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ADVANCE ALGEBRA AND

TRIGONOMETRY
WEEK 4

JULY 28, 2021

ABDULLAH H. EDRIS
INSTRUCTOR

O947 – 827 - 4051

abdullahedris150@g
mail.com

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Lesson 15: Polynomials

Learning Outcome(s): In this chapter we will learn concepts

pertaining polynomials, evaluation of algebraic expressions, and
fundamental operations on polynomials.

Concept Pertaining to Polynomials

 Constant is a symbol that does not change its value.
3
Examples: 1, 2, , 3, -4, 16, 𝜋, √2, √3 …
 Variable is a symbol used to represent any element of a
replacement set.
Examples: a, b, c, d, … , x, y, z
A variable becomes a constant if given a specific value.
Example: 2𝑥 = 2 if 𝑥 = 1.
 Algebraic Expression is a constant, a variable, or operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
extraction of roots involving constants and variables.
 A monomial is a constant or a variable or the product of
constants, and variables with positive integral exponents
only.
Example: The numerical coefficients of −3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 is -3, the
literal coefficient is 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧. The coefficient of 3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 is –z.

Expression Numerical coefficient Literal coefficient

5x 5 x
15𝑥 2 𝑦 15 𝑥2𝑦
9st 9 st

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 Coefficient is the product of all but one of the factors of

a term.
Examples: 17 is the coefficient of 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 4 in 17𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 4
𝑥 2 is the coefficient of 17𝑦 3 𝑧 4 in 17𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 4
 Polynomial is the sum of a finite number of monomials.
1
Examples: 9𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥, 𝑎 + 3𝑎𝑏𝑐, (3 + 2𝑖 )𝑥 2 − 6𝑖
2

 Polynomial which contains one term is called Monomial, those

with two unlike terms are called, Binomial and those with
three unlike terms are called Trinomial.
Examples:
Monomial Binomial Trinomial
5𝑥 23 3𝑥 + 2 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7
4abc 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 9𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
-7 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑦 9𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥

 A term is an expression between + or – signs in a polynomial.

Terms are called like terms if their literal coefficients are
exactly alike. Otherwise, they are called unlike terms.

Examples:
Expression No. of Terms Type of Polynomial
5𝑥 2 1 Monomial
9𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 2 Binomial
𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 3 Trinomial

 Like (Similar) Terms are terms having the same variables

raised to the same power/exponent.
Examples:
9𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑎𝑏 10𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 4𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 √3𝑟 3 𝑡 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8𝑟 3 𝑡 4

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 Degree of a Monomial is the sum of the exponents of its

variables.
Examples:
Expression Degree of a Term
6𝑎2 𝑏𝑐𝑑 5
−15𝑥 2 𝑦 4 6
92 0

 Degree of a polynomial is the greatest of the degree of its

monomials.
Examples:
Expression Degree of a Polynomial
4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 4
9𝑎2 𝑏4 𝑐 + 3𝑎𝑏𝑐 4 + 9𝑎𝑏𝑐 7
6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 5𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 6

 Factors are numbers and/or variables that are multiplied

together to form a product. Factoring is the process of
finding factors in a product.
Examples:
o The factors of 12 are: 3, 4, 1 and 12, 6 and 2, -4 and
-3, -1 and -12, -6 and -2.
o The factors of 3xy are: 3, x and y.

Evaluation/Value of an Algebraic Expression

The numerical value of an algebraic expression can be
calculated with the specific value for each variable in the
expression is given. The process of calculating a numerical

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value of an expression is called evaluation or finding the

value.

In order to evaluate an algebraic expression, we

substitute the given value for each variable. The evaluation
becomes easier and the number of errors is reduced when the
specific values of the variables are substituted for each
letter, using parenthesis in a distinct step before the
operations involved are performed. The rule to be followed is
performing the innermost operation first.

Examples:
1. Evaluate the algebraic expression 3𝑎 + 5𝑏𝑐, given that 𝑎 =
2, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑐 = −1.
Solution:
3𝑎 + 5𝑏𝑐 = 3(2) + 5(3)(−1) = −9
2. Find the value of (2𝑎 − 𝑏)(3𝑐 − 𝑑 ), if 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −5, 𝑐 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 =
−3.
Solution:
(2𝑎 − 𝑏)(3𝑐 − 𝑑 ) = [2(2) − (−5)][3(−1) − (−3)] = (9)(0) =
0.

Fundamental Operations on Polynomials

Addition/Subtraction: Combine like (similar) terms by adding or
subtracting their numerical coefficients and affix their literal
coefficients in their sum or difference.
Examples:
1. 4𝑎 + 3𝑎 − 2
Solution:
4𝑎 + 3𝑎 − 2 = (4 + 3)𝑎 − 2 = 7𝑎 − 2
2. (3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 7) + (6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3)

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Solution:
(3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 7) + (6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 7 + 6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3
= 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 7 − 3
= 9𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4

3. (2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑦 2 ) − (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 )

Solution:
(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑦 2 ) − (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 +
2𝑦 2
= 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑦 2 +
2𝑦 2
= 𝑥 2 + 7𝑦 2
Multiplication
Multiplication of Monomials – Multiply the numerical
coefficients and the literal coefficients.
Examples:
1. (4𝑥 3 𝑦 2 )(9𝑥𝑦 3 ) = 36𝑥 4 𝑦 5
2. (−8𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑐 4 )(−5𝑎2 𝑏4 𝑐 5 ) = 40𝑎5 𝑏6 𝑐 9
3. (7𝑠 4 𝑡 3 𝑢)(√2𝑠 8 𝑡 5 ) = √2𝑠 8 𝑡 5 𝑢

In carrying this product, we recall that,

𝑎𝑚 ∙ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
For 𝑎𝑚 is the product of m a’s, and 𝑎𝑛 is the product
n a’s. There are, therefore, (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑎′𝑠 in the combine
product.

Multiplication of a Monomial and a Binomial – apply the

distributive property of multiplication over addition or
subtraction and use the rule for multiplying monomials.

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Examples:
1. 5𝑎(3𝑎2 + 4) = 15𝑎3 + 20𝑎
2. 2𝑚2 (5𝑚2 − 7𝑚 + 8) = 10𝑚4 − 14𝑚3 + 16𝑚2
3. 4𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑦 𝑛 (3𝑥 𝑛 + 12𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑛+1 ) = 12𝑥 𝑛+1+𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 + 48𝑥 𝑛+1+𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑛+𝑛+1
= 12𝑥 2𝑛+1 𝑦 𝑛 + 48𝑥 2𝑛 𝑦 2𝑛+1

Multiplication of Polynomials – use the

distributive property of multiplication over addition
to reduce the problem of multiplying polynomials to
that of multiplying monomials.

Examples:
1. (2𝑥 + 3)(5𝑥 + 8) = 2𝑥 (5𝑥 + 8) + 3(5𝑥 + 8)
= 10𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 + 15𝑥 + 24
= 10𝑥 2 + 31𝑥 + 24
2. (4𝑥 + 7)(5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7) = 4𝑥 (5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7) + 7(5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7)
= 20𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 28𝑥 + 35𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 + 49
= 20𝑥 3 + 23𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 49
3. (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) + 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) +
1(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)
= 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1
= 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
Special Product
Special Products Formula Examples
(𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 (3𝑥 2 + 2)(3𝑥 2 − 2) = 9𝑥 4 − 4
(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)2 = 4𝑥 2 + 12𝑥𝑦 + 9𝑦 2

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(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)
(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑥 2 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + = 𝑥 2 + (2 + 3)𝑥
𝑎𝑏 +6
= 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦) (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)(4𝑥 + 5𝑦) = 8𝑥 2 + (10 + 12)𝑥𝑦

= 𝑎𝑐𝑥 2 + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑥𝑦 + 15𝑦 2

+ 𝑏𝑑𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 2 + 22𝑥𝑦 + 15𝑦 2

(2𝑥 + 3)(4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 + 9𝑦 2 )
2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2) 3 3
= 𝑎 +𝑏
= 8𝑥 3 + 27𝑦 3
(2𝑥 − 3)(4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 9𝑦 2 )
2
(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2) 3 3
= 𝑎 −𝑏
= 8𝑥 3 − 27𝑦 3
(2𝑥 + 3𝑦)(5𝑏 + 3𝑐)
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑑 )
= 10𝑏𝑥 + 6𝑐𝑥 + 15𝑏𝑦
= 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 + 9𝑐𝑦

Binomial Theorem: By direct multiplication, we can easily

establish the following formulas:
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟎 = 𝟏
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟏 = 𝒂 + 𝒃
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝟐
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟑 = 𝒂𝟑 + 𝟑𝒂𝟐 𝒃 + 𝟑𝒂𝒃𝟐 + 𝒃𝟑
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟒 = 𝒂𝟒 + 𝟒𝒂𝟑 𝒃 + 𝟔𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 + 𝟒𝒂𝒃𝟑 + 𝒃𝟒
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟓 = 𝒂𝟓 + 𝟓𝒂𝟒 𝒃 + 𝟏𝟎𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟑 + 𝟓𝒂𝒃𝟒 + 𝒃𝟓

The coefficients in these products have a pattern which

is illustrated by the following scheme, known as Pascal
Triangle.
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟎 1

(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟏 1 1
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟐 1 2 1

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(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟑 1 3 3 1
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟒 1 4 6 4 1
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟓 1 5 10 10 5
1
… …

in this array each horizontal line begins and ends at 1 and each other entry is the
sum of the two numbers to its left and right in the horizontal row above.

Whenever we discover a pattern like this, we suspect that there must be some
general way of describing it and so we are led to ask whether there is some general
formula for (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 , where n is any positive integer. There is indeed such a formula,
known as the Binomial Formula, we shall now proceed to develop it. By way of
preparation we must introduce some new notations.
Definition: The symbol 𝑛! (for n a positive integer), read “n factorial” stands for the
product.
𝑛! = 1 × 2 × 3 × … × 𝑛
Further, 0! Is defined to be 1. Factorials are not defined for negative integers or for
other real numbers.
Examples:
1. 3! = 1 × 2 × 3 = 6
2. 4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24
3. 5! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 120
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛!
Definition: The symbol ( ), where n and r integers ≥ and 𝑛 ≥ 0, is defined to be ( ) = (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟!
𝑟 𝑟
These symbols are called Binomial Coefficients.

Examples:
2 2! 2! 1∙2 1
1. ( ) = (4−2)!4! = = =
4 2!4! 1∙2∙1∙2∙3∙4 24
6 6! 6! 1∙2∙3∙4∙5∙6 30
2. ( ) = (6−4)!4! = = = = 15
4 2!4! 1∙2∙1∙2∙3∙4 2
5 5! 5! 1∙2∙3∙4∙5 20
3. ( ) = (5−3)!3! = = = = 10
3 2!3! 1∙2∙1∙2∙3 2
4
4. ( ) = 1
4

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5
5. ( ) = 5
1
The connection between these symbols and the expression for (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 is easily seen from
the fact that Pascal Triangle can now be written in the form of;

(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟎 0
( )
0

(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟏 0 0
( ) ( )
1 1

(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟐 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 2

(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟑 3 3 3
( ) ( ) ( ) 1
0 1 2

(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟒 4 4 4 4 4
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 2 3 4

(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟓 5 5 5 5 5
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 2 3 4
5
( )
5

Theorem: Binomial Theorem. Let n be a positive integer. Then,

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑛−2 + ( ) 𝑎𝑏 𝑛−1 + 𝑏 𝑛
1 2 𝑛−2 𝑛−1
𝑛
Or in the expression expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 , the coefficient of 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 is ( ).
𝑟
The Binomial Theorem permit us to write down rather quickly the expansions of powers
of binomials which are tedious to compute by repeated multiplication.

Examples:

1. Expand (2𝑥 + 5𝑦)3

Solutions:

(2𝑥 + 5𝑦)3 = (2𝑥)3 + 3(2𝑥)2 (5𝑦) + 3(2𝑥)(5𝑦)2 + (5𝑦)3

= 8𝑥 3 + 60𝑥 2 𝑦 + 150𝑥𝑦 2 + 125𝑦 3

2. Expand (3𝑥 − 2𝑦)4

Solutions:
(3𝑥 − 2𝑦)4 = (3𝑥)4 + 4(3𝑥)3 (−2𝑦) + 6(3𝑥)2 (−2𝑦)2 + 4(3𝑥)(−2𝑦)3 +
(−2𝑦)4
= 81𝑥 4 − 216𝑥 3 𝑦 + 216𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 96𝑥𝑦 3 + 16𝑦 4
3. Compute the term involving 𝑥 4 𝑦 3 in the expansion of (3𝑥 − 5𝑦)7 .
Solution:

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This term will involve (3𝑥)4 (−5𝑦)3 with an appropriate coefficient. The theorem tells us
that this coefficient is –
7 7! 7! 1×2×3×4×5×6×7
( )= = = = 35
3 (7 − 3)! 3! 4! 3! 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 1 × 2 × 3
Thus, the term is –
35(3𝑥)4 (−5𝑦)3 = −354, 375𝑥 4 𝑦 3

Division
Division of Monomials
Divide the numerical coefficients and the literal
coefficients and use laws of exponents.
𝑎𝑚−𝑛 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 > 𝑛
𝑎𝑚 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑛
={
𝑎 𝑛 1
𝑛−𝑚
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 < 𝑛
𝑎
Examples:
14𝑥 2 𝑦3 𝑧4 45𝑎2𝑛+1 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑐 0 5𝑎
1. = 7𝑦 2 𝑧 3 2. =
2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 9𝑎2𝑛 𝑏𝑛+1 𝑏2

Division of Polynomial by a Monomials

Steps:

1. Place each term of the polynomials over the monomial.

2. If possible, reduce the numerical coefficients to lowest terms.

3. Apply the laws of exponents #4 to simplify.

Examples:

−49𝑥 3 + 42𝑥 4 − 28𝑥 7 + 7𝑥 2 −49𝑥 3 42𝑥 4 28𝑥 7 7𝑥 2

1. = + − + 2
7𝑥 2 7𝑥 2 7𝑥 2 7𝑥 2 7𝑥
= −7𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 5 + 1
1001𝑥 4 𝑦 3 𝑧+143𝑥 4 𝑦 4 𝑧 4 −7𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 1001𝑥 4 𝑦3 𝑧 143𝑥 4 𝑦 4 𝑧 4 7𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧
2. = + −
7𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 7𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 7𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 7𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧
143 3 2 3
= 143𝑥 3 𝑦 +
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦
7
24𝑎 2𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑏 +7𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑏 𝑛 24𝑎 2𝑛−1 𝑏 𝑛 7𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑏 𝑛 7
3. 𝑛−1 𝑛−1 = 𝑛−1 𝑛−1 + 𝑛−1 𝑛−1 = 8𝑎𝑛 𝑏 + 𝑏
3𝑎 𝑏 3𝑎 𝑏 3𝑎 𝑏 3

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Division of Polynomials
Steps:
1. Rewrite the given problem in the form below:

6 Quotient
Divisor 3 20 Dividend
18
2 Remainder

With the terms of both the divisor and the dividend

arranged according to the descending powers of one
variable.
2. Divide the first term of the dividend by the first
term of the divisor to obtain the first term of the
quotient.
3. Multiply the quotient in step #2 by the divisor.
4. Subtract the product obtained in step #3 from the
dividend.
5. Repeat steps #1-4 with the difference obtained in step
#4 as the new dividend, until the degree of the remainder
is lower than the degree of the divisor.
Examples:
1. Divide 2x2 + 5x + 3 by 2x + 3.
Solution:

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2. Divide x3 – 1 by x – 1.
Solution:

3. Divide 5x – 11 – 12x2 + 2x3 by 2x – 5.

Solution:
Arranging the dividend in decreasing powers of x,
we get it as 2x3 – 12x2 + 5x – 11

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Synthetic Division
It is very important to remember that a 0 remainder implies
that the divisor is factor of the dividend.]
The process of long division is tedious due to repetitive
steps. An abbreviated process called Synthetic Division can be
perform in divining a polynomial in x by a divisor of the form
𝑥 − 𝑎, where 𝑎𝜖𝑄. This process makes use of numerical coefficients.

Steps:
 Write the numerical coefficients of the terms of the dividend
arranged according to the descending powers of the variable.
 Find a from the divisor and write a as the last entry in step
1.
 Copy the first entry in step 2 in the third line.
 Multiply the first entry in the third line by the value of a.
write the result in the second row of the second column.
 Add the entries in the second column. Write the result as the
second entry in the third row.
 Repeat steps 4 and 5 until all the columns are used up.
 Use the entries of the third row in step 6 as the coefficients
of the quotient. The degree of the quotient is one less than
the degree of the dividend.

Examples:
15𝑥 2 +26𝑥+8
1. 5𝑥+2

Solution:
2
15 26 8 −5

−6 −8
15 20 0 Remainder

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Thus, the numerical coefficients of the first and second

terms of the quotient are 15 and 20 respectively and we write
15𝑥 + 20 and reduce to a lowest terms as 3𝑥 + 4.
2𝑥 2 −11𝑥−20
3. Exercise
2𝑥+3
𝑎3 −8
4. Exercise
𝑎−2

Factoring
In factoring polynomials, we seek to undo the process of
multiplication. We are given a polynomial and are asked to discover
how it can be expressed as a product of other polynomials, called
its factor. You will find factoring important when you are asked
it simplify algebraic fractions or to solve certain types of
equations.

Methods of Factoring
1. Removal of the Greatest Common Factor
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)
Examples:
1. 10𝑦 2 + 15𝑦 = 5𝑦(2𝑦 + 3)
2. 6𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 14𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 2 (3𝑥𝑦 2 + 7𝑦 + 1)
3. 42𝑎𝑏𝑐 − 12𝑎2 𝑏2 3𝑎2 𝑐 2 = 3𝑎(14𝑏𝑐 − 4𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑐 2
4. 8𝑠 4 𝑡 4 + 4𝑠𝑡 4 − 8𝑠𝑡 3 + 2𝑠 2 𝑡 2 = 2𝑠𝑡 2 (4𝑠 3 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 2 + 𝑠)
5. (28𝑥 2𝑛 𝑦 2𝑛 𝑧 2𝑛 + 21𝑥 2𝑛+1 𝑦 2𝑛 𝑧 2 − 14𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛
= 7𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 (4𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 𝑧 2𝑛 + 3𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑦 𝑛 𝑧 2 − 2)

2. Difference of Two Squares

𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦) 𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦)
Examples:
1. 𝑎2 − 64 = (𝑎 − 8)(𝑎 + 8)
2. 9𝑦 2 − 100𝑧 2 = (3𝑦 − 10𝑧)(3𝑦 + 10𝑧

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3. 16𝑥 2 − 36𝑦 2 = (4𝑥 − 6𝑦)(4𝑥 + 6𝑦)

1 9 1 3 1 3
4. 4 𝑦 2 − 4 𝑝2 = (2 𝑦 − 2 𝑝)(2 𝑦 + 2 𝑝)

5. 25𝑥 2𝑛 − 16𝑦 2𝑛 = (5𝑥 𝑛 − 4𝑦 𝑛 )(5𝑥 𝑛 + 4𝑦 𝑛 )

3. Trinomial of the form 𝒙𝟐 + (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒙 + 𝒂𝒃.

𝑥 2 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏)
Examples:
1. 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
2. 𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 + 12 = (𝑦 + 2)(𝑦 + 6)
3. 𝑎2 − 9𝑎 + 18 = (𝑎 − 3)(𝑎 − 6)
4. 14 + 9𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = (7 + 2)(2 + 𝑥 )
5. 𝑥 4𝑛 − 2𝑥 2𝑛 − 15 = (𝑥 2𝑛 − 5)(𝑥 2𝑛 + 3)

4. Perfect Square Trinomial

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)2
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦)
Examples:
1. 𝑦 2 + 16𝑦 + 64 = (𝑦 + 8)(𝑦 + 8) = (𝑦 + 8)2
2. 𝑥 2 + 22𝑥 + 121 = (𝑥 + 11)(𝑥 + 11) = (𝑥 + 11)2
3. 4𝑥 2 − 20𝑥𝑦 + 25𝑦 2 = (2𝑥 − 5𝑦)(2𝑥 − 5𝑦) = (2𝑥 − 5𝑦)2
4. 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 + 9𝑦 2 = (𝑥 − 3𝑦)(𝑥 − 3𝑦) = (𝑥 − 3𝑦)2
5. 𝑎2𝑛 + 10𝑎𝑛 + 25 = (𝑎𝑛 + 5)(𝑎𝑛 + 5) = (𝑎𝑛 + 5)2

5. Trinomial of the form 𝒂𝒄𝒙𝟐 + (𝒂𝒅 + 𝒃𝒄)𝒙𝒚 + 𝒃𝒅𝒚𝟐 .

𝑎𝑐𝑥 2 + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 )𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑑𝑦 2 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦)

Examples:
1. 8𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 15𝑦 2 = (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)(4𝑥 − 5𝑦)
2. 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2 = (3𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1)
3. 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 = (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)

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4. 3𝑎𝑎2 + 12𝑎𝑏 − 9𝑏2 = (8𝑎 − 3𝑏)(4𝑎 + 3𝑏)

6. Sum and Difference of Two Cubes
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
Examples:
1. 𝑎3 + 8 = (𝑎 + 2)(𝑎2 − 2𝑎 + 4)
2. 8𝑥 3 − 27𝑦 3 = (2𝑥 − 3𝑦)(4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 9𝑦 2 )
3. 27𝑎3𝑛 − 64𝑏3𝑛 = (3𝑎𝑛 − 4𝑏𝑛 )(9𝑎2𝑛 + 12𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 + 16𝑏2𝑛 )
4. 𝑡 6 + 1 = (𝑡 2 + 1)(𝑡 4 − 𝑡 2 + 1)
5. 𝑥 3 + 64 = (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 16)

7. Factoring by Factoring
Group the terms in such a way that it could be factored by
any of the previous six methods.

Examples:
1. 4𝑡 3 + 4𝑡 2 + 𝑡 + 1 = (4𝑡 3 + 4𝑡 2 ) + (𝑡 + 1)
= 4𝑡 2 (𝑡 + 1) + (𝑡 + 1)
= (𝑡 + 1)(4𝑡 2 + 1)

2. 28 + 16𝑥 + 21𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 3 = 12𝑥 3 + 21𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 + 28

= (12𝑥 3 + 21𝑥 2 ) + (16𝑥 + 28)
= 3𝑥 2 (4𝑥 + 7) + 4(4𝑥 + 7)
= (4𝑥 + 7)(3𝑥 2 + 4)
3. 4𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 + 32 − 16𝑦 2 + 16𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 + 36 − 16𝑦 2 + 16𝑦 − 4
= 4[𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 − 4𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 − 1]
= 4[(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9) − (4𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 1)]
= 4[(𝑥 + 3)2 − (2𝑦 − 1)2 ]
= 4[(𝑥 + 3 − 2𝑦 + 1)(𝑥 + 3 + 2𝑦 − 1)]
4(𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4)(𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2)

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Rational Expressions (Algebraic Expressions)

Definition: A Rational Expression is a fraction whose numerator
and denominator are polynomials. A rational expression is also
called an algebraic fraction.

Examples:
𝑥+1 𝑦 𝑥 2 −4
1. 2. 3. 4.
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑦+1 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2

𝑥 3 +8
𝑥+2

Equal Rationals
𝑎 𝑐
If a, b, c, d ∈ 𝑅, 𝑏 ≠ 0 and 𝑑 ≠ 0, then 𝑏
and 𝑑
are equal, that is
𝑎 𝑐
= if and only if 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐.
𝑏 𝑑

𝑎 𝑐
Symbolically we write = 𝑑 if and only if 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐.
𝑏

Examples:
6 8
1. = 4 because 6 ∙ 4 = 8 ∙ 3
3
𝑥 𝑥2
2. = because 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2
𝑥+2 𝑥 2 +2𝑥
𝑥−3 𝑥 2 −8𝑥+15
3. = because (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 − 25) = (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 15)
𝑥+5 𝑥 2 −25

Simplification of Rational Expressions

𝑎 𝑎𝑘
If a, b, k, ∈ 𝑅, 𝑏 ≠ 0 and 𝑘 ≠ 0, then = 𝑏𝑘 .
𝑏

In other words: if we divide the numerator and denominator of

a given fraction by the quantity (not zero) the result is a
fraction equal to the given one.

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In order to apply this simplification of rational

expressions, we factor the numerator and denominator, look for
common factors, and divide top and bottom by any factor which is
a common to both.

Examples:
𝑎+2 (𝑎+2)(1) 1
1. = (𝑎+2)(𝑎−2) = 𝑎−2
𝑎2 −4

𝑦 2 −9 (𝑦−3)(𝑦+3) 𝑦+3
2. = (𝑦−3)(𝑦+2) = 𝑦+2
𝑦 2 −𝑦−6

𝑥−𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 −(−𝑥+𝑦) 1 1

3. = (𝑦−𝑥)(𝑦+𝑥) = (𝑦−𝑥)(𝑦+𝑥) = − 𝑦+𝑥 = − 𝑥+𝑦
𝑦 2 −𝑥 2

𝑦 2 −𝑦−12 (𝑦−4)(𝑦+3) 𝑦−4

4. = (2𝑦+3)(𝑦+3) = 2𝑦+3
2𝑦 2 +9𝑦+9

Operations Involving Rational Expressions

The rules for performing operations to common fractions also
apply to rational expressions.

Addition/Subtraction
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑±𝑏𝑐
±𝑑 = , 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑏 ≠ 0 and 𝑑 ≠ 0.
𝑏 𝑏𝑑

Examples:
3 1 3+1 4
1. + 𝑥+2 = 𝑥+2 = 𝑥+2
𝑥+2
3𝑎+2 𝑎−3 (3𝑎+2)−(𝑎−3) 3𝑎+2−𝑎+3 2𝑎+5
2. − 𝑎−7 = = =
𝑎−7 𝑎−7 𝑎−7 𝑎−7
𝑎 4 𝑎 4 𝑎−4(𝑎−2) 𝑎−4𝑎+8 −3𝑎+8
3. − 𝑎+2 = (𝑎−2)(𝑎+2) − 𝑎+2 = (𝑎+2)(𝑎−2) = (𝑎+2)(𝑎−2) =
𝑎2 −4 𝑎2 −4

Multiplication
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
(𝑏 ) (𝑑) = , 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑏 ≠ 0 and 𝑑 ≠ 0.
𝑏

Examples:

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𝑥+5 12𝑥 2 𝑥+5 3𝑥∙4𝑥 4𝑥

1. ∙ 𝑥2 +7𝑥+10 = ∙ (𝑥+5)(𝑥+2) = 𝑥+2
3𝑥 3𝑥
4𝑎+8 𝑎−5 4(𝑎+2) 𝑎−5
2. ∙ = (𝑎+5)(𝑎−5) ∙ 5(𝑎+2)
𝑎2 −25 5𝑎+10
4
= 5(𝑎+5)
𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 𝑥 2 +7𝑥+12 (𝑥−3)(𝑥+2) (𝑥+4)(𝑥+3)
3. ∙ = (3−𝑥)(3+𝑥) ∙ (𝑥+2)(𝑥+2)
9−𝑥 2 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+4
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+4)
= (−𝑥+3)(𝑥+3)
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+4)
= (−1)(𝑥−3)(𝑥+3)
(𝑥+4) 𝑥+4
= (−1)(𝑥+2) = −𝑥−2

Division
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
÷𝑑 = 𝑏∙𝑐 = , 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑏 ≠ 0, 𝑐 ≠ 0 and 𝑑 ≠ 0
𝑏 𝑏𝑐

Examples:
𝑥−𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 𝑥 2 +2𝑥𝑦+𝑦 2
1. ÷ 𝑥2 +2𝑥𝑦+𝑦2 = 𝑥2 −𝑦 2 ∙
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 𝑥+𝑦
𝑥−𝑦 (𝑥+𝑦)(𝑥+𝑦)
= 𝑥2 −𝑦2 ∙ 𝑥+𝑦

=1
2𝑥 2𝑥 1
2. ÷𝑥−1= ∙
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥−1
2𝑥
= 𝑥2 −1
3+𝑥 𝑥(𝑥+3) 3+𝑥−𝑥(1−3𝑥) 1(1−3𝑥)+𝑥(𝑥+3)
3. (1−3𝑥 − 𝑥) ÷ (1 + )=( )÷( )
1−3𝑥 1−3𝑥 1−3𝑥
3+𝑥−𝑥+3𝑥 2 ) 1−3𝑥+𝑥 2 +3𝑥
=( )÷( )
1−3𝑥 1−3𝑥
3+3𝑥 2 ) 1+𝑥 2
=( ) ÷ (1−3𝑥)
1−3𝑥
3+3𝑥 2 1−3𝑥 3+3𝑥 2 3(1+𝑥 2 )
= ∙ 1+𝑥2 = = =3
1−3𝑥 1+𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2
Compound/Complex Rational Expressions
A fraction in which the numerator or denominator or both, are
fractions is called a compound or complex fraction. To simplify a
compound fraction, the numerator and the denominator should be

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simplified separately, and finally the division should be

performed.
𝑎
𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑
𝑐 = 𝑏 ÷ 𝑑 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐 , where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 are polynomials and 𝑏 ≠ 0, 𝑐 ≠ 0 and 𝑑 ≠ 0.
𝑑

Examples:
1 1 𝑦+𝑥
+ 𝑦+𝑥 𝑦−𝑥 𝑦+𝑥 𝑥𝑦
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦
1. 1 1 = 𝑦−𝑥 = ÷ = ∙ 𝑦−𝑥
− 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦

𝑦+𝑥
= 𝑦−𝑥
1 (𝑥+4)(𝑥+4)−1 𝑥2 +8𝑥+16−1
𝑥+4−
𝑥+4 𝑥+4 𝑥+4
2. 48 = (𝑥+11)(𝑥−3)+48 = 𝑥2 +8𝑥−33+48
𝑥+11+
𝑥−3 𝑥−3 𝑥−3

𝑥2 +8𝑥+15
𝑥+4
= 𝑥2 +8𝑥+15
𝑥−3

𝑥 2 +8𝑥+15 𝑥 2 +8𝑥+15
= ÷
𝑥+4 𝑥−3
𝑥 2 +8𝑥+15 𝑥−3
= ∙ 𝑥2 +8𝑥+15
𝑥+4
𝑥−3
= 𝑥+4
𝑥+4 𝑥(𝑥+1)−(𝑥+4) 𝑥2 +𝑥−𝑥−4
𝑥−
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
3. = =
𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥−2
𝑥2 −4
𝑥+1
=
𝑥−2
𝑥 2 −4
= ÷𝑥−2
𝑥+1
𝑥 2 −4 1
= 𝑥+1
∙ 𝑥−2
(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) 1
= ∙ 𝑥−2
𝑥+1
𝑥+2
= 𝑥+1

Exercises
A. Reduce the rational expressions to lowest terms.
6𝑥−12
1. 18𝑥−36

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2𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2
2. 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6
5𝑥 2 −20
3. 𝑥 2 −5𝑥−14

B. Find the sum and difference in lowest terms.

𝑥 3𝑥
1. +
2 2
5𝑥 4
2. − 𝑥2 +4𝑥+4
𝑥 2 −16
3𝑦 8
3. − 𝑦−5
𝑦 2 −25

C. Find the product or quotient in lowest terms.

4𝑥 2 7𝑦
1. ∙
5𝑦 12𝑥 4
8𝑦−4 (5𝑦−15)
2. ∙
10𝑦−5 3𝑦−9

𝑥2 3𝑥
3. 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
÷ 𝑥2 −1
𝑦 2 +𝑦−2 4−𝑦 2 10𝑦−20
4. ÷( ÷ )
𝑥 2 −4 1−𝑥 2 5𝑦−5

D. Simplify each of the given complex fractions.

2
𝑥+𝑦
1. 5
𝑥+𝑦

3
𝑥−4
2. 2
1−
𝑥−4
1 𝑥
+
𝑥2 −1 𝑥+1
3. 𝑥
𝑥−1

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