public policy can be regarded as reflecting the values and preferences of a governing elite.

Public
policy is not determined by the demands and actions of the people or the masses but rather by
ruling elite whose preferences are carried into effect by political officials and agencies (Anyebe,
2018).

tuntutan rakyat banyak (non elit) tidak diperhatikan (Mustari, 2015)

The process is the determinant of each output or result of policy formulation (Hayat, 2017).

perubahan dan pembaharuan terhadap kebijakan publik berjalan lambat (Tahir, 2018)

Kebijakannya bersifat top-down ((Hayat, 2017)

Current U.S. immigration policy—the admission of more than one million legal immigrants per year
and weak enforcement of laws against illegal immigration—is largely driven by industry groups
seeking to lower their labor costs. Agriculture, restaurants, the clothing industry, manufacturers, and
hospitals, for example, all lobby heavily in Washington to weaken immigration laws and their
enforcement

This model emphasizes that the policies made by the

government must be policies based on the choices of
the majority public (Shughart & Tollison, 2005).

Jika kebijakan pemerintah adalah melarang mudik

artinya harus bertanggung jawab atas kehidupan
layak bagi orang-orang di wilayah episentrum
dengan memberi dana bantuan. Namun, jika
pemerintah memilih untuk tetap membiarkan adanya
arus mudik, maka perlu diperhatikan bahwa hal ini
akan relatif lebih berisiko dalam menyebarkan virus
diiringi dengan melambatnya aktivitas perekonomian
di Jakarta karena semakin sepi. Lantas, pemerintah
perlu menjamin pendataan pemudik yang terstruktur,
masif, dan sistematis, serta menjamin sebagian kecil
warga rentan hingga miskin di wilayah episentrum
(Yazid, 2020).
This theory of organizational decision-making must account for a very complex interplay between
the development of issues inside an organization, human deployment, solution production, and the
opportunity for choice (Cohen et al., 1972).

The arrangement of the policy agenda for the Hajj bailout fund was originally intended for
Indonesians who wished to perform Hajj but did not have the money to go. But in the end, this Hajj
bailout became a bad policy and was discontinued due to various existing problems such as causing
additional waiting lists, usury, and so on (Adiakarti Farid, 2019).

Civil Service Law (2014). An academic team commissioned by the Domestic Affairs Committee
prepared a draft bill that was first presented to Parliament in 2011. Widely debated within
governmental and public forums, policymakers initially failed to agree on it, until one of the
academic authors who drafted the bill published an influential newspaper column which spurred
action by Cabinet in 2013. A watered down version of the bill was subsequently passed by
Parliament and approved by the President in 2014. Although the Civil Service Commission was
accordingly set up and has been issuing its own regulations, broader implementation of the law
stalled after the change of government in 2014. None of the implementing regulations required by
the law had been passed at the end of 2016 (Blomkamp et al., 2018).

The context of political systems, inputs and outputs (usually in the form of requests and support on
the one hand and public policies on the other), and feedback are all emphasized in systems theory. It
can be beneficial in combating the propensity to describe or evaluate political systems in isolation
(Hahn, 1987).

Indonesia: after batik received a certificate from UNESCO as an Indonesian cultural heritage, the
government is now making a policy to register angklung with UNESCO so that the local musical
instrument is not claimed by other parties (Widyasari, 2014).

 Clearer picture of the actual mechanisms that produce a decision, rather than merely an
illustration of the complexity of the advisory process (Newmann, 1998)

 The foreign policy process will be unpredictable and fluid since it is run like a disorganized
anarchy. Because of this, the garbage-can model has the most relevance to models for
making foreign policy decisions. (Newmann, 1998).

Incremental model overview (Suwitri, 2014)

Adiakarti Farid, M. R. (2019). Model Pengambilan Keputusan Garbage Can dan Dana Talangan Haji.
Zhafir | Journal of Islamic Economics, Finance, and Banking, 1(1), 51–68.
https://doi.org/10.51275/zhafir.v1i1.129
Anyebe, P. A. A. (2018). An Overview of Approaches to the Study of Public Policy. International
Journal of Political Science, 4(1), 8–17. https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-9452.0401002
Blomkamp, E., Sholikin, M. N., Nursyamsi, F., Lewis, J. M., & Toumbourou, T. (2018). Understanding
Policymaking in Indonesia : KSI Working Paper, 26, 1–45. https://www.ksi-
indonesia.org/assets/uploads/original/2020/03/ksi-1585501090.pdf
Cohen, M. D., March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. (1972). A Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 17(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392088
Hahn, A. J. (1987). Policy Making Models and Their Role in Policy Education. Increasing
 Understanding of Public Problems and Policies, 1, 222–235.
http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/17854/files/ar870222.pdf
Hayat. (2017). Manajemen Kebijakan Publik. Intrans Publishing, September 2017, 121.
Mustari, N. (2015). Pemahaman Kebijakan Publik: formulasi, implementasi & evaluasi kebijakan
publik. 307.
https://library.unismuh.ac.id/uploaded_files/temporary/DigitalCollection/MDI4NWNlNmU0Yz
M0YWEyMDUxMWM0NjQzNjQ2NTIxZTkxNzJjOWU5Ng==.pdf
Newmann, W. W. (1998). Foreign policy decision making, garbage cans, and policy shifts: The
Eisenhower Administration and the “Chances for Peace” Speech. American Review of Public
Administration, 28(2), 187–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/027507409802800205
Shughart, W. F., & Tollison, R. D. (2005). Policy challenges and political responses: Public choice
perspectives on the post-9/11 world. In Policy Challenges and Political Responses: Public Choice
Perspectives on the Post-9/11 World. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-28038-3
Suwitri, S. (2014). Konsep Dasar Kebijakan Publik MODUL 1. Analisis Kebijakan Publik, 2, 1–51.
https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.12.054
Tahir, A. (2018). Kebijakan publik dan good governancy. 1–174.
Widyasari, F. A. (2014). Model Pembuatan Kebijakan Publik.
Yazid, E. K. (2020). Game Theory di Balik Dilema Mudik Lebaran saat Pandemi COVID-19. CSIS
Commentaries, 323(14), 1406–1407. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.2565