The Role of Rhythm in Ballet Training

This article was downloaded by: [University of Tennessee, Knoxville]
On: 20 December 2014, At: 19:30

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,
UK
Research in Dance Education

Publication details, including instructions for authors
and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/crid20
The Role of Rhythm in Ballet

Training
Paulette Côté-Laurence
Published online: 25 Aug 2010.
To cite this article: Paulette Côté-Laurence (2000) The Role of Rhythm in Ballet
Training, Research in Dance Education, 1:2, 173-191, DOI: 10.1080/713694263
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/713694263
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the
information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform.
However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness,
or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views
expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the
Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with
primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any
losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages,
and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or
indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the
Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.
Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan,
sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is
expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Downloaded by [University of Tennessee, Knoxville] at 19:30 20 December 2014
Research in Dance Education, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2000
The Role of Rhythm in Ballet Training

PAULETTE CÔTÉ-LAURENCE, Department of Physical Education,
Brock University,500 Glenridge,St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1
(e-mail: pcotelau@ arnie.pec.brocku.ca)
ABSTRACT This exploratory study examined the importance of rhythm in ballet train-
ing. Five experienced instructors at a leading Canadian ballet school were interviewed
and observed while teaching senior students. These instructors viewed rhythm as critical
in ballet training. All concurred that student execution of the timing of slow-paced
movements and the beginning of a movement were problematic whereas allegro
movements were comparatively well performed. Class observations revealed the rhythm
of a ballet skill to be an integral part of the verbal description and demonstration of the
movement. Furthermore, the majority of verbal corrections addressed the timing of
movements. Although these senior students had reached high levels of ballet skill, they
had difculty processing the rhythm of the movements. The ndings of this study
suggest that understanding the processing of rhythmic elements and the control of
synchronization may facilitate ballet training.
The relationship between dance and music has long been recognized. The evolution of
music ties it closely to dance, while dance has historically relied upon music for its
structure and rhythms (Adshead, 1988; Gardner, 1983). Any discussion of dance without
reference to music would seem incomplete. There is an abundance of literature on the
natural partnership between dance and music. Dance scholars have formulated views
from an education perspective (H’Doubler, 1968), sociology perspective (Thomas, 1995),
analysis perspective (Adshead, 1998), and phenomenology perspective (Fraleigh, 1987).
Collaborations between composers Tchaikovsky, Stravinsky, Cage, and Copland, to
name a few, and world renowned ballet and modern dance choreographers are
legendary. Stravinsky (Gardner, 1983) is reported to have said that ‘music must be seen
to be properly assimilated’ (p. 123) while Balanchine (as cited in Ellfeldt, 1976, p. 205)
argued that ‘In my choreographic creations, I have always been dependent on music’.
The music–dance connection, however, is not without problems. The dilemma of
each gaining recognition as a legitimate art has been reported by Fokine (1983),
Greskovic (1998), and Lambert (1983). These authors’ position is that dance is no more
a mere visualization of music than music’s raison d’ être is simply to accompany dance.
Although each art clearly stands on its own, there is nonetheless a natural afnity
between dance and music.
ISSN 1464–7893 (print)/ ISSN 1470-1111 (online)/ 00/ 020173–19 Ó 2000 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/ 14647890020015797
174 P. Côté-Laurence
What exactly is the connection between dance and music? Sach (as cited in Côté-
Laurence, 1987a, p. 17) argues that ‘both music and dance receive impetus from a
common force, the impulse to move’. It is indeed difcult to listen to music without
doing some form of physical action, or to dance with the absence of some form or
aspect of music. In fact, one well-known method of music education originated from the
afnity between music and movement. Eurhythmics, a component of the Dalcroze
method of music education, is centrally based on the premise that rhythm must rst be
experienced through the body before it can be comprehended (Côté-Laurence, 1987b).
There is agreement that the central elements of music are rhythm, melody, harmony,
and tone colour or timbre. The Harvard Brief Dictionary of Music (Apel & Daniel,
1969) denes these elements as follows:
rhythm is everything pertaining to the duration quality (long-short) of musical

sounds; melody is the succession of musical tones; harmony is the simulta-
neous occurrence of musical tones; and tone colour is the peculiar quality of
a tone as sounded by an instrument or voice.
Are these elements equally important in music? According to Copland (1999), rhythm is
the most important musical element, as it represents the close relationship between
work and rhythm patterns as well as bodily movement and basic rhythms. The
composer further suggests that ‘most historians agree that if music started anywhere, it
started with the beating of a rhythm’ (p. 27). Cooper & Meyer (1960) concur by saying
that ‘to study rhythm is to study all of music (p. 1).Interestingly, of the four key music
elements, rhythm is the one most closely associated with dance. Although the main
focus of this paper is on rhythm, mention will be made later of the other elements of
music as part of the discussion on musicality.
Copeland & Cohen (1983) suggest that, in order for dance and music to go together,
they must share the same rhythmic structure. Humphrey (1959) argued that ‘of all the
ingredients in the art of dance, rhythm is the most persuasive and most powerful
element (p. 104). Rhythm, according to Sawyer (1985), is the element which transforms
movement from disjunct motor activity to a form of expression. Further, the author
argues that rhythm is the core, heart, or soul of dance. In her denition of dance, Hanna
(1999) proposed that one of the attributes that makes human behaviour qualify as dance
is that it is ‘intentionally rhythmical’. Finally, numerous scholars and educators have
acknowledged the importance of rhythm in dance, including writers such as Hawkins,
1988; H’Doubler, 1968; Lockhart & Pease,1982; Sherbon, 1975. Whilst the importance
of rhythm in dance has been established it is still open to question whether rhythm is
equally important in all dance forms or whether certain dance forms rely more on
rhythm than others. This study examines the status of music and rhythm in ballet.
Sawyer (1985) suggests that ‘you rarely hear anyone involved with ballet state baldly
that music is of no importance to it’ (p. 18). Hammond (2000) quotes Balanchine in
reference to his collaboration with Stravinsky: ‘His music provides the dancer’s oor.
It’s the reason for us to move. Without the music we don’t want to move’ (p. 8). Foss
(1978) maintains that, although dance and music are partners, in ballet they are two
separate entities, never equal. With regard to dance in general, Sachs (1963) and Foss
(1978) propose that rhythm is the connection between ballet and music. Recent
Rhythm in Ballet 175
texts emphasize the importance of music in ballet (Kassing & Jay, 1998; Hammond,
2000; Warren, 1989; White, 1996). The literature in dance and classical ballet refers to
music, rhythm, and musicality as important aspects of training and performance. To
dene music is not the objective of this article. However, the terms rhythm and
musicality are key to this paper, and are discussed in the context of training in classical
ballet.
In comparison with tonal music, relatively few advances have been made in the
music literature concerning the study of rhythm. Rhythm as a temporal concept has
been an area of investigation by a selected number of psychologists and music theorists
for many years. As it is a term difcult to dene, scientists have chosen a general
denition such as: rhythm is order in time (Fraisse, 1982; Jones, 1978; Smither, 1964).
However, in spite of this difculty, there is agreement that rhythm is a time phenom-
enon characterized by two essential components, structure and periodicity (Cooper
& Meyer, 1960; Davies, 1978; Fraisse, 1974; Jones, 1978; Seashore, 1938). In order for
a series of sounds to be considered rhythmical, they must be organized into a structure
(at least two different sounds, different either in duration or intensity), and that
structure must be repeated over and over. For the purpose of this paper, rhythm will be
dened as temporal patterns repeated periodically. For a comprehensive review of the
literature on rhythm, refer to Laurence (1986), Dowling & Harwood (1986), and Fraisse
(1982).
Among the many elements of rhythm, those most relevant to dance are the beat,
accent, meter, duration, rhythmic pattern, and tempo. The beat is the temporal unit of
a musical piece or a pattern of movements. The accent is the stressed beat, normally the
rst beat of the measure. Meter is the structure of the musical piece or dance sequence;
for example, the music is made up of measures (or groups) of three or four beats. The
meter is determined by the metric accent, an accent every four beats indicates a meter
of four, and so on. Duration represents the length of a sound or movement. The longest
duration is called the whole note, followed by the half note, quarter note, and so on.
A normal walking gait may be represented by a series of quarter notes while running is
represented by a series of eighth notes (steps are twice as frequent). When these
durations are combined, they form rhythmic patterns. For example, a simple rhythmic
pattern could be two eighth notes and one quarter note, repeated several times. The
meter of that pattern could be a meter of two, with the quarter note as the basic
temporal unit or beat. The tempo would indicate the rate of speed of the pattern.
Ballet training requires learning specic dance skills performed with accurate timing.
Ballet exercises are typically done to music, with a clear meter, rhythm, and count.
Students must therefore learn about basic elements of rhythm at the onset of their
training in order to move efciently. One basic skill in ballet training requires students
to be able to move to the beat. This implies that they can hear the beat. Then, they must
be able to identify the accent, differentiate between different meters, recognize various
rhythmic patterns made up of different durations, and maintain a tempo. Students
should also be able to hear rhythmic patterns and translate them into movements and
steps. All the basic elements described above are typically integrated in the execution
and performance of ballet exercises.
One key element in ballet training is the synchronization of movements to music.
FIG. 1. Ballet movements possess their own inherent rhythm yet they must be integrated with the music.
Kassing & Jay (1998) stress the importance of precision in classical ballet by saying that
students must learn to be at a certain place on a certain beat. There are many ways to
help students begin on time, and be prepared to move at the designated time. A typical
way is for the accompanist to play preparation notes or beats, and for the teacher to
count aloud. It may be important for students to understand how synchronization
works. One explanation may come from the information processing framework of
motor control, as presented by Schmidt & Lee (1999). This framework views the
individual as a processor of information.
A simplied information processing model consists of three stages: input (the signal),
processing (the learner), and output (the motor response). The input is the new skill
described or demonstrated to the learner. S/ he must try to gure out what to do in order
to imitate the skill, which represents the second stage, processing the input information.
During that second stage, the learner attempts to answer questions like: how did the
action begin?, what did the legs do?, how many beats? and so on. After these questions
are processed, a decision is made to initiate an action that should resemble the input.
The action represents the third stage, the output. Perceptual skills are critical in
detecting and identifying the input. A search of memory to recognize the input will be
used to prepare a plan of action for the output. Each of these three steps requires
cognitive activities which take time.
In sport, there are numerous tasks which require anticipation and timing, such as
hitting a tennis ball. Synchronizing a ballet movement with a beat is similar. An error
in timing in these two instances will result if the action arrives earlier or later than the
designated time. How does synchronization occur?
The rst step is anticipation of time of arrival of the designated (rst) beat. Because
a) the beat is heard before the beginning of the movement, b) it is repeated, and c) it
is predictable, the student should be able to anticipate when the rst beat will arrive.
Schmidt & Lee (1999) make reference to dance in their discussion on anticipation,
saying that’ dance instructors use a count that has the rst 1–2–3–4 presented without
action, and the pupils know that the rst action must begin with the ‘1’ of the second
1–2–3–4’ (p. 83).
The second step is to plan the response and activate the proper muscle groups to
execute the action so that it will coincide with the rst beat. From the moment the plan
of action has been determined to the moment the leg steps on beat one, some time has
elapsed, perhaps a few milliseconds. The dancer must therefore anticipate when the rst
beat will occur so s/ he can activate the motor plan soon enough to ensure that the
action coincides with the beat. This process is ongoing of course, so that, while
executing one action, the student can plan the next action so it too arrives on time.
Another perspective from which to study synchronization may come from biome-
chanics, more specically Newton’s law of inertia. The law states that, if a body is at
rest, it will tend to stay at rest, unless a force is applied to it (Abernethy, Kippers,
Mackinnon, Neal & Hanrahan, 1997). According to this law, the muscles must generate
enough force to overcome inertia of the limb in order to produce an action. Rhythmic
accuracy often depends upon anticipation as dancers frequently have to compensate for
a time delay which exists between the muscle excitation and contraction, and the overt
movement. This delay, as in the information processing model, takes place at the central
nervous system level. Much research is still required to comprehend the notions of
anticipation and synchronization in ballet.
Anticipation is therefore a strategy to reduce the time required to process the input.
Without anticipation, the dancer will begin processing the beat only when it arrives,
which will not give sufcient time for synchronization to occur. Like any other ability
or skill, learning to synchronize movement to music develops through conscious
attention. With practice and guidance from sensitive teachers, ballet students should be
encouraged to learn to hear and anticipate the beat, and therefore synchronize their
movements successfully to the music.
As much as it is crucial that ballet students respond accurately to the musical beat
early in their training, there is also another aspect of their musical training which is
equally if not more vital, and that is musicality. According to Sawyer (1985), the terms
musicality and rhythm are often used as synonyms. They are not; musicality appears to
be a broader concept than rhythm.
Musicality is a term which appears to be even more complex to dene than rhythm.
Sawyer (1985), an experienced ballet accompanist, argues that a practical understanding
of musicality in ballet is far from being the norm. Musicality is often mentioned by
authors, but rarely dened with clarity. Nonetheless, general characteristics are
identied which can help it to be described. First, musicality is more than moving to the
beat. Responding to the musical beat, according to Hammond (2000), is fundamental
to dance, but not enough; students must be able to perform phrases of movement to
phrases of music. Likewise, Kassing & Jay (1998) stress the importance for students to
demonstrate ow of movement that meshes with the music. In addition to not being
sufcient, could moving to the beat, or counting the beat, be counterproductive for a
dancer? Sawyer (1985) quotes Margot Fonteyn, ‘If I count, I can’t hear the music, and
if I get nervous, I forget the count! Then I’m really lost’ (p. 19). Phrasing in music
integrates not only changes in rhythm, but also the melodic and harmonic line and tone
quality. Leading ballet dancers are often known for their artistic interpretation of the
melodic line of the music. Thus, musicality appears to involve all four elements of music
described earlier: rhythm, melody, harmony, and tone colour.
The second characteristic of musicality addresses the relationship between what one
hears and what one does. Kassing & Jay (1998) recommend that the dancer should be
able to show a clear understanding of musical components in the body. They view
musicality as the ability to be one with the music, and, similar to Hammond (2000), to
phrase steps within phrases of the music. Warren (1989) and Sawyer (1985) state that
students must learn to be aware of the specic quality of each piece of music, and to
reect this quality in their movements. They argue that musicality is in fact the dancers’
ability to translate what they hear into their dancing. Musicality is then connecting
movement with music. The denition provided by Sawyer (1985, p. 38) summarizes
these notions well:
A dancer’s musicality is even more complicated than the musician’s (which is

complex and subtle enough!). A musical dancer is not a musical musician; her
musicality is a blend of two different—but related—things. Her performance
must combine muscular impulses and extremely subtle shadings of body-
timing with the framework of musical phrasing, rhythms and quality—as used
by the choreographer—and the two are by no means the same.
How then can musicality be developed? Hammond (2000) and Schlaich & DuPont
(1993) recommend that students’ ears be trained along with their muscles. Students must
be taught to listen to the music, dance with it, and feel every aspect of it, not just the
rhythm. In her autobiography, Karen Kain (1994), a principal dancer with the National
Ballet of Canada, and internationally renowned ballerina (Koegler, 1982), beautifully
puts into words what musicality is, or what it does to a dancer after years of experience:
‘one of the greatest pleasures for me has always been the music … I can’t bear to listen
to it unless I’m actually rehearsing or on stage … I’m programmed so that my muscles
and nerves automatically respond’ (p. 223).
In summary, the concepts rhythm and musicality are closely related but not synony-
mous. Rhythm pertains to the timing of sounds and movements whereas musicality
refers to sensitivity to music as a whole, which includes not only rhythm but also
melody, harmony and tone colour. The investigation reported in this paper addresses
rhythm, more specically its role in ballet training.
Although music and rhythm are important aspects of the dance experience, studies on
the contribution of rhythm to the acquisition of dance skills are scarce. Claims about the
benets of sensitivity to rhythm on dance learning and performance lack empirical
support. Therefore, the purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the perception
of experienced instructors at a leading Canadian ballet school on the role of rhythm in
ballet training, and to examine their practices in the classroom. The hypotheses
proposed were (1) there are specic rhythmic abilities required for success in ballet, and
(2) rhythm is a part of teachers’ practices in the classroom. It was argued that, if rhythm
is part of learning ballet technique, then instructors should be cognizant, not only of
ballet technique, but of rhythmic abilities as well. Furthermore, if rhythm is important
in ballet training, it should be an integral part of ballet teachers’ practices.
Method
Participants
A leading Canadian ballet school was targeted for this study, the reason being that only
advanced instructors would be selected to teach at a school acknowledged to be one of

the nest professional ballet academies in the world. Among its graduates are Canada’s
leading dancers, teachers, choreographers, and artistic directors (many of international
fame). The main criterion for the selection of participants was that they be experienced
teachers with an extensive and proven knowledge of ballet training. The Artistic
Director of the school suggested several senior instructors who were subsequently
contacted by the researcher and who agreed to participate in the study. Five instructors
(two male and three female) whose teaching experience at that school ranged from 4 to
30 years (average 13 years) agreed to participate. Three had performed nationally and
internationally, two were former dancers with the company, and one was the founder
of the school. All instructors were teaching senior students (ages 14–17) at the time of
the study.
Instrumentation
Interview. Five open-ended questions were designed by the researcher to guide the
participants in the semi-structured interview process. These questions focused on:
· the importance of rhythm in ballet training,

· the rhythmic abilities necessary for success in ballet,
· ballet movements whose timing causes difculty,
· ballet movements whose timing is accurate, and
· the instructors’ teaching method with regards to the rhythm of the exercises.
Only ve questions were used to ensure that participants had time to elaborate on their
views, observations, and practices. Secondary questions were used to probe into their
responses. For example, for question 3, the investigator asked instructors to specify
which part of the exercise was problematic, the beginning, middle, or end. The primary
and secondary interview questions are presented in Appendix A.
Class observation. The researcher, who was experienced in ballet, was a non-partici-
pant observer of the teaching behaviour of the instructors, particularly their efforts to
impart the rhythm of the exercises in their verbal instructions, demonstrations and
corrections.
Procedure
Following a meeting with the Artistic Director of the ballet school, the researcher
contacted the ve recommended instructors, and an interview date was set. Each
interview lasted approximately one hour and was conducted in a quiet room at the
school. The interview schedule consisted of ve open-ended questions (See Appendix A).
Secondary questions were used to elaborate when necessary; participants were asked to
provide practical examples to illustrate their points. The researcher recorded each
interview on a data sheet, and anecdotes were recorded verbatim. The data sheets
included each question, with sufcient space to record the responses. To minimize
discomfort among participants, the interviews were not tape-recorded. The researcher
went over her notes immediately following each interview session to ensure that the
handwritten description of the interview was complete, and that the responses were
accurately recorded.
Four of the ve instructors interviewed were subsequently observed teaching a
90-minute ballet class during its regularly scheduled weekday time slot (the fth
instructor was away conducting auditions across the country at the time of the
observations). The classes were with senior students (age 14–17): eight male (grade 11
age 16); nine female (grade 9 age 14); 11 female (grade 10 age 15); and 12 mixed (grade
11–12 age 16–17). The observations focused essentially on the instructors’ treatment of
the rhythm aspect of the ballet exercises being taught. Three teaching behaviours were
observed: the verbal instructions when presenting an exercise, the demonstration, and
the corrections provided to students. These behaviours were selected because they tend
to represent the typical duties of the ballet instructor during a lesson. The content of
each lesson was recorded by the investigator on data sheets. Data sheets included the
three behaviours, each with sufcient space on which to record observations. All
observations were noted as they occurred chronologically in the lesson. To minimize
disruption, classes were not videotaped. Immediately after the lesson, the researcher
moved to a quiet room and reviewed the notes to ensure that they were complete and
accurate.
Data analysis
Data analysis of this exploratory study is mainly descriptive, and is based on the ve
interview questions and three teaching behaviours observed. The objective of the
analysis was to organize the data into categories which represented the ballet instruc-
tors’ knowledge. Data analysis followed steps proposed by researchers such as Strauss
and Corbin (1990), Tesch (1990), and Côté, Salmela, Baria, & Russell (1993) for
assessing gymnastics coaches’ knowledge. Each completed interview was read carefully
to get a sense of the whole. The text was then divided into meaningful units of
information. A meaningful unit is described by Tesch (1990) as a ‘segment of text that
is comprehensible by itself and contains one idea, episode, or piece of information’
(p. 116). These units of information were then grouped into distinct themes or categories
according to common features. For example, for question one, a category was that
‘rhythm is linked to musicality’. Several meaningful units of information offered by
subjects contained the idea that rhythm is in some ways connected to musicality. The
interviewed instructors did not verify the transcriptions. This was not viewed as
problematic as neither the participants’ names nor the ballet school were disclosed.
Using a similar procedure the class observations were also analysed and described
according to the three teaching behaviours, and are reported below.
Results
Interviews
Question 1: How do you view the importance of rhythm in classical ballet train-
ing? All instructors agreed that rhythm is essential in ballet training. One instructor
reected that ‘when looking for a dancer in an audition, we look for two components,
the physical ability to move, which everyone has, and the ability to connect movement
to music, which not everyone has’. In response to this question, most instructors
described three aspects of rhythm which pertain to ballet.
First, rhythm was seen as a basic response of the body to some internal or external
stimulus. An example provided by one instructor is the natural tendency to jump on
counts 1 and 3 of a four beat pattern, rather than to jump on counts 2 and 4. Second,
rhythm is related to the dynamics and timing of movement. Instructors argued that
rhythm stresses accent in the movement, and that the accent provides a change in the
dynamics of that movement. They viewed a change in timing as crucial in ballet as it
pertains to texture of movement. Third, rhythm is related to musicality. Instructors
perceived musicality as an umbrella term which signies a general sensitivity to music
and, therefore, includes rhythm. One instructor dened musicality as ‘the ability to
reproduce music at a higher state via the body’. Musicality and an impeccable technique
were both perceived to be critical for success in ballet, ‘an unmusical student will not
go to the top’. One instructor felt strongly that rhythm is an emotional phenomenon
which evolves from feeling the music, the beat, the pattern and the meter. Two
instructors viewed musicality and rhythmic abilities as related to the artistic quality of
the dancer.
Question 2: What are the rhythmic abilities that you perceive as necessary for ballet
training? A number of abilities were described as critical for successful ballet training
and were generally related to accuracy in motor response. Understanding the basic
elements of rhythm was seen as a prerequisite to all other abilities. Elements such as
beat, meter, accent, rhythmic pattern, and tempo were considered basic.
Instructors agreed that it is not enough to know about music; one must be able to feel
it in order to react to it with the body. Students who can feel the music are constantly
moving, overtly and covertly, as the action takes place not only on the beat but
throughout the rhythmic phrase. The interaction of breathing and anticipation/prep-
aration takes place between the overt responses. An example given by one instructor
was an exercise counted as ‘ one 2–3, two 2–3, three 2–3, four 2–3’. Although the main
action is initiated on the down beat, the time between beats (‘2–3’) is spent completing
completing the action and preparing for the next action. Thus, there is continuous use
of muscular tension throughout the four-count movement.
One instructor pointed out that, although students listen to music all the time outside
of class, they seem to have difculty synchronizing movement to music in the dance
studio. As described earlier, this ability requires that the student perceptually hear the
beat and synchronize a movement to it. One instructor emphasized the importance of
being able to ‘go ahead of the music rather than wait for the music’. However, the
ability to synchronize movement to music implies that one is able to begin on time,
regardless of the rhythm of the movement.
Although musicality was not clearly dened, its importance was emphasized by two
instructors. One instructor argued that musicality may be innate. She reected that ‘if
you are musical, you can “play” with the music; if you are not, you can be on the beat,
but dull’. Both instructors associated the ability to feel the music with musicality. Other
elements mentioned included the ability to execute steps with proper timing, and to
recognize changes in meter.
Question 3: Describe movements that are difcult due to their rhythm. The instructors
unanimously agreed that there are two problematic aspects: slow paced movements, and
the beginning of a movement.
Slow paced movements. The second part of a ballet class, the adagio, consists of a
succession of slow, sustained and graceful movements (Greskovic, 1998). Technically
demanding, adagio movements are a major part of ballet training. All instructors
revealed that slow exercises are difcult as they appear to require greater body control.
Pliés, développés, arabesques, and other adagio movements must be executed with a
precise timing at a slow tempo. For example, the working leg in a développé must be
extended and arrive to an open position en l’air at count 4 and be held there with perfect
control for four counts. Such slow actions require great muscular strength and stamina.
The beginning of an exercise. All instructors agreed that ballet students tend to be late
at the beginning of an exercise; students do not know that they must anticipate and
prepare the action before it begins. Specically, an exercise which begins on ‘and’ (as
opposed to one that begins on ‘one’) causes great difculty for many students. For
example, students tend to be late for jumps; they stay on the oor too long, conse-
quently jump and land late. If they are asked to plié on ‘and’ in order to be in the air
on ‘one’, they must anticipate and prepare in order to do it correctly. Instructors
acknowledged that this ability improves with practice, but requires continued conscious
attention.
Question 4: Describe movements that are executed with accurate rhythm. Again,
instructors were unanimous in their answer to this question. Fast-paced movements
such as those found in the allegro part of the lesson have an easier rhythm than adagio
movements. Jumps, leaps and hops mainly constitute allegro movements. Quick move-
ments on the beat such as grand battements are done accurately. Finally, one participant
mentioned that pliés and relevés are also easy as they are of equal duration, two counts
for plié, and two counts for relevé for example.
Question 5: Describe the steps you use when teaching a ballet exercise. Focus on how
you specify the rhythm of the exercise. Instructors were asked to describe the steps
they take when presenting an exercise. There was consensus in the sequence of their
teaching. First, the instructor gives verbal instructions, demonstrates the exercise, and
points out the count. These take place without accompaniment. Students then attempt
the exercise with accompaniment. The instructor gives corrections and comments, and
nally, students repeat the exercise.
The main distinction arose in how the instructor presents the exercise verbally with
demonstration. The demonstration may be given with the entire body or with the hand.
Verbal instructions also include information on the rhythm of the exercise. The
instructor would say, for example, ‘plié, one-two, relevé, three-four’. Interestingly, there
was a gender difference in the way the timing was presented. The two male instructors
gave the timing by counting and using nger snaps whereas the three female instructors
used words, voice intonation and gestures as indicators of rhythm. For example, when
teaching younger students, one female instructor sang ‘ ankle and toes and stay and stay’
rather than counting ‘ one and two and three and four’. All instructors gave the initial
verbal instructions without accompaniment. This helps students concentrate solely on
the exercise. The demonstration serves two purposes: to give students a picture of the
movement with the counts, and to give the accompanists the information they need:
precise meter, tempo and phrasing of the exercise.
Class observations
In the weeks following the interviews, four ballet classes with senior students were
observed. All classes were conducted with an accompanist who played a variety of
music, from classical to popular and from original to modied versions. The accompa-
niment consisted of both duple and triple meter. The instructor always specied the
meter and tempo for each exercise. As a reminder, the three teacher behaviours reported
here are strictly related to the rhythm of the exercises. As expected, there are more
comments on verbal instructions than the other two behaviours, as the rhythm of an
exercise is typically presented verbally. It was also important to give examples verbatim
to illustrate the instructors’ emphasis on rhythm in their teaching.
Verbal instructions. Without exception, all four instructors stressed precision in

execution of movements. Comments such as ‘you must be on time’ or ‘the leg is fully
extended at count four’ illustrate this point. One instructor used an analogy: ‘a student
who lacks precision is like wet bread, no muscular tone; precision requires a lot of
work’.
All instructors marked the movement as it was being demonstrated, either with
counts, words or sounds, conveying important rhythm elements such as meter, accent
and tempo. For example, a plié was executed on ‘one-two’, and a relevé on ‘three-four’;
a battement tendu exercise was described as: ‘the battement is on “and” and the return
to rst position on “one”;’ a rond de jambe was demonstrated at a slow tempo while
marked with the precise counts ‘one 2 3, two 2 3, three 2 3, four 2 3’; jumps were
presented as ‘the plié is on the “and” and the jump is on the “one” ’.
With more complex movements, instructors verbally emphasized a critical part of the
exercise, thus bringing students’ attention to it. For example, in a faster rond de jambe,
one instructor placed the strong accent at the beginning when the foot passed through
the rst position to fourth position front, by saying ‘ out (one) out (two) stay
(three–four)’. Another difcult exercise is one involving a change of meter or tempo, e.g.
in a fondu exercise with a slow part A, and a more dynamic part B where the legs and
arms move at a different tempo in the battement exercise: the leg executes one
battement per beat while the arm completes one full cycle every four beats. Such an
example represents counterpoint; here counting is fairly simple, yet the motor coordi-
nation involved between leg and arm actions can be complex.
In addition to information on the movement itself, the teachers’ verbal instructions
always included the preparation for the exercise. All instructors stressed the importance
of the preparation, and to be ready to begin on time. They also veried whether timing
was understood at the end of their verbal instructions. After having explained an allegro
exercise, one instructor asked students ‘how many counts for the turn, the jump’, and
so on. It was clear that this instructor wanted them to know the precise count before
the rst execution. Interestingly, although witnessed only once, one student asked
clarication on the counts of an adagio pirouette exercise after it had been demonstrated
without precise counts.
Demonstration In general, all exercises were demonstrated once by the instructor,

using the designated body part. One instructor, however, demonstrated the direction of
a rond de jambe exercise with her hand. Most demonstrations were accompanied by
verbal instruction or simply the counts. There were also instances where the movement
was demonstrated twice, the rst time in silence, and the second time with counting.
Corrections All instructors gave verbal feedback to students after the rst attempts.
Corrections were on two aspects: technique and rhythm. Surprisingly for this level of
dancers, the majority of corrections were on rhythm for three of the four instructors
observed.
Feedback on technique. In general, there were very few comments made on the
technical aspect of the exercises. For one instructor, the rst feedback was usually on
technique. For an adagio exercise for example, the instructor insisted on the quality of
the movement: ‘show us you are alive’. Another instructor corrected body position and
alignment through physical guidance but did not verbally comment on technique.
Finally, a third instructor gave feedback on the spatial conguration of a difcult
exercise. In an allegro exercise, the instructor reminded students that, ‘after the grand
jeté, you face downstage, and after the turn, you face upstage left’.
Feedback on rhythm of exercise. The overwhelming majority of verbal feedback was

on the rhythm of the movement. All instructors stressed that precision is key in ballet.
After watching the rst executions, they stopped the class and reiterated that, ‘the
battement must be on the “and” rather than on “one”; or ‘you are waiting too long;’
or ‘you must be ready to begin on time;’ or ‘you must anticipate in order to be on time’.
To emphasize that dancing is more than mere technicality, one instructor said ‘you may
be right technically, but you are not “there” ’.
The accent of the movement was often claried by two instructors. For example, one
instructor demanded to see the accent of the jump exercise on the ‘up’ rather than on
the ‘down’; she had students demonstrate one at a time the proper execution. In a
sissonne exercise, another instructor had students execute the movement two at a time
to ensure that the counts were accurate. Another instructor continually stressed ‘to be
there at that count’. He insisted that ‘you have to pay attention to counts, you have to
be alert’; ‘when I want the plié on one bar, I do not want it on two bars’.
Discussion
Limitations
Due to the exploratory nature of this study, certain aspects of normal research
procedure were not followed. This lack of control may have confounded the results.
First, a possible order effect was not balanced. As all participants were initially
interviewed and subsequently observed in the studio, it is possible that they unintention-
ally modied their teaching behaviour and class material to t their comments in the
interview. In future studies, it will be necessary to balance for an order effect by rst
interviewing half of the subjects and observing the others.
A second potential bias may have been the investigator’s role in the research process.
As neither interviews nor observations were audio/video-taped, it is possible that the
investigator reported only the information which supported the hypotheses. Also, the
presence of the researcher during classes may have inuenced the instructors’ be-
haviours. Future studies would necessitate that all data be video-taped, and, if possible,
a second trained researcher would also analyze the data.
Finally, all ve instructors were employed by the same dance school. It is possible that
this particular institution places a special emphasis on rhythm in ballet training,
therefore, hiring instructors with a personal background in rhythm and music. In order
to make inferences for ballet in general, it would be necessary to test ballet instructors
across several similar ballet schools.
The purpose of this exploratory study was to gain a better understanding of the role
of rhythm in the acquisition of ballet skills. As expected, all participants concurred that
rhythm is important in ballet training. As mentioned earlier, ballet technique has a strict
code of technical regulations and is known for its streamlined exactness. Dame Ninette
de Valois (1978) maintained that ‘there is no school as strict as a pure classical school’
(p. 38). Throughout the interviews and class observations, it was clear that precision
was stressed, and that ballet skills must be executed with a specic rhythm. Thus it is
fair to say that rhythm is part of the fabric of ballet skills. There was little disagreement
between the instructors’ perceptions concerning rhythm and ballet. This may be due to
the fact that they were all working for the same ballet school. Would a larger sample
across national schools of the same calibre yield similar results? Further research is
needed.
Success in ballet, according to all ve instructors, requires not only natural body
structure (an assertion that needs to be tested), but also rhythmic and musical abilities.
The ability to react to and feel the music, begin on time, move to the beat and meter,
recognize meter and tempo changes, and synchronize movement with music were listed.
The instructors referred to both musicality and rhythm, yet they did not provide a clear
distinction between the two terms This supports Sawyer’s (1985) contention that these
terms are not synonyms, though they are often perceived to be. As presented earlier,
musicality is a much broader concept than rhythm. Although the intent of the present
study was to investigate rhythm, there is certainly a need to examine the nature of
musicality and how it develops in dance (Côté-Laurence, 1996).
This study raised questions regarding the development of ballet skills and rhythmic
abilities. Insights may be found in the area of motor learning (Schmidt & Lee, 1999), as
suggested earlier in this paper. Questions on learners’ capabilities and limitations in
processing information, in attention and memory capacity, and in detecting errors in
movement are the purview of this eld of the movement sciences. The ability to identify
the beat or any element of rhythm is linked to the capabilities of the perceptual
mechanism which is responsible for identifying the input; the ability to synchronize a
movement with the music may be regulated by the learner’s ability to process the
stimulus and prepare a correct response. Very little research has been done in this area
in dance. Two studies were conducted by Starkes and colleagues on the role of context
and music on the recall of ballet sequences (Starkes, Deakin, Lindley & Crisp, 1987),
and on the role of context on the recall of modern dance sequences (Starkes, Caicco,
Boutilier & Sevsek, 1990). Puretz (1983) investigated the notion of transfer in dance
learning, while Clarkson, James, Watkins, and Foley (1986) examined the role of
feedback on ballet performance. Clearly, more research in this area will help answer
questions raised in this paper and in dance learning in general.
According to the ve instructors, slow-paced adagio movements and the preparation
of an exercise are not accurately performed by students. How can this be explained?
One explanation may be related to the learner’s attention span. A student faced with a
novel task will most likely concentrate entirely on the proprioception (sensory infor-
mation from the joints and muscles) of the action, and may not be able simultaneously
to attend to other information such as the auditory stimulus (the music). As pointed out
by Sawyer (1985), it is regrettable that the average ballet student focuses solely on the
development of a strong technique while ignoring the music. With proper guidance and
training, a student can be helped to attend to both proprioceptive and auditory
information concurrently. This, according to Warren (1989), is precisely the duty of the
teacher, and can be facilitated with the selection of proper accompaniment. In order to
‘enable students to think simultaneously about executing the step correctly and perform-
ing it to the music, the melody and rhythm must be clearly recognizable, with the tempo
set at a speed that is realistic, given the student’s ability’ (p. 74).
The second problematic aspect identied in the study is the students’ inability to
begin and end on time. As described in the earlier part of the paper, the ability to
synchronize a motor response to a stimulus relies on the individual’s capacity to predict
the exact time of occurrence of the stimulus. Processing information takes time. If the
dancer can predict the time of occurrence of the next beat, then the cognitive operations
involved in response selection and execution can be initiated before the sound occurs.
This will allow the overt movement to be made at approximately the same time as the
beat. Without anticipation, the motor planning is late, causing the movement to be late.
Simply put, the movement must be prepared before the rst beat in order to coincide
with it. The importance of the preparatory counts for an exercise cannot be overstated
here. The instructor’s counts, as suggested by Schlaich and DuPont (1993), should
establish the meter, tempo, and general quality of the movement phrase.
This researcher suggests that the two problematic cases identied by the participants
can be modied with proper training. It is proposed that both cases are directly related,
not only to sensitivity to rhythm, but also to musicality. As Sawyer (1985) suggests, a
dancer must learn that, if the preparatory and connecting movements are sensitively and
rhythmically executed, the main actions will be performed correctly through the
musicality of his/her body and ear. Shook (1977) believes that the development of true
musicality, essential in the making of a dancer, should begin early in the training of a
ballet dancer.
Class observations indicate that the sequence of teaching promoted at that particular
Canadian ballet school is typical of a ballet class. Hammond (2000) suggests that a
ballet student learns the technique by watching the instructor demonstrate an exercise
while counting it. Although some variations were observed, the sequence of instruction
displayed by the four instructors was, for the most part, identical and supported the
interview ndings. It may be worthwhile to investigate in future research the parallel
between the stages of learning sport skills and dance skills. Such studies may help
elucidate the cognitive activities that take place when the dancer is presented with a
novel ballet skill, as well as those factors which inuence learning.
The most revealing result of the observations was the type of feedback given to senior
ballet students. Hammond (2000) proposes that corrections are basic ingredients to
ballet teaching. The Canadian ballet school instructors gave very few corrections on the
technique of the movements. Rather, most of their corrections were on the timing or
rhythm of the exercises. This is an interesting point considering that the students were
seniors and the observations took place during the second semester. These senior
students, over several years of enrolment at that school, have developed a strong
technique and a solid knowledge in ballet. Late in the year, when students are familiar
with most lesson exercises, why would so many dance skills be corrected on timing?
An explanation may be that students continue to concentrate only on the technical
skills and that timing is not perceived to be part of the technique. Possibly, rhythmic
skills are more cognitively demanding than physical skills, and as such, can only be
developed with specic training. One instructor commented that students listen to music
regularly outside of class, yet have difculty hearing music in the dance studio. This is
not surprising, as there is a fundamental difference between cognitive activities involved
in listening to music and those involved in understanding its structure. Starting an
exercise on time requires understanding the rhythmic structure of the music and
movement, therefore deeper perceptual information-processing activity than that re-

quired when simply listening to music. Finally, another possible explanation for the
inordinate number of rhythm corrections may be instructor prediction that rhythm
was the focus of this study. This is clearly another aspect to be considered in future
research.
An interesting observation must be made at this point. Although some students
appeared to be limited in their capacity to process perceptual information, they, on the
other hand, have acquired superior memory for movement. In some instances, an
exercise was as long as 64 counts. The instructor gave brief verbal instructions only once
with partial demonstration, and students were able to execute the entire exercise
without apparent difculty. Of course the fact that the exercise was executed en croix
helped, as it provided repetition in different directions. In addition to being lengthy,

some exercises were highly complex as they consisted of intricate actions performed
with two different timings. For example, in a battement exercise, the leg moved on each
beat (4 battements, 4 beats) while the arm executed one circular motion which lasted
four beats. Nonetheless, such long serial sequences, common also to artistic sports such
as gure skating, artistic and rhythmic gymnastics and synchronized swimming, label
dance skills as highly complex motor skills.
The focus of this study was the role of rhythm in learning ballet skills. It was
hypothesized that, if instructors view rhythm to be important in ballet training, it
should be reected in their verbal instructions, demonstrations and corrections in the
dance class. The results from both interviews and observations support this hypothesis.
The logical next question is to learn how better to assist students to develop these
rhythmic skills. How can instructors help them improve their ability to perceive
elements of rhythm, anticipate the beat and accurately synchronize their movements
with the accompaniment? It is proposed that rhythmic abilities can be developed by
understanding the elements of rhythm most pertinent to classical ballet, and the
cognitive processes which produce efcient and precise ballet movements.
Conclusion and Recommendations

Overall, the ndings of the present study support the hypotheses that there are specic
rhythmic abilities associated with ballet training, and that rhythm is a part of teachers’
practices in the ballet classroom. Experienced ballet instructors at that Canadian ballet
school afrmed that rhythm is an integral part of ballet training and that there are
rhythmic abilities conducive to success in ballet. Adagio movements and the beginning
of a ballet exercise caused more rhythmic difculty than any other movements in the
ballet class. Overall, the observed teaching practices illustrated the instructors’ belief
that rhythm is critical in ballet training. The most revealing nding, however, was the
dominance of corrections on rhythm over technique with senior ballet students. This
may suggest that the rhythm of a ballet movement may be more cognitively demanding
than its physical correctness. It is proposed that an understanding of the motor control
of rhythmic movements, more specically synchronization, may facilitate the learning
and performance of complex ballet skills. Based on the ndings of this study, four
recommendations are made.
· More systematic investigation on rhythm is needed, not only in ballet, but in other
dance forms as well. More rigorous methodology is required in future studies.
· There is a need to examine musicality, as it is believed to be critical in classical ballet.
Such research will clarify the link between rhythm and musicality.
· The development and mastery of rhythmic skills requires further research and it may
be that motor learning models could be used to explain dance learning.
· Knowledge of rhythmic abilities and how they develop should be part of the
preparation of ballet instructors.
The present exploratory study yielded interesting information on the role of rhythm in
ballet training. Clearly, more research is needed to better understand rhythm, musical-
ity, and the development of expertise in ballet. Rhythmic precision is not exclusive to
ballet and investigating the status of rhythm in contemporary and vernacular dance
forms may also contribute to our understanding.
REFERENCES
ABERNETHY, B., KIPPERS, V., MACKINNON, L.T., NEAL, R.J. & HANRAHAN, S. (1997) The Biophysical
Foundations of Human Movement (Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics).
APEL, W. & DANIEL, R.T. (Eds) (1969) The Harvard Brief Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, MA,
Harvard University Press).
ADSHEAD, J. (1998) Introduction to dance analysis, in: A. CARTER (Ed.) The Routledge Dance Studies
Reader (London, Routledge).
ADSHEAD, J. (Ed.) (1988) Dance Analysis: theory and practice (London, Dance Books Ltd).
CLARKSON, P.M., J AMES, R., WATKINS, A. & FOLEY, P. (1986) The effect of augmented feedback on foot
pronation during barre exercise in dance, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 57(1),
pp. 33–40.
COOPER, C. & MEYER, L.B. (1960) The Rhythmic Structure of Music (Chicago, The University of
Chicago Press).
CÔTÉ, J., SALMELA, J.H., BARIA, A. & RUSSELL, S.J. (1993) Organizing and interpreting unstructured
qualitative data, The Sport Psychologist, 7, pp. 127–137.
CÔTÉ-LAURENCE, P. (1996) Development of rhythm literacy for dancers, in: L. YOUNG OVERBY & P.
CÔTÉ-LAURENCE (Eds.) Dance Education: a lifetime of experiences (Proceedings of the First
Biannual Dance Education Conference, East Lansing, MI, Michigan State University).
CÔTÉ-LAURENCE, P. (1987a) Dance and music: a new look at an old alliance, Canadian Association for
Health, Physical Education and Recreation Journal, 53(4), pp. 16–20.
CÔTÉ-LAURENCE, P. (1987b) Rhythm for children: a comparison of two approaches, Kodály Envoy,
XIII(4), pp. 29–33.
COPELAND, R. & COHEN, M (Eds) (1983) What is Dance? (London, Oxford University Press).
COPLAND, A. (1999) What to Listen for in Music (New York, Mentor).
DAVIES, J.B. (1978) The Psychology of Music (London, Hutchinson).
DE VALOIS, N. (1978) Red herrings, in: M. CRABB (Ed.) Visions: ballet and its future (Toronto, Simon
& Pierre).
DOWLING, W.J., & HARWOOD, D.L. (1986) Music Cognition (New York, Academic Press).
ELLFELDT, L. (1976) Dance from Magic to Art (Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown).
FOKINE, M. (1983) Letter to ‘The Times’, July 6th, 1914, in: R. COPELAND & M. COHEN (Eds) What
is Dance? (London, Oxford University Press).
FOSS, L. (1978) The user and the used, in: M. CRABB (Ed.) Visions: ballet and its future (Toronto,
Simon & Pierre).
FRAISSE, P. (1974) Psychologic du rythme (Paris, Presses Universitaires de France).
FRAISSE, P. (1982) Rhythm and tempo, in: D. DEUTSCH (Ed.) The Psychology of Music (New York,
Academic Press).
FRALEIGH, S.H. (1987) Dance and the Lived Body: A Descriptive Aesthetics (Pittsburgh, The University
of Pittsburgh Press).
GARDNER, H. (1983) Frames of Mind: the Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York, Basic Books).
GRESKOVIC, R. (1998) Ballet 1.0.1. A Complete Guide to Learning and Loving the Ballet (New York,
Hyperion).
HAMMOND, S. N. (2000) Ballet Basics (Palo Alto, CA, Mayeld Publishing Company).
HANNA, J.L. (1999) Partnering Dance and Education: Intelligent Moves for Changing Times (Cham-
paign, IL, Human Kinetics Publishers).
HAWKINS, A.M. (1988) Creating through Dance (Princeton, NJ, A Dance Horizons Book).
H’DOUBLER, M.N. (1968) Dance, a Creative Art Experience (Madison, WI, The University of
Wisconsin Press).
HUMPHREY, D. (1959) The Art of Making Dances (New York, Holy, Rinehart, and Winston).
J ONES, M.R. (1978) Auditory patterns: studies in the perception of structure, in, E.C.CARTERETTE &
M.P. FRIEDMAN (Eds.) Handbook of Perception: Vol. 8 (New York, Academic Press).
KAIN, K. (1994) Movement Never Lies. An Autobiography (Toronto, McClelland & Stewart Inc.).
KASSING, G. & JAY, D.M. (1998) Teaching Beginning Ballet Technique (Champaign, IL, Human
Kinetics Publishers).
KOEGLER, H. (Ed.) (1982) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Ballet (London, Oxford University Press).
LAMBERT, C. (1983) Music and action, in: R. COPELAND & M. COHEN (Eds) What is Dance? (London,
Oxford University Press).
LAURENCE, P.C. (1986) The accuracy of reproduction of rhythmic patterns as a function of their order
and serial position (Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1985) University of
Oregon: Microform Publications, College of Human Development and Performance).
LOCKHART, A.S. & PEASE, E.E. (1982) Modern Dance. Building and Teaching Lessons (Dubuque, IA
Wm.C. Brown).
PURETZ, S. (1983) Bilateral transfer: the effects of practice on the transfer of complex dance movement
patterns, Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 54(1), pp. 48–54.
SACHS, C. (1963) World History of the Dance (New York W. W. Norton Library).
SAWYER, E. (1985) Dance with the Music: the world of the ballet musician. (Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press).
SCHLAICH, J. & DUPONT, B. (1993). The Art of Teaching Dance Technique (Reston, VA, National
Dance Association).
SCHMIDT, R. A. & LEE, T.D. (1999) Motor Control and Learning: a behavioral emphasis (Champaign,
IL, Human Kinetics Publishers).
SEASHORE, C.E. (1938) Psychology of Music (New York, McGraw Hill).
SHERBON, E. (1975) On the count of one: modern dance methods (Palo Alto, CA, Mayeld).
SHOOK, K. (1977) Elements of Classical Ballet Technique as Practiced in the School of the Dance
Theatre of Harlem (New York, Dance Horizons).
SMITHER, H.E. (1964) The rhythm analysis of 20th century music, Journal of Music Theory, 8,
pp. 555–569.
STARKES, J.L., CAICEO, M., BOUTILIER, C. & SEVSEK, B. (1990) Motor recall of experts for structured and
unstructured sequences in creative modern dance, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 12,
pp. 317–321.
STARKES, J.L., DEAKING, J.M., LINDLEY, S. & CRISP, F. (1987) Motor versus verbal recall of ballet
sequences by young dance experts, Journal of Sport Psychology, 9, pp. 222–230.
STRAUSS, A. & CORBIN, J. (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research: grounded theory procedures and
techniques (Newbury Park, CA, Sage).
T ESCH, R. (1990) Qualitative Research Analysis Types and Software Tools (New York, Falmer Press).
T HOMAS, H. (1995) Dance Modernity and Culture (New York, Routledge).
WARREN, W. (1989) Classical Ballet Technique (Tampa, FL, University of South Florida Press).
WHITE, J. (1996) Teaching Classical Ballet (Gainesville, FL, University of Florida Press).
Appendix A
Interview Questionnaire
How do you view the importance of rhythm in classical ballet training?
a) You may talk about dance in general, then go specically to ballet.
What are the rhythmic abilities that you perceive as necessary for ballet training?
Describe movements/ exercises that are difcult due to their rhythm.
a) Which part of a movement causes difculty: the beginning, middle, or end?
b) Give examples for each part of a ballet lesson
c) Explain what makes each exercise difcult
Describe movements/ exercises that are executed with accurate rhythm.

Describe the steps you use when teaching a ballet exercise. Focus on how you specify the rhythm of
the exercise. For example, do you begin with a demonstration or verbal instruction?
a) How do you present the rhythm of an exercise? Do you count aloud?
b) Do you count the exercise while you demonstrate it or after?
c) If students have difculty with the rhythm, describe what you do to help them.
Appendix B
Glossary of Ballet Terms
Adagio Succession of slow and sustained movements; the central part of the traditional
ballet class.
Allegro Any dance movement combination in fast tempo; the third part of a ballet class.
Arabesque Body position supported on one leg, with the other leg extended behind and at
a right angle, while the arms are held in various harmonious positions.
Battement Beating movement of the extended or bent leg.
Battement tendu Stretched beating of the leg and foot.
Grand battement Large beating or kicking action of the leg into the air.
Développé The unfolding of the working leg into an open position in the air, where it is held
with perfect control.
En croix Executing an exercise to the front, to the side, to the back, and again to the side.
Fondu The lowering of the body by bending the knee of the supporting leg.
Grand jeté A big jump from one leg to the other, in which the working leg seems to be
thrown forward, sideways, or backward.
Pirouette One or more turns of the body on one leg, with the point of the working leg
generally touching the knee of the supporting leg.
Plié The bending of the knee or knees.
Relevé The rising of the body from the at foot to half or full-point.
Rond de jambe A circular movement of the leg which can be performed on the oor or in the air.
Sissonne A scissor-like jump taking off two feet and nishing on one foot.
(Denitions acquired from the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Ballet (Koegler, 1982))

The Role of Rhythm in Ballet Training

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Role of Rhythm in Ballet Training

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

This article was downloaded by: [University of Tennessee, Knoxville]

On: 20 December 2014, At: 19:30

Research in Dance Education

The Role of Rhythm in Ballet

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/713694263

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

The Role of Rhythm in Ballet Training

rhythm is everything pertaining to the duration quality (long-short) of musical

A dancer’s musicality is even more complicated than the musician’s (which is

advanced instructors would be selected to teach at a school acknowledged to be one of

· the importance of rhythm in ballet training,

Verbal instructions. Without exception, all four instructors stressed precision in

Demonstration In general, all exercises were demonstrated once by the instructor,

Feedback on rhythm of exercise. The overwhelming majority of verbal feedback was

movement, therefore deeper perceptual information-processing activity than that re-

helped, as it provided repetition in different directions. In addition to being lengthy,

Conclusion and Recommendations

Describe movements/ exercises that are executed with accurate rhythm.

You might also like