding of
temporary works by designers, constructors and suppliers have been identified from research as
crucial to successful design, leading to safe completion of flat slab concrete buildings. Many of the
principles apply to other forms of construction.
Detailed information and guidance for all members of the construction team is given in this Guide
to enable improved designs and construction techniques to be adopted, thus promoting more
efficient and economic construction of commercial concrete buildings. The Guide has been
structured to aid readability, and follows the stages of construction.
New principles for the early striking of flat slabs in buildings are introduced, together with recom-
mended methods of assessing concrete strength. The relative arrangement of falsework and
backpropping has a significant effect on the force transmitted through the supporting slab into the
backpropping. Four methods of assessing backpropping loads are presented in order to help
designers and constructors to plan efficient construction schemes. One of these is in the form of a
spreadsheet, which is included on a CD ROM.
Theoretically, construction loads can exceed the design service load on newly cast slabs, and the
Guide makes proposals so that permanent works designers can investigate and take appropriate
action.
This Guide should lead to the quicker, safer construction of buildings and provide longer term
economic benefits to the industry, to constructors and ultimately to clients. It should be of interest
to all those in the construction team.

Foreword
This Guide is a consensus view developed during the construction of the seven-storey in situ
concrete building for the European Concrete Building Project by the multi-disciplinary team of
consultants, contractors, researchers and specialist suppliers involved with the project. Con-
struction took place between January and May 1998 inside Hangar No. 2 at the Building Research
Establishment’s Laboratory, Cardington, Bedfordshire. The project was part of a major collabo-
rative programme between BRE, CONSTRUCT, BCA, Reinforced Concrete Council and others,
with considerable assistance from industry.
The author of this Guide was employed by CONSTRUCT (the Concrete Structures Group) and the
University of Birmingham. The work reported herein was carried out under a Contract jointly
funded by CONSTRUCT and the Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the
Regions (now the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry) placed in March 1998. Any views
expressed are not necessarily those of the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry.

vii
 ing Group
The Guide was prepared under the guidance of a steering group:

Eur. Ing. P. F. Pallett (Chairman) Temporary Works Consultant

Professor A. W. Beeby University of Leeds

P. Campbell CONSTRUCT
Professor L. A. Clark University of Birmingham
C. T. Cleverly (Secretary) CONSTRUCT
J. E. C. Franklin Kwikform UK Ltd
C. Goodchild Reinforced Concrete Council
C. F. Heathcote PERI Ltd
Rev. M. James Malcolm James Consultancy
S. Lillie Byrne Brothers Ltd
J. J. A. Maw J.J.A. Maw Consultants
Dr R. Moss Building Research Establishment
Eur. Ing. T. Pope PERI Ltd
D. Smith Ischebeck Titan Ltd
D. A. B. Thomas Health and Safety Executive, Technology Division
T. S. Viney Hanson Birchwood
R. T. Ward Consultant

Corresponding Members:

J. N. Clarke The Concrete Society

V. R. Dunham Peter Brett Associates
S. Ferguson Syntech Consulting Engineers, Perth, Australia
D. S. Lazarus Ove Arup & Partners
Professor A. E. Long The Queen's University of Belfast'
Eur. Ing. Dr W. F. Price Sandberg (now Lafarge Cement UK)
Dr M. N. Soutsos University of Liverpool
C. J. Wilshere OBE Consultant

viii
 ontent

Summary vii
Foreword vii
...
Steering group v111
List of figures xii
List of tables xii
1 . .

List of equations Xlll

...
Abbreviations Xlll

Definitions xiv

1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Introduction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Pre-contract stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1 General - building design considerations 6
3.2 Loading considerations - permanent structure 7
3.3 Slab thickness 9
3.4 Column and wall kickers 9
3.5 Staircases 11
3.6 Trimming of holes 12
3.7 Effect of concrete type on temporary works 12
3.8 Temporary works concept selection 13
3.9 Types of temporary works for in situ flat slab construction 14
3.9.1 Individual props and beams, with proprietary panels or plywood
as formwork
3.9.2 Steel skeletal systems, with beams and plywood as formwork
3.9.3 Table systems
3.9.4 Flying form systems
3.9.5 Precast concrete planks (participating)
3.9.6 Permanent concrete planks (non-participating)
3.10 External protection and enclosure considerations 18

4 Preconstruction planning stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4.1 Management of the temporary works 22
4.2 The temporary works design brief 24
4.2.1 Individual props and beams, with proprietary panels or plywood
as formwork
4.2.2 Steel skeletal systems, with beams and plywood as formwork
4.2.2 Table systems
4.2.3 Flying form systems
4.2.4 Precast concrete planks (participating)
4.2.5 Permanent concrete planks (non-participating)
4.3 Loading during construction 28
4.4 Procurement of temporary works 30
4.4.1 General
4.4.2 Working platforms and edge protection
4.4.3 Edge distance of standards
4.4.4 Column forms - lifting, access and stability
4.4.5 Level adjustment of head jacks, base jacks and props
4.4.6 Length of formwork beams
4.4.7 Implications of changes
4.5 Permit to load and permit to strike 36
4.6 Sequence of work 37
4.7 Striking - planning considerations 39
4.8 Method statements 39

ix
Contents

5 Construction stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 41
5.1 General 42
5.2 Material handling 42
5.3 Loading-out platforms 43
5.4 Temporary works to columns 44
5.5 Temporary works to walls and lift shafts 45
5.6 Temporary works to slabs 46
5.7 Temporary works to precast slabs 47
5.8 Cranage 49
5.9 Implications of changes 50

6 Background to striking and backpropping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.1 General 52
6.2 Philosophy for loading and striking flat slabs 54
6.3 Deflection of slabs struck at early age 56
6.4 Assessment of concrete strength at early age 57
6.5 Backpropping 60
6.5.1 General
6.5.2 Backpropping assumptions
6.5.3 Loads in backprops
6.5.4 Sequence and installation procedure for backpropping
6.6 Loading a slab to above the design service load 72
6.6.1 Introduction
6.6.2 Proposals
6.6.3 Effects of proposals
6.6.4 Alternative measures

7 Striking and backpropping - application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

7.1 General 77
7.2 Method to establish required concrete strength 81
7.3 No backpropping required 82
7.4 One level of backpropping 82
7.5 Two levels of backpropping 83
7.6 Sequence of striking soffit formwork 85
7.7 Sequence of installing and removal of backpropping 86
7.8 Accidental overloading of slabs 88

8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

Annexes
Annex A - The Cardington Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
AI Construction 93
A2 Equipment for Floors 1 and 2 - Props and timber beams 94
A3 Equipment for Floors 3 and 4 - Ischebeck Titan Ltd 94
A4 Equipment for Floors 5 and 6 - Kwikstage Shoring 55 96
A5 Floor 7 - Birchwood Omnia Ltd - Precast plank and Densit 96

Annex B - Temporary works design checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Annex C - Comparison of load transferred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 100
-
Annex D Worked example of striking and backpropping to
second floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
D1 General 101
D2 Loadings 101
D3 To establish the criteria for striking 102
D4 Further considerations - strength assessment 103

X
 Contents

D5 Second floor - Backpropping considerations for falsework erection 103

D6 Second floor - Backpropping considerations for casting the third floor 104
D7 Method One - Backprop loads by use of percentages of load 104
D8 Method Three - Backprops loads by use of further simplified formulae 104
D9 Method Four - Backprop loads from spreadsheet 105
D10 Discussion 106
D11 Second floor - Pre-load of backprops and allowance for cracking 106
D12 Second floor - Discussion on loading to above the service load 107
D 13 Second floor - Backpropping considerations for accidental overloading 108
D14 Fourth floor - Distributed load from falsework 108

-
Annex E Theory of loading a slab to above the design service
load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
El Introduction 109
E2 Theory: base criteria 109
E3 Loads 110
E3.1 Load factors: independent loads
E3.2 Load duration
E3.3 Load allowances
E3.4 Temporary load patterns
E3.5 Loads: self-weight of formwork and falsework
E3.6 Pre-loads in back props
E3.7 Load combination factors
E4 Deflection: Serviceability Limit State 111
E5 Collapse: Ultimate Limit State 113
E5.1 Bending
E5.2 Shear
E5.3 Bond
E5.4 Load factors: temporary nature of load
E5.5 Material factors of safety
-
Annex F Backpropping spreadsheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
F 1 Conditions of use 118
F2 Spreadsheet liability 118
F3 Introduction 119
F4 Operation of the Excel spreadsheet 119
Worked examples 130

Annex G - Allowance for cracking in spreadsheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

G1 The distribution coefficient 140
G2 Ratio of curvature 140
G3 Effective deflection factor (FJ 140

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

CD ROM containing Backpropping spreadsheet (CPR0P.XLS) inside back cover

Xi
FiQures and tables

List 0%figuues
Figure 1 Floor four of the ECBP under construction. (page 1)
Figure 2 Typical temporary works management flow diagram. (page S)
Figure 3 Typical kickers to perimeter columns. (page 10)
Figure 4 Isometric view of possible staircase construction. (page 12)
Figure 5 Typical individual props and proprietary beams. (page 14)
Figure 6 Typical arrangement with steel skeletal system. (page 15)
Figure 7 Typical aluminium frame table with decking. (page 16)
Figure 8 Typical aluminium table with precast plank system. (page 18)
Figure 9 Typical section at edge of slab. (page 32)
Figure 10 Typical loading-out platforms in use. (page 43)
Figure 11 Plan of column form at corner and edge of building. (page 45)
Figure 12 Typical plan arrangements of formwork to a lift shaft. (page 45)
Figure 13 Typical precast block for wall kicker. (page 46)
Figure 14 Effect on deflected shape of different backpropping positions. (page 65)
Figure 15 Diagrammatic representation of backpropping of suspended slabs. (page 68)
Figure 16 Extent of theoretical overloading of flat slabs due to concreting operations above. (page 75)
Figure 17 Proposal 2a: fJ’, required to satisfy Equation 2 at SLS. (page 75)
Figure 18 Proposal 2a: wln,,, should be less than Pbto satisfy Equation 13 at SLS. (page 75)
Figure 19 Proposal 2b: nln,,, should be less than 1.O to satisfy Equation 14. (page 76)
Figure 20 Flowchart for striking flat slabs in buildings. (page 79)
Figure 2 1 Flowchart for backpropping flat slabs in buildings. (page 80)
Figure 22 Graph of ratio of loading to concrete strength factor. (page 81)
Figure 23 No backpropping. (page 82)
Figure 24 Backpropping one level. (page 83)
Figure 25 Backpropping two levels. (page 84)
Figure 26 Sequence of striking flat slabs. (page 85)
Figure 27 Typical backpropping layout planning chart from ECBP. (page 87)
Figure A 1 View of completed building. (page 93)
Figure A2 Typical cross section of ECBP. (page 95)
Figure A3 Plan of building. (page 95)
Figure D1 Situation after striking second floor. (page 102)
Figure D2 Backpropping one-level. (page 106)
Figure El Typical ultimate bending moment capacity graph for a C28/35 concrete. (page 114)
Figure E2 Typical ultimate shear capacity of a C28/35 concrete. (page 114)
Figure F1 Diagrammatic representation of backpropping. (page 119)

Table 1 Summary of concrete strength assessment methods for early striking. (page 60)
Table 2 Effect of falsework and backpropping locations. (page 64)
Table 3 Method One - percentage of load distribution from temporary works loads. (page 68)
Table 4 Checklist for striking and backpropping procedures. (page 78)
Table C1 Percentage of load distribution from temporary works loads. (page 100)
Table El Loads and combination factors at serviceability limit state (SLS). (page 112)
Table E2 Loads and combination factors at ultimate limit state (ULS). (page 112)
Table E3 Values of material partial safety factor ym at ultimate limit state (ULS). (page 116)
Table F 1 Schedule of sample A4 outputs from spreadsheet. (page 129)

xii
 Equations and abbreviations

Sd eqUathl§
Note: Page numbers refer to the first page on which an equation appears.
Some equations are repeated at appropriate points in the text.

Equation I Loading factor criterion (page 54)

Equation 2 Cracking factor criterion (page 54)
Equation 3 Effective deflection factor criterion (page 54)
Equation 4 Loading factor defined (page 55)
Equation 5 Cracking factor defined (page 55)
Equation 6 Striking criteria for crack width control (page 55)
Equation 7 Concrete strength factor (page 56)
Equation 8 Minimum characteristic concrete strength (page 56)
Equation 9 Change in prop length (page 63)
Equation 10 Added load versus spare capacity (Method One) (page 65)
Equation 11 Load in backprops for one level of backprops (Method Two) (page 68)
Equation 12 Load in first layer backprops for two levels of backprops (Method Two) (page 69)
Equation 13 Load in lower layer backprops for two levels of backprops (Method Two) (page 69)
Equation 14 Load in backprops for one level of backprops (Method Three) (page 69)
Equation 15 Load in first layer backprops for two levels of backprops (Method Three) (page 69)
Equation 16 Load in lower layer backprops for two levels of backprops (Method Three) (page 69)
Equation 17 Ratio of unfactored construction load to ultimate design load (page 73)
Equation 18 Ratio of ultimate construction load to ultimate design load (page 74)
Equation 19 Minimum required characteristic concrete strength at time of striking (page 81)
Equation 20 Combination factors for ultimate loads at rare load case (page 110)
Equation 2 1 Alternative combination factors for ultimate loads at rare load case (page 110)
Equation 22 Combination factors for ultimate loads at frequent load case (page 110)
Equation 23 Alternative combination factors for ultimate loads at frequent load case (page 110)
Equation 24 Partial safety factor for temporary nature of load (page 115)
Equation 25 Material partial safety factor (page 116)
Equation 26 Effective deflection coefficient (puge 126)
Equation 27 Effective modulus of elasticity for varying slab thicknesses (page 128)
Equation 28 Distribution coefficient (page 140)
Equations 29-33 Calculation of effective deflection coefficient (page 141)

Abbreviations
BCA British Cement Association
BRE Building Research Establishment
BS British Standard
CXdYY grade of concrete (cylinder strength/ cube strength)
CDM Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994
C(HSW) Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996
ClRlA Construction Industry Research and Information Association
CONSTRUCT Concrete Structures Group
DETR Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (now DTi)
ECBP European Concrete Building Project
HSE Health and Safety Executive
HSW Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
LOLER Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998
NSCS National Structural Concrete Specification for Building Structures
PIT Partners in Technology (Scheme of the DETR, now DTi)
PWD permanent works designer
SLS serviceability limit state
TMC temperature-matched curing
TW temporary works
TWC temporary works co-ordinator
TWD temporary works designer
ULS ultimate limit state

xiii
Definitions

Definitions
Backpropping: Propping installed at levels below the slab that supports the falsework in order to
distribute the load on the uppermost slab to suitable supports, such as lower slabs or to the foun-
dations. Backprops can be required at more than one level. (In some parts of the world,
backpropping is called ‘re-shoring’.)
Constructor: Any organisation carrying out construction operations on a site.
Falsework: Any temporary structure used to support the permanent structure until it can support
itself.
Flat slab: A floor slab with or without drops and supported, generally without beams, by columns
preferably without column heads. It may be solid or may have recesses formed on the sofit so that
the soffit comprises a series of ribs in one or two directions (i.e. a waffle or coffered slab).
Formwork: A structure, usually temporary, for containing poured concrete, moulding it to the
required dimensions and supporting it until it is able to support itself. It consists primarily of face
contact material and the bearers directly supporting the face contact material.
Post-propping: Temporary propping installed after placing permanent formwork prior to steel
fixing and concreting, where the permanent formwork will carry its own weight and the con-
struction loads, but the load from the in situ concrete is carried by the post-propping.
Repropping: The system used during construction in which the supports to a recently cast slab are
removed and replaced in a planned sequence.
Supporting slab: The suspended floor slab immediately below the floor slab under construction.
The sofit formwork and falsework for the next slab above will be erected on this slab.
Temporary works: A structure used in the construction of the permanent structure. It is usually
removed on completion.
Temporary works co-ordinator: The person appointed to have overall responsibility for the
technical and procedural aspects of the design, procurement, erection and use of the formwork,
falsework and scaffolding.
 This Guide covers the procedural and technical aspects of the formwork, falsework and striking
operations involved in flat slab in situ concrete construction in the UK. Flat slabs are considered as
slabs with a flush soffit that may incorporate beam strips within their depth and are one- or
Flat slabs have no two-way spanning. They are without supporting beams or drop heads. The Guide is, however,
supporting beams applicable to flat slabs with downstand beams along their edges, and many of the principles
or drop heads
discussed will be applicable to other types of construction.

Figure 1: Floor four of the ECBP under construction.

1
Scope

The Guide will principally be of interest to those in, the building industry involved in the Interest to those in
construction of in situ reinforced concrete slabs of all sizes for single and multi-storey construction. the building industry
constructing in situ RC
By following the construction process, from concept by the client, through to construction, it will and precast slabs for
assist all members of the construction team. Guidance is given on the application of the single and multi-storey
Construction, Design and Management (CDM) Regulations, design (including consideration of buildings
loading slabs above their design load), general imposed loads and construction details.
Topics covered include temporary works management, approvals, edge protection, working platforms,
temporary cladding and enclosures. Improved understanding of the process will reduce construction
time and lead to safer, more economic use of in situ and precast slabs in building construction.
An important feature of the Guide is an improved method and understanding of backpropping and Methods stated may be
striking. The formwork construction methods described are ‘state-of-the-art’ for single and multi- inefficient and uneconomic
storey construction, but, in some cases, particularly in high-rise construction, the methods used may
be inefficient andor uneconomic but be viable in the light of other considerations.
The findings in this Guide are based on the study of the seven-storey in situ concrete frame building ECBP: see Annex A
built as part of the European Concrete Building Project (ECBP) at the BRE Laboratory, Cardington,
Bedfordshire between January and May 1998. (Refs 1 and 2 ) More details of the construction of
the ECBP are given in Annex A.

2
 2 Introduction

Recommendations - Introduction
1. Construction safety and economy begins a t a building‘s concept and design
stages, not on site.

2. Designers, particularly Permanent Works Designers, should be made aware

that appropriate design decisions can optimise the temporary works. The
direct economic benefit for clients is that less expensive buildings can be built
more quickly, efficiently and safely.

3. Temporary Works Co-ordinators should be appointed by the constructor, and

should be available a t an early stage of the construction process to provide
guidance to other members of the construction team.

This Guide should lead to the quicker, safer construction of buildings and provide longer term
economic benefits to the industry, to constructors and ultimately to clients. It should be of interest
to all those in the construction team.
Guide structured into The Guide has been structured to aid readability, and follows the stages of construction. For
Sections by likely reader example, clients will wish to concentrate on reading Chapters I to 4, but may not necessarily read
other sections in depth. Some important topics are repeated at different points, but with the
emphasis altered to suit the anticipated reader.
Safety and economy Construction safety and economy begin at a building’s concept and design stages, not on site; the
begin at concept and safe and effective use of site manpower is influenced not only by operative’s competence and
design stages
supervision, but also by the quality and adequacy of the designs prepared - for both the permanent
structure, and the temporary works. The research at Cardington identified that “it is within the
process not within the hardware (product) that opportunities for high performance will lie”. Much
of the advice in this Guide is aimed at improving the process and identifying areas where change
will generate benefits.
PWDs influence on Encouraging designers, particularly Permanent Works Designers (PWDs) and their representatives,
temporary works to make appropriate design decisions that optimise the temporary works has direct economic advantages
for the client in producing less expensive buildings that can be built more quickly, efficiently and
safely. This approach promotes the recommendations of the Egan report (Ref. 3) for giving clients
better value and good engineering.
This document is not intended to impose restrictions on Permanent Works Designers, but tempo-
rary works have a significant influence on the final structure and its buildability. In particular,
PWDs are responsible for decisions that will affect the safety of constructors and users.
The constructor, of course, has a significant part to play in temporary works. A major recommen-
dation of this Guide, in order to improve the process engineering, is to promote the responsibilities
that the constructor should take in managing the temporary works. The importance of the role of
the Temporary Works Co-ordinator (TWC) in managing the assembly, construction, striking, back-
propping, and all the technical aspects of the temporary works cannot be overstated. Ideally the
TWC should be appointed by the constructor, and should be available at an early stage of the design
process to provide guidance to other members of the construction team.
One of the original concepts of the ECBP at Cardington, shown in Figure 1, under the main
proposal to the Partners in Technology scheme, was to assess the performance of the temporary
works (‘Task 2’). The output from the research, although not as originally envisaged, provided

3
Introduction

meaningful information of use to the industry - in the circumstances it concentrated the researchers
on the smaller details so that future fast-track construction processes can be improved in design, in
procurement, and particularly in management procedures.
The research identified the important contribution that both the Permanent Works Designer and the Clients' influence on
client make to the safety and economics of the temporary works. The CDM Regulations (Ref. 4.) temporary works
impose duties on all designers. Consideration of the temporary works and safety of all persons are
important issues for all members of the construction team.
The importance of the Permanent Works Designer and Temporary Works Co-ordinator having an PWD and TWC to
understanding of the backpropping and striking requirements for flat slab construction is highlighted understand backpropping
and striking of flat slabs
in this Guide. It is likely that recent flat slab buildings which have low ratios of live load to dead
load have been stressed during construction above their service load. How this can be avoided in
practice is a major aspect of this document and is discussed in detail in Section 6.6 and Annex E. Consideration of loading
slabs during construction
Striking and backpropping are the subject of a separate BRE Report under Task 4 (Ref. 2). This Guide
discusses the criteria in detail in Chapter 6, and includes in Section 7.2 a new proposed method of
assessing the strength of a concrete slab during any construction operation. To assist readers, two
flowcharts, Figures 20 and 21, are included. The complexity of backpropping, with the various
options necessary for safe control and loading of flat slabs during construction, is detailed in Chapter
6, with four methods for calculating the backpropping loads. Annex D includes a worked example.
The experiences gained from the ECBP indicate that there are advantages in considering complete Advantages in enclosure
temporary enclosures for buildings under construction, although these may impose unacceptable of buildings
limitations on the concept of the temporary works.
This Guide is not a design manual, but is intended to be complementary to the Concrete Society's Complementary
Formwork - a guide to goodpractice (Ref. 5) and to BS 5975 Code ofpracticefor falsework (Ref. publications: Formwork -
6). The ECBP was built using the first edition of the National Concrete Frame Specification, which Guide to good practice,
Code of practice on
was revised in May 2000 with the title National structural concrete specijication for building falsework, NSCS
construction (Ref. 7).
Most of the comments in this Guide relate to experiences from Cardington, and examples of the
positive and negative experiences are used to illustrate and inform the industry. To give the broader
view, comments from the Steering Group have been incorporated.
It is accepted that there are risks in projecting results from only a few studies to be accepted as Risks in projecting results
general practice. The ECBP structure was at or beyond the edge of current practice and therefore from ECBP to industry
the structural effects observed are greater than those encountered in normal practice. For example,
the proposed method of striking flat slabs from Task 4 has been confidently adopted for similar
structures within defined limits of type of structure, slab thickness, etc.
The arrangement of this Guide follows the stages in the construction process. Some items and
recommendations that are relevant at several stages are repeated and cross referenced. Recommen-
dations are summarised at the start of each chapter.
The involvement and responsibilities of the client, PWD and TWC throughout the construction
process are summarised here:

Chapter 3 - Pre-contract stage - client and/or PWD involvement

The client and the PWD are involved in considering the basic layout and possible construction methods,
including initial layouts, loadings, slab sizes, column layouts, and safety issues by the designer.
Chapter 4 - Preconstruction planning stage - client, PWD and TWC involvement
The contract has been awarded and detailed planning and procurement starts. At this stage the TWC
and the PWD should establish the detailed concept, procurement, early striking criteria, method of
assessing concrete strengths, risk assessments, detailed method statements, etc.

Chapter 5 - Construction stage - TWC and PWD involvement

The TWC should be co-ordinating the suppliers, erectors and users of the temporary works.
Detailed procedures need to be established and monitored. Safety concerns are raised and actions
implemented; this may include backpropping procedures.

4
 I ntraduction

I
Chapters 6 and 7 - Backpropping and striking the slabs - TWC and PWD involvement
~

Once a slab is cast, procedures for striking the formwork and falsework need careful consideration.
These may include requirements for backpropping. New methods of determining strength in situ
will save time without compromising safety or serviceability.

5
 tract st

Recommendations -
1. Permanent Works Designers (PWDs) should consider the implications of
changes in the design of a structure on the economics of construction.
2. Consideration should be given to the complete temporary enclosure of the
building during construction to improve productivity.
3. Unless specified otherwise, the self-weight of reinforced concrete in flat slab
construction should be calculated using a specific weight of 24 kN/m3.
4. Issues relating to the site boundary need to be addressed at tender stage.
For multi-storey construction, protection (edge fans or nets) around the entire
building will be required.
5. Adequate edge protection should be provided for all operations, including
precast floor construction.
6. Reinforcement should be detailed to suit the method by which the structure is
to be built: the constructor should be involved in the detailing.
7. Detailing of column reinforcement is important, particularly when reinforcement
couplers are to be used in kickers.
0. Column kickers should be at least 100 mm high.
9. Kickerless construction is not recommended for perimeter columns.
10. Downstand beams should be avoided: for economic slab formwork, beam
strips within the slab depth are preferred.
11. Where upstand beams are used, such as to trim large openings, reinforcement
should be scheduled separately, not with the main slab. This facilitates precasting
the beams on site.
12. Stair flights can affect the temporary works and their design should be
carefully considered.
13. Precast stair flights should be carefully detailed and safety aspects of installation
considered by both the PWD and the TWC.
14. Precast stair flights should be planned for early erection during construction,
to facilitate access for operatives and staff to the working areas.

It is not intended that the PWD and the client should be limited by the constraints of the temporary
works, but the following design considerations for the permanent building are given in good faith,
based on ECBP experience. The comments are for consideration by the PWD and the client at the
early, and often critical, concept stage.
Where design and build or management contracting is envisaged for a project, the constructor
should be selected early to give technical temporary works advice to the PWD. The expertise of the
experienced frame contractor will help the PWD to make correct decisions.

6
 3.2 Loading considerations

When designing large-span flat slabs with few columns, procedures during construction to avoid
overstressing the slabs are very important. This is discussed in detail in Section 6.6.
Constructor responsible While the PWD’s responsibilities may have been fulfilled during design in considering buildability
for construction and carrying out the appropriate hazard identification and risk assessment, responsibility for con-
struction remains with the constructor. Responsibility for permanent and temporary works design
and for constructing the building safely is clearly a requirement under the CDM Regulations (Ref. 4).
Clause 28 of the Approved Code of Practice to the Regulations states:
Designers to take account “Designers need to understand how the structure can be constructed, cleaned and maintained safely.
of any temporary works This involves ensuring that the overall design takes full account of any temporary works, for example
falsework, which may be needed, no matter who is to develop these works.”
A typical flow chart of temporary works procedures is shown in Figure 2. It is not exhaustive, as
site and contractual conditions will vary.
The PWD has a responsibility to ensure that the building can be constructed safely. Unusual or
critical aspects of the design, e.g. backpropping or striking procedures, should be identified in the
Pre-tender Health and pre-tender Health and Safety Plan. This document should be made available at tender stage and will
Safety Plan to be available enable tenderers to make an informed choice of construction technique. It is an important duty of
at tender stage the Planning Supervisor to ensure the plan is complete, and includes items such as provision of
edge protection and other forms of protection. Although the PWD usually has little control over
how the building is actually built, and cannot be expected to be an expert in backpropping and
striking, the PWD has a responsibility to communicate information such as the rationale for the
design and descriptions of the works, and to ensure the overall safety of the construction. Commu-
nication on such matters as backpropping and striking at both tender and construction stages is
therefore important. The technical aspects of striking and compliance with the principles of striking
are discussed further in Chapter 6.
Ideally, provisions for safety at the early design stage should not just be for a safe working
environment, but should improve productivity on the project, and therefore be self-financing. This
Guide recommends that consideration be given to temporary enclosure of the structure and that
more research into the subject is carried out (see Section 3.10).
Consideration of the surface finish to the soffit of the flat slab is outside the scope of this document.
TR52 Guidance on plain formed concrete finishes is given in Concrete Society Technical Report 52 (Ref. 8).
Consider the It is recommended that PWDs, when assessing precast alternatives to in situ construction, should
column/precast give more consideration at design stage to the column/plank interface and discuss the implications
plank interface with the relevant parties at contract stage. Early discussions with TWDs who have experience in
such matters, and who have design solutions, will provide further benefits to the client.
Permanent works designers should be more aware of the implications of changes in design of the
structure on the economics of Construction. For example, the introduction of a column near the
centre of one of the 7.5 m bays in the ECBP to support the staircase had the immediate effect of
making any table or flying form system inoperable. On a PWD re-design, the central column was
removed! Another example of the effect of the PWD on the selection of temporary works system
was the removal from the design of any cross-walls, and the insertion of temporary steel cross-
bracing. This bracing was not fixed to the level immediately below the slab being cast, which made
removing the falsework easier.
Detail reinforcement Ideally, reinforcement should be detailed to suit the method of construction, and thus the
to site procedures constructor should be involved in the detailing, as recommended in the CONSTRUCT Guide to
contractor detailing (Ref. 9). This had beneficial results at the ECBP where reinforcement for four
of the seven floors was contractor-detailed. Design and detailing of reinforcement can affect the
temporary works, and so the following sections include comments relating to reinforcement.

3.2 Loading considerations - permanent structure

Commercial buildings, The ECBP was designed for a characteristic imposed load of 2.5 kN/mZfor general office loading
imposed service load in accordance with BS 6399: Part 1 (Ref. IO), which is considerably less than the higher loads
2.5 kN/mZ commonly required by letting agents “to cover all future eventualities”. This had direct effects on
the structure as it allowed thinner slabs and a lighter overall structure, and gave economies in both
structure and foundation design.

7
3.2 Loading considerations

I
Client . PWD I TWD I TWC ! Site ! Supplier
I

--------,
I
I
---------L-------- comments,
I
I
I
I
I

Award contract and appoint constructor

I
j(
I Establish responsibilities
Appoint TWC and TWD

I
I I

Prepare Health and Safety I

Plan. Design brief, contract ; (See proforma Annex B)
-- drawings etc.
-- I ,
specification, and
construction drawinqs

; assessment
--; drawing

I I
I Comment on ; Issue preliminary drawings 1- I
I
;-
!
method of con-
Crete strength
assessment,
striking and
-
)/
!
I
I
-
andlor TW sketches _- I

I
I
I

I
I Advisory
I backpropping ;

.I Commenton I c). Permit to load system -

I
supporting slab 9. I
approvals. I
I strength, and
.
I . Backpropping as required -- I'
; backpropping I
I

Figure 2: Typical temporary works management flow diagram.

Note: The diagram does not illustrate the roles of the various parties, e.g. planning supervisor,
under health and safety legislation.

8
 3.4 Column and wall kickers

At the ECBP the loadings for the 250 mm-thick solid reinforced concrete slab were considered as
follows:
Self-weight
concrete slab 6.00 kN/m2
0.25 x 24 kN/m3 (calculated on the basis of density of 24 kN/m3)
partitions 1.OO kN/m2
raised floor 0.5 0 kN/m2
ceiling services 0.50 kN/m2
Total self-weight load of structure 8.00 kN/m2
Characteristic imposed load 2.50 kN/m2
Hence total PWD unfactored design load 10.50 kN/m2
Normal construction: DD ENV 1991-2-1 (Ref. 11) recommends a value for the density of concrete of 24 kN/m3 plus
use concrete density 1 kN/m3 for reinforced and prestressed concrete, implying a total of 25 kN/m3 for concrete. A
of 24 kN/m3
footnote states that the “density of concrete may be in the range 20-28 depending on local
materials.” This Guide recommends the use of 24 kN/m3 for normal weight reinforced concrete in
flat slab construction’.
Information about the PWD’s assumptions about self-weight and characteristic imposed loads used
in the design, together with data on concrete characteristic strengths, will be required at the pre-
construction stage by the TWD and the TWC. See the temporary works design checklist in Annex B.

3.3 Slab thickness

Selection of slab thickness by the PWD depends on many factors, including planned current use of
the building, likely future use, overall height constraints and proposed plan layout of columns.
Use Economic concrete The extremely useful book published by the Reinforced Concrete Council, Economic concrete
frame elements for initial frame elements (Ref. 12), gives many permutations of slab design with charts of span/depth ratios
span/depth ratio
against load
for typical characteristic loads. For the solid flat slab at the ECBP, with its imposed design load of
2.5 kN/m2, superimposed dead load from partitions etc. of 2.0 kN/m2, and 7.5 m column grid, the
book indicates a solid slab thickness of about 275 mm. Thus the ECBP design at 250 mm thick was
10% thinner and would be expected to be more critical in flexure, particularly during early striking.
A full discussion of the merits of the structural design of the ECBP is outside the scope of this
Guide, but thinner slabs enable reductions in overall weight and hence foundations, reductions in
height which in turn reduce cladding area and hence costs. In addition, lighter slabs result in lighter,
less expensive formwork solutions.
Implications of At an early stage in the design, the PWD should consider whether the slab to be cast should incor-
intentional camber porate a camber and decide if any intentional precamber should be left in the slab. The implications
of this for the formwork need to be communicated to the constructor, and should appear in the
temporary works design brief. Obviously many other factors will affect the deflected shape of the
slabs as cast, such as order of casting, amount of reinforcement, state of finishes and partitions,
etc., at the time. The determination of values for precambering is outside the scope of this Guide
but inclusion of precambering requirements may affect the selection of the temporary works
concept.

3.4 Column and wall kickers

Pressure to maximise commercial building space, together with clients’ frequent requirements for
large open areas, generally based on a 1.5 m partition module, nearly always dictate that perimeter
Bc9 Guide columns and walls are flush with, or very close to, the outside edge of the slab. Up to the present,
Kickerless construction columns and walls have often been specified as ‘kickerless construction’ (see BCA Guide, Ref. 13)

I Bulk weight density is the overall weight per unit volume of a material, including a normal distribution of voids
and pores, and in SI units is quoted in kg/m3. In everyday usage this term is frequently abbreviated to ‘density’
(which is strictly mass per unit volume). This Guide follows the recommendation in the ENV to use units of kN/m3
for density.

9
3.4 Column and wall kickers

and the reinforcement detailed accordingly. For perimeter columns at the ECBP this was seen to
have serious safety implications during construction and kickerless construction is not recommended
for perimeter columns.
The kicker provides a location for the perimeter column forms to prevent them being dislodged. Kickers for perimeter
See Figure 3 below and Figure 11 in Section 5.4. columns

perimeter columns.

Where a kicker is required, a minimum height of 100 mm is recommended2 (see NSCS, Ref. 7) Minimum kicker lOOmm
with well-compacted concrete of the same strength as the adjoining concrete.
Casting separate kickers to columns did not significantly delay construction as they were cast at the Separate kickers not found
same time as the slab. Separate casting of kickers requires adequate supervision to ensure that to delay construction
the quality of a small volume of concrete is consistent with the structure.
Where high-strength concrete is specified for columns, and the slab is of lower strength, casting
separate kickers can have construction implications. This is due to the difficulty in procuring and
placing small quantities of high-strength concrete just for the kickers; it is generally not structurally
acceptable for the kicker to be weaker than the main column. The TWC should reconsider the order
of casting the columns and cast some kickers at the same time; preparing and casting kickers for
perimeter columns while at the same time casting a few internal columns as ‘kickerless’ would
allow a reasonable concrete delivery volume of the higher strength concrete.
To aid fast-track construction the use of drop heads andor column heads should be avoided, but if Avoid drop heads
they have to be incorporated, round columns should have round heads and square columns should and column heads
have square heads.
The choice of surface finish to columns can have implications on the selection and economics of
the formwork. For example, on a contract detailed with a few round columns of one size, cardboard
one-use formers may be expected to be more economic than purpose-made circular forms in steel
or GRP. If column heads are detailed, fixing reinforcement to the column becomes particularly
difficult and a much more expensive column formwork arrangement is needed; thus the PWD can
influence the cost to the client by careful selection of buildable details.
Perimeter wall formwork without kickers is not likely to be a safety problem on the edge of the
building. The TWD will have considered how to support the external formwork face, either by an
external independent scaffold, or by a bracket attached to the previously cast wall below, to reduce
the risks of instability of the external form face. Where kickerless construction is used on internal
or perimeter wall formwork, the use of precast concrete blocks, as shown in Figure 13 in Section
5.5, has benefits in speed of Construction and in ensuring that the walls in the building are built
directly over each other, a particular advantage for thin walls. See also Ref. 13.
The PWD needs to be aware of the likely construction details when detailing the reinforcement to When using couplers
walls and columns, particularly when using reinforcement couplers. An obvious solution is to consider position of lap

2 For water-resistant construction, it is recommended that kickers are 150 mm high and cast monolithically
with the slab (Ref. 7).

10
 3.5Staircases

position the bar laps and any reinforcement couplers on the assumption that kickers will be used. As
recommended earlier, the constructor should be involved in detailing the reinforcement. The method
of fitting the vertical reinforcement bars should be considered, particularly as they have to be moved
into a vertical position, held in place and then inserted and screwed into the coupler - this operation
can be particularly difficult on perimeter columns and walls when no formwork is in position.

3.5 Staircases
Economy begins Construction economy begins at the design stage, not on site - this is particularly true for staircases,
at design which are necessary in all buildings. The nature of stair flights, with varying riser and tread details,
always makes them a strong candidate for precasting; precasting on-site can be done if only a few
are needed. The optimum size of the precast flight depends on crane capacity, and ease of road
transportation, among other factors. It is obvious that, once construction gets underway, feeding
precast stair units down from the top of the completed frame can be difficult and time-consuming,
so stair flights should be installed early during floor construction. This may not eliminate all ladder
access, which may be needed for access to the very top level, but will allow easy access for
operatives and staff to the working areas.
Stair flight design The design of the stair flight can affect the temporary works. It is convenient to cast stairs in
important for TW at straight flights, possibly including landings at one or both ends. On a tall storey a half landing is
early.stage of contract
invariably required. Initially, the ECBP was designed with an in situ stub column in the middle of
the stair bay - this would have significantly affected the selection of formwork, and made the use
of any flying or table form system impossible in those areas.
ECBP: innovative staircase The final design incorporated an innovative staircase - two opposing straight flights connected with
an intermediate half landing. The half landing was split into two, with half of the landing on each
flight and a central joint with intersecting reinforcement. After placing the flights by crane onto
temporary supports, the ‘joint’ was filled with Densit3, and the supports to the ‘Z’ stair struck out
after a few days. Although the twin half landings glued with Densit were a novel idea, they did not
permit the staircases to be used easily for access because of the amount of falsework backpropping
down several levels of staircase! As construction moved upwards, so did the precast stair fixing,
and so the backpropping interfering with the access also moved upwards.
Consider safety aspects The PWD should highlight the safety aspects of precast staircase installation; in some cases the
PWD might detail the connections, but the detailed method statement for installation should be
Consider lateral forces prepared by the TWC and agreed with the PWD. Failure to allow for lateral movement while placing
when placing stair units precast stairs has caused collapses, and attention to detail, particularly at connections, is vital.
at connections
The staircase design may have assumed temporary support and the PWD should communicate to
Backpropping of the TWC the backpropping requirements for such work. Ideally, individual precast stair units
stair flights should be designed to be supported on the adjacent floors and not on lower half landings.
The TWC should establish a method statement with detailed procedures and agree it with the PWD
before construction.
Another solution is to design the precast staircase as an independent tower supported off a central
square integral column, see Figure 4. The precast unit would be a section of square hollow column
with a stair flight andor part landing attached on two sides. The next twisted half, complete with
its central square half-floor-height column, would then seat on top of the lower column unit which
has already been placed.
The stair flight would then become substantially self-supporting and not require any further
falsework for support. Additional reinforcement would be placed into the hollow square column,
and concreted, possibly stitched into the floor slabs for stability during casting of the next set of
columns andor slab.

3 ‘Densit’, also known as ‘compact reinforced composite’ or ‘CRC Jointcast’, is a proprietary product that is
mixed on site and used to ‘glue’ precast concrete components together. It is a very quick setting product made
from a blend of Portland cement, microsilica, superplasticiser, fine aggregate (sand), water and 6% steel fibres.
At ECBP it was batched in 37.5 litre quantities and gave compressive strengths of around I50 MPa.

11
3.5Staircases

Figure 4: Isometric view

of possible staircase
construction.

This solution, although it might increase the stairwell dimensions and reduce the client’s net
lettable floor area, would shorten erection times, reduce maintenance at structural joints, and could
be designed to give almost uninterrupted access to the construction using the stair flight. With
careful scheduling of delivery, such stair units could be used with flying form and table systems if
each unit was installed after the tables had been flown out.

3.6 Trimming of holes

Commercial buildings often require large openings and holes for services such as air-conditioning
ducts and lifts. The edge trimming of large openings needs detailed consideration by the PWD,
particularly as thinner slabs become more common. Downstand beams are to be avoided for Avoid downstand beams
economic flat slab formwork; beam strips within the slab depth are preferred. These beam strips Preference for
can be difficult for the PWD to accommodate within thin concrete slabs; structural steel sections beam strips
may be required.
At the ECBP, the PWD trimmed the large staircase opening with an upstand beam on the edge of the Consider separate
building, and it was expected that the constructor would precast this beam. The proprietary formwork scheduling for
upstand beams
suppliers had all assumed that a precast upstand beam would be used. The steel reinforcement was
scheduled so the beam could be precast, with the reinforcement scheduled with the main slab.
Restrictions on storage on site meant that reinforcement was procured by floors only as required, as
is common on sites. With the exception of the roof construction, the steel reinforcement for these
beams never arrived on site early enough for them to be precast! They were cast in situ, effectively as
part of the main slab pour.
If items are expected to be precast, the PWD should consider scheduling them separately. This
could also be advantageous with contractor detailing of reinforcement (see Ref. 9).

3.7 Effect of concrete type on temporary works

Specifiers should be aware of the implications on surface finishes of using high-strength concrete. Surface finishes and
It can be difficult to vibrate, and obtaining a satisfactory surface against normal plywood on the high-strength concrete
ECBP was exacerbated by the inclusion of polypropylene fibres4 in the high-strength concrete on
the first three floors. This was significantly harder to vibrate, and these columns have larger areas
of blowholes.

4 Polypropylene fibres were added as part of the fire resistance research programme for the ECBP.

12
 3.8 Temporary works concept selection

The flowing concrete used A flowing C30I37F concrete was specified for the fourth floor. As supplied, it was so heavily
at ECBP was a hazard retarded that it became a hazard because the grout ran down the openings and between the plywood
joints onto the lower floors. It covered the falsework support equipment at head level, jamming the
jacks, which required extra fettling before reuse. Even three floors further down the building, the
grout had still run down the openings and spread over the floors, making walking very difficult for
several days. Fortunately no one was hurt, although several people slipped and were still slipping
two days later when erecting column forms.
Flowing C30/37F difficult The flowing C30/37F concrete supplied was still so fluid on the late afternoon of placing that no
to cure and/or Protect curing or slab protection could be applied to the top surface. With a normal concrete, the first bay
placed would have stiffened by the time the pour ended, allowing curing and protection to
commence. Such extremely fluid concrete appears to be suitable on sites with all-weather
protection, and in dry, temperate (not freezing) conditions where early curing and protection of the
top surface is not critical. At the ECBP it was also very difficult to make satisfactory cubes and
demould them for temperature-matched cube storage. These points should be taken into account
when designing with a flowing concrete mix.

3.8 Temporary works concept selection

There are many reasons for selecting a particular temporary works concept; the rationale for
selecting one system in preference to another is a complex interaction between costs, building
shape and the technology used. A useful guide to the selection of temporary works is BCA’s
Advances in concrete construction technology (Ref. 14) which, although published in 1989,
remains a useful review of fast-track techniques.
The number of floors in the building, and the size, complexity and location of the site all affect the
final concept chosen.
The industry has, in the past, considered ‘temporary works’ as entirely the constructor’s problem -
temporary supports and scaffolding are not Bill of Quantity items, so they are rarely measured. The
only temporary works item measured is the formwork used for forming the surface face of the
finished concrete. A comment often heard from PWDs was “Whether a few props are used or a
sophisticated proprietary system is used, it has nothing to do with the PWD”. Fortunately, this
attitude is changing and by considering the overall construction process in detail, savings are being
Temporary works account generated. Clients and PWDs are not always aware that the temporary works (materials, labour and
’ of the cost
for UP to 350o plant) account for as much as 35% of the cost of a concrete building frame (Ref. 2), split between
of concrete structures
materials and labour/plant. Typically, costs of labour and plant are three-quarters of the total cost
Direct influence of PWD on of the temporary works. Encouraging PWDs to make design decisions that optimise the temporary
efficieno/ and economy works therefore has direct economic advantages to the client in that less expensive buildings can
be built more quickly, efficiently and safely. All these ideas promote the Egan Report’s (Ref. 3)
requirements of giving clients better value and good engineering.
Since the late 1980s aluminium frame support systems have been increasingly used in the UK
building industry. These systems are expensive to buy, but are regarded by many formwork
subcontractors as capital investment and the ‘work-horse’ of the industry. In contrast, systems from
continental Europe of simple adjustable props with beams on the top have started to be marketed
in the UK. On economic grounds, not all sites can justify the selection of aluminium systems for
slab support, and traditional steel skeletal systems still have a place in the industry.
In attempting to record the manhours involved in different falsework and formwork systems it is
significant that several researchers on the ECBP project independently came to the same conclusion -
that it was very difficult to provide meaningful research on labour utilisation because of other factors.
For example, there was no incentive to increase work rate, except to keep to the pre-set programme,
thus “working hard” was seen to be similar to “standard rate” and provided the area was completed in
ECBP Task 2 not time for the programme there was little discernible difference. It was not the intention of the Task 2
involved in measuring programme to identify production rates and tabulate the results, but the recording of the likely concept
production rates
selection parameters was included in the Task objectives: These are outlined in Section 3.9.
Two uses of equipment Each floor of the ECBP was to be cast in one pour, which meant that the formwork systems had to
per system cover a complete floor of 1350 m2. Because they were generally used on two floors, only two uses
per system were achieved. This provided a small learning curve for the three systems. The three
generic systems used at the ECBP Cardington are discussed in detail in Annex A.

13
3.9 Types of temporaw works

Six main systems are used for flat slab construction:

1. Individual props and beams
2. Steel skeletal systems
3. Table systems
4. Flying form systems
5. Precast concrete planks (participating)
6. Precast concrete planks (non-participating).
To help clients, PWDs and constructors select suitable systems for individual contracts, the
advantages and disadvantages of each type are listed below. Nearly all the falsework systems
described can be built to permit a camber in the permanent work, although this may be easier to
accommodate in the simpler arrangements. The lists are not exhaustive and individual site needs
should be considered.
3.9.1 Individual props and beams, with proprietary panels or plywood as formwork
Individual props and beams suit smaller contracts and, although labour-intensive, can be erected Simple, good for low
simply. They are particularly good for low height soffits, up to about 3 m, and where items have to height one- and
possibly two-storey
be man-handled into position. As there are no units to 'make-up', they also suit one- and possibly
two-storey structures with little repetition. A typical arrangement of the basic components, shown
without any lateral stability, is in Figure 5.

" U
Figure 5: Typical individual props and proprietary beams.
Note: Lateral stability not shown.
This system is ideal on slab areas with walls at opposite ends. This allows the props and beams to Need stabilising from
be stabilised in at least one direction from the walls of the existing structure. existing structure(s)

Use on structures with downstand beams is difficult, particularly in providing stability and continuity
for strength. It can be difficult to provide external working platforms with downstand beams and
an external scaffold system may be required.
When proprietary panels are used as the soffit formwork, panel marks will always show on the Panel marks will show
soffit of the structure. It is unrealistic to expect the panels to be new, unless this is specified. Minor
damage or blemishes on the panels will show on the resulting soffit. This may be acceptable, for
example, if a false ceiling is to be fitted.
3.9.2 Steel skeletal systems, with beams and plywood as formwork
The steel systems are generally based on scaffold systems, and operatives are usually familiar with Stable and rigid systems,
their use and erection. These systems have more components than most other systems, but have the during and after erection

14

Working platforms, access
toeboards and guardrails
not shown for clarity
Falsework supports with diagonal
bracing shown dotted
Suit complex shapes,
heights, bay size
changes etc
Generally designed as
freestanding falsework
Cranage not essential
Advantage - robust
Disadvantage - labour
intensive
Handled as tables,
say, 12 m long max.
Ideal for flat slabs
3.9 Types of temporary works
Stop end at construction Face material
joint shown struck with bars (shown as plywood
for next slab projecting sheets 1.22 x 2.44 m)
I I
Figure 6: Typical arrangement with steel skeletal system.
Note: Working platforms and intermediate members are not shown.
benefit of being extremely rigid both during and after erection. The vertical members are generally of
48.3 mm outside diameter and suit standard scaffold fittings. A typical arrangement on a building slab
is shown in isometric view in Figure 6. For clarity, the working platforms have not been shown.
The skeletal systems are much more adaptable than the other concepts, because of the variety of
vertical and horizontal components available ‘off the shelf‘. They are therefore ideally suited for
complex shapes, and where storey heights and bay sizes vary. They generally have jacking, bracing,
platforms, decking, etc., as standard. The head assemblies suit both aluminium and timber bearers.
Skeletal systems are usually designed by the TWD as freestanding falsework structures with the
lateral forces transmitted through the system’s bracing into suitable restraints, generally by friction
on the supporting floor or slab.
Because they are unlikely to corrode they are suitable for use in chemical works, heavy industrial
plants, etc., and can also be used in construction in marine environments.
Cranage is generally not needed for erecting and dismantling so they are suitable for use in exposed
or very high locations in the UK, where cranes would not be allowed to work for significant parts
of the year due to high winds, rain etc. The greater weight of the systems makes them more stable.
Although they have the disadvantage that they are labour intensive to erect and dismantle, they are
very robust, and because so few decisions are needed to put them together as intended, less skill is
needed.
3.9.3 Table systems
Table systems usually comprise large-diameter aluminium props (typical diameters are 100 to
150 mm), with long threaded lengths, and connected together with frames and cross-bracing. The
stiffness of the head of the assembly is derived from long lengths of aluminium primary beams. These
tend to limit the lengths of table handled to 12 m with standard components, but longer lengths are
possible. A typical example of a table, complete with its plywood decking, is shown in Figure 7.
Most UK frame contractors use table systems for flat slab construction, generally with aluminium
beams in both directions at the top.
15
3.9 Types of temporary works

a * Figure 7 : Typical aluminium

frame table with decking.

Tables have the benefit that, once made up, they enable rapid construction, and the benefits increase Crane access to two
with repetitive use. They can be used with cross-wall construction or columns, but are most opposing sides best
economic when there is access to opposite faces of the building for direct removal of the tables.
The operation of flying out the table form from a floor slab may cause it to pass outside the site,
and building boundaries, i.e. over adjacent property. The over-flying of other properties is an Consider over-flying
essential planning consideration. of adjacent properties

They suit flat slab and repetitive construction. Table systems become economic at over eight uses, Economy - over eight uses
but because many frame contractors own aluminium systems, they will use the system with fewer
repeats as conventional falsework. These systems can be used successfully for ‘strip and re-erect’
for fewer uses.
Cycle times as short as four days have been achieved with careful planning. Four-day cycle possible
Suppliers generally assume that aluminium table systems are restrained at head level by the Horizontal loads taken by
permanent works, and that no horizontal loads are applied to the falsework tables. The TWD the permanent works,
should clarify with the PWD that the permanent works can safely transmit such loads. An example not the table
of the applied horizontal load is the minimum lateral stability force of 2%% of the applied vertical
loads from Clause 6.4.4.1 of BS 5975 (Ref. 6).
Tables need space to be flown out of the building (to one or both sides), with allowance made for Clearance:
clearance between the building and adjacent structures or objects and to allow for cantilever access end 500mm
platforms. A minimum end allowance of 500 mm is recommended from the face of the building. To side 40mm
the sides of each table a minimum clearance to columns and walls of 40 mm per side should be
allowed, so some infill support is necessary at arrises when used with cross-wall construction.
Methods of handling tables are discussed in Section 4.2.3. Where tables are handled with four-
legged slings, as the table starts to move outside the edge of the building, the first two slings can
be attached. At this stage the inner two crane positions are ‘hidden’ under the cast slab. Depending
on the procedure used, the table may need to be ‘rested’, i.e. with part projecting out of the building,
and possibly imparting an upward load on the edge of the recently cast slab. The table has to be
manoeuvred further out of the building before the rear slings can be fitted. Usually these are fitted
through simple trap doors left in the sofit form. These will show as squares about 300 x 300 mm Trap doors in soffit form
on the sofit. Such trap doors are not needed when tables are flown using a purpose made C-hook
that fits underneath the sofit formwork.
The design of buildings with downstand beams on the front perimeter needs careful consideration. Care with edge beams
This is because the support system for the edge forms and platforms uses the bearers projecting
past the building edge. A downstand beam prevents these beams projecting, and makes the
arrangement discontinuous. Altering the edge make-up of the tables affects the crane handling
properties.
Care may be needed when certain aluminium alloys are used for long periods near seawater.

16
 3.9 Types of temporary works

3.9.4 Flying form systems

Flying forms are large areas of formwork, generally larger than the table systems described above.
Unlike tables, which are made up from vertical members like props, flying forms comprise two
long deep steel or aluminium trusses. These create a much stiffer and stronger unit and are used
to ‘fly’ the units out of the building, preferably from one side. Seated on top are conventional
aluminium secondary bearers and either plywood sheeting or trough/waffle formers.

Flying form systems ideally suit flat slab and repetitive construction. They are most economic
at over ten uses. There must be enough room to fly the entire unit beyond the building line and
then back in again, with allowance made for clearance from the building to adjacent structures
Clearance: and objects. A minimum end allowance of 500 mm from the face of the building is recom-
end 500 mm mended. Hence flying forms ideally need clearances from 12 to 25 m from the building line. To
side 40 mm
the sides of each flying form a minimum clearance to columns and walls of 40 mm per side
should be allowed to permit safe movement when ‘flying’ and operating the system. When such
systems are used with cross-wall construction some areas of make-up will be required between
the edge of the table sheeting and the top of the cross-wall, and some infill support is necessary
at arrises.
Preferably no The design of buildings with downstand beams needs careful consideration. Design of flying form
internal beams trusses means that downstand beams up to, say, 500 mm deep can often be accommodated with
these systems on the perimeter of the building. Specialist flying form systems are available for
internal drop beams.
Four-day cycle possible The expected cycle time with flying forms is four days, floor to floor, though shorter times have
been achieved in the Far East with careful planning and design of the forms.

3.9.5 Precast concrete planks (participating)

Precast concrete planks are usually 50 to 75 mm-thick and are used as permanent soffit formwork.
The planks are reinforced and the bottom reinforcement becomes the permanent reinforcement to
the slab. The in situ concrete topping to the planks is designed to act compositely with the planks.
Generally one-way Traditionally designed for one-way spanning applications, variations have been manufactured for
spanning two-way spanning slabs.
For two-way spanning planks, reinforcement must be provided in two directions in the bottom mat,
i.e. within the plank; this was one of the innovations at ECBP. The side ‘lap’ of the planks to
provide reinforcement continuity requires the bars from adjacent precast planks to be intermeshed
and the gap to be filled with a ‘structural concrete stitch’ to provide bond. A proprietary product
(‘Densit’) was used at the ECBP to provide this. See also Section 5.7.
Suited to The planks are manufactured in widths to suit transportation, usually up to a maximum of 2.4 m,
congested sites and in lengths to suit the building. Such systems are particularly suited to congested sites as the
planks can be delivered on a ‘just-in-time’ basis to avoid on-site storage. See Figure 8.
The planks generally have projecting lattice top steelwork. This increases their ability to span in the
temporary condition between the falsework supports, before the in situ structural topping concrete
is placed. The planks are usually designed to be self-supporting to span about 2 m between the
See Sections falsework. This is discussed further at Sections 4.2 (e) and 5.7.
4.2 and 5.7
The floor planks used in buildings will span one way up to 10 m.
A logical development for precast panels as permanent formwork is the use of fibre cement
products, possibly to produce a fully participating structural form which would improve both the
CIRIA Report Permanent strength and durability of the concrete. For information on the commercial considerations of
formwork in construction permanent formwork, see the CIRINConcrete Society Publication C558 Permanent formwork in
construction (Ref. 15).
Falsework When using precast planks, falsework may be required to support the planks during assembly and
may be needed during the placing of the topping concrete, see Section 5.7. Some propping may be needed on spans
PWD to consider greater than 3 m. The PWD should consider the detailing at the columns and the construction
column details tolerances at an early stage of design.

17
3.9 Types of temporary works

Figure 8: Typical
aluminium table with
precast plank system.
Note: TWD must consider
stability of such
4L
assemblies.

3.9.6 Permanent concrete planks (non-participating)

Concrete planks only 30 mm thick have been used as permanent formwork as face contact materials
to replace conventional materials, such as plywood. The thin planks will not span over long
distances without unacceptable deflections, and reinforcement lattice girders are incorporated to
allow them to be placed over falsework supports at about 2 m centres. Unlike the planks discussed
at Section 3.9.5, these thin planks are not considered to contribute to the strength of the slab, and
require normal bottom mat steel reinforcement to be fixed. Similarly, handling is limited by vehicle
width to about 2.4 m and 10 m in length. The thin planks are easier to modify at columns and other
features.
Such systems are particularly suited to congested sites as the planks can be delivered on a ‘just-in-
time’ basis to avoid on-site storage.
The planks generally have projecting lattice top steelwork to facilitate their temporary spanning Falsework supports at
condition on falsework, before the in situ structural topping concrete is placed. The planks are say 2 m centres
designed to be self-supporting to span about 2 m between the falsework, see Section 4.2.5.
These planks suit two-way spanning slabs, as the main reinforcement is not part of the plank. Care Fitting steel through lattice
is needed to ensure that the bottom steel transverse to the planks can be fitted through the lattice of
the planks.
The thin precast concrete floor planks used in buildings will accommodate spans up to 10 m. Other Suit up to 10 m
materials are available as permanent formwork; for more information on the applications and
commercial considerations of permanent formwork, see the CIRINConcrete Society Publication CIRIA Report Permanent
558 Permanentformwork in construction (Ref. 15). formwork in construction

3.I0 External protection and encioswre considerations

The safety of all persons, including operatives and the public, is a primary requirement in all
construction operations. Although construction at the ECBP was intended to be carried out without
external scaffolding it was observed that, even with experienced operatives working in controlled
conditions and without any weather constraints (it was indoors!), objects fell from the edge of the
building.
Primary responsibility for edge protection is with the constructor, although ideally the constructor Edge protection
should discuss this with the PWD and client to reduce risk at an early stage in the contract, as the
initial concept can affect the protection requirements. The Construction (Health, Safety and

18
 3.10 External protection and enclosure considerations

Welfare) C(HSW) Regulations (Ref. 16) specifically refer to the safety of “any person”. External
protection for all persons should have been considered in the design risk assessment.
A useful guide is the HSE book Protecting the public -your next move (Ref. 17).
Safety nets as leading Edge protection at leading edges can be provided with safety nets. In order to reduce the cost of
edge protection safety nets, suitable provision should be made for their rigging, such as providing anchorage points
in the columns and walls. This need not be an onerous extra cost to the structure, because, under
CDM requirements, provision of suitable anchorages for long-term maintenance of the structure is
Fit anchorages often required. Planning for the location and fitting of the anchorages early in the contract can have
early in contract significant benefits to overall safety and productivity.
The location and the temporary works concept for a structure can affect the type of protection that
is possible. For example, a full external sheeted scaffolding is not possible with a flying form or
External protection table form system as it would interfere with the form removal, so a protection fan, suitably designed
vs fans and of sufficient strength, would be the preferred solution. Timing of the installation of the fan can
Client‘s duty be critical. The client has the duty to ensure that adequate resources have been allocated for safety,
and for any necessary permits, for example, for debris fans oversailing the pavement. This will
involve obtaining approval in advance. Although the Planning Supervisor can advise, if asked, the
duty remains with the client.
Where external protection is to be used, consideration should be given to the complete temporary
enclosure of the building during construction. This will improve workmanship and quality of
work by making most operations independent of the weather. Improved working conditions on
construction sites through such means have benefits on safety, efficiency, recruitment and
operator satisfaction, so moves to improve working environments can only be for the good.
Health issues of complete There are however health issues to be addressed when considering enclosures, such as dust,
enclosure vs economy, fumes, heat, solvents and ventilation. Tightly woven containment nets have been shown to be
speed, improved quality
effective in trapping concrete dust. Elaborate enclosures have been developed in Germany and
Japan, some with facilities for travelling overhead cranes so that they can use more sophisticated
construction methods and achieve high quality control. Although popular in colder parts of
Europe, such enclosure systems tend only to be considered in the UK for renovation work. Total
enclosure may require large-span temporary roof systems and new products have been developed
specifically for this type of construction work with clear spans up to 44 m being achievable with
‘standard’ proprietary equipment. Particular attention should be paid to safe lifting in erection
and dismantling.
The steering group for this Guide believe that there are significant benefits in using temporary
cladding and enclosures, as well as the obvious one of being able to continue working safely and
Research needs efficiently in bad weather, but that more research on the subject is required.
Edge protection using At the ECBP an alternative construction method, using precast units for the roof, had been expected
precast units difficult to overcome many of the problems of edge protection. However, edge protection on two sides of
the falsework was difficult to provide. This was because of the orientation of the primary beams on
the falsework which only provided cantilevered support to an external platform on two sides of the
building - providing access on the other two sides was difficult.
The Task 2 research report states “Placing planks at the leading edge is hazardous and risks can only
be partly reduced through the use of safety harnesses.” This is discussed further in Section 4.2.5.
Provision of edge protection to precast flooring differs from that on in situ slab construction and
should be considered at an early stage in the temporary works planning. Likely solutions are: provision
of an external scaffold suitably sheeted at all levels of construction; incorporation of cantilevered
edge protection into the supporting falsework framework for all exposed edges; or attachment of
protection fans or nets to a lower level. The C(HSW) Regulations (Ref. 16) clearly require the
hierarchy of safety for providing protection from falls to be considered.
All construction should be safe, and although shorter construction times are demanded, with less
dependence on temporary works, and possibly eliminating external scaffolding, the chosen system
still requires a safe method of work.
Minimum Class 6 medium For reinforced concrete slab construction a fan or net should be considered with a maximum loading
duty fan 1.0 kN/mZ equivalent of 1.O kN/mZ.Such a fan is classified as Class B medium duty to BS 5973 (Ref. 18).

19
3.10 Drternal protection and enclosure considerations

Development of simple edge protection systems with guardrails and toeboards for placing on the cast
slab, with or without incorporation of a protection fan, are recommended. Some proprietary systems
are already available, but PWDs and clients should think about the provision of edge protection PWDs and clients
during construction. PWDs have responsibilities under the CDM Regulations to ensure that their to consider
anchorage points
designs can be built safely. The incorporation of standard fixing details into slabs designed to
transmit safely the loads from edge protection may be a suitable approach, similar to the way that
anchorage points are fitted to structures for connecting safety harnesses.

20
4 Preconstruction planning
stage

Recommendations - Preconstruction planning stage

Management and procedures
1. Temporary Works Co-ordinators (TWC) should be appointed for all building
construction involving formwork and falsework. The TWC should be from the
organisation building the concrete frame, and must have suitable technical
knowledge and appropriate training to understand the implications of any
changes to the TW schemes, and the effects on the structure of any changes
in the construction sequence, such as backpropping and striking.
2. A procedure for striking and removing falsework and backpropping should
be agreed and followed. The subject should be on the agenda of every
construction progress site meeting.
3. Temporary works training at both technical and supervisory levels is needed
in the industry.
4. Procedures for documents such as the Permit to load the falsework, and
Permit to strike the formwork/falsework must be in written format: verbal
procedures are not adequate.
5. The TW design brief should specify the performance of the falsework.
6. The TW design brief should specifically request enough copies of drawings
for the parties involved in all aspects of the temporary works.

Equipment procurement
7. Working platforms and edge protection should be shown in all temporary
works schemes. Even if they are not part of the supply and so ‘by others”,
they should have been considered and shown.
8. Calculations for temporary works should be available, prepared either by the
TWD or by the proprietary supplier, and should form part of the suppliers‘
contract to supply equipment.
9. On all areas of manually erected formwork, where the primary and/or
secondary beams are to be struck out, handled and re-erected by hand,
the length of beams used in the design should be carefully considered by
the TWD to facilitate handling.
10. When using flying tables, TWDs and TWCs should consider edge tables carefully,
as their correct design can significantly affect the process and productivity.
11. For safety and ease of adjustment during erection and subsequent striking,
the level of the handle on telescopic props should be considered.

Column equipment procurement

12. Suitable working platForms and edge protection should be included, preferably
on all sides, together with safe means of providing stability.
13. All column formwork assemblies should incorporate crane lifting points. The
weight of the form should be known.
Continues overlea$..

21
4.1 Management of the ternporav works

Column equipment procurement (continued)

14. Fixings cast into slabs for stabilising column forms should be designed to
reduce tripping hazards.
15. Column forms should incorporate access by a vertical ladder, preferably with
hoops for extra safety, and with a suitable trap door detail for access onto the
working platform.
Precast concrete
16. The interface of responsibilities when supplying precast planks should be
established very early during procurement. Precast planks will normally require
falsework. The position of support (or props) required should be shown on the
precast panel layout drawing, together with any requirements for post-propping.
17. Tolerances between in situ concrete and precast units should be agreed be
tween the PWD, TWD and precast supplier before construction.

4.1 MaonagemenU off Uhe 8emporaG-y works

The appointment of an individual, the Falsework Co-ordinator, is recommended in the code of
practice on falsework, BS 5975 (Ref. 6), and was one of the principal recommendations in the 1976
Bragg Report (Ref. 19). The Co-ordinator has specific roles, not only during the planning and
design stages, but throughout the construction.
It is recommended that a Temporary Works Co-ordinator (TWC) is appointed early in the planning Nominate a Temporary
process to co-ordinate and manage the design, procurement and operations of the temporary works. Works Co-ordinator at
very early stage
There has been a trend for organisations and individuals to define the boundaries of their responsi-
bilities and to refuse to undertake roles in areas they believe to be outside these boundaries. One
consequence is that collective responsibility for health and safety issues may remain ‘in the back
of the mind’. However, when a main constructor (usually the principal contractor) employs a frame
contractor as a subcontractor, overall responsibility for safety remains with the main constructor, Main constructor has
although other contractual responsibilities may be passed on to the subcontractor. The frame overall responsibility
for safety
contractor will be under the management of the main contractor and will have to liaise with the
latter’s technical departments, and possibly with the appointed TWC.
Management of temporary works is sometimes considered to be about minimising formwork costs, Reducing the quantity
reducing the number of components, etc. However, it is often more efficient and economical for the of formwork can be
counter-productive
project as a whole if construction time is reduced by increasing the quantity of formwork
equipment, plant and labour. An example from ECBP is discussed in Section 4.6 where increasing
the number of column forms would have resulted in a shorter cycle.
It is recommended that, for the construction of the concrete frame, frame constructors appoint an Frame constructor to
individual to handle their temporary works co-ordination who should work closely with the main appoint own TWC
contractor and its TWC. It is recommended that the frame contractor’s co-ordinator is directly
employed by that organisation.
The appointment of the TWC under design and build contracts appears to be straightforward, and
is normally made early in the planning stage. However, in design and build joint ventures the frame
contractor will probably appoint its own co-ordinator. It is recommended that all co-ordinators are
involved as early as possible with the PWD to assist in design decisions, as there are significant
advantages to the PWD in early liaison.
It is important to note that, under the CDM Regulations, any temporary works co-ordinator is TWC are ‘designers‘
considered to be a “designer”. Under the law a designer is required to have sufficient competence and (CDM Reg 13)
resources for health and safety to undertake the role satisfactorily. Since frame constructors have their
own responsibilities for safety during the erection of the building frame, it is crucially important that
their own co-ordinator is in a position to control the appropriate activities on the site.
As already discussed, this Guide recommends more efficient management of temporary works and Frame constructor’s TWC
that each constructor should take more responsibility, i.e. take on the role of the temporary works to be in a position to
control activities
co-ordinator, whether or not the main contractor has made their own arrangements.

22
 4.1 Manaqement of the temporary works

TWC to be trained Analysis of the management of the temporary works at the ECBP demonstrated the importance of
the requirement in the CDM Regulations that the TWC has suitable technical knowledge and
appropriate training. This ensures that the TWC understands the implications of any changes
proposed by site staff or by proprietary equipment suppliers. Such proposed changes are discussed
below, in Section 4.4.7 and also in Chapter 5.
Managing health and safety matters successfully on a project involves many activities - the
appointment of a principal contractor, risk assessments, method statements, a Health and Safety Plan
for the pre-tender and construction phase, and so on. The temporary works should play an important
role in the documents and be considered at an early stage. A typical flow chart for the management of
temporary works is shown in Figure 2. (Important documents for reference are Refs 16, 17 and 34.)
The supplier and designer of a precast permanent formwork system that requires falsework support
by others have an obligation to ensure that it can be safely erected and that the constructor,
spec-ifically the TWC, has enough information to co-ordinate the technical aspects of the safe use
of the system. The interface of responsibility should be established between the precast plank
Suppliers acting as supplier, the PWD and the TWD at a very early stage of procurement, and proper control
designers have exercised. Suppliers often act as ‘designers’, whether planned or not, and need to be aware of their
responsibilities
responsibilities (see also Section 5.7). The method of internal support must take into account the
location of the reinforcement, allowances for supports at joints, tolerances, etc.
At the ECBP no calculations were submitted to verify the adequacy of the falsework. None of the
proprietary system suppliers were asked for calculations to verify the systems adopted and
presumably assumed that custom and practice would be acceptable, supported by tables of
‘standard solutions’, based originally on their standard calculations. It has not been ascertained
whether they undertook separate calculations. It may be that the TWC did not request calculations
Calculations should form to verify the structural adequacy and safety of the system because of the unusual nature of the
part of the final contract, contract. It is recommended that calculations should be submitted, which should form part of the
but not necessarily be
submitted at tender stage
proprietary equipment suppliers’ contract to supply equipment. There are valid commercial reasons
why it should not be a requirement to submit calculations at tender stages.
Designers have a duty under the CDM Regulations (Ref. 4) to take account of hazards and risks,
and constructors have a responsibility under the C(HSW) Regulations (Ref. 16) to ensure that the
structure is stable and safe - a structure in this context specifically includes the temporary works.
Other checks may also be required, such as under the organisation’s internal quality assurance pro-
cedures, and some major clients require contractually independent checks on temporary works. The
merit of calculations is that in all cases they provide an ‘auditable trail’ in the event of any incident:
Standard solutions ‘standard calculations’ for ‘standard solutions’ should be available to verify the adequacy of the
‘standard’ temporary works.
What are the legal implications of not carrying out any design verification or calculations?
Obviously, as the height of the falsework and the mass of the slab to be supported increase, the
magnitude of loading and imperfections increases. This is accepted in the draft EuroNorm
prEN12812 (Ref. 20) for falsework where falsework is accepted for simple structures to be erected
‘Custom and practice’ must to low heights as ‘standard’. Thus custom and accepted good practice, provided they are proven,
be inherently safe are acceptable. However, the first floor at the ECBP was over 4 m from floor to soffit - hardly
standard floor height! Any ‘custom and practice’ solution must be inherently safe before it is
accepted - otherwise such practice should never be allowed or condoned.
Reduction in skill level On a conventional building contract, the main constructor ensures that temporary works advice and
and TW knowledge on site suitable technical information are presented correctly. Fewer building contractors operate
requires greater emphasis
temporary works design offices and the skill base among operatives is also reducing, with fewer
on training and
competence of TWCs apprenticeships and less training. It is already difficult to find experienced staff who can understand
and prepare meaningful temporary works calculations. The main source of information for most
builders will be suppliers and specialist consultants. A few large companies, generally involved in
civil engineering, still operate temporary works design offices, but for most builders the temporary
works skill base is from the suppliers, who design, verify and then supply their own schemes.

5This is to avoid calculations produced by one company being used as the basis of supply of a similar system
by others, at lower commercial rates!

23
4.1 Management of the temporary works

So as frame constructors take on more responsibility for temporary works, they also have to
become more technically aware. This means that the level of training of TWCs should be increased
so they can understand and check the quality and competence of supplier’s designs - after all, as
designers, they have significant responsibilities under the CDM Regulations.
The current transition from permissible stress to limit state design methods for temporary works Awareness of permissible
may initially cause some confusion. The proprietary suppliers are already aware of the new design stress vs limit state
methods and await publication of the EuroNorms such as prEN12812 draft (Ref. 20) in final form.
All that they require is to verify their ‘standard solution’ designs for the majority of the standard
floor slabs and heights envisaged.
The reduction in skill level is already apparent. Consider the proposed European performance
standard on falsework - had the proprietary suppliers at ECBP submitted second-order limit-state
calculations to the frame constructor, in accordance with prEN12812 (Ref. 20), few of the
constructor’s staff could have assessed their accuracy!
EuroNorms will formalise the specification of temporary works, e.g. falsework and scaffolding, in a Performance requirements
similar way to the introduction in the UK of the National structural concrete specification (Ref. 7).
At the ECBP, the quality of the proprietary suppliers’ proposal documents varied significantly,
from full A0 drawings, through coloured A3 drawings to simple A4 black and white sketches. The
coloured drawings could not be photocopied easily, whereas the A4 sketch was regarded as the
most informative because it could be copied and issued easily to several operatives at a time. It Ensure enough copies of
is recommended that the supplier andor TWD should be instructed in the TW design brief drawings are available
to supply enough copies of appropriately sized working drawings to eliminate the need for on-site
copying. The project specification in the National structural concrete specijication (NSCS) Suggested default
(Ref. 7) suggests default values for the number of copies of drawings at tender, acceptance and values in NSCS
construction stages.

4.2 The temporary works design brief

At the pre-construction planning stage the TWC should prepare the design brief for the temporary Temporary works design
works. A sample brief is at Annex B. The brief should include relevant information from the PWD, brief: see Annex B
material to be supplied by the constructor, on-site guidance and concept suggestions and it will state
the design loadings to allow the TWD to prepare a realistic design.
This Guide discusses aspects to be considered by the TWD and suppliers when preparing the TW
scheme and when procuring equipment. Many of these aspects are obvious, but even under the
supposedly controlled environment at the ECBP, items were forgotten, not included, or not known
to make a difference when changed! It is worth noting that BS 5975, the code of practice for
falsework (Ref. 6 ) , includes procedures for controlling the temporary works and recommends the
preparation of design briefs.
The generic systems discussed in Section 3.9 for the PWD and client concept are repeated in the
following sections, but from the constructor’s viewpoint in planning the temporary works.
4.2.1 Individual props and beams, with proprietary panels or plywood as formwork
Stability of individual prop and beam systems requires careful control at all stages of erection.
Unless there are adequate walls or columns alternative provision for stability such as bracing
should be provided.
Suppliers’ procedures should be followed, and detailed method statements established. Several
arrangements do not include diagonal components for bracing, on the assumption that lateral
stability is provided by the stiffness of the soffit formwork, once it has been erected (see Figure 5). Need ‘wedging’ against
If there are walls on several sides of the slab being constructed, then the formwork can be ‘wedged’ works if not stable as
freestanding structure
between them, but if there are only a few columns, stability needs to be carefully considered.
A critical stage identified at ECBP was the placing of secondary beams and fitting sheets of
plywood (2.44 x 1.22 m) by working overhand.
Suitable working platforms must be established during erection and use and for access to the sofit Access for operatives
members during removal. The proximity of the building edge is discussed in Section 4.4.3. to carry out striking?

24
 4.2 The temporary works design brief

Prop handle level The system is ideal for transportation because the props and beams pack flat onto pallets. Adjusting
prop heights is usually easy, but on long props, the handle may be difficult to reach and adjust.
This system can fit any shape or plan area of building, and is often used by suppliers on complicated
schemes for the make-up areas around the edges of other systems and at awkward shapes.
BS EN 1065 The European Standard for adjustable steel props, BS EN 1065 (Ref. 21), has introduced five
classes of prop with a total of 32 different props. Although only the nominal characteristic strengths
of the props are stated, an annex or UK National Application Document may in the future give
guidance on safe working loads for the more common prop sizes.
Proprietary beam Four types of proprietary timber beam used in soffit formwork are the subject of a proposed
prEN 13377 European Standard prEN 13377, published for comment in 1998 (Ref. 22).
Because the main propping components are so versatile, they can be used on other parts of a
contract, possibly by other subcontractors, so local losses of equipment can be a problem with these
systems.

4.2.2 Steel skeletal systems, with beams and plywood as formwork

Inherently very stable. These systems are inherently very stable and can withstand significant mistreatment before they
See Figure 6 may need down-rating. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 6 in Section 3.9.2.
The systems are ideal for transportation because they pack flat onto pallets of standards and beams.
They are usually steel, and are easy to adjust in height.
Working platforms Working platforms can be accommodated with these systems at any position in the soffit area - a
easily aCCmmodated particular benefit for taller slab soffits. Further, limiting one of the ledger dimensions to suit the
system’s staging gives simple access provision anywhere under the sofit, just by moving the
staging. Note that all sides and ends of working platforms need edge protection.
Can be erected by Because of their modular arrangement, and the strength of the joints when they are connected, the
‘semi-skilled’ operatives basic structure can usually be erected by semi-skilled operatives, unlike table forms which need
skilled handling.
These systems only require cranage periodically to move pallets of components, so striking and
repositioning operations can be carried out to suit progress and are not determined by the
availability of crane time - an important benefit. Although a crane can help with moving bundles
of beams, etc., it is not essential, and so skeletal systems are not sensitive to wind conditions.
Training operatives in crane control is not as critical as with, for example, flying form systems.
Manual handling of long beams is covered in Section 4.4.6.
Economics of aluminium For the small constructor, it is rarely economic to hire an aluminium system for completing a large
flat slab system. Because the loads on flat slabs are relatively small, the bearers can span further
between supports, making the use of aluminium technically effective. However, when commercial
hire rates and the initial cost of aluminium material are taken into account, it is sometimes more
economic to purchase conventional timber bearers. Frame constructors often invest in aluminium
alloy systems, because it becomes economic to use their own equipment, particularly as bearers on
steel skeletal falsework systems.

4.2.3 Table systems

Detailed method Operating table systems needs careful control. Operating, striking, handling and moving them requires
statements required, a detailed method statement, and constant on-site supervision. Generally, table operation requires a
trained slingers/
signallers etc higher standard of operative, with trained slingers/signallers for crane control, etc.
Table size and The size of table handled is a function of the building shape, the safe reach of the crane and the
movement method method of operation. Tables are moved either with a large purpose-made C-hook or with four-
legged unequal length slings, preferably with compensating clutches. The supplier must provide
guidance to the constructor on the methods and equipment needed to operate the system safely.
Consider crane reach Large table areas up to 85 mz using standard components are possible but may be limited by crane
when replacing tables capacity. Note that the crane has to reach to place the table back onto the next floor, possibly
on next floor
operating on a larger radius than when first connected to the table.

25
4.2 The temporaty works design brief

Allowance should be made in the programme for assembling the tables before first use. If assembly Allow in planning
is to be carried out on site, enough working space and cranage must be provided. for assembly time

Infill panels between tables and columns will be needed and the ease of erecting and striking them Infills may be required
must be considered. They have to be removed before the tables can be moved. If the TWD has to transmit lateral forces
assumed that the sofit formwork will provide lateral restraint to the table, the infill panels may be
required to transmit lateral forces, in tension andor compression, to the permanent works.
Trolleys for moving tables should be of the fixed type and secure. Some systems involve placing Trolleys to be prevented
small wheel assemblies under individual legs. If these are not secured to the legs they will come from falling
off when the table is moved clear of the slab.
One method of moving tables with trolleys uses fixed length slings; the table unit is first struck and Fixed length slings
then rolled out of the building into space by a third of its length. The front pair of slings is attached.
The table is rolled out further on the trolley, leaving the inner wheels on the slab, and gently
lowered so that the centre ring of the four slings is in line with the centre of gravity projected
normally from the formwork. At this point the system will be ‘rested’ on the slab above. The other
slings are attached and the table unit removed completely.
A better method uses unequal length chains, connected at one-third and two-thirds of the length Unequal slings preferred
of the unit, which is rolled out in stages. These compensating chains allow units to be slung
horizontally, making them easier to reposition at the next casting location. Note that the connection
of the inner sling positions may, depending on the timing and crane availability, require the table Tipping of tables and
to be ‘rested’ on the upper slab. The method statement should clearly describe the procedure. As resting on underside of
cast slab not under crane
discussed in Section 5.8, extracting tables without suitable control and allowing them to tip and control is deprecated
‘rest’ on the slab after the centre of gravity has passed the edge of the building is deprecated.
Flying forms and tables can accommodate downstand beams but it is necessary to check that the
entire truss assembly, when struck, can drop down enough to come out from beneath the
downstand.
Safety is of paramount concern, and although table forms often have working platforms attached Open edges and
at the top level, there will be open edges to guard during and after removal from a floor. Edge edge protedion
protection and other safety measures, such as harnesses, should be considered during striking at the
floor level being struck, and possibly at the level above where the forms are being positioned.
Protection is particularly important if the slab guardrails have to be removed in order to position
the table forms. Edge or fall protection at ground floor level during the initial assembly of the
formwork is rarely provided, but should be considered.
Clause 75 of the Approved Code of Practice to the lifting regulations (Ref. 23) states:
“Where access to a working place on the lifting equipment necessarily results in removal of edge Removal of edge
protection and exposure of an unguarded edge, as little edge protection as possible should be removed, protection
and should be replaced as soon as possible”.

This clearly includes the operation of handling the table with operatives both above or below the
slab just cast.
The accuracy of the initial assembly of the units can have a direct effect on overall production. Accuracy of
initial assembly
4.2.4 Flying form systems
The comments in Section 4.2.3 for tables equally apply to flying forms, but because they are larger, Detailed method
they require more careful handling. Typical areas handled are 100 m2, with lengths up to 25 m. statements required,
trained slingers or
Flying forms and tables spanning the full width of a building have significant advantages because signallers etc
they can be moved faster, eliminate the end-to-end joining necessary with smaller tables, and have
fewer uprights, thereby allowing faster erection and striking.
The weight of the larger units means that a larger crane, possibly with greater reach, may be Careful crane selection
necessary to fly them successfully out of buildings. The crane should not have a luffing jib, as the
forms should come out smoothly horizontally.
Flying forms and tables can accommodate downstand beams but it is necessary to check that the entire
truss assembly, when struck, can drop down enough to come out from beneath the downstand.

26
 4.2 The temporary works design brief

Safety is of paramount concern, and although the forms will have working platforms attached at the
top level, there will be open edges to guard during and after removal from a floor. Edge protection
and other safety measures, such as harnesses, should be considered during striking at the floor level
being struck, and at the level above where the forms are being positioned. Protection is especially
necessary if the flying forms cantilever over the slab edge.
Removal of edge pro- Clause 75 of the Approved Code of Practice to the lifting regulations (Ref. 23) refers to temporary
tection: see Clause 75 of removal of edge protection and is reproduced in Section 4.2.3 above. This clearly includes the
ACOP in Section 4.2.3
operation of handling the flying form with operatives above or below the slab just cast.
Supplier’s method Always refer to the supplier’s method statement for the operation of flying forms.
statement
4.2.5 Precast concrete planks (participating)
Early involvement With precast plank systems the importance of early involvement between the PWD, supplier and
with PWD TWC has already been stressed in Section 4.1. Temporary works aspects during construction are
discussed in Section 5.7.
Tolerances important . Where planks are simply spanning between walls, the constructor should ensure that the tolerances
See CIRINCS guide on on the wall and the plank manufacture are suitable. The bearing width at the plank seating will be
permanent formwork
affected by the tolerances. For building work, the normal tolerances are given in the joint
CIRINConcrete Society publication Permanent formwork in construction (Ref. 15). The width of
Intermediate propping? seating also depends on the material of the supporting structure. On long spans, say over 3 m, inter-
mediate propping may be required to carry steel fixing loads and loads from the topping concrete.
Lifting frames Handling precast planks requires careful control, and for planks over 6 m long, purpose-made
on long lengths lifting frames will probably be needed. The manufacturer’s advice should be followed.
Stability of falsework when Where the precast planks are not seated directly onto the permanent works, such as on slabs with
precast planks not seated columns and on long spans requiring jointing, intermediate falsework supports are required (see also
on permanent work
Section 4.1). The falsework arrangement for precast planks is significantly different from those
previously discussed in several ways: the planks generally incorporate lattice reinforcement to allow
them to span in the temporary condition up to, say, 2 m. The falsework will usually be detailed by
the supplier to show the planks supported at about 2 m centres, transverse to the span of the units.
Thus the initial erection of the falsework is a skeletal frame arrangement with stiff connecting
bearersheams in one direction, and without full transverse stability at the head in the direction at
right angles. Further, stability in this direction relies on friction from the precast unit, and is, of
course, only effective once the unit has been placed.
Working platforms When a single direction of supporting beams is used working platforms at the edges of the building
must be carefully detailed. Along the length of the main beams they may project outside the
building line and create a less-than-ideal platform6. In the other direction, apart from cantilever
brackets off the falsework uprights, there is little opportunity to provide support.
Is platform safe before When detailing these platforms to the building edge the TWD should consider seriously whether
precast units placed? they are safe before the precast units are placed, in order to avoid the falsework overbalancing and
becoming unstable. Instability is less likely with table systems as the weight of secondary beams
and the face contact material to the sofit create restoring moments.
The method statements and risk assessments will have identified the hazards. The lifting operation
should be controlled (see Refs 23 and 24). Precast plank units can weigh 3.5 tonnes or more and
Orientation markers cranage must be suitable. Orientation markers and lifting points should be specified. Consideration
should be given to the location of the operatives during the placing operation, particularly when
safety harnesses are required. The location and adequacy of the first ‘hook-on’ point and sub-
sequent anchorages should be considered. Precast planks with projecting lattice members provide
good ‘hook-on’ points, once they are erected and secure, but they also create tripping hazards in
the placing area, as identified in an unpublished HSE safety report on the ECBP. A typical view is
shown in Figure 8 in Section 3.9.5.

6 The platform is formed by secondary beams sitting on top of the main beams with decking added. This means
that the top of the working platform is significantly higher than the actual soffit level of the precast planks,
making access and fixing of the slab edge forms hazardous.

27
4.2 The temporary works design brief

As the supporting falsework will be of a skeletal nature, access to the jointing areas will be Access to plank joints
required, certainly from the top, but possibly also from underneath. Where a gap has to be left
between planks, a small section of soffit formwork has to be made up and held in position to
support the jointing compound while it hardens. Depending on the width of the gap several support
solutions are possible; if small, it may be possible to ‘hang’ it from above, but if there is a large
gap, conventional sofit formwork, supported from below on falsework, may be required, with
suitable access.
There is nothing to prevent the skeletal framework from ‘lozenging’ as the falsework is moved from Plan bracing to
floor to floor. This is illustrated by imagining the table in Figure 7 (Section 3.9.3) without the prevent ’lozenging‘
decking and secondary members fitted. This is in contrast to a made-up table form with its stiff soffit.
The solution is to install plan bracing to the skeletal framework in the table near the head level.
Where precast planks require post-propping to transfer additional construction loads to the Post-propping an1
supporting slab, the location of the props should be detailed. Stability of such props before loading of supporting
is a consideration. Once loaded, the effect on the supporting slab should be carefully considered.
In certain situations, the strength of the supporting slab may become the criterion for casting the
new slab. This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.
Although the foregoing discussion appears to be critical about the use of precast planks in flat slab Attention to deta
construction, their use is to be encouraged; this Guide highlights the need for design, management stage will providt
and control of the processes by the supplier andor manufacturer. Attention to detail at the early when using f
stages of a contract will provide benefits when using precast planks.
4.2.6 Precast concrete planks (non-participating)
Most of the comments in Section 4.2.5 above on the use of thick planks also apply to thin precast
planks used as permanent formwork. Effectively, the thin permanent formwork acts as the face
contact material.
Generally large areas of formwork planks can be handled and placed very quickly, but care should Large areas p
be taken in high winds. Care in high I

Plywood butted together, nailed to bearers below, and fitted in two directions will provide some lateral
stiffness to the formwork arrangement. In contrast, thin permanent formwork planks, often with Thin planks U
bearers in only one direction, and with no positive connections between the planks and bearers, are to contribut
unlikely to provide any transverse stability to the falsework. It is usually recommended in such cases falsework ste
that the falsework is designed to be self-stabilising, and not reliant on the planks for stability.
At the ECBP the planks to the roof were 30 mm thick in units up to 10 m long. A special lifting
frame had to be designed, tested and used on the site. The LOLER Regulations (Ref. 23) specify
the responsibilities and testing requirements for such equipment.
The fragility of permanent formwork needs to be considered when detailing the falsework supports. Fragility of
Although plank suppliers often stipulate temporary supports at, say, 2 m centres, the plank designer planks
will have assumed a distributed loading from the topping concrete, plus a transient construction
operations load of 1.5 kN/m2 on the system. This loading pattern may not take account of temporary
point loads during construction, such as from a bundle of reinforcement being lowered by crane
onto the planks. Unlike conventional plywood, which is supported at, say, 406 mm centres’ on the
bearers, the thin planks are spanning five times as far, say, 2000 mm, and the effect of a point load
is much greater. By careful control, and by placing the load spreaders from any temporary load
directly over the falsework bearers, such overloading of thin planks will be minimised.

4.3 Loading during construction

The PWD should make available to the TWC the loads used in the design of the slab (see Section PWD to cornrni
3.2). However, during the construction stage other loads will apply, e.g. self-weight of the design loads to ni
formwork and falsework, imposed loads from operatives on working areas, storage of materials and Will there be rn
plant. Specific provisions should be made when materials or plant are to be used on the structure. or plant on stri

In building construction the self-weight of soffit formwork for flat slabs and its associated Self-weight of
falsework may be assumed to be 0.50 kN/mZ.Individual cases may require separate checking - see formwork as:
0.50 kN/m
Section 4.2.3 of the Formwork Guide (Ref. 5).

28
 ~ ~ _ ~ _

4.3 Loading during construction

Impact placing Where precast elements are placed, such as precast planks onto falsework, and impact may occur,
precast units Clause 4.4.2 of BS 5975 (Ref. 6) recommends that the self-weight of the elements is increased. The
increase depends on their weight and how they are placed.
Construction operations The imposed load on temporary works from operatives and man-handled plant is taken as
load 1.5 kN/m2 1.5 kN/mZ. This allows for the placing of the fresh concrete, and includes hand tools and small
(Service Class 2)
mechanical plant used in placing operations, such as vibrator motors. The area considered includes
all adjacent walkways around the actual soffit area. (See Clause 4.4.3.1 of BS 5975 (Ref. 6).) This
load allowance also applies where permanent formwork is used.
Origin of suppliers‘ It is common to see TWD calculations for falsework using a single imposed load on the formwork
2.0 kN/m2 and falsework of 2.0 kN/mZ, this being the summation of the construction operations load
(1.5 kN/mZ)and the temporary works self-weight (0.50 kN/mZ).
Access for access and Where allowance has to be made for access and inspection purposes, an imposed load of
inspection allow 0.75 kN/m2 is considered adequate. (See BS 5975 and the Formwork Guide.) This is known in EN
0.75 kN/m2
(Service Class 1)
specifications as Service Class 1 loading and is intended for inspection purposes and operations
with light tools only but without material storage. It would be prudent to consider that any concrete
slab just cast and able to be walked on could provide access for inspection and light operations,
such as placing and removing of backprops, so this loading is considered the minimum that any
concrete slab and/or permanent formwork should be designed to carry.
The total load on a slab depends on the imposed construction operations loads, the self-weights (of
permanent and temporary works) and the stage of construction. These must be known when
assessing the early striking times and the back-propping necessary(see Chapters 6 and 7).
Example of calculation of loads
The example is for a 250 mm-thick flat slabs at ECBP. All values are in kN/m2
Column 1 Column 2
Self-weight of concrete slab
Recommended RC concrete (recommended density 24 kN/m3) 6.00
density 24 kN/m3 (assumed density 25 kN/m3) 6.25
Self-weight of the temporary works 0.50 0.50
(i.e. formwork and falsework)
(Service class 1 loading) Superimposed construction load 0.75
~
0.75
~

Hence TWD’s design service load 7.25 7.50

Additional imposed construction load 0.75
__ 0.75
~
(from BS 5975 8)
Hence TWC’s load during concreting 8.00 kN/mZ 8.25 kN/m2
The TWD, when considering the worst case for the temporary works design, will generally take the
larger value of 8.25 kN/m2. This agrees with DD ENV 1991-2-1 Basis of design and actions on
Recommended concrete structures (Ref. 11) which assumes a density of 24 kN/m3 plus 1 kN/m3 for ‘unhardened concrete’
density for falsework while it needs supporting during its stiffening phase. In flat slab construction this would not apply
design: 25 kN/m3
to the whole area of the slab concrete at one time.
Recommended concrete For the critical supporting slab, it is more accurate for the TWD to use the total load, based on the
density for the supporting actual density of the concrete, of 7.25 kN/mZ.The additional imposed construction load is from the
slab, striking and back-
propping considerations:
weight of operatives placing the concrete and is a short-term load.
24 kN/m3 There is a difference of nearly 3% between the loads during concreting calculated using the
recommended and assumed density of concrete. This difference can be used advantageously in
backpropping calculations. The loads used in backpropping calculations, and whether construction
operations loads or formwork self-weight need to be considered, are discussed in more detail in
Section 6.5.2.

7 406 mm centres is a module of a 2440 mm length of plywood, providing support at the junction of two sheets.
8Clause 4.4.3. I of BS 5975 ‘Working areas’ recommends a total imposed loading for construction operations,
such as when concreting a slab, of 1.5 kN/m2. Hence the two values of 0.75 kN/m2.

29
4.3 Loading during construction

It was demonstrated at the ECBP that, as the ratio of design service load to self-weight reduces on Further consideration of
thinner slabs, the loading and backpropping considerations take on more importance for very early loadings, see Section 6.6
striking of formwork and the history of load on the slabs.
The speed of construction can affect the loads. For example, a large flying form system might be
designed by the TWC to a full bay width, so on striking and removing the falseworWformwork the
entire slab needs to be self-supporting when struck and could be subjected immediately to the full
weight of the formwork system placed on it. In contrast, a smaller skeletal or tower system might
allow repropping to be inserted. Thus the loads to be considered are very different.
More information and recommendations on backpropping are given in Chapters 6 and 7.

4.4 Procurement of temporaw works

4.4.1 General
The successful constructor will make assumptions at tender stage about the equipment to be used
and have obtained prices andor built up unit rates. On a design and build contract, these rates will
be based on experience from similar contracts, and the design of the permanent works will be
influenced by the equipment available for the temporary works, and will often be related to
equipment owned and regularly used within the contracting organisation.
On conventional contracts, the temporary works in the PWD’s final design need to be verified and
compared to the original tender assumptions. The estimatorhpplier completing and pricing the
latest scheme should determine the quantities actually required. The competitive nature of
equipment pricing, by definition, often makes comparisons very dificult, with questions such as
“Does it allow for the scaffold boards?, What plywood has been assumed?’ To demonstrate the
most cost-effective solution the proprietary supplier will be under commercial pressure to specify
the minimum equipment to suit the contract and thus show a low equipment cost, with additional
items as optional extras - these are often safety items such as the working platforms. If such items
are not part of the TW design brief, the supplier may be justified in expecting that they will be Importance of TW design
supplied from on-site resources, so need not be included in the list of items required - again empha- brief see Annex B
sising the importance of the TW design brief.
The quantity of equipment to be procured is directly affected by the programme. It has already been Minimum equipment not
emphasised in Section 4.1 that it is often more efficient and economic, for the project as a whole, always most economic
to reduce construction time by increasing the quantity of formwork equipment.
Where a constructor is using their own equipment, there will often be added pressures in pro-
curement to use only items held in stock, to avoid buying in special items or hiring extra equipment.
Where practicable, timber and wood-based products should be procured from renewable and Timber and wood products
sustainable sources. from sustainable sources

With equipment that is to be man-handled between floors in multi-storey construction, the use of Additional items when
some extra support equipment should be considered. For example, extra base jacks may facilitate considering order of use
an early start on the subsequent floor: on striking and moving, the formwork and head items come
out first, and the bases last, while opposite order is needed by the operatives on the next floor when
re-erecting the system! It may sometimes be worthwhile increasing quantities so falsework erection
can start on a subsequent area, reducing the waiting time while ,equipment is struck from one area
and moved to the next. Of course, this does not apply to sections of falsework that remain
assembled and are crane-handled in units, such as tables and flying forms.
The condition of components will vary. Items such as adjustable jacks need fettling between uses;
if they are not used for a while the threads may seize and be hard to operate. Aluminium sections
can be susceptible to damage on site due to misuse and long props can be bent in handling. To allow
for such ‘not perfect’ items the prudent site will over-order. This should be considered at the
planning stage, because quantities used in the tender price will often be based on the exact take-off
of the drawing, and not necessarily be the amount required by the site.
Close liaison is needed between constructor and supplier when calling off equipment. For example, Liaise over call-off
base jacks are the first items used in erection, so they should be the first items delivered if delays for delivery
are to be avoided.

30
 4.4 Procurement of temporary works

All these points can lead to discrepancies and underestimating the quantities of equipment actually
needed to operate the system safely. This Guide recommends the preparation of carefully considered
design briefs to ensure that the temporary works scheme prepared by proprietary suppliers or
constructors’ TWDs is designed to the same documentation. Provided that the temporary works
TW design brief: conform to the brief, this will lead to safer operation of the temporary works. A typical temporary
see Annex B works design brief is shown in Annex B.
At the ECBP, several aspects of temporary works were identified that require more consideration
at the contract planning stage. They relate mainly to the design of the temporary works but have
implications for the construction stage. These are discussed in the following paragraphs.
4.4.2 Working platforms and edge protection
Show working platforms Working platforms and edge protection should be shown in all temporary works drawings. If these
and suitable edge are to be prepared by a supplier the TW brief should indicate that they are required and should be
protection on drawings
included in the scheme. Particular attention should be given to edge protection to all slabs during
erection of edge forms, concreting and removing/dismantling of the forms. It should be noted that
safety protection can be achieved by keeping persons away from exposed edges by use of barriers
of suitable strength and rigidity. The Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations (Ref.
16) are specific about such provisions for all activities; in addition, specific reference is made to
Barriers and nature the requirement when, due to the nature or short duration of the work, compliance is not reasonably
of the work practicable. An example is the flying out of falsework tables from underneath a recently cast slab
-this may require the temporary removal of guardrails to the lower slab to permit the table to come
out.
Generally, at the slab level under construction, platforms will be incorporated in the supplier’s
selected system, such as outstand brackets on scaffolds, projecting timber or aluminium primary/
secondary bearers, or from the flying form projecting from the building line. Such platforms can be
Impact on exposed vulnerable to impact, such as from crane loads, and care should be taken in exposed locations. The
platforms emphasis should be on correct use of the crane.
Use of safety nets Edge protection may be by safety nets (see also Section 3.10). Nets can be rigged internally,
generally horizontally to fit either partly or fully under the slab, safeguarding temporary openings.
They can also be erected vertically or at any angle. Fitted externally on steel brackets or ‘gallows’
they can eliminate external scaffolds, so the slab edges remain clear to be worked on, with the
bottom of the net tied back to the underside or edge of a lower slab. This is shown in BS EN 1263-2
(Ref. 25). Nets are generally more effective when spanning large distances. Principally designed to
arrest falls from up to 6 m, they are usually rigged for a 2 m fall. This Guide recommends use of
60 mm mesh nets to BS EN 1263-1 (Ref. 26) for concrete-related activities.
Nets have traditionally been used as ‘fall arrest’ items and not as ‘prevention’ and come lower
down the safety hierarchy of the C(HSW) Regulations. They provide simple effective prevention
as work progresses up a building, freeing operatives from the restraints of harnesses and more
elaborate fall arrest systems.
Placing precast planks When using a precast plank system, placing the planks at leading edges becomes more hazardous
at leading edges and risks can only be partly reduced through the use of safety harnesses. Such personal protective
equipment should only be used as a last resort, and other methods of edge protection and safety of
operatives should be sought. The provision of adequate working platforms in such operations is
difficult, and needs to be very carefully considered in the design of the overall system of planks and
falsework. Further guidance on edge protection is given in the Precast Flooring Federation Code of
practice for safe erection of precast concrete flooring (Ref. 24).
Access underneath Access is required to the underneath of soffit formwork for sealing plywood joints, levelling
formwork the soffit formwork, fixing items such as LOK test inserts, and, of course, for striking out the
components. The access needed depends on the system used. Although sites often refer to such
platforms as ‘crash decks’, they are really working platforms to prcvent operatives and material
falling.
Only the steel skeletal system used at ECBP had provision for an all-over working platform.
Base jacks When using flying forms or tables, with levelling facilities at the bottom only, access via a working
platform is not required within the table for its general operation, but a working platform is essential

31
4.4 Procurement of temporary works

for the safe fixing and striking of the infill strips. The infill strip dimension between flying tables is Working platforms
rarely a frame module and the proprietary working platform supports do not fit, so other arrangements for infill strips
for access are needed.
Working platforms should be in the right position and at the right height to enable the work to be
carried out effectively. Often the platform is used for several operations - for example, placing
precast planks will dictate one level of platform with relevant guardrails, but once placed, work on
the topping slab and edge forms to the slab will require a higher guardrail, so the TWD has to
consider the subsequent operations.
4.4.3 Edge distance of standards
The plan arrangement of the temporary works on multi-storey construction should allow for a TWD to consider
defined clear edge distance for falsework standards, ledgers or frames from the slab edge of the items close to edge
structure. The TWD should consider this distance and not place components close to the edge in
order to reduce the cantilever arrangement of the soffit formwork above.
The location of the side protection handrails and posts on the edge of the floor supporting the
falsework should be considered. In this way the supporting equipment (falsework) can be safely
checked and dismantled with the site ‘permanent or temporary guardrails’ fitted. The TWD and the
PWD have specific responsibilities to consider the safety aspects of edge protection during this
stage of construction, particularly when no external scaffolding is envisaged.
A stability check on any falsework with a projecting working platform, as shown at Figure 9, is an Consider stability with
essential part of the design. overhanging platforms

In the absence of specific guidance, the recommended distance from the slab edge to the centreline Recommended edge
of the edge standard of the falsework is 400 mm, as shown in Figure 9. Increasing the 400 mm distance 400 mm
dimension increases the length of any cantilever at higher level.
Although the recommendation relates to all systems, at the ECBP the individual prop system was
most affected because it was detailed with an edge distance of only 100 mm. The system relied on
erecting individual props using a patented tripod requiring a dimension larger than 100 mm which
meant that the tripod was omitted when erecting edge props on floor slabs above ground level.
When using flying table systems demountable guardrails are needed in order for the tables to be See also Sections 4.2.2
flown out, but such systems still require sufficient working space at the slab edge to allow guardrails and 4.2.3 for removable
guardrails
to be fitted, even if they are only temporary.
Various proprietary temporary guardrail systems are available, and it has already been suggested
(Section 3.10) that more permanent provisions might need to be incorporated by the PWD for such
handrails. At the ECBP cast-in sockets were fitted to the slab for connecting the permanent scaffold
tube and fitting handrail.

Consider risk of overturning

Backpropping to
be considered Figure 9: Typical section at edge of slab.

32
 4.4 Procurement of temporary works

When an external independent tied scaffold (Ref. 18) is provided to a building, it may possibly be
used as the external edge protection. The design risk assessment will identify whether the external
scaffolding can be considered to provide edge protection.
4.4.4 Column forms - lifting, access and stability
Procure column forms Provision should be made in the procurement of column formwork for adequate working platforms.
with access, lifting Full working platforms should be provided with edge protection. Where practicable, working
details, stability and
ladder provision
platforms should be fitted to all sides. A safe means of providing stability should always be
included when procuring column formwork9. Separate prefabricated tower scaffolds will rarely
provide satisfactory access for erecting, concreting and dismantling column forms.
However, planning may determine that safe access is required for fixing column reinforcement as
well. This may eliminate the need for an integral formwork working platform if the TWD has
designed the working platform to suit both operations.
It is recommended that, where possible, column forms should incorporate access by a vertical
Hoops if above 2.5 m ladder, preferably with hoops for extra safety above 2.5 m, and with a suitable trap door detail for
access onto the working platform. Separate inclined ladders are a potential hazard because there is
Avoid inclined ladders rarely one ladder for each column form, so the ladders have to be constantly moved between
column forms, and they are therefore rarely tied at the top. In operation it is necessary to climb to
the top of each column several times so permanent ladders have distinct benefits.
Particular consideration should be given to the column forms near the edges of the building,
especially the corner columns.
The use of push-pull props in two directions at right angles will give stability. The use of projecting
lengths of bar for connecting the raking prop to the slab is not recommended. It was clearly shown
Consider tripping hazards at the ECBP to create a tripping hazard, both when the bars were cast into the slab, and when they
at prop feet connection were placed into drilled holes in the slab top. Many recoverable fixing details are available, and
post-drilled fixings into the slab for connecting the prop base plates should be permitted by the
PWD and used on site.
Where there is no external scaffolding the method statement should discuss the working platform,
guardrails and propping necessary for the corner columns to the building. This may mean out-of-
alignment propping to cater for the existing guardrails that will be required to remain in position.
Incorporated lifting points All column formwork assemblies should incorporate crane lifting points. The weight of the form
should be known and its centre of gravity should be determined, generally by on-site trials after
assembly and prior to first use. These items should be part of the supplier’s obligations in the design
and supply of proprietary system forms.
Care is needed in designing connecting devices, both for column-to-prop connections and for
joining column sections together. Captive components with no loose parts are preferred.
4.4.5 Level adjustment of head jacks, base jacks and props
All systems require some form of adjustment in order to level in the soffit formwork and
subsequently to destress the falsework legs when striking. In building applications, where the top
of the floor slab is level, it is expensive to insert adjustment at both the top and bottom of the
system. It is also time-consuming in levelling in the system.
The selection of head or base jacks depends on how the system is moved. If the formwork is to be
handled as large made-up tables, or as flying forms, jacking should be provided at the bottom, but
for strip and re-erect systems it should be at the top.
On a typical large flying table scheme there will be areas that are intended to be manually struck and
moved, such as around staircases, so both types of jacking would be expected in the overall scheme.
On the steel skeletal systems, it is often better to use longer top jacks, braced for stability, than to
insert levels of ledgers or transoms near the top. Not only does this use less equipment, it also gives
a less congested working platform for access for stripping the sofit formwork.

9 Both suppliers of proprietary column formwork at the ECBP stated that they are rarely asked to provide
access platforms for column formwork. Responsibility for safety should start with correct procurement.

33
4.4 Procurement of temporary works

Where falsework was used to support precast planks as permanent formwork at the ECBP it was
noted that it would have been better if the jacks had been placed at the bottom of the standard with
no adjustment at the top. Allowance for bedding the units and protecting the soffit could have been
by use of thick non-compressible paper as packing.
Wherever long props are used the physical method of adjustment needs considering. At the ECBP Height of prop
the adjusting handle for the propping system on the first two floors was about 2.5 m above the slab. adjustment device
This meant that adjustment had to be carried out off a small platform! Adjustment and striking of
edge props while standing on a small platform alongside the building edge put the operative well
above the height of the adjacent guardrail, and safety harnesses should have been used. Prop
suppliers should give consideration to the level of the handle in use.
4.4.6 Length of formwork beams
An aspect often overlooked by TWDs and suppliers when drafting TW schemes is the length of the
primary and secondary falsework members - these are often detailed in long lengths. This may
reduce the supplier’s overall scheme cost as longer lengths reduce the number of joints and
discontinuities in the soffit, improve the stiffness of the structure, and can reduce site theft. (It is
easier to ‘remove’ a 3.6 m beam than a 7.2 m beam!) Longer beams will often be less expensive to
hire or buy.
The critical operation in the use of beams is striking them from underneath the slab. Where the
system is designed to be handled as a large table form or flying form, the length of unit handled is
dictated by the length of the primary members connecting the table legs together, so full-length
primary members are beneficial, and the assembly remains connected and is moved out by mechanical
means. In contrast, all other applications require the primary and secondary members to be struck
out and handled as individual items, so the TWD should consider the safety implications and
lengths of beam detailed for separate handling.
It is a recommendation of this Guide that, on all areas of manually erected formwork where the primary
andor secondary beams are to be struck out, handled and re-erected by hand, the length of beams Length and weight of
used in the design be carefully considered by the TWD to facilitate handling. The Manual Handling manually handled items
Operations Regulations (Ref. 27) give clear limits for individual operative capabilities; striking to suit a two man lift
operations involve operatives removing beams from the top of the falsework and man-handling them Suggested limit of 38 kg
to the lifting platform, prior to removal for subsequent re-use. Since the operation is generally limited for two men handling
one item
to two operatives, a suggested limit on the weight of beams is between 25 and 38 kg.
The location of the beams and their relationship to the ground or supporting slab should also be Adequate working
considered, together with the requirement for adequate working platform(s). platForms

A corollary of this limit on length is the need for the TWD to design the supporting falsework
specifically to suit these shorter beam lengths and to allow for the possibility of increased leg loads Beware elastic reactions
in certain internal standards due to the elastic reactions from continuity. The 10% continuity factor from shorter length beams
from Clause 6.5.3.1 of BS 5975 (Ref. 6) may not be appropriate, such as for beams on three
supports, and a more detailed analysis may be justified.
When designing independent tables with short lengths of beam, the TWD should assess the stability
of the falsework during concreting. Increasing the edge distance to the standard nearest the edge (see
Section 4.4.3) also increases the cantilever of the sofit formwork. The resistance to overturning of Overturning of tables
the table may need to be checked with the loading from the working platform, the self-weight of the at cantilever edges
using short beams
arrangement, and also with the extra imposed concrete load from the longer cantilever. On short
lengths of table this may require either tying tables together to prevent overturning, or controlling
the order of placing concrete; the latter cannot generally be achieved on site. The lighter aluminium
systems have less resistance to overturning than comparable steel systems.
The worst case for overturning is with concrete adjacent to the slab edge form and only on the Sequence of concreting at
cantilever, and no resistance from any concrete placed inside. This may require the falsework to be edges and overturning
tied to the supporting slab to resist the overturning.
4.4.7 Implications of changes
It is important that TWCs, suppliers and constructors are made aware of the reasons for selecting Technical effect of
specific items of equipment and resist substitutions. Although, commercially, the culture of equipment substitution
accepting what is offered as a substitute without any delay is tempting, overall productivity and

34
 4.4 Procurement of temporary works

speed may be compromised. There may also be technical reasons why certain products cannot be
substituted - for example, two 4.8 m beams in place of a single 9.6 m beam might, with extra beams
to allow for laps, be a suitable substitution for secondary beams in formwork, provided the plywood
joints remain supported; but such a substitution would significantly affect the design of the
supporting falsework if considered as a change for primary beams.
Although in the ‘real world’ such changes are regrettably commonplace, and accepted as part of the
construction process, the implications on construction productivity should be questioned by site
managers. If the equipment is only used a couple of times, such reductions in output may be
acceptable. However, in many cases the effects on productivity can be large. If the changes in the
example above were considered on a commercial site, the correct lengths for optimum efficiency
would have been procured, and the TWC would have understood in detail the direct effect on
productivity of the changes.
Three such changes were highlighted at the ECBP that would have had a direct effect on the com-
mercial viability of the TW schemes, as designed, by significantly changing their productivity.
1. Change in length offlying form units
Change in length of flying The frame contractor requested a reduction in length of the flying form units. This would have
form increased number resulted in 20% more units being used and handled, and would have reduced production rates by
of crane lifts per floor
by 20%
at least 15%. The request for the reduction in length was made because the clearance of the ECBP
building in the Cardington Hangar limited the maximum crane handling length of the flying form
units. This change was caused by the proprietary supplier who was given the clearance in a detailed
Temporary Works Design Brief which conformed at tender stage, but increased the lengths of units
in their ‘construction drawings’ for commercial reasons andor ignored the dimension limit. Once
on site, and a few days before intended delivery, the constructor contacted the flying form supplier
direct and revised drawings were issued with split flying form units. This effectively increased by
20% the planned number of crane lifts. Thus any TWD expecting to use this type of equipment
must ensure that it has the necessary dimensional clearance for the flying form, and has obtained
any necessary ‘air rights’ if flying in congested city centre sites.
2. Change in length offlying table units
This change relates to the use of the flying tables made up with aluminium props as legs and braced
together with aluminium frames, supporting long lengths of primary aluminium beams. To
understand the implications of this change, an understanding of the mode of operation is necessary.
The aluminium props were connected together with frames into six- or 12-legged tables, and their
heads were joined by long lengths of deep primary aluminium beams. Lighter aluminium bearers
were now placed at right angles, at closer centres (about 488 mm) to support the plywood. When
handling large tables, it is the length of the primary beams that provides longitudinal strength to the
framework, so these lengths dictate the size of units handled, and hence the economy. This is
clearly shown in Figure 7. Larger tables reduce the number of units to be handled, reducing both
labour and crane costs.
The arrangement planned by Task 2 for economic use of the system was detailed on the supplier’s
drawing. This proposed the use of only 12 tables for construction of a floor. This gave three tables
across the width of the building, using 225 mm deep primary beams fitted as two 9 m long and one
6.4 m long.
When the constructor requested delivery, he was advised that not all the long lengths of 225 mm deep
primary beams were available. Without reference to the management, the supplier was asked by the
constructor to redraw the scheme based on the sizes of beam locally available. This revised scheme
significantly changed the arrangement, and used 16 tables for construction of a floor. The tables were
made up of four tables across the building, using two 8 m long and two 4.2 m long tables. This
Change in primary beam reduced the number of vertical legs, but, significantly, increased the number of table movements from
length on table form 12 to 16, i.e. by 33%, increasing both the crane costs and the labour rate when handling the tables.
increased number of crane
lifts per floor by 33%
Using more tables also increased the labour time in completing the make-up areas between the
tables.
This simple change in beam length meant that the table sizes had to be reduced, increasing by 33%
the number of tables moved per floor, with a likely corresponding reduction in overall performance.

35
4.4 Procurement of temporary works

The writer of this Guide is of the opinion that the site management and the TWC were not at the
time aware of the planning implications of this change, because a month later he was told by the
supplier that, had the implications been communicated to them, efforts would have been made to
locate enough 225 mm-deep beams of the required long length from stock!
This would have had significant consequences on a commercial site.
3. Change in steel skeletal grid layout
This change resulted from circumstances outside the project’s control, and was also affected by the
change in beam length discussed above. It concerned the steel skeletal system that was supplied and
designed around known available (free) equipment. The decision was also taken by the ECBP to
use the shorter aluminium beams already on site.
A steel skeletal support system is a very rigid birdcage arrangement, and the plan spacing of the
legs is normally governed by the safe spanning capacity of the primary and secondary bearers. In
building work for thin slabs this would normally be on their largest plan grid size of 2.4 x 2.4 m.
Two factors, outside the control of Task 2, affected the layout, firstly the requirement to limit the
plan grid size to 1.8 x 1.8 m to suit the items held by the plant hire supplier, and secondly the
limitations on layout in having to use the aluminium primary beams already on site in 8 m and 4.2
m lengths. The choice of secondary members would not affect the grid layout.
The optimum layout of steel skeletal shoring shown on the original supplier’s drawing was a
1.8 x 2.4 m grid of equipment and would have weighed about 15.8 tonnes. Altering the layout to
a 1.8 x 1.8 m grid, but redesigned to suit the aluminium primary beams already on site, would have
increased the quantity of equipment to about 17.1 tonnes.
As finally erected, the shoring estimated from site sketches and based on the 1.8 x 1.8 m grid of
equipment supplied and now using the on-site aluminium 8 m and 4.2 m primary beams weighed
about 20.0 tonnes.
The direct effect of the two factors was to increase the weight of equipment to be man-handled, Change in layout to suit
erected and dismantled from 15.8 to 20.0 tonnes. This changed the falsework layout in plan from available items: increased
weight to be man-handled
the optimum 1.8 x 2.4 m grid to a 1.8 x 1.8 m grid and positioned the standards to suit the shorter by 26%
beams. This resulted in an increase of 26% in the weight of equipment to be man-handled, with a
likely corresponding decrease in production efficiency.

4.5 Permit to load and permit to strike

It is recommended that a verbal procedure for ‘permit to load’ and permit to strike’ is not adequate Use a written
for a large building site, and that a procedure involving written confirmation should be used. The site confirmation procedure
management should not allow any change in procedure, especially after the detailed preconstruction
procedure agreements. A ‘formal permission to load the falsework’ is one of the principal activities
of the TWC, as stated in Clause 2.5.2.2(m) of BS 5975 for construction sites, and this should be no
different for large building sites involving temporary works.
As this Guide relates to temporary works, the term ‘permit to load’ is used and not ‘permit to Importance of checks on
concrete’, which implies checks on reinforcement, cover, etc. Obviously reinforcement and cover reinforcement, cover etc
have a significant effect on the performance of the structure, particularly its load capacity, as
wrongly positioned reinforcement may reduce the design capacity, and appropriate checks need to
be established.
In temporary works it is approval to load the assembly of falsework and formwork that this Guide Permit to load
requires. This may include the support of steel permanent decking or precast permanent formwork
units, before concreting; in such cases, the management may require staged approvals. The
procedure for the approval is likely to be shown on two sections of a single form.
Useful guidance on checking falsework and formwork on site is given in a Concrete Society series Useful guidance in
of checklists. (Refs 28 and 29) Concrete Society Checklists

The permit to load system for the falsework at the ECBP was initially operated using a signed form,
but subsequently became a verbal matter with the constructor signing the day book (a bound book)
instead of a form with the client. The purpose of the written system was to ensure that both research

36
 4.6 Sequence of work

and construction teams had taken into account all aspects prior to ‘loading’ or ‘striking’ the temporary
works. This was very carefully considered and agreed upon by many parties involved at the
precontract stage of the ECBP.
Permit to strike The comments about the ‘permit to load’ relate equally to the ‘permit to strike’, but with the added
concerns of backpropping in multi-storey construction. Obviously the permanent structure should
be strong enough before the supporting falsework is removed, but, in multi-storey construction the
supporting slab is very often also transmitting part of the imposed load into the lower slab(s)
through backpropping. These backprops are falsework as they are helping to support the permanent
slab until it can carry its own weight. Any ‘permit to strike’ should incorporate any backpropping
procedures. Chapter 6 of this Guide gives detailed guidance on striking and backpropping. The
importance of the sequence of removal of the falsework and any related backpropping cannot be
stressed too strongly.
Permits for permanent The comments above for permits to load and to strike apply equally to other permanent formwork
formwork systems that require propping, such as steel profile decking.
A non-adversarial procedure is to be commended, but even on the ‘controlled’ ECBP site with the
agreed verbal procedure, the back props between levels five and six were removed prematurely by
accident. This altered sequence of removal generated a theoretical unit load of 15.25 kN/m2 on the
sixth floor slab (BR 394, Ref. 2), compared to the unfactored design load of 10.50 kN/mZ.The sixth
floor had reached its design characteristic concrete strength at the time of the incident. A serious
Important to follow agreed disadvantage of the verbal procedure adopted was its inability to cope with staff changes or
striking procedures absences at critical stages in the project. (The removal of these props took place on a Sunday.)
A general reduction in engineering ability and understanding on building sites and the importance
of controlling the operatives, particularly if the recommendations on very early striking are to be
adopted, makes the need for formal approval to load and strike and to follow agreed procedures
even more necessary.
The discipline of maintaining a ‘permit to load’ and ‘permit to strike’ systedprocedure, issued and
signed by the agreed signatories, has the significant merit of being maintained in a folder or book on
site - available to all site staff, even when senior staff are absent. Any agreed procedure and order
of striking props should be included in the same place. A check by the supervisor on the Sunday in
question would not have found a signed approval form, and removal of backpropping at the lower
floor level should not have commenced. The suggestion by site that these approvals on building
works be kept to a written record in the site agent’s day book is not considered a satisfactory
alternative to a permit form system.

4.6 Sequence of work

Early striking benefits lost
if no reuse!
Consider casting columns
under the formwork
When planning the order of construction, TWDs and TWCs should consider the implications of
the sequence. The shape of the building, number of floors and sequence of construction all affect the
programme. Starting column construction in the wrong place affects subsequent operations.
Early striking of slabs, thereby making the formwork available for reuse very quickly, possibly on
the morning of the second day after the pour, may not be the most practical solution for a site. If
there is no place for storing the forms, then the benefits of early striking are lost. The size and shape
of the building under construction have a direct bearing on the planning.
For example, on buildings with a small plan area, overseas experience has shown that it is generally
more economic to start slab formwork on the floor above before forming the columns. This requires
enough additional formwork until the struck formwork becomes available. The added difficulty of
forming columns under the formwork and cost of additional material are usually more than offset
by the time savings on the project as a whole.
In contrast, on a large floor area job, the sequencing might allow the soffit formwork to move up
a floor, but offset laterally, thus allowing unimpeded column construction on the newly struck
slab.
At the ECBP, the shape of the building, number of floors and sequence of construction had a direct
effect on the safety of operations. Simple items, like the order of casting columns, had a consid-
erable knock-on effect on safety of steel-fixing at the next slab level. The effects were particularly

37
4.6 Sequence of work

noticeable when fast-track flying tables were used, as outlined below in an edited extract from the
research report:
“For the system of tables used, it is possible to identify an ‘inner’ line of tables and an ‘outer’ line of Order of column casting
tables. For ECBP, there were four lines of tables, two inner, two outer. On a different sized building, there affeds safety
would be no more than two outer lines, but could be more or less than two inners (e.g. a three bay building
has one inner and two outers; a five bay building has three inners and two outers).
It is clear that the inner tables are easier to move than the outer ones as the erect and dismantle section of
the falsework at the end with the staircase opening and upstand beam has to be dismantled before the outer
ones can be moved.
For the ECBP project, therefore, it would have been possible to strike the inner lines of tables, and imme-
diately fly them up to the next floor. In this way, 50% of the falsework would be moved straight awaylo.
If the middle infill strip is then completed, this results in 50% of the slab being decked out. The steelfixers
could then begin their work. However, such a fast-track solution creates a problem: starting decking from
the middle of the slab means there are two leading edges which must be protected. In addition, tables
clearly cannot be placed whilst the column forms are still in place, so the column-casting sequence may
need careful consideration. Such a solution will also have a knock-on effect on other processes, e.g. steel
fixing. It was common for the steelfixers to start at one end and work towards the other. If they started in
the middle and worked outwards, this might require a different reinforcement design11.”
Further benefits could have been achieved by redesigning the edge tables in the end bays at the
ECBP to make them easier for crane handling. Some edge tables could have been almost completely
struck by crane. If the sequence had allowed the inner table to be flown first, followed by an edge
table, this would have given an edgelend for the steelfixers to start. As there was only one re-use this
was not adopted at ECBP. The TWD and the TWC should consider edge tables very carefully, as
their correct design can make a significant difference to the process and productivity.
The efficiency of the concreting process is an important consideration in design and will dictate the Typical frame slab
area of slab that can be concreted, thus determining the amount of s o a t formwork required. Above area 500 r n 2
ground level, a pour for the floor slabs of a typical frame can be over 500 m2 in area and up to 30 m
in any dimension (ECBP floor slabs were single pours of 675 m2). The BCA guide Concretingfor
improved speed and efficiency (Ref. 30) discusses the influence of pour size on the ECBP slab
construction by comparing the single pour to two or four pours on separate days.
Construction joints are acceptable provided they do not compromise the performance of the Plan for cessation
structure. Even when the use of a construction joint is not intended, the possibility of an unexpected of slab pour
cessation of a pour should be planned for; this may require holding extra equipment, such as
expanded metal, on site as a contingency.
Another lesson from sequencing of the work relates to the number of column forms used.
Considering also the comments in Section 3.4 on columns with and without kickers, it would seem
that the exact order of column construction takes on greater importance. With the usual contract Constructor to consider
adopting only one generic system of construction (unlike the ECBP with its four types), the care order of casting and
taken in planning the exact sequence of column casting, related to the programme of fitting the
i ~ ~ ~ ~ , “ ”
falsework around the columns, will determine the optimum number of column forms and provide form can significantly
a safer, and often faster, construction cycle. The extra cost of another column form would be offset improve progress
by the advantages in time and safety, as stated in an edited extract from the research report:
“Each floor of the building had 20 columns. Seven sets of column forms were supplied (at the request of
the contractor, who had concerns about storage). This meant that the 20 columns were poured over three
days, the first pour taking place the day after the slab was poured. An innovation on this project was under
the Task 4 research to investigate early striking of the slab falsework, with slabs often struck 24 hours after
pouring. Part of the striking process involved removing the handrails from the slab falsework and reposi-
tioning them at the edge of the slab, making a permanent guardrail around the edge of the newly-cast slab.
In addition, striking involved removing the working platform around the edge of the slab falsework. When
a slab was struck after 24 hours, it was sometimes the case that the working platform and handrails on the
slab falsework alongside the third set of columns were removed and repositioned before the column was
struck’*. Hence, this meant no access was possible to the outside edge of the column shutter. This made
striking these columns very hazardous. The solution would be to pour the columns in only two stages,
hence using ten column form setsl3”.

10 For a five-bay building, the inner tables represent even more of the total slab area (60%).
11 Another example favouring contractor detailing. (Ref. 9.)

38

Serviceability limits give
faster striking times
Information to be available
to TWC by the PWD
Advance agreement
on concrete strength
assessment
Location of concrete critical
for striking assessment
Implications of pull-out
testing on finishes
Backpropping and striking
on agenda at site meetings
Suppliers to have method
statements available
4.8 Method statements
4.7 Striking - planning considerations
The criteria for striking slabs recommended in CIRIA Report RI36 (Ref. 31) relates concrete
strength at the time of striking to the design 28-day strength of the slab and allows for the actual
loading applied at the various stages of construction. Further information on this method for
striking slab formwork is outlined in Section 5.3.6 of the Formwork Guide (Ref. 5), which also
includes worked examples in its appendices.
A major recommendation from the research (Ref. 2) on the ECBP was the verification that
accepting serviceability as the governing criterion could give faster striking times, yet still ensure
a safe structure that was not harmed during construction. Provided the crack extent, crack width
and deflection during construction do not exceed those under the design service load conditions,
then the structure might reasonably be deemed not to be impaired. This innovative approach was
part of the Task 4 PIT project work, and the background to the findings is discussed.in detail in
Chapter 6. Chapter 7 gives practical guidance on the application of these innovative methods.
Whichever method is used to decide the basis for striking, the PWD should make available to the
TWC the following information for each floor:
(a) Characteristic strength of the concrete in N/mmz (stating whether cube or cylinder strength)
(b) Design imposed load on the slab in kN/m2 (including all partitions, service loads, etc. and
expressed as unfactored loads)
(c) Assumed self-weight of the slab in kN/mZ (excluding finishes and partitions)
(d) Assumed self-weight of any finishes, partitions, etc. in kN/m2 to be applied to the slab.
The method of assessing the concrete strength for striking should be established and agreed
between the parties at the pre-construction phase (see also Section 6.4). Both the PWD and TWC
need to be confident that the lower bound concrete strength can be accurately determined by the
site testing proposed. The BRE-recommended method (Ref. 32) for early-age strength assessment
is to use a pull-out test, the LOK test, based on an average of four results. The pull-out test requires
the PWD to accept some cast-in inserts and some local damage to the concrete.
The location for the assessment of concrete strength should be carefully considered. The top surface
near to the interior columns and at mid-span are often critical areas for strength assessment of slab
concrete, and may dictate locations of LOK tests andor supportive concrete sampling for cube tests.
As LOK testing is the preferred method of assessing strength, early consideration by the PWD of
the implications of the fixing positions is required. Ideally they should be considered for the top
surface of the concrete slab. Where LOK inserts are to be fixed in the sofit, a 400 mm square panel
is constructed in the sofit plywood which is removed to allow testing of the insert to take place,
before striking the main formworklfalsework. No problems were encountered at the ECBP with the
construction of these panels. Clients or specifiers wanting LOK tests as well as specifying finishes
requiring purpose-made GRP or steel formwork should be aware of the consequences.
The detailed backpropping and striking procedure was regularly discussed at all ECBP site progress
meetings and required concrete strengths at time of striking to be established in advance. In view
of its importance, and relevance to the PWD and the TWC, it is recommended that this subject is
added to the agenda of every construction progress site meeting.
4.8 Method statements
Suppliers, importers and users of systems of formwork and falsework should regularly update their
method statements to consider local practices and materials and reflect what is actually happening
12 The first two sets of columns on each floor were generally struck after 12 hours, to allow subsequent sets to
be poured 24 hours later. The third set was not always struck at this age as there was no urgent need for the
shutters, and, once struck, storage space for the shutters had to be found.
13 In retrospect, the frame constructor agreed that pouring columns in two days would have been better, and
would have had the additional effect of reducing each floor cycle by one day.
39
4.8 Method statementr

on site. Method statements are an important way for suppliers to communicate their intended safe
operating methods.
Although all manufacturers, importers and suppliers of equipment and articles for use at work have
a legal requirement under the HSW Act Section 6 (Ref. 35) to provide “adequate information about
the use for which it is designed”, the quality and accuracy of issued method statements varies
significantly.
The method statement should be relevant to UK conditions and equipment. For example, a
supplier’s method statement on video that shows continental 500 mm-wide sheets of plywood
being laid down overhand on top of beams does not reflect the risks and hazards associated with
laying down UK size sheets of plywood the “right way round” which are 2440 mm long.
The TWC’s role as co-ordinator takes on even more importance when construction involves more TWC to co-ordinate when
than one equipment supplier, as occurred with both the steel skeletal system and the precast planks. several s u p p l i e ~i ~ ~ k d
The interface responsibilities to ensure that adequate method statements for the combined systems
are produced require good overall knowledge of the construction process; and the most appropriate
author of such temporary works method statements would be the TWC.

40
5 Construction stage

Recommendations - Construction stage

-
General platforms, fans, etc.
1. A radio for crane control that can be used by the slinger or signaller ‘hands-
free’ makes the job easier and improves safety and performance.
2. Consideration should be given to providing temporary debris fans, possibly as
netting, at lower levels to catch items on the edge.
3. Adequate loading-out platforms should be incorporated in the construction
process. They should be properly designed, and ideally fit flush with the top
surface of the slab.
4. Loading-out platforms should be clearly marked with their safe load.
5. Loading-out platforms intended for use with brick pallets should be designed
for 20 kN/m2 imposed load and limited to one pallet high.

Columns
6. Provision should be made for adequate working platforms to be incorporated
in column forms, complete with full platforms and guardrails on all four sides.
7. Methods to provide adequate stability when only half a column form is erected
should be developed, with particular reference to corner columns.
8. Columns should be cast about 20 mm into the slab.

Table and flying forms

9. Proprietary suppliers should consider incorporating a fixed length plan brace a t
or near the head level, particularly when assembling falsework for tables.
10. When using tables that are rolled out from below, only secured trolleys should
be used to handle them.
11. When operating flying tables or forms all members of the team should receive
basic training as slingers or signallers and be aware of the correct crane
signals.
12. Compensating clutches should be used on all table and flying form lifts
involving four unequal legged slings.

Precast units
13. When using precast planks that require temporary support, the TWC should
co-ordinate the falsework, paying particular attention to provisions for
adequate working platforms and/or connection points for safety harnesses.
The movement of such falsework between floors may need plan bracing.
14. All precast units should be marked with orientation pointers and lifting point
positions identified to comply with the supplier’s issued erection drawing(s)
and method statement(s).

41
5.1 General

5.1 General
As already stated in Chapter 2, studying the process of construction is most likely to provide
benefits for future contracts. The comments in this section relate to experiences at Cardington, and
will be of interest to suppliers, manufacturers and users of temporary works equipment.
The experiences gained from the contract indicate that there are advantages in considering complete Consider complete
temporary enclosures to a building under construction, provided the use of fast-track flying table enclosure
systems is not envisaged. The benefits of all-weather working, external protection to public and
outside operatives, plus reduced dependence on edge protection might offset the extra cost of
enclosure, but would limit crane handling of equipment. The concept should be to improve the
process engineering of the construction and give better guarantees of completion on time.
There is no unique way to reduce or eliminate a risk as each site and organisation are different. The
risk assessment, a requirement under the Management of Health, Safety and Welfare Regulations
(MHSW) (Regulation 3), should have identified the needs; in addition the C(HSW) Regulations
(Regulation 6) (Ref. 16) will have considered avoiding falls from heights. The philosophy is to
follow the safety hierarchy, with working platforms as the first order of protection, while harnesses
and nets are a lower order of protection, and used only if providing a working platform is not
practicable. The solution at a particular site also depends on the training and competence of the
operators, the quality of supervision, and the type and familiarity of the equipment supplied in More experienced
response to the designl4. The nature of the industry, with its changing work force, also has an effect operatives require
less training
on the solution adopted; more experienced operatives require less training.
For example, consider the removal of flying tables from a lower floor; the Regulations make Temporary removal
provision for the temporary removal of barriers where it is not reasonably practicable to operate of barriers
with them in position, but the Regulations still require “suitable and sufficient means to prevent, so
far as is reasonably practicable, any person falling.” Thus consideration of the lower order protection,
such as nets or harnesses, is appropriate. The use of harnesses in certain temporary works activities
has been shown from the ECBP research to hinder performance and compromise safety, so the
importance of the risk assessment at an early planning stage of construction is emphasised.
The Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 (LOLER) (Ref. 23) were introduced LOLER
after the ECBP was completed and during the preparation of this Guide, but have not significantly
altered the requirement for safe handling of all temporary works, both mechanically and manually.

5.2 Material handling

The handling of temporary works equipment on site needs careful study; not only because of the
method of work adopted, but because of the varying ways in which the constituent parts are
handled. Comments have been made in Section 4.4.6 on the lengths of components.
Handling starts with procurement, for example, specifying whether stillages, banded or loose, Procurement important
wheeled pallets, etc. are used for initial delivery. From arrival on site, the internal movements need
considering, as components or when assembled into larger units for handling, such as flying tables.
Under nearly all conditions of construction, once a floor slab has been cast, there will be peripheral
items to move up to a higher level. On the flying tables, boxes can be fitted to the standards to move
some of the loose parts, while on the skeletal systems items can be collected on pallets, or possibly
banded if larger or longer items are to be handled, prior to moving to loading-out platforms. These
will be all the manually fitted items, such as the make-up pieces between units, props and beams
around openings andor staircases, including temporary guardrails, tube and fittings, etc. The use
of manual pallet shifters is recommended.
The original planning of the ECBP was to construct the building by passing items manually up
through the stairway openings to subsequent levels. Although a reasonable concept, it was found
that many of the components were either too long, or too heavy, when palleted together to pass up
manually. The storey height of 3.75 m also restricted vertical handling. This meant that a loading-
out platform was used at every level, as discussed in the next Section.

14 Once again the TWD and possibly the PWD have an influence on the safety of the system selected.

42
 5.3Loading-out platforms

Unsafe lifts from Although not observed at the ECBP, an unsafe method is sometimes seen: a crane is connected to
lower floors a stillage inside the building line, which is under a recently cast slab with projecting working
platform. This requires removal of the local guardrail. This practice should be discouraged and will
generate an unsafe lift, unless special equipment such as a balanced C-hook is used.

5.3 Loading-out platforms

Use loading-out platforms The original concept of the ECBP was to construct the building with limited cranage, but manual
if no external scaffolding handling between floors was found to be impractical and a loading-out platform was used for all
the construction methods and systems.
Due to the difficulty and cost of loading-out platforms, described in the following paragraphs, the
additional cost to the temporary works of ‘designing out’ their requirement should be actively
pursued. It should be remembered, however, that such platforms may also serve following trades,
making them more cost-efficient and beneficial for the overall project.
Projecting beams to form Ideally, the loading-out platform should not simply consist of beams projecting from the building,
platforms cause steps laid on top of the cast slab and made into platforms. This method produces a step in the platform,
because it is not at the same level as the cast slab top surface, and the beams can introduce reverse
bending into the newly cast slabs.
Fit top surface flush It is recommended that loading-out platforms are incorporated which are properly designed, and fit
to current activity flush with the top surface of the slab they are to service. Fitting platforms to suit the cast top surface
of the floor slab will facilitate handling equipment on pallets with small manual pallet shifters;
pallets can then be moved from underneath the previously cast slab to the platform, for direct
connection and slinging onto the crane. A typical application of several platforms in use on a
building is shown in Figure 10, each platform having guardrails, toeboards and notices identifying
the safe load on the platform.
It is also recommended that consideration is given to having two such platforms to keep pace with
the varying levels of construction: one at the level being struck with its platform top flush to the

Figure 10: Typical loading-out platforms in use.

43
5.3 Loading-out platforms

top surface of the lower slab, and one at the higher level flush to the next floor. The top of this
second platform should ideally be set to the top of the recent new slab to aid material movement
for following trades.
In certain circumstances, such as when manually handling beams or face contact materials to the
working area of the soffit formwork, a third platform might be justified. This platform is ideally
fitted with its top surface not at soffit level, but raised up by the slab thickness. This would avoid
repositioning its level after concreting the slab, and might require a small temporary ramp down to
the soffit level.
There is also a good technical argument for having more than one loading-out platform.
The likely applied imposed loading on a platform should be considered. A typical quoted loading General storage
for general material storage is between 4.0 and 4.5 kN/m2 (Service Class 5 loading) and would be loading 4.5 kN/m2
(Service Class 5)
generated by pallets of equipment weighing up to only 400 kg. The legs of pallets create very high
local loads and special platform surfaces are required to cater for the impact and point loads
applied. Thus it is not good practice to lift a pallet onto either a decked-out plywood area of soffit
formwork, or onto a recently cast slab that has not yet been struck.
When brickwork is to be handled into the building, pallet loads will increase significantly - for Brickwork loading-out
example, the footprint load from a single pallet of bricks can vary from 14 to 17.5 kN/m2 depending platforms - design
for imposed load
on the weight of commonly used bricks. It is recommended that loading-out platforms intended for of 20 kN/m*
use by brick pallets should be designed for an imposed load of 20 kN/mZ.
Lifting loads from one loading-out platform to another has the benefit of the pallet being landed
onto a designated area, with correct decking, guardrails and toeboards.
Considering the safe handling and slinging of the loads: the platforms, being external to the
structure, will not interfere with general construction, and should give better vision and more lifts
for the crane. From a process point of view, the materials delivered to the site for a particular floor
will have a common route from delivery to floor location.
Loading-out platforms should always be clearly marked with sign boards showing the safe load in Sign boards showing
kNIm2. safe load

Proprietary loading-out platforms are available in the form of system towers, with integrated safety
rails and gates, for either front face loading or side access for congested sites. Typical safe loads
are 2000 kg per platform on a 2.4 x 2.4 m system module.
Loading-out platforms can have implications for both the PWD and the client, in that ground space
may have to be allowed for them from the foundation level, see Figure 10.
Support does not have to be taken from the ground: it can be taken from the building, and proprietary
systems are available for cantilever loading-out platforms, i.e. projecting out from the building line.
They generally comprise twin steel beams with a raised platform between, thus making wheeled
access onto the platform harder than moving equipment off the platform onto the concrete floor.
They have been found to be both expensive to hire and impractical on a busy site, as they often are
required to be proof tested under the lifting regulations (Ref. 23) prior to fitting and use at each Possible proof testing
floor. of cantilever platforms

5.4 Temporary works to columns

Section 4.4.2 recommends that adequate working platforms are included when procuring column Adequate platforms
forms. They should be complete with full platforms and guardrails to all sides. The TWC should
verify that this is what has been supplied.
The stability of columns is normally achieved with push-pull props on two faces at right angles. Stability - particularly
This is particularly difficult to arrange for rectangular corner columns to buildings, and methods to of corner columns
provide adequate stability when only half a column form is erected should be developed. Figure 11
shows the arrangement at (a) and (c) where only one push-prop can be attached to the first half of
the 'L' forms erected, whereas the arrangement at (b) permits both props to be fitted and provides
two-way stability to the form for the left hand corner only. Note that the access platform at the top
will not be complete until the second half 'L' has been fitted.

44
 5.5 Temporary works to walls and lift shah3

‘F
(a) Not safe (b) Safe

Figure 11: Plan of column form at corner and edge of building.

(c) Not safe

The method of connecting the two halves of the column form together needs to be carefully
Avoid loose parts considered. Ideally there should be no loose parts that could be dislodged during fixing or striking
of the forms.
The method of lifting the column formwork should be considered - proprietary lifting points
should, if possible, be incorporated on the formwork.
Connection to slab? When considering the fixing details for the propping used to stabilise the column forms, particular
care should be taken to reduce tripping hazards, such as by using projecting bars from the top of
the slab, as discussed in Section 4.4.4.
Cast columns The practice of casting columns about 20 mm above the final sofit level (Section 5.5.2 of the
20 mm into slab Formwork Guide (Ref. 5 ) ) is recommended to allow for elastic shortening of the falsework as load
is applied.
Importance of curing The production of durable concrete requires the correct curing of columns to reduce water loss from
the surface. Once the forms are struck, the method of curing, and time of application of the curing
compound andor protective membrane can affect the development of durable concrete. A delay in
commencing curing of more than three hours after striking can be critical. Further guidance on
curing is given in Concrete Society Current Practice Sheet 112 (Ref. 33).

5.5 Temporary works to walls and lift shafts

The client will often want the layout of the flat slab structure to be as flexible as possible, with open
plan areas and as few walls as possible, but the PWD will need to incorporate lateral stability into
the structure. Generally this will be achieved by cross-walls, either erected separately or cast in situ
as construction progresses. The lengths of walls will be kept to a minimum, and will often be sited
around the lift shaft, providing benefits for lateral stability and fire protection.
Formwork to walls and lift shafts will follow traditional methods, either as panel formwork with
make-ups as necessary, or as traditional soldiers and walings with some complexity at the corners,
as shown in Figures 12(a) and 12(b). An innovative idea for the fast construction of lift shafts is to

Precast Simple
Make-up panels
formwork

(a) Panel forms (b) Soldiers and walings (c) Precast with straights

Figure 12: Typical plan arrangements of formwork to a lifi shafi.

45
5.5 Temporary works to walls and lie shafts

incorporate precast corner units, as shown in Figure 12(c), thus allowing simple straight sections
of formwork to be used between the precast units. This speeds up erection and use. The design of
double-faced wall formwork is covered in the Formwork Guide (Ref. 5).
The use of kickerless construction for walls was discussed in Section 3.4, and one method of Kickerless construction
providing kickerless construction for walls in multi-storey construction is the use of precast concrete (Section 3.4)
blocks, either cruciform or waisted, as shown in Figure 13. These can be either site- or factory-made
to suit a particular building dimension. The blocks, approximately 50 to 75 mm thick, can be made
with a through hole in the top, and are suspended off the top tie rod of the formwork. The blocks can
be positioned at wall ends or at tie rod positions, depending on the arrangement and length of the Wall is over the wall below
formwork. The use of such blocks ensures vertical alignment and accuracy of reinforcement of sub-
sequent walls at a higher level. The system is also adaptable for use on perimeter walls.
The practice of casting the walls about 20 mm above the final soffit level (Formwork Guide (Ref. Cast walls
5)) is recommended to allow for elastic shortening of the falsework as load is applied. 20 mm into slab

Wall with slab cast Precast block Part of wall formwork

Figure 13: Typical precast block for wall kicker.

5.6 Temporary works to slabs

When initially assembling the falsework, particularly when tables are used, consideration should Plan brace as
be given by suppliers to incorporating a form of plan brace at or near the head level. This would aid to assembly
have two significant benefits, firstly, ensuring that such towers are erected square and, secondly,
giving additional stiffness at head level during handling and use.
Erection and use of falsework near slab edges, not only during erection but also when striking, can Edge distance hazards
be hazardous: it will depend on the proximity of the temporary guardrail, but operatives reaching
and handling items close to the top of the falsework are very close to the edge and possibly at risk.
Recommendations on edge distance are given in Section 4.4.3.
A critical aspect observed at the ECBP was the use of harnesses and the placing of plywood sheets Use of harnesses
and beams at the leading edge. This is always a difficult area, but operative safety has to be
paramount. The solution is to assess the work and the risks involved carefully by reference to the
method statements issued by the suppliers.
Provision should be made for temporary debris fans, possibly netting, at lower levels to catch items Provision for debris fans
on the edge (see Section 3.10). Special provisions would be needed at the corners of the building. if no external scaffold
Even under the research conditions at the ECBP there were at least five incidents involving
equipment accidentally falling off the building from the floor being worked on. Fortunately, nobody
was injured in any of the incidents, although one of the TW consultants was rather shaken.
One of the incidents involved the flying aluminium tables, when one of the trolleys used for moving
the units became detached and dropped out of the building. It is recommended that only fixed

46
 5.7 Temporary works to precast slabs

trolleys be used to handle such tables. They do not need to be permanently attached, but must be
captive when the table is moved.
The erection of guardrails and toeboards as temporary floor edge protection, just after the slab has
been cast, needs careful consideration.
The C(HSW) Regulations (Ref. 16) state the legal requirements, and detailed guidance is given in
Edge protection research the HSE book Health and safety in construction (Ref. 34). Ideally edge protection should be fitted
before the supporting falsework and its own edge protection are removed. Some sort of fixing into
the top or edge of the new slab is required, but it cannot be clamped underneath the soffit, because
the formwork is still in place. If a very fast strike is needed to achieve the optimum construction
cycle, then these hand-rail fixings may be fitted to the top of the slab while it is still being protected
and cured, often with protective sheetingkoverings. Hence a practical detail is needed, and
selection of a suitable solution has the distinct safety and speed advantage that the building’s
guardrails are fitted once only.
Tolerances of Proprietary soffit systems are unlikely to suit exactly the permanent works dimensions, and will
permanent works also have to allow for the tolerances in casting the columns - see NSCS (Ref. 7). Make-up sections
between tables, ends of formwork beams, fitting of areas to the edge of the systems, and around the
columns, may all be difficult areas for access. Working platforms need to be considered to all these
areas, especially where LOK-test inserts (for concrete strength assessment) are required to be left
in the undersides of slabs (see also Section 4.7).
It is normal practice to set the soffit formwork to a level slightly higher than the required finished
soffit level to allow for elastic shortening of the standards and take-up at the formwork and
falsework joints. This is good practice and Clause 6.5.2 of BS 5975 (Ref. 6) gives some guidance
Elastic shortening of on allowances to be considered. For the storey heights used in building these tolerances should be
vertical steel standards between 3 and 5 mm, dependant on whether steel or aluminium systems are used. It is recom-
mended that, in the absence of detailed calculations, the following values of elastic shortening be
used:
0.5 mm per metre plus Shortening of vertical standard 0.5 mm per metre (steel)
0.5 mm per joint 0.9 mm per metre (aluminium)
(1.0 mm if timber joint)
Typical values for
Take-up at joints in standards 0.5 mm per joint (metal)
aluminium allow Take-up at timber bearers 1.O mm per timber joint
0.9 mm per metre
During concreting, the falsework supports will shorten and the soffit formwork adjacent to the
existing walls and columns will move down accordingly. It is recommended that columns and walls
are cast about 20 mm high to allow for this. (See Sections 5.4 and 5.5).
Initial set-up level differs At the ECBP, when adjusting the soffit formwork to the correct level, it was found that setting the
with individual props formwork approximately 5 mm low before the final adjustment suited most of the falsework
systems. The exception was the individual prop system, which benefited from setting the formwork
a little high.
Where the falsework system has been designed as the top restrained by the permanent works, the
lateral stability will need to be checked before concreting. The connection of the system to walls
Restrain soffit or columns needs to be considered in all directions. It is common practice to use the face contact
formwork against the material to transfer these horizontal forces in compression. Casting the walls and columns into the
permanent works
slab assists this restraint as the face material can be butted directly to the permanent works
Set jacks low with When using lengths of stiff beam continuous over several standards, the physical act of raising one
long beams prior to jack to level will lift the system slightly at other positions - in contrast, if one tried to set the system
final levelling
high, lowering one jack was found to be very difficult.
Cure correctly Correct curing of the top surface of slabs is required to reduce water loss from the surface. The
method of curing, and time of application, should be agreed. Guidance on curing is given in
Concrete Society Current Practice Sheet 112 (Ref. 33).

5.7 Temporary works to precast slabs

The use of precast planks as permanent formwork may or may not require temporary supports. For
example, in housebuilding the planks are often supported directly on the walls, but in large commercial

47
5.7 Temporary works to precast slabs

open-plan flat-slab structures with few columns, such as the ECBP, the systems often require I f falsework required
falsework as support to the planks until a structural topping concrete has been placed. Where establish interface early
falsework is involved, the interface of responsibilities should be established at a very early stage of
procurement and proper control exercised (see Section 4.1 and Figure 8).
At ECBP no formal falsework design was undertaken: although the precast plank supplier did
suggest some proposals to BRE, these were not a falsework design. There are fundamental differences Fundamental difference
in the design of falsework with a sofit form to those with only primary beams and thus without in falsework design:
a) with soffit form
continuity at the head level. The designer of the falsework for a precast system has a key duty as a
b) with planks
designer under the CDM Regulations (Ref. 4) to ensure that the assembly will be stable at all stages discontinuous
of construction, i.e. including the temporary stage when supported on falsework. The supplier of
the precast system also has a duty under the HSW Act (Ref. 35) to provide sufficient information
to the contractor, and specifically the TWC, to co-ordinate the technical aspects relating to the safe
use of their product.
The TWD should address the detailed concerns at an early stage of the falsework system design, TWD’s concerns: stability,
such as: access, platforms

stability of temporary works systems without continuity at the top, particularly where restraint
to the falsework is expected from the permanent works, through the precast planks
access to infill strips between planks
working platforms for placing units and subsequent slab operations.
Placing precast planks at leading edges can become a hazardous operation and risks can only be partly Risk assessment and
reduced through the use of fall arrest safety harnesses. The problem arises because the supporting method statements
system has no deck; the precast planks are acting as permanent formwork and are intended to at leading edges
eliminate the necessity for any temporary formwork. A solution may be to provide a complete
working platform, which could be expensive. However, it may be that only a part working platform
is required - with appropriate edge protection where no platform is provided. What is clear is that
before construction is started the risk assessment process should lead to the preparation of detailed
method statements including sequences of erection, essential for the safe operation of temporary
works.
It is recommended that all precast units be marked with orientation pointers and lifting point Orientation pointers
positions identified to comply with the supplier’s issued erection drawing and method statements.
This is particularly necessary where panels may appear similar, but actually have different rein-
forcement, and wherever panels are designed to be adjacent, such as on two-way spanning units.
At the ECBP this would have considerably reduced erection times.
At the ECBP there were problems at the joints between panels with projecting reinforcement, and
with the tolerances at the joints between the columns and the precast planks. They are discussed in
the following paragraphs, and arose from a lack of co-ordination between the PWD, the precast
plank supplier and the constructor. These details should have been discussed and resolved between
the PWD, the supplier and the TWD during the preconstruction stage (see Chapter 4).
#en precast units are required with projecting reinforcement, clashing of reinforcement from Avoid clashing
adjacent panels must be avoided. The innovative use of precast panels at the ECBP with two-way reinforcement from
spanning panels ‘stitched’ together was a unique opportunity to study the implications and learn adjacent panels
lessons from the supply and use of such arrangements. If ‘North-South’ marks are included on the
units they can be individually matched to avoid reinforcement clashes.
It is recommended that PWDs should give more consideration at the design stage to the column/ PWD to consider
plank interface and should discuss at contract stage the implications with the relevant parties, column/plank interface
particularly the TWD. The detail of the design and the precast plank tolerances may have a
significant impact on the vertical tolerances of walls andor columns, on cover to projecting rein- Tolerances
forcement and on positioning of construction joints. Guidance on tolerances is given in CIRIA
Publication C558 Permanentformwork in construction (Ref. 15).
At the ECBP the columns required casting to a higher than normal standard of vertical tolerance.
There are normally three solutions to the problem of the column/plank interface:
(a) Cast the column the exact height and bed the planks onto them (i.e. bed within the cover zone
of the reinforcement).

48
 5.8Cranage

(b) Cast columns high by, say, 20 mm. The PC unit supplier must determine the size of the box-out
to give sufficient tolerance and have a method of sealing the resultant gaps.
(c) Cast the columns deliberately low, with the precast planks on packs. This is not ideal because
of the difficulties of forming the column extensions.
Unfortunately, at the ECBP, on the half of the floor which used the thicker planks ‘glued’ together,
the PWD specified that Densit had to be over the entire column top area, thus solution (a) was not
possible. Solution (b) was attempted, but was further complicated by the additional requirement for
Communicate tolerances the bottom reinforcing bars from the planks to meet across the column heads. Tolerances on the
to constructor vertical height of the columns were not communicated to the constructor, and, knowing that they
were to be seated alongside units of 75 mm depth, the tight 20 mm control into the underside of
soffit level was not strictly adhered to, with the result that several column tops had to be trimmed
off on site to fit. Thus there was no alternative at the ECBP and the planks had to have cut-outs,
which made for great difficulties in positioning and sealing the joints, plus difficulties of aligning
the tops of the columns and the meshing reinforcement.
The above problems highlight the need for PWDs to make the relevant allowances in their design
when selecting such precast alternatives. Having early discussions with the TWD to envisage the
practical problems will give significant benefits at construction stage.
Research needed into Precast suppliers should be encouraged to develop and supply edge forms that connect directly to
innovative edge forms precast slabs. One note of caution is that they should be so designed that it is possible to fit the slab
when using precast
reinforcement without the need to thread the bars under straps or supports to the stop ends. One of
planks/slabs
the problems previously encountered in the use of edge forms provided and attached to precast
slabs is the difficulty of providing a true and straight edge to the building, without unnecessary ‘dog
legging’ of the edge forms. Any innovative solutions should take account of alignment issues.
Research into guardrail In a similar way to that discussed in Section 5.6, when using any precast system, whether for slabs
fixings into precast or for precast staircases, the provision for connecting temporary guardrail posts or assemblies
construction
should be considered, preferably as part of the system. Where the precast units are relatively fragile,
perhaps only 75 mm or even 30 mm thick, then the guardrail provisions may best be incorporated
into the falsework support system.

ECBP had a dedicated crane working on the frame construction. The location of the crane is shown
in Figure A3 in Annex A. On conventional sites other trades would share the use of the crane, e.g.
brick layers, plumbers, plasterers, unloading equipment. Unrestricted crane use, such as at the
ECBP, is rare.
Crane needed on most The crane was considered a necessity at the ECBP for most of the systems used. A much larger
generic systems at ECBP crane is needed for handling precast units and aluminium flying table systems, than for the strip and
re-erect systems, which would use the crane mostly between loading-out platforms. The lifting
radius would not have been so large on these systems; it might be possible to eliminate the crane
altogether if another method of moving 1000 kg pallets were used, e.g. an external rough terrain
forklift truck with a long boom.
The slinger/signaller, when directing the crane using the radio, effectively works ‘one-handed’.
This can create problems when trying to land awkward-shaped objects such as column forms. A
’Hand‘s free’ radio for radio that can be used ‘hands-free’ would make the slinger/signaller’s job easier and improve safety
slinger/signaller and performance. This applies to applications when the slinger/signaller is assisting the operatives
with the formwork.
Another aspect of the safe use of the crane was the position of the slinger/signaller on the
aluminium flying table system. It was observed that, when the tables were being removed, the
slinger/signaller controlled the crane from underneath the slab, i.e. from the floor on which the tables
were being rolled along. There is an important need for this operation to be controlled by radio, because
thls slinger/signaller cannot see the crane. During the removal operation there will be an operative(s)
Team operating flying on the top of the slab as the table comes out who might also have to give instructions to the crane. It is
tables/forms to have basic recommended that all members of the special team operating the flying tabledforms should have
slinger/signaller training
received at least basic training as slingers/signallers and be aware of the correct crane signals.

49
5.8 Cranage

Care is necessary with short tables in gusty conditions when they are only attached on front slings Gusty wind and
as the natural rocking action of tall tower cranes can be significant and has been known to pull short tower crane
tables out of a building.
The use of the crane with flying tables or flying forms as units of formwork will have been planned
and considered in the method statements and risk assessments. It is recommended that compen- Use compensating clutches
sating clutches be used on all table and flying form lifts involving four unequal legged slings. if not using C-hook

During operation of the system, there will generally be positions in the cycle when only the front Tipping of tables and
slings are attached to the unit. To connect the rearward slings, the common solution is to ‘rest’ the resting on underside of
cast slab not under crane
table onto the slab to take the weight off the front slings; this has safety implications to prevent the
control is deprecated
unit slipping, but more importantly can impart high upward forces into the newly cast slab. Some
systems with supplier’s method statements allow the units to be rolled out of the building, past their
centre of gravity, without the crane attached. The unit is expected to tip and the back edge of the
table then wedges the unit against the previously cast sofit. The four lifting points are exposed and
the crane is not required until the table is due to be moved.
With the use of thinner slabs, often struck after only 24 hours, these methods of work are deprecated.
An alternative method of moving large sections of tables, as flying tables, or otherwise, is to use a
large purpose-designed lifting appliance such as a C-hook. These have to be designed and routinely
tested as lifting equipment (see Ref. 23). They are ideal for moving tables of similar length, but
generally are not suited to handling both short and long tables. The method of handling would Establish procedure
require a safe working procedure to be established.

5.9 HmgOicatioans of chan

Falsework schemes and drawings should not be altered without the approval of the TWD. On-site Refer on-site
supervisors should also be aware that changing details on drawings and sketches without reference changes to TWC
to the TWC can seriously affect the safety and operation of the system as designed.
At the ECBP the sketch provided for the steel skeletal system showed three bays of frame, one on
each side of the slab and one in the middle. The gap between these bays was clearly shown on the
drawing as 750 mm with no connection between them. The bays were actually erected with a gap
of only 600 mm between them as horizontal ties of 600 mm had been provided for another area of
the work. Once the bays were spaced, the 600 mm ties were removed.
The direct effect of moving the outside legs inwards by 150 mm (i.e. 750-600 mm), increased the
outer standard leg load by 10.4% and increased bending in the primary beams by 6%. It also
reduced the external working platform from 815 mm as drawn to only 585 mm - below the
C(HSW) Regulation minimum width of 600 mm (Schedule 2, Ref. 16). This on-site amendment Train site staff
highlights the need for training of site staff and a control system operated by a TWC.
There is an obvious requirement to make suppliers and constructors more aware of the reasons why Suppliers and constructors
certain equipment is specifically needed. Although, economically, the culture of accepting to be aware why specific
equipment needed
substitutions because they are available is tempting, the overall effect on productivity and speed
may actually be compromised. The change in supply of aluminium beams to different modules had
the effect of increasing by 33% the number of tables moved, with a likely corresponding reduction
in overall performance. See also Section 4.4.7.

50
6 Backgr und to striking
and backpropping

Recommendations - Striking and backpropping flat slabs

General
1. It is essential that the technical staff involved in backpropping and striking are
fully aware of the implications of the striking and backpropping procedures.
2. Procedures such as the 'Permit to load the falsework', and 'Permit to strike
the formwork/falsework' must be in a written format: verbal procedures are
not sufficient.
3. Checks should be established to ensure that reinforcement is correctly located.
4. Propping, striking and backpropping should be carried out under supervision
to agreed procedures.
5. The Permanent Works Designer should make available the necessary infor-
mation, such as design loads and concrete strengths, to enable the TWC to
evaluate striking times and propping.
6. The Permanent Works Designer may need to consider the temporary loading
condition during construction, and the possible loading of a slab above its
design service load.
7. The method of establishing the required equivalent concrete cube strength
in the critical area of the slab should be agreed before construction starts.
The LOK test is the recommended method.
8. Propping and striking procedures should be on the agenda of every construction
progress site meeting.
9. The PWD and TWD should use a concrete density of 24 kN/m3 in the design of
the structure and in backpropping calculations, unless another value is specified.

Striking
10. The method of establishing the equivalent cube strength of the concrete in
the critical area a t the time of striking should be stated. (Further information
is given in Section 7.2.)
11. When considering early striking, the strength of the youngest concrete in
the structure is the criterion. This is likely to be predicted from testing slab
concrete from the last area cast near to an internal column.
12. The critical conditions that should be checked are:
the strength of each slab prior to striking,
0the strength of the supporting slabs when subjected to the loads of
concreting the new slab.

Backpropping
13. The relative arrangement of falsework and backpropping has a significant effect
on the force transmitted through the supporting slab into the backpropping.
14. Backpropping should ideally be fitted below the supporting slab with four
props at third span points, and this should be repeated down through the
structure, as required, in a similar manner.
Continues overlea$..

51
6.1 General

Backpropping (Continued)
15. For backpropping calculations assume that 70% of the total load from the
casting slab through the falsework will be carried by the supporting slab.
16. The strength of the supporting slab should be checked prior to casting,
assuming that 70% of the relevant loading from the slab being poured
through the falsework will be carried by the supporting slab.
17. I n calculating backpropping loads, subject to confirmation in the site risk
assessment, no imposed construction operations loads need be considered.
18. Proprietary suppliers should have available the stiffness properties in kN/mm
for each type of prop used for backpropping.
19. Where backpropping is to be pre-loaded, the method and loads should be
agreed between the PWD and the TWC.
20. Steel and aluminium vertical propping must not be mixed in one support
system for a given floor slab, either as falsework or backpropping.
21. It is essential that the location and arrangement of the backpropping are fully
checked.

The recommendations for striking and backpropping in Chapters 6 and 7 are applicable to Requirements for flat slabs:
structures with the following characteristics: Chapters 6 and 7

(a) The slab is in situ reinforced concrete or a composite with participating or non-participating
permanent formwork, such as thin concrete precast concrete units.
(b) Maximum.equiva1ent thickness.of dense concrete 350 mm15.
(c) The slab is not post-tensioned or cast on thick precast prestressed participating concrete units.
(d) The slab is two-way spanning with or without beams, or one-way spanning with beamsl6.
(e) The cast slab is intended to be struck and become self-supporting before any additional loads
are placed on it.
(f) The reinforcement is positioned within specified tolerances.
(8) Where backpropping is to be used, the suspended slabs at each level are of similar con-
struction, thickness, etc.
(h) Where used, there are no more than two levels of backpropping.
Striking of the formwork and falsework from a cast slab needs careful consideration, including TWC responsibility
detailed procedures, method statements, and backpropping of loads through lower floors. The to manage the
striking process
constructor is responsible for safe operation of the striking process: the onerous responsibility of
ensuring that the risk of striking is correctly managed rests with the TWC. Obviously, the agreement
of the PWD is important and the TWC should liaise on matters such as strength assessment, methods
of curing, and order of striking. Both the PWD and the TWC as ‘designers’ under the CDM Regu- Designers to take account
lations (Ref. 4) have responsibilities for ensuring that the overall design has taken into account the of any temporary works
temporary works. This will include the provision of backpropping as necessary throughout the
building. This Guide places emphasis on following well-planned procedures, and control of striking

15 The depth of 350 mm was chosen as representative by the research. A thicker slab has greater stiffness and

the ratio of the loads (deadimposed) is likely to be different, so the steering group limited the method to
350 mm thickness.
16 Particularly stiff beams will affect the deflected shape of the structure and the method adopted may not be

accurate.

52
 6.1 General

and backpropping are critical procedures in safe flat-slab building construction. BRE Report BR 394
(Ref. 2) fixther emphasises this aspect:
Slab construction in multi- “. . . it has to be recognised that construction of the slabs in multi-storey buildings must become a
storey buildings to become precision operation where the constructor can reasonably guarantee that the props and backprops are
a precision operation placed in the agreed positions at the appropriate time and that they are not moved prior to the agreed time
for their removal defined by the construction programme.”
Application of method This Section discusses the background to backpropping and striking and recommends a method of
for striking a flat slab - determining the required strength for striking slabs. This method save significant time and reduce
see Chapter 7
backpropping, while still producing safe and serviceable slabs that have not been damaged during
construction. The application of the method is covered separately in Chapter 7.
Crack width and Research by the University of Leeds under PiT Task 4, published as BRE Report BR 394 (Ref. 2),
serviceability as a verified that crack width and serviceability are more rational criteria for striking than flexural
criterion for striking
strength, and permitted earlier striking of flat slab construction. The previous CIRIA method (Ref.
31) does not consider cracking of the slab as a performance criterion. Theoretically, cracking of
slabs at early age is a more onerous criterion than moment capacity. The effects of punching shear
were considered in the research.
The methods for early striking introduced in CIRIA Report R136 (Ref. 3 l), described in detail in
the Formwork Guide (Ref. 5) and BS 5975 Code of practice for falsework (Ref. 6), all give safe
values for the required strength of the concrete at time of striking the slab. The proposed method is
The procedure should be based on a very different concept to the traditional idea of the ‘seven day strike’ on general building
understood by all parties work, and the faster ‘three day strike’ on fast-track proprietary systems. The new procedure should
prior to use
be understood by the interested parties before use.
The basis of the proposed method, subject to the limiting criteria detailed in Section 6.2, is that,
providing cracks or deflections generated within the concrete slab at the time of striking are not
larger than those expected when the full strength slab experiences its full design service load, the
structure will not be harmed by early striking. The requirement is for a simple procedure to produce
a safe and serviceable slab that has not been unacceptably damaged during construction, such as by
deflection17 that can safely carry long-term design loads in service.
Punching shear and Designers will be aware of the problems of punching shear in flat slabs without drop heads. Shear
flexural strength failure is sudden and occurs without visible warnings, so care is necessary in design. The research
criteria considered
(Ref. 2) compared relationships for punching shear and flexural strength at ultimate limit state
condition. The conclusion, by consideration of the EC2 and BS 8110 rules, was that the more
onerous criteria for punching shear would be an acceptable means of limiting flexural cracking in
flat slabs. This principle has also been adopted in this Guide.
Flowchart Fig. 20 The method recommended for applying these criteria for striking flat slabs in buildings is shown
as a flowchart in Figure 20 and detailed in a sequential format in Chapter 7.
Construction staff to be The operations of backpropping, loading and striking slabs should only be carried out under super-
aware of TW implications vision. Where early striking is to be based on the proposed method it is essential that the technical staff
involved are fully aware of the implications of the procedures and method. This is not a threat to
demonstrate the analytical nature of the subject and warn constructors off using the method, but is to
raise awareness of the complexity and importance of the subject. Few people in construction realise the
Risks in backpropping risks that may be involved in backpropping. A casual survey of site operatives and supervisors will
demonstrate that, although they are aware of the use of backpropping, few realise how changes in the
type, position or installation of propping can affect the structure and, more importantly, its integrity.
Agreed procedures for All installation of propping, striking and shoring should be carried out to agreed procedures, as
propping and striking discussed in detail in Sections 7.6 and 7.7.
Risks in projecting results It is accepted by this Guide that there are risks in projecting results from only a few studies for
acceptance for general practice. What has been demonstrated by Task 4, and confirmed by other
research (Ref. 37), is that the proposed method can be confidently adopted for similar structures

17 Unacceptable deflection may be defined as deflection that is harmful for the member concerned. (Clause

6.2.6.3.2 of BS 81 10: Part 1 (Ref. 36))

53
6.1 General

within defined limits of type of structure, thickness of slab, etc. One of the core objectives of ECBP Promote economic
was to promote the economic advantages of this type of flat slab structure, without complex down- flat slabs
stands or drop heads to columns, and early striking is a key issue.
Proposals to change loadings (see Section 3.2), and the introduction of ‘lean construction’ have Current design imposed
brought about more economic, flexible, slab design (Section 3.3). As PWDs design for lower loads are considered
imposed loads, such as those used at the ECBP, loads during construction will become more conservative
critical. If a floor slab is unable to support the one being cast above it, the loads have to be
distributed between the floors. On a low-rise building, say up to three storeys, it may be economic
to transfer the forces directly to the ground by leaving propping in place at all times, but in multi-
storey work, this becomes impractical and load transfer between floors is required.
It is possible that backpropping considerations from the temporary works design may give a lower Consideration of back-
limit of imposed load on a suspended slab. This could naturally limit what is achievable in terms propping might limit
of slender construction. This is covered in more detail in Section 6.5. minimum imposed
load on a slab
Short-term and long-term deflections are critical for leaner structures - see Section 6.3. Deflection considerations
(Section 6.3)
With the earlier striking times now proposed, it is recommended that each cast floor area is struck
completely and allowed to take up its deflected shape under self-weight before additional slabs or Allow each floor slab to be
areas are cast. When construction continues on higher floors without allowing the lower floor slabs struck completely to take
up deflected shape
to take up their deflected shape, the cumulative loads from subsequent construction will impart large
cumulative forces into the temporary works, and possibly the slabs. BS 5975 (Ref. 6) demonstrates
in Annex M how this could be more than 225% of a floor weight! This serious risk of overloading
lower slabs by cumulative loading can be significantly reduced by adopting the recommended
procedure for each floor slab cast. In practice, constructors using one set of formwork are unlikely
to have this problem.
To avoid excessive loads building up cumulatively in the backprops, it is also recommended that Slacken and retighten
backprops are slackened off after striking a slab and then repositioned and retightened as required, backprops each time
to an agreed procedure. See also Section 7.7.

6.2 PhiOosophy for Ooading and striking ffoau sOabs

The principle adopted in this Guide and published by Beeby in ICE Proceedings ‘Criteria for the Ref. 38
loading of slabs during construction’ (Ref. 38) is that the early loading of slabs either due to striking
of formwork or due to other construction loading should satisfy the following two relationships:
Loading factor F,,, 4 1.0 Equation 1

Cracking factor F,, I 1.0 Equation 2

A further criterion, from knowledge of the deflections caused by slabs cracking under load is
considered as:
Effective deflection factor Fe, I 1.O Equation 3

Except under very special conditions, no slab should be subjected to a load greater than its No slab subjected to
equivalent design service load at the time loading is considered, nor exceed the actual design load greater than
design service load
service load, determined from Equation 4. As the slab matures and gains strength, the load it can
carry will increase up to a limit - its total design service load - at which point the characteristic
concrete strength must have been achieved. The slab may not be able to carry any further load
without permanent strain or cracking, in excess of that implicit in the design.
It is implicit in the previous paragraph that, to load a slab to its full design load, the reinforcement Reinforcement location can
has to be placed in the correct position. If the reinforcement around the columns is not at the correct affect long-term deflections
depth, this will have a direct effect on the behaviour of the slab, particularly on crack formation, and Check to verify
may increase long-term deflections; thus the quality of workmanship may need to be considered in reinforcement before
concreting
any striking procedures. This should include checks that the reinforcement is correctly positioned
before concreting takes place.
The PWD and TWD may, after detailed consideration and a risk assessment, permit applied loads See Section 6.6
on a slab during construction greater than the design service load as they will generally be of short and Annex E
duration. This is discussed in Section 6.6.

54
 6.2 PhilosoDhv for loadina and strikina flat slabs

It is generally assumed that the crack width in a loaded concrete slab is proportional to the stress
in the steel reinforcement, which in turn is proportional to the load. Hence if load is removed or
added, there will be a proportional reduction or increase in crack width. Although the slab is
designed for the ultimate limit state, the actual maximum load on the slab at the time considered will
be the summation of the unfactored loads because the consideration of crack width is at service-
ability limit state, not ultimate. The load on a slab at any stage of construction should not be greater
than the PWD’s unfactored design service load, so the ratio of imposed loads to dead loads is
Strike earlier than intended important. Obviously if the concrete slab is struck earlier than intended, the structure may be
and slab may be damaged! permanently damaged.
The measurements at Cardington have shown that the cracking around columns has been as
expected, and that cracking within the spans has not been in evidence. The Task 4 report concludes
that:
BRE BR 394 “The highest moments are likely to occur around the internal columns but careful inspection at various
times failed to reveal any signs of flexural cracking in these regions. Simple calculation suggests that
cracking should be expected in this region at loads well below those actually imposed on the slabs.
Cracking may be ignored in flat slabs and the conclusions also hold good for solid slabs supported on
beams or one-way spanning solid slabs.”
The location and extent of cracking vary throughout a slab, and control measures should vary
accordingly. In a flat slab there is likely to be an area surrounding the columns where the moment
Cracking at internal becomes excessive. The most critical areas will be around the internal columns. The position of the
columns critical top reinforcement also influences cracking; if the workmanship is poor and the top bars are
incorrectly located, this will alter the moment capacity and affect the cracking.
The forthcoming Eurocode 2 (Ref. 39) gives formulae for the analysis of members that are expected
to crack under load, and which behave in a manner intermediate between the uncracked and fully
Consideration of cracking cracked conditions. Permanent works designers may wish to allow this cracking to be considered
allowance (Annex G) in their analysis; this is discussed further in Annex G.
Subject to the requirements in Section 6. I , the two main criteria for ensuring that a concrete slab
being loaded or struck is not overloaded are:

Total design construction load on slab - w

Equation 4 Loading factor ( F , ) = -I l . 0
Total design service load on slab wser

and

Equation 5 Cracking factor (Fer) = - I 1.0

where w = total unfactored design construction load on the slab in kN/mZ

w,,, = total unfactored design service load in kN/m2
Characteristic strength fc = estimate of the equivalent cube strength of the concrete at the location in N/mm2.
is generally the specified
f,, = specified characteristic strength of the concrete in N/mm2
28-day strength
By rearranging Equation 5, the required equivalent cube strength (fcreq)of the concrete in the critical
area (see Section 6.4) at the time of striking to enable a particular total construction load w to be
applied to a given slab, may be calculated from:

Equation 6

which can be rearranged to give:

where fc req = estimate of equivalent cube strength of the concrete at the critical location in N/mm2

55
6.2 Philosophy for loading and striking flat slabs

f,, = specified characteristic strength of the concrete in N/mm2

w = total unfactored design construction load on slab at the time considered in W/m2
wser = total unfactored design service load in kN/ m2.
In Equation 6 the term in the right-hand expression is the concrete strength factor C;,

Concrete strength factor (Csf)= Equation 7

Thus the relationship between the loading factor and the strength factor can be expressed as:

Equation 8
A graphical presentation of Equation 8 is shown in Figure 22 (page 81). It should be noted that the
value of Equations 4 and 5 should remain below unity except under certain condtions where, with
the approval of the PWD and the TWC, it may be exceeded. For this reason Figure 22 includes
values greater than unity. The method of establishing the equivalent cube strength of a slab for
striking with a particular loading using the above equations is presented in Section 7.2.

Calculating the deflection of a concrete slab is complex, and is generally outside the scope of this
Guide. It is inextricably linked to the extent of cracking of the slab, so early striking, also based on
crack control, may have an effect on the deflection. The spreadsheet at Annex F includes the option
to allow some cracking in the slab, as permitted in the forthcoming Eurocode 2 (Ref. 39).
Recommendations in design codes generally limit the ratio of basic span to effective depth for
beams and flat slabs depending on the support conditions. This is based on limiting the total
deflection. This gives an acceptable serviceability condition for most flat slab structures. Clause BS 8110 CI 3.4.6.3
3.4.6.3 of BS 8110: Part 1 (Ref. 36) states:
“Basic spadeffective depth ratios are based on limiting the total deflection to spad2.50 and this should Typical deflection/span
normally ensure that the part of the deflection occurring after construction of finishes and partitions will ratio 11250
be limited to spad500 or 20 mm, whichever is the lesser, for spans up to 10 m.”
Within the elastic limits, deflection is proportional to load. This proportionality will, however, be Deflection proportional
lost if serious flexural cracking develops. Studies at the ECBP during construction showed that, to loads
though some limited cracking may have occurred around the columns, the deflections could be pre-
dicted reasonably closely if the cracking was ignored (Ref. 2). The assumption of proportionality
between loads and deflections therefore remains reasonable when considering the same flat slab
with similar loading patterns. Obviously, changing from a distributed to, say, central point loading
would affect the moment and the deflections.
There remains the question whether increased creep resulting from early loading could result in
long-term increases in deflection. Results from the ECBP over the first eight months or so of Long-term creep not
the life of the structure tend to confirm that the effect is not great. However, a linear relationship a problem
was found between the long-term deflection (currently 500 days) and the minimum value of the
parameter cf,lfcu)~~6(w,,,/w)for a slab up to the time considered. It would thus appear that this
parameter (Equation 2 ) conveniently takes adequate account of any variations in the effects of
creep, elastic modulus and tensile strength (i.e. all significant mechanical properties of con-
cre t e).
Calculations on the ECBP slabs (Ref. 2 ) have been made to predict the overall change in long-term
deflections at 3000 days compared to those at 180 days as measured. This consideration is Calculated instantaneous
necessary to predict possible long-term deflection of the slab to reduce the effect on movement of deflection at ECBP:
internal partitions, etc. The results show that the calculated difference in instantaneous deflection 5.7 mrn at 1 day
4.3 rnrn at 7 day
between striking the supports at 24 hours (5.7 mm) compared to striking at 7 days (4.3 mm) is only
1.4 mm on the 7.5 m spans. The calculations assumed that the slab was not cracked. In all cases the
deflections of the 7.5 m spans were well within the specification limits.
Research on the effects of early striking and on deflections of slabs in general is ongoing (Refs 40
and 41). It is accepted that the early striking and subsequent use of a slab to support the next slab,
 6.4 Assessment of concrete strength at early age

Early striking increases will lead to some increase in long-term deflection over that predicted for a similar slab struck at
long-term deflections seven days (the comparison did not take account of any construction operations loads).
Long-term deflection Early indications from the research (Refs 2, 40 and 41) for the typical floor slabs at the ECBP
increase is about suggest that, when using the striking principles in Section 6.2, long-term deflections will increase
+ 25% for 24 hour by about 25% when striking at 24 hours, and by about 15% when striking at three days, compared
compared to 7 day strike
+ 15% for 3 day compared to the predicted long-term deflections (neglecting peak construction load) had the slab been struck
to 7 day strike at seven days. The comparison to the seven day strike is given as the PWD is likely to have used
the seven day strike in the initial calculation of long-term deflection.
Although the instantaneous deflection caused by early striking is increased, when considered with
the overall design, the statement in BR 394 (Ref. 2) is still considered to be valid:
“Early loading will not have a significant effect on the total deflection in normal circumstances”.

6 4 As~ssmelmuoff cocmclreue sUrelmgUh a%earlly age

Importance of reliable It is important for users of this Guide to understand that the principles for striking recommended
strength assessment are different from previous ideas, and, to obtain the full economic advantages of early striking, the
reliable assessment of the equivalent cube strength of the actual concrete in the critical area at very
early age is needed.
Since it is not possible to obtain the characteristic strength of the in situ concrete, an approach is
adopted in which the location of the weakest concrete in the slab is identified and the lower bound
Use the 95% to the in situ strength at this location determined. The lower bound is taken as the lower 95%
confidence limit confidence limit to the in situ strength at this critical location.
The rate of gain of strength of concrete at very early age, i.e. in the first 48 hours, is fast, and to be
able to strike the slab within this time without damage, a realistic assessment of the actual strength
of the concrete is needed. Traditionally this would be obtained from testing cubes, often cured
alongside the slab, and these are reasonably representative of the concrete. CIRIA R136 (Ref. 3 1)
confirms that, for suspended slabs up to 300 mm think, the differences in maturity between cubes
cured alongside and the in situ concrete are small, and such methods are acceptable. However,
evidence from the testing programme carried out jointly by the Queen’s University of Belfast and
Air-cured cubes under- the University of Liverpool (Ref. 42), suggests that, under winter conditions at least, air-cured
estimate in situ strength cubes are likely to have much lower maturities and therefore to significantly underestimate in situ
particularly in winter
strength at very early ages.
Pull-out test: BRE Pull-out tests involving pre-planned inserts, LOK test, in the actual concrete structure were shown
preferred method to be the preferred method of very-early-age strength assessment for striking. (Ref. 32)
Where was concrete As striking times are reduced, where and when the concrete sample is taken become increasingly
sampled? important. Take the example of a slab pour started on Day One at 0900 hours and not completed
until 1500 hours on the same day. Next morning at 0900 hours, cubes from the first batch of
concrete will now be 24 hours old, whereas those from the last batch only 18 hours old. This
difference in time can be critical when considering early striking. The strength gain relates directly
to the hydration of the cementitious content of the concrete. As, in the UK, water is generally added
at the concrete batching plant, the travelling time for the ready-mixed concrete truck, of possibly
up to an hour, needs to be added. This adds to the time after placing and makes the ‘youngest’
concrete in the example 19 hours old.
Measure time from water This Guide recommends that, for assessing the strength of concrete for early-age striking, time is
added for relevant measured from when the water is added to the cement for the relevant concrete. The time is not
concrete (not relevant
if in situ testing)
relevant when measuring the in situ strength of the actual structure.
Is it then prudent to strike in the same order as the concreting? This requires an understanding of
what striking really means. To be able to remove the soffit formwork the falsework load-bearing
members (the vertical standards) have to be destressed - this is simply done by undoing each head
or base jack a few turns. (The starting point is covered in Section 7.6.) Although on a large area it
might be thought practical to lower the entire formwork “at once”, in practice the sequence will be
progressive, with the initial lowering by a few turns quite quickly (working from an adequate
platform) followed over time by removal of the supports. Thus a large area can be struck very

57
6.4 Assessment of concrete strength at early age

quickly, certainly faster than it was concreted; hence the recommendation is that the weakest
concrete in the new slab to be struck should govern the striking time.
Other things being equal, one would anticipate that the concrete at the bottom of the slab will be Top vs boj
stronger than that at the top. This has been shown to be the case by in situ concrete strength meas- measuren
urements. This difference is a function both of the maturity of the concrete and of the inherent
differences caused by vibration and water movement (bleeding).
The underside of the concrete slab will be insulated by the sofit formwork, which will retain the On multiple spa1
heat of hydration and prevent water loss; in contrast, the top surface of the slab will be more concrete at the 1
adjacent to inter
exposed and have lower early strengths. As the days continue these differences will proportion- towards end of
ally reduce. Further, the area most likely to crack first due to flexural bending is the top surface likely to be
near an internal column, thus the top surface of the concrete near an internal column is represen-
tative of the most critical area in terms of cracking. (In terms of deflection the potential cracking On single Spi
concrete at the
of the bottom surface in the span is more important, but the strength of the concrete in this location at mid-span is li
is greater.) critical, but me?
at the top surfac
Knowing the order and layout of the concrete pour, the critical areas for concrete strength deter- lower boi
mination for early striking can be assessed.
Access to concrete laboratories for early strength cube tests can be restrictive, so other ways of BCA Guide Ei
assessing early strength may be faster and more convenient. The BCA Best Practice Guide Early strength as6
age strength assessment of concrete on site (Ref. 32) is based on one of the research tasks from the
ECBP (Ref. 42), and recommends that early striking is determined by pull-out tests on the structure.
Although it is not within the scope of this Guide to discuss the merits of the various ways of
assessing the strength of concrete, relevant observations for flat slab building construction are
included here:
Cubes cured alongside and stored on the slab under similar conditions are likely to give Not ideal m
lower bound estimates (Ref. 32). Although this method is not recommended for very early
striking, it has been included in Table 1 for site use. The results are conservative but the full
benefits of early striking may not be achieved, particularly in cold weather. The number of
cubes tested will depend on the confidence limits expected and the correlation achieved.
Because the cubes are not testing the actual concrete, an allowance may have to be made in
the correlation to obtain the estimated characteristic strength. CIRIA Report RI36 (Ref. 3 1) CIRIA R136 fact
recommends a factor of 1.25 to cater for the uncertainty of the test method when using cubes
for early-age strength assessment.
Temperature-matched curing (TMC) is suitable for the larger building site and is more
accurate than cubes cured alongside. TMC permits earlier striking than reliance on air-cured
cubes, but is dependent on where the temperature sensor is placed in the flat slab. The point
selected for the sensor should be 50 mm below the upper surface and be representative of the
concrete considered to be critical. It is relatively expensive.
Because the cubes are not testing the actual concrete, an allowance may have to be made to
obtain the estimated cube strength of the in situ concrete in the critical area. CIRIA Report CIRIA R136 fact
R136 (Ref. 31) recommends a factor of 1.25 to cater for the uncertainty of the test method
when using cubes for early-age strength assessment.
Wet-cured cubes, cured in a curing tank on site to BS 1881: Part 11 1 (Ref. 43), are not Not suita
representative of the actual concrete strength and should not be used for early strength
assessment for striking.
Rebound hammers (the best known is the Schmidt hammer) need extensive calibrating Not relial
against cubes from the concrete in question, and can give unreliable results if not used
correctly. It is a non-destructive testing technique. CEB Bulletin 243 (Ref. 44) states:
“The rebound hammer is easy to handle and allows testing of large areas in a short time. It is ideally
suited for determining the variation of the concrete quality over the different sections of the structure.
Concrete structures that show great differences in the results obtained by the rebound hammer will
automatically need a greater number of strength tests. Other tests may indirectly give an indication
on the compressive strength of the concrete.”

58
 6.4 Assessment of concrete strength at early age

The rebound hammer test is still used extensively, such as in proprietary tunnel form systems,
but is not considered suitable for early-age strength determination.
Recommended use of LOK (e) The LOK pull-out test is recommended in the BCA Best Practice Guide (Ref. 32). It requires
test. Result is based on a cast-in insert and the reading from each test is recorded. The equivalent concrete cube
average of four readings
read off correlation
strength is now read off a correlation curve/table for the concrete. The number of individual
curveltable readings to establish the equivalent cube strength of the slab should be predetermined. This
Guide recommends that the result is based on the average of four readings. The LOK test is
an accepted test method and was first included in BS 1881: Part 207 (Ref. 45) in 1992.
Although a reliable test, it can be operator sensitive. Operators should be trained and
competent in its use. One of the undoubted successes of the ECBP on formwork was to see
the change in opinion of the frame constructor over the use of the LOK tests, from initial
scepticism to reliance! Inserts are tested as required. They proved very valuable as a basis for
confirming the concrete strength for very early striking.
A comment from the Task 2 report on the LOK test:
“A further innovation adopted on ECBP, which has implications for the falsework, was the use of
cast-in inserts (LOK tests) to determine concrete strength’s. At the beginning of the project, these
were used as research, in order to correlate the LOK test results with cube strengths. However, as
confidence in their use increased, they were used to back up the cube results.”
Not mix-specific The correlation is not mix-specific: either the manufacturer’s correlation curves/tables can be
used or curves/tables can be established on site for a specific concrete. It is important to use
Use correct correlation the correct correlation curve/table for the confidence limit assumed. There is evidence that for
curve more specialised concrete, e.g. high-performance, air-entrained concrete, the correlation of
the LOK test is not as good as for typical structural concrete used in building construction.
Use of less than Correlation curves for fewer than four readings to establish the 95% confidence levels can be
four results established for specific concretes - this could reduce the number of tests, but might delay the
time of striking if the correlation showed a higher average value was needed.
(f) The Cap0 test is another pull-out test but, although it does not require an insert to be cast in,
it does require a reamed hole to be drilled in the concrete after casting. It is more time-
consuming than the LOK test to carry out and is not suitable for very early striking. See also
the Best Practice Guide (Ref. 32).
Not recommended (g) Pull-off tests involve attaching a metal block to the concrete and measuring the force to pull
off the block; the metal block is either attached to the surface, or by coring the concrete and
breaking off the core, to a level near-to-surface. The test is designed for site use and normally
six tests are recommended. It was not found to be suitable for early-age striking as the epoxy
resin gave problems at low temperatures, and with moist concrete. Until new developments
overcome the problems, pull-off tests are not recommended for early striking strength
assessment.
(h) Other tests for strength assessment are being developed and should not necessarily be ruled
out for use; what is important is to establish confidence in the strength prediction.
This Guide has demonstrated that successful striking at early age, as envisaged in Section 6.2,
requires the temporary works management to assess the lower bound concrete strength with
confidence in the youngest area of the just-cast slab.
Although this Guide recommends the use of the LOK test as a pull-off test for early-age strength
assessment, Table 1 summarises other methods of strength assessment that might be considered. In
practice on site, a combination of techniques for strength assessment will be used, and engineering
judgement will determine the concrete strength for a particular condition.

1s At the ECBP the LOK inserts were fixed in the softit and in the top of the slab approximately in the middle

of a 7.5 m square bay. For those fixed in the softit, a 400 mm square panel was constructed in the softit which
was removed to allow testing of the insert to destruction to take place. No problems were witnessed with the
construction of these panels.

59
 ~~~ ~

6.4 Assesment of concrete strength at early age

Table 1: Summary of concrete strength assessment methods for early striking.

Method of concrete strength Number of cubes

Comment
assessment (I) or tests carried out
Average of 4 Use 95% confidence limit of correlation
(recommended) curves
Pull-out LOK test
Requires specific correlation curves for
Less than four
confidence limits
Use 95% confidence limit of correlation
Pull-out Cap0 test Average of four
curves
Relatively expensive
Temperature-matched curing Normal testing Select relevant location for sensor. Mean
(WC) is not characteristic (’I
Cubes cured alongside and under Underestimates strength
Normal testing
the same conditions as the slab Mean is not characteristic (’)
I

Pull-off Limpet test Average of six I Not suitable for early striking
Wet-cured cubes - I Not applicable
Rebound test (Schmidt Hammer) - I Not recommended
Other tests Risk assessment I -

Notes:
1. All testing should follow the procedures in BS 1881 (Ref. 45).
2. Where testing is not carried out on the actual structure, e.g. cubes, the relationship between the maturity
and the characteristic strength should be established. CIRIA R136 (Ref. 31) recommends a factor of
1.25 to allow for the testing not being representative of the actual structure.

The number of tests appropriate for each method of strength assessment varies, and engineering Test sequence used
judgement is required. It is often prudent to have the facility to include a ‘spare’ sample in the
unlikely event of a rogue result. So with the LOK test, casting in sets of inserts allowed one
initially to be pulled; if the concrete was satisfactory the second, third and fourth could then be
pulled and the average strength of four calculated; but if the first was too low, further testing was
delayed. Reference to the correlation curve for the concrete would give guidance, and allow a
judgement to be made on when next to test for early striking.
It is not recommended that, with the risks involved with early striking and possible failure andor
excessive cracking of the slab, reliance should be placed on only two or three tests.

6.5 Backprop

6.5.1 General
During construction, ‘when the imposed load on a floor slab exceeds its carrying capacity, some of
the load is distributed through the floor, either directly to the foundations or to other slabs.
Four ways to calculate the load in backprops are given in this Guide:
9 Methodone
Use a simple assumption about the percentage of load transferred through supporting slab(s). Method One. Table 3:
This is generally conservative and recommendations on percentages for one or two levels of Section 6.5.3 and
Annex C
backpropping are given in Table 3. This is the method most likely to be used in the initial
calculations for assessing backpropping.
Method Two
Use equations to predict the load transfer, knowing the stiffness of the slabs and of the back- Method Two.
propping. This method considers deflection in one plane only. Section 6.5.3

60
 6.5Backpropping

Method Three
Method Three. This method uses the equations in Method Two but includes simplifying assumptions. It is
Section 6.5.3 likely to be reasonable and to give slightly conservative values in most situations.
0 MethodFour
Method Four. Introducing deflection coefficients into the equations in Method Two to allow for the location
Section 6.5.3 and Annex F of the slab and its deflected shape. This gives Method Four a three-dimensional approach to
the shape, and edge panels will behave differently to internal panels of slab. This is a
complex calculation and the spreadsheet on the enclosed CD Rom and in Annex F carries
out this calculation. The spreadsheet also calculates the required equivalent cube strength,
the loading factor, cracking factor and, where required. the effective deflection factor.
BS 5975 Section 6.5.2 Methods for calculating loads in backprops are given in Appendix D of the Formwork Guide (Ref. 5)
and Annex M of BS 5975 (Ref. 6). These give details and calculations for various backpropping
arrangements based on several simplistic assumptions, which are discussed in detail in Section 6.5.2.
The slender, yet economic, structures involved in commercial flat slab designs now envisaged and
demonstrated for the future by the ECBP, have low values of design imposed load compared to their
self-weight, as discussed in Section 3.2. This means that they have less capacity to carry additional
construction loads from higher levels, and thus loads need transferring either to other slabs below
or to the foundations.
Transferring loads directly Where a building has only two slabs to be cast (the top slab could be a roof), then, as each slab is
to foundations depends on built and allowed to take up its deflected state unpropped, additional loads from backpropping can
layout and stiffness of be transferred direct to the building’s foundations - the slabs already cast acting as ‘packing’
props and slabs. See
Sections 7.4 and 7.5 between each floor’s propping. The research (Ref. 32) showed that this arrangement did not
transfer all the load directly to the foundation slab, contrary to conventional thinking. Only if the
backpropping is directly under every falsework standard can a reasonable percentage be transferred
to the foundations. This is discussed in more detail in Sections 7.4 and 7.5.
Little advantage In multi-storey construction, with three or more floors to construct, it is impractical to carry the
backpropping through additional loads direct to the foundations. Backpropping can interfere with following trades and
more than one level
programming will be affected by extensive backpropping. The aim is to minimise interference by
limiting the amount and number of levels that need backpropping. In this case, the floors below the
one being constructed need to carry the loads. The proposed method of calculation is shown in
Sections 7.4 and 7.5. It should be noted that the research (Ref. 2) concluded that “very little
advantage was gained by backpropping through more than one level at Cardington”.
Strength of supporting At each stage of the backpropping procedure critical conditions apply. These need to be
slab is critical carefully considered and are discussed in detail in Section 6.5.3. The strength of each slab being
used to carry load needs to be checked. The strength of the supporting slab, particularly the one
immediately beneath that being cast, is nearly always the most critical, both during falsework
erection when it is only just cast, and later during the concreting process. The arrangement of
the backpropping, and the strength of the lower floors may also become critical and will affect
the load distribution.
Excel Spreadsheet Annex F To assist TWDs, an Excel spreadsheet for Method Four written by the University of Leeds and first
published with the BRE Report BR 394 has been updated to allow for pre-loading of backprops. A
CD ROM containing the spreadsheet and accompanying manual is enclosed with this Guide. The
operating limits and instructions are given in Annex F.

6.5.2 Backpropping assumptions

The main assumptions currently used to design backpropping, which are generally accepted as
giving conservative results, are presented and then considered in the light of the work from the
ECBP (Ref. 2). The current assumptions are:
Assumption 1 Slabs behave elastically.
Assumption 2 An imposed construction operations load is applied at all times.
Assumption 3 The density of concrete is 25 kN/m3.
Assumption 4 Propping between floor slabs and the falsework shoring supporting the soffit
formwork is rigid. (i.e. does not change in length with load).

61
6.5Backpropping

Assumption 5 The load on the supporting slab from the falsework is uniformly distributed and the
backpropping generates a uniformly distributed support system eom underneath the
slab.
Assumption 6 The load transferred through a supporting slab can be proportioned pro rata to
the stiffness of the floors considered.
Assumption 7 Backpropping is installed with zero pre-load.
Assumption 8 The effect of backpropping on deflections is ignored.
Assumption 9 Effects of temperature changes are ignored.
The forces that have been measured in the backpropping to flat slabs in buildings (Refs 2 and 37) See Figure 27
are significantly lower than predicted from the above assumptions, with generally only 30% of the
loads being transferred into lower floors and into the backpropping, compared to up to 50%
predicted in conventional theory. A table comparing the loads transferred using the BS 5975
method and that proposed in Method One is shown in Annex C.
The following paragraphs discuss the assumptions stated above, and highlight some of the new
concepts that are recommended for backpropping of flat slabs in building construction, offering
solutions and guidance where necessary. The completed floor slab that is directly carrying the
construction of the new slab, known as the supporting slab, is shown to be critical for load-carrying
capacity at several stages of construction.
Assumption 1 The slabs behave elastically
Reasonably elastic behaviour occurred with the slabs at the ECBP, which were significantly more Supposition
slender than current practice. Therefore elastic behaviour is likely with similar solid slab structures, considered true for
solid slab structures
although not necessarily for waffle or trough floor slabs. The considerations for striking are
generally for the slab to remain within its serviceability limits, so that it remains reasonably elastic.
However, there will be some cracking in the slab which will exhibit some non-linear behaviour and
provide redistribution of the moments.
Assumption 2 An imposed construction operations load is applied at all times
TWDs need to consider the load applied by operatives during concrete placing, and also any imposed
load on floors after casting, such as for inspection. These construction operation loads are transient.
Three questions arise out of the measurement of loads in the backpropping.
(a) “Should the sofit formwork and its associatedfalsework be designed to carry the construction
operations load during concrete placing?”
This is currently assumed as an imposed construction operations load of 1.5 kN/m2 (see Design soffit formwork and
Section 4.2 and BS 5975 (Ref. 6)). This represents an equivalent concrete thickness of only falsework for construction
operations load of
60 mm, i.e. about 18-20% of the load. 1.5 kN/m*
The considered view is ‘yes’, and the TWD should allow for this load when designing the (Service Class 2)
temporary works. The load is transient and moves with the concrete as each area of slab is
cast: once the concrete is placed and the top surface finished off, it is not trafficked by oper-
atives for several hours.
(b) “Should the construction operations load during concrete placing, as discussed in (a) above,
be considered when checking the carrying capacity of the supportingfloor and/or any back-
propping?’
Initial thoughts would suggest that it should be included, or at least at a lower value of, say,
0.75 kN/m2 (Service Class 1 loading).
This is really a question of risk assessment, and should be “What is the likelihood of an actual Calculations at Section 6.6
load being applied?* If it were only one value of Service Class 1 loading, and was ignored in show it to be only 1.1%
for the ECBP slabs
the calculations, but then occurred, the increase in load of only 6% (maximum) is unlikely to
cause distress to the slab.
There is some sense in checking the design of the floor supporting the falsework to take a See also the discussion in
lower value of imposed load. On a rapid construction programme, simultaneous operations Annex E and consideration
of the load combinations
may lead to operatives working both under and on top of the soffit formwork. Thus the risk for rare conditions
is considered reasonable to reduce loading at this stage. Certainly, if the area were delineated

62