General Biology Second Grading Biological Molecules ENZYMES erminology ‘catalyst -a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being changed (enzyme-a biological catalyst (usually a protein) (Substrate - the reactant mole that an enzyme works on (Active'site -part of the enzyme where the substrate binds -formed when the substrate molecule collides with the active site of its site transition staté -the intermediate stage in a reaction in which the old bonds break and new bonds are formed activation energy) -the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction Enzymes are protein macromolecules. They have a defined amino acid sequence and are typically 100 - 500 amino acids long. They have a defined three-dimensional structure. They act as a catalyst to a chemical or biochemical reaction, with a defined mechanism. They increase the speed of the reaction, typically by 106/= 1014 timesfaster than the rate of the uncatalyzed reaction. They are selective for a single substrate. They are stereospecific, the reaction produces a single product. Enzymes are not reactants and are not used up during the reaction. Once an enzyme binds to a substrate and catalyzes the reaction, the enzyme is released, unchanged, and can be used for another reaction. For each reaction, there does not need to be G 11 ratio between the enzyme and substrate molecules. Nomenclature -typically add "-ase" to the name of the substrate e.g. lactase breaks down lactose (disaccharides of glucose and galactose) Processes that Involves Enzymes Anabolism) -requires energy to build *synthesis of macromolecules ismy-uses energy to breakdown *digestion of food particles Apoenzyme -an inactive enzyme, activation of the enzyme occurs upon binding of an organic or inorganic cofactor-enzymes that lack their necessary cofactor(s) for proper functioning -protein -active forms of apoenzymes (apoenzyme plus cofactor) *DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase -mostly metal ions or small organic molecules are organic and inorganic chemicals that assist enzymes during the catalyst of reactions -nonprotein component e.g. magnesium, zinc -nonprotein organic molecules that re mostly derivatives of vitamins soluble in water by phosphorylation -organic cofactor e.g. NADH, FADH -part of the enzyme to which substrates binds and where a reaction is catalyzed -a reactant in a chemical reaction - called substrate when acted upon by an enzyme-since enzymes are proteins, this site is composed of a unique combination of amino acid residues (side chains or R groups) -each amino acid residue can be large or small; weakly acidic or basic; hydrophilic or hydrophobic; and positively-charged, negatively charged, or neutral -a specific chemical substrate matches this site like a jigsaw puzzle Pieceond mokes the enzymesspecitic fois substrate) ~proposes that the initial interaction aind substrate is relatively Weak, but that these weak interactions rapidly induce a conformational -when an enzyme binds its substrate, it forms an enzyme-substrate complex -this complexilowers the activation energy of the reaction and [promotes its rapid progression by providing certain ions or chemical i Is @ necessary step of the reaction process Enzymes based upon the class of organic chemical reaction catalyzed: catalyze redox reactions; dehydrogenases, oxidases, eroxidases, reductases falcata catalyze group transfer reactions; often require coenzymes (Hydrolases\- catalyze hydrolysis reactionsLyases - lysis of substrate; produce contains a double bond. Isomerases - catalyze structural changes; isomerization. Ligases - ligation or joining of two substrates with the input of energy, usually from ATP hydrolysis; often called synthetases or synthesis The enzyme's active site binds to the substrate. The induced-fit model states a substrate binds to an active site and both change shape slightly, creating an ideal fit for catalysis. -when an enzyme binds its substrate, it forms an enzyme-substrate “complex renzymies (aint by bringing Saar (injanjoptimaljorientation) thus creating an ideal chemical environment for the reaction to occurOxidation-Reduction Reaction Redox React ior -addition of oxygen/electronegative element to a substance -removal of hydrogen/electropositive element from a substance -removal of oxygen/electronegative element from a substance -addition of hydrogen/electropositive element to a substance Enzymatic browning is a natural phenomenon that occurs widely in many fruits and vegetables. When fruits and vegetables are bruised, cut, peeled, diseased, or exposed to any abnormal conditions, they darken rapidly on brown melanins from the oxidation of phenolic compounds. Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) present in most fruits and vegetables, and some seafood, is responsible for enzymatic browning. In addition to PPO, the presence of peroxidase, a similar oxidative - “enzyme, may initiate enzymatic browning of fruits and vegetables. Ths article presents an overview of the current understanding of the browning reaction about biochemical characteristics and potential physiological roles of PPO in fresh fruits and vegetables andprovides the latest information on the control of enzymatic browning in foods. 7 Factors that Affect Enzyme Activity ‘Temperature Raising temperature will generall ion, and a lowering temperature will in. However, the q oe cause an enzyme to denature and to stop. Most enzymes have an optimum temperature, near-normal u body temperature, at which they catalyze a reaction most rapidly. Each enzyme has an optimum pH range, changing pH level outside this range will slow down enzyme activity. Such extreme pH values can cause an enzyme to denature, even small changes can alter the in enzymes, therefore Increasing enzyme concentration wil speed up the reaction as long . Once all the substrates are as bound to an enzyme, the reaction will no longer speed up. “Substrate Concentration Increasing substrate concentration wl jon up too certain point. A on the reaction as all the enzymes are bound, the available enzymes will saturate and work at their maximum rate. At saturation point, the-photosynthesis -decay -respiration -biological respiration -corrosion/rustingATP (adenosine triphosphate) What is ATP? Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, is a small, relatively simple molecule. It can be thought of as the main energy currency of cells, much as money is the main economic currency of human societies. The energy released by hydrolysis (breakdown) of ATP is used to power many energy-requiring cellular reactions. Structurally, ATP is an RNA nucleotide that bears a chain of three phosphates. At the center of the molecule lies a five-carbon sugar, ribose, which is attached to the nitrogenous base adenine and the chain of three phosphates. The three phosphate groups, in order of closest to furthest from the ribose sugar, are labeled alpha, beta, and gamma. ATP is made unstable by the three adjacent negative charges in its phosphate tail, which "want" very badly to get further away from each other. The bonds between the phosphate groups are called phosphoanhydride bonds, and you may hear them referred to as "high-energy" bonds. Hydrolysis of ATP Why are the phosphoanhydride bonds considered high-energy? All this means is that an appreciable amount of energy is released when one of these bonds is broken in a hydrolysis (water-mediated breakdown) reaction, ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP in the following reaction:ATP+H20%ADP+Pi+energy Note: Pi just stands for an inorganic phosphate group. These three phosphate groups are linked to one another by two high- energy bonds called phosphoanhydride bonds. When one phosphate _ group is removed by breaking a phosphoanhydride bond in a process called hydrolysis, energy is released, and ATP is converted to _ adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Reactions can also be classified by the overall increase or decrease in Generoy|frofnithelrpaction. Less energy is required to break original bonds than is released when new one forms. _EnergeticReactions Chemical reaction that requires more energy to go in (break reactant bond) than is feleased when new bonds are formed (create product). How is the energy released by ATP hydrolysis used to power other reactions in a cell? In most cases, cells use a strategy called reaction coupling, in which