● Review the fundamentals of the subatomic particles

● Origin of the universe

● Study nucleosynthesis
● Synthesizing Elements
● Nuclear Reactions

“Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now

is the time to understand more, so that we may fear less.” - Marie
Curie

Subatomic Particles

Learning Objectives:

● Point out the main ideas in the discovery of the structure of

the atom and its subatomic particle.
● Cite the contributions of J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford,
Henry Mosley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the atom.
● Describe the nuclear model of the atom and the location of its
major components (Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons).

- Subatomic particles, also known as elementary particles,

consists of 3 subatomic particles: electrons, protons, and
neutrons. Other particles exist as well, such as alpha and
beta particles.
- Electrons(-), which are negatively charged, are located
outside the nucleus.
- Protons(+), which are positively charged, are contained in the
nucleus.
- The nucleus is a small, dense area at the center of every
atom, composed of nucleons - nucleons include protons and
neutrons.
- Neutrons, which are neutrally charged.

The Bohr model is outdated, but it depicts the three basic subatomic
particles in a comprehensible way.
 Electric Atomic Atomic Mass
Particle Mass (g) Spin
Charge (C) Charge (Au)

+1.6022 x 1.6726 x 10-

Protons +1 1.0073 1/2
10-19 24

Neutrons 0 0 1.6740 x 10- 1.0078 1/2

24

-1.6022 x 9.1094 x 10-

Electrons -1 0.00054858 1/2
10-19 28

● The positive charge of protons cancels the negative charge of

the electrons. Neutrons have no charge.

Protons
- were discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1919, when he
performed his gold foil experiment. He projected alpha
particles (helium nuclei) at gold foil, and the positive alpha
particles were deflected.
- Alpha particles, also called alpha rays or alpha radiation,
consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a
particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus.
- Alpha radiation occurs when the nucleus of an atom becomes
unstable (the ratio of neutrons to protons is too low) and
alpha particles are emitted to restore balance.
- He concluded that protons exist in a nucleus and have a
positive nuclear change. The number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom determines an element’s atomic number. The atomic
number determines an element (the atomic number 6 is carbon).
- An atom is a mostly empty space.
- An atom contains a tiny and dense central part called the
nucleus that is positively charged.
- The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
- The nucleus is surrounded by electrons.
Electrons
- Electrons were discovered by Sir John Joseph Thomson in 1897.
J.J. Thomson the ratio of mass to the electric charge of
cathode rays. He confirmed that cathode rays are fundamental
particles that are negatively charged; these cathode rays
became known as electrons.
Neutrons
- Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. Neutrons
are located in the nucleus with protons. Along with protons,
they make up almost all of the mass of the atom. The number of
 neutrons is called the neutron number and can be found by
subtracting the proton number from the atomic mass number. The
neutrons in an element determine the isotope of an atom, and
often its stability.
- Isotopes, one of two or more species of a chemical element
with the same atomic number and position in the periodic
table. Every chemical element has one or more isotopes.
- Isotopes are atoms in the same element that differ in mass
number due to their different amounts of neutrons.
Ions
- Atoms or molecules with charge: positive or negative.
- Cations, which are positive-charged.
- Anion, which is negative-charged.

Identification
Both of the following are appropriate ways of representing the
composition of a particular atom:

● # Neutrons = Atomic Mass Number - Proton Number

- Atomic mass number = A.
- Proton number/atomic number = Z.
# Protons = Proton number or Atomic number
In neutral atoms, # Electrons = # Protons
In ions, # Electrons = # Protons - (Charge)
A charge is written with the number before the positive and negative
signs +1, -1, etc.

Periodic Law - Henry Moseley stated that the properties of elements

are the periodic functions of their atomic number.
Atomic Mass - the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Atomic number - the number of protons.

George Johnstone Stoney and William Crookes discovered that matter

has an electrical property.
Synthesizing Elements: Revisiting Radioactivity

Learning Objectives:
● Explain how the concepts of atomic number led to the synthesis
of new elements in the laboratory;
● Write the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of new
elements.

Henri Becquerel: X-rays: Accidental Discovery of Radioactivity

Chemical reactions occur as a result of losing/gaining and sharing

electrons in the valance shell which is far away from the atomic
nucleus as we described in previous chapters in chemical bonding.

In chemical reactions, the identity of the elements (atomic) and the

makeup of the nuclei (mass due to protons and neutrons) is preserved
which is reflected in the Law of Conservation of Mass.

Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in uranium compounds where

uranium nuclei change or undergo nuclear reactions where nuclei of
an element are transformed into nuclei of a different element(s)
while emitting ionization radiation. Marie Curie also began a study
of radioactivity in a different form of uranium ore called
pitchblende and she discovered the existence of two more highly
radioactive new elements radium and polonium formed as the products
during the decay of unstable nuclide of uranium-235. Curie measure
that the radiation emanated was proportional to the amount (moles or
number of nuclides) of radioactive element present, and she proposed
that radiation was a property nucleus of an unstable atom.

What changes in a nuclide result from the loss of each of the

following?

a) An alpha particle. b) A gamma-ray. c) An electron. d) A neutron.

e) A proton.

Gold foil experiment (Geiger-Marsden Experiment)

 ● Scattering of alpha particles using a thin gold foil;
● Most alpha particles passed through a thin foil in a straight
line:
● Few alpha particles (1 in 20,000) were deflected at 90 degrees
or more.

Nuclide - the nucleus of an atom (nuclei)

● Electrons are ignored because they are not involved in nuclear
reactions.
Radioactivity
● Particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear
instability;
● In elements, it is determined by their nuclear stability.
● Radioactive nuclide → emits an alpha or beta particle = new
element;
● Gamma emission = no new element.
● The release of nuclear particles by an unstable nuclide.
Radiation
- Energy in the forms of waves (beams) or particles.
- Radiation waves are generally invisible, have no weight, or
odor, and have no positive or negative charge.
- Radioactive particles, which are invisible, but they have
weight (which is why they are called a particle) and may have
a positive or negative charge.
Transuranium Elements
● 92 naturally occurring elements are collectively called
transuranium elements and synthesized using particle
accelerators.

Types of Radiation

1.1 Origin of the Big Bang Theory

There are several theories about the origin of the universe but the
Big Bang Theory is a theory widely

According to the Big Bang Theory, all matter and energy in the
universe existed in a compact point called singularity.
Physical Science: Nucleosynthesis

During the big bang and the different evolutionary stages of stars,
nucleosynthesis occurred.

What is nucleosynthesis?
- Nucleosynthesis is a thermonuclear reaction that produces a
new chemical element from another element. It is classified
into 3 categories: big bang nucleosynthesis, stellar
nucleosynthesis, and supernova.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

- It is also known as primordial nucleosynthesis, the big bang
nucleosynthesis pertains to the information of light elements
in the early universe.
- Formed in the light elements - Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), and
Beryllium (Be).

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
- Stellar nucleosynthesis is within the star’s evolutionary
stages.
- Formed the other elements up to Iron (Fe).
Fusion of hydrogen nuclei = Helium → Energy-generating process
of the stars = Hydrogen Burning Phase
There are two classifications of hydrogen-burning phase: Carbon-
Nitrogen-Oxygen Cycle and Proton-Proton Cycle

Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen Cycle
- More massive stars
- For more massive stars, the CNO cycle is more favorable for
converting hydrogen to helium. It is a catalytic reaction
wherein carbon initiates the sequence of reactions. The
process produces carbon-12, which can participate in another
CNO cycle.
Proton-Proton Cycle
- Sun-like stars or less massive stars.
- The Proton-Proton cycle occurs in stars with a mass that is
equal to or less than that of the sun.

Nuclear Fusion and Alpha Process (Alpha Particle Addition) → Heavier

Elements (from Helium up to Iron)

Explosion of a massive star (runs out of nuclear fuel) → Emission

of high concentration of neutrons → Neutron-rich isotopes of heavier
elements (New). = Rapid Neutron Capture
Neuron capture processes are responsible for the production of post-
iron elements in stars. About half of the abundances of these
elements in the solar system are produced by slow neutron capture
(s-process); the other half is produced by rapid neutron capture (r-
process).

Supernova Nucleosynthesis
- New elements were formed during the explosion of a massive
star.

Review:

1. What is the most widely accepted explanation for the origin of

the Universe?
- Big Bang Theory

2. According to the Big Bang Theory, our universe starts into

existence as _______ around 13.7 billion years ago.
- Singularity

3. Singularities thought to exist at the _______

- The core of black holes

4. Our universe is thought to have begun as an infinitely small,

infinitely hot, infinitely dense, something - a singularity.
- True

5. The Big Bang Theory explains

- Origins of the universe

6. Evidence of the Big Bang Theory

- Microwave background
- Redshift of galaxies
- Mixture of element

7. The redshift of Galaxies states that ___

- If we go back far enough in time, everything must have been
squashed together into a tiny dot.

8. The microwave background states that _____

- Very early in history, the whole universe was very hot. As it
expanded, the heat left behind a “glow” that fills the entire
universe.

9. Some elements we see today is the result of the Universe _____

and ___
- Expanded, cooled down
10. Big Bang theory fits better than the Steady State theory in
terms of explanation of the origin of the Universe.
- True

11. This is a process of light element formation in the early

universe.
- Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

12. ____ occurs during the Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.

- Nuclear Reactions

13. Which of the following elements by mass is abundant in the

Universe.
- Hydrogen

14. The following elements (Helium, Hydrogen, Deuterium) were

produced in the Nucleosynthesis except ___
- Copper

15. Which of the following elements were produced during the early
stage of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis?
- Helium

16. Which of the following elements were produced during the early
stage of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis?
- Deuterium

17. Which of the following elements were produced during the early
stage of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis?
- Lithium

18. Which of the following elements were produced during the early
stage of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis?
- Hydrogen

19. Which of the following resulted in the formation of the light

element?
- The temperatures in the Universe were so high

20. ____ in stars converts hydrogen into helium in all-stars.

- Nuclear fusion

21. It is the process by which a star changes over the course of

time.
- Stellar Nucleosynthesis/ Stellar Evolution
22. In Stellar evolution, nuclear reactions continued, which
produced elements heavier than lithium.
- True

23. The formation of each new element happened in these regions or

layers.
- Fusion shells

24. Which of the following statement is correct about stellar

evolution?
- As more elements were produced, new layers added up to the
size of the star until it became a red giant.

25. Stars are described to have an ____

- Onion skin structure

26. The younger yellow star made up of hydrogen were fueled by the
energy released from the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form
helium.
- True

27. What will happen when the core reached temperature enough for
helium fusion to occur?
- Helium burning began

28. Which causes a star to become red?

- The outer temperature became colder than the core.

29. When carbon nuclei reached a certain temperature to allow

carbon fusion what element it will produce?
- Neon

30. Neon then became concentrated at the core, then underwent

fusion to produce ____
- Oxygen

31. What will happen if a star exhausted the nuclear fuel to light
elements?
- It will explode

32. The explosion of stars is also called ____

- Supernova

33. Supernova produced elements heavier than Iron.

- True
34. This process occurred as a seed nucleus captured neutrons,
forming heavier isotopes of the element that was either stable
or radioactive.
- Neutron capture reactions

35. It continues to capture neutrons and formed other heavier

isotopes of the seed nuclei.
- Stable isotopes

36. It underwent beta decay, producing an isotope of a new

element.
- Unstable isotopes

37. It is responsible for the creation (nucleosynthesis) of

approximately half the atomic nuclei heavier than iron.
- Both s & r-process

38. Neutron capture occurred so slowly that beta decay of the

product isotope happened before it captured another neutron.
- Slow or s-process

39. Some series of neutron capture occurred very fast that seed
nucleus turned into a relatively heavier nucleus before beta
decay took place.
- Rapid or r-process

40. Different isotopes and much heavier elements were formed

during the neutron capture-and-decay processes.
- True

41. Absorption of multiple neutrons (r-process)during the

explosion.
- Supernova Nucleosynthesis

42. It is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that

has the properties of a chemical element.
- Atom

43. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma are composed of _____
- Both neutral and ionized atoms

44. What is the typical size of an atom?

- 100 picometers

45. These particles are smaller than atoms.

- Subatomic particles
46. Atoms are the basic units of matter and the defining structure
of elements.
- True

47. What are the three subatomic particles of an atom?

- Proton, Neutron, Electron

48. Proton and neutron are lighter than an electron and reside
outside the center of an atom.
- False

49. Do protons and neutrons have the same mass?

- True

50. Protons weigh ____ more than electrons.

- 1800

51. Adding a neutron makes a heavier element while adding a proton

makes a new element.
- True

52. All the mass of the atom resides in the ____

- Nucleus