Semester

2019/2020
1st

Philadelphia University
Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

HYDRAULIC
LABORATORY MANUAL

Prepared by Reviewed by Approved by

Eng.Isra’a Alsmadi Dr.Ahamad Dubdub Dr.Mohmmed Al-Iessa
Lab Instructor Associate Professor Associate Professor
Head of Civil Engineering
Dept
 SYLLABUS
(Hydraulics Laboratory)

 Course number and name

0670442: Hydraulics Laboratory

 Credits and contact hours

1 Credit Hour

 Instructor’s :
Instructor: Eng.Isra’a Alsmadi and Eng.Esra’a Alhyasat

 Text book, title, author, and year

 “Hydraulics Laboratory Manual”, (Prepared Eng.Isra’a Alsmadi/ Civil Engineering
Department/Philadelphia University),(2019)

 Specific course information

 Brief description of the content of the course (catalog description)
Calibration of bourdon gauge, Metacentric height of floating bodies , Osborne
Reynolds demonstration , Impact of jet, Orifice and free jet flow determination of
coefficient of velocity and coefficient of discharge, Triangular and rectangular
notches and Hydraulic gradient with ground water flow.

 Prerequisites
Prerequisite: Hydraulics (0670441)

 Course objectives:
 The students will be able to understand and follow procedures, through lab manual.
 The students will be able to work in teams, as experiments are conducted in
groups.
 The students will be able to prepare a technical report, as the findings of
experiments have to be reported in well-structured format.
 The students will be able to critically evaluate their results, by comparing them
with related published information.
 The Students will understand and be able to apply fundamental concepts and
techniques of hydraulics in the analysis, design, and operation of water resources
systems.
 The students will be able to appreciate how the theoretical concepts are applied
practically.
 The students will be able to understand how results of a practical are influenced by
the status of the apparatus.

Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi 2

  Course outcomes:
Students who successfully complete this course will have demonstrated ability to:
 Identify, name, and characterize flow patterns and regimes.
 Understand basic units of measurement, convert units, and appreciate their
magnitudes.
 Measure volume flow rate and relate it to flow velocity
 Use word and excel software in writing reports.
 Compare the results of analytical models introduced in lecture to the actual
behavior of real fluid flows and draw correct and sustainable conclusions.
 List of experiment:
Experiment (1): Calibration of Bourdon Gauge
Experiment (2): Metacentric Height of Floating Bodies
Experiment (3): Osborne Reynolds Demonstration
Experiment (4): Impact of Jet (I)
Experiment (5): Impact of Jet (II)
Experiment (6): Orifice and Free Jet Flow Determination of Coefficient of Velocity
Experiment (7): Orifice and Free Jet Flow Determination of Coefficient of Discharge
Experiment (8): Coefficient of Discharge for a Rectangular Notch
Experiment (9): Coefficient of Discharge for a Triangular Notch
Experiment (10): Hydraulic Gradient with Ground Water Flow
 Evaluation
 60 % Lab work [quizzes and lab reports]
 40 % final Exam
 Attendance and Course Policies
 Absence: - two absences are allowed with accepted excuse and the experiments must be
recovered. Any exceeding for the permitted absences will be restricted from taking the
final exam
 Reports: no late submission will be accepted. Missing reports will result in a zero grade.
Cheating is not tolerated. A student guilty of cheating will receive a zero grade. Cheating is
any form of copying of another student’s work, or allowing the copying of your own work.
 The late on the lab time: - the student is allowed to enter the lab after 10 minutes from
the starting the lab only.
 Discipline: any student make any disturbance in the lab will be dismissed immediately
 Dismissing: no student is allowed to dismiss from the lab until the lab is finished for any
excuse.
 Quizzes: - it is about the previous experiment and it is given at the end of each lab after
finishing the experiment
 All cellular phones must be turned off before lab begins.

Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi 3

List of Experiments

Experiment (1): Calibration of Bourdon Gauge

Experiment (2):Metacentric Height of Floating Bodies

Experiment (3):Osborne Reynolds Demonstration

Experiment (4):Impact of Jet (I)

Experiment (5):Impact of Jet (II)

Experiment (6): Orifice and Free Jet Flow Determination of Coefficient of Velocity from Jet

Experiment (7): Orifice and Free Jet Flow Determination of Coefficient of Discharge from Jet

Experiment (8): Coefficient of Discharge for a Rectangular Notch

Experiment (9): Coefficient of Discharge For a Triangular Notch

Experiment (10): Hydraulic Gradient with Ground Water Flow

Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi 4

 HOW TO WRITE A LAB REPORT?

LAB REPORT ESSENTIALS

1. Title Page
It would be a single page that states:
a. The title of the experiment.

b. Your name and the names of any lab partners.

c. Your instructor's name.

d. The date the lab was performed or the date the report was submitted.

2. Title
The title says what experiment you did.
3. Introduction / Purpose
Usually, the Introduction is one paragraph that explains the objectives or purpose of the
lab. Sometimes an introduction may contain background information, briefly summarize
how the experiment was performed, state the findings of the experiment, and list the
conclusions of the investigation. Even if you don't write a whole introduction, you need
to state the purpose of the experiment, or why you did it. This would be where you state
your hypothesis.
4. Materials
List everything needed to complete your experiment.
5. Methods or procedure
Describe the steps you completed during your investigation. This is your procedure. Be
sufficiently detailed that anyone could read this section and duplicate your experiment. Write it
as if you were giving direction for someone else to do the lab. It may be helpful to provide a
Figure to diagram your experimental setup.
6. Data and Results
Numerical data obtained from your procedure usually is presented as a table. Data encompasses
what you recorded when you conducted the experiment. It's just the facts, not any interpretation
of what they mean.

Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi 5

 7. Discussion or Analysis
The Analysis section contains any calculations you made based on those numbers. This is where
you interpret the data and determine whether or not a hypothesis was accepted. This is also
where you would discuss any mistakes you might have made while conducting the investigation.
You may wish to describe ways the study might have been improved.
8. Conclusions
Most of the time the conclusion is a single paragraph that sums up what happened in the
experiment, whether your hypothesis was accepted or rejected, and what this means.
9. Figures & Graphs
Graphs and figures must both be labeled with a descriptive title. Label the axes on a graph,
being sure to include units of measurement.
10. References
If your research was based on someone else's work or if you cite facts that require
documentation, then you should list these references.

WHAT IS A SCATTER PLOT?

A scatter plot is a chart with points that show the relationship between two or more sets of data.
The data is plotted on the graph as Cartesian coordinates, also known as data on an X-Y scale.

Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi 6

FLOW RATE FORMULAS:

 Volume flow rate:

The flow rate of a liquid is a measure of the volume of liquid that moves in a certain amount of time.
The flow rate depends on:
 The area of the pipe or channel that the liquid is moving through
 The velocity of the liquid
Note:
1 m3/s = 1000 L/s.
= =

 Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s or L/s)

 A = area of the pipe or channel (m2)
 v = velocity of the liquid (m/s)
 V=volume that passes through an area(m3 or L)
 T=time(sec)

 Mass flow rate:

Mass Flow Rate is defined as the transfer of a mass of substance per unit of time. Mass flow rate can be
calculated from the density of the liquid (or gas), its velocity, and the cross sectional area of flow.

̇ = = ∗ = ∗ ∗

Where,

 ṁ = Q = mass flow rate(Kg/s),

 Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s or L/s)
 A = area of the pipe or channel (m2)
 v = velocity of the liquid (m/s)
 ρ = luid density (Kg/m

Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi 7

Assignment:
1) Water is flowing through a circular pipe that has a radius of 0.0800 m. The velocity of the water
is 3.30 m/s. What is the flow rate of the water in liters per second (L/s)?

2) Water is flowing down an open rectangular chute. The chute is 1.20 m wide, and the depth of
water flowing in it is 0.200 m. The velocity of the water is 5.00 m/s. What is the flow rate of the
water through the chute in liters per second (L/s)?

3) Calculate the mass flow rate of liquid or gas by the given details.
Density of the liquid or gas (kg/m3) = 25
Velocity of the liquid or gas (m/s) = 20
Flow Area of the Liquid or gas (cm2) = 15

4) For the following plot draw the trend line and calculate its slope:

Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi 8

 ‫‪Laboratory Safety Requirements‬‬

‫اﺟراءات اﻟﺴﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺨﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﮭﯿﺪروﻟﯿﻜﺎ‬

‫ﯾﺠﺐ اﻟﺘﻘﯿﺪ ﺑﻤﺒﺎدئ اﻟﺴﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻄﻠﺒﺔ وﻣﺸﺮﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮات‪:‬‬

‫)‪ (1‬ﺿﺮورة اﻟﺰام اﻟﻄﻠﺒﺔ ﺑﺎرﺗﺪاء ارواب اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻟﺘﺄﻣﺒﻦ اﻟﺴﻼﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺴﻢ واﻟﯿﺪﯾﻦ واﻟﻤﻼﺑﺲ‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (2‬ﯾﻤﻨﻊ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﮭﻮاﺗﻒ اﻟﻨﻘﺎﻟﺔ داﺧﻞ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮ‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (3‬ﯾﻤﻨﻊ اﻟﺘﻮاﺟﺪ داﺧﻞ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮ ﻟﻤﻦ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﮫ ﻋﻤﻞ رﺳﻤﻲ‬

‫)‪ (4‬ﯾﺠﺐ اﻟﺤﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻈﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮ واﻻدوات واﻻرﺿﯿﺎت وﺿﻤﺎن ﺟﺎھﺰﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ اي‬
‫وﻗﺖ‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (5‬ﯾﻤﻨﻊ اﻟﻤﺰاح او اﻟﺮﻛﺾ داﺧﻞ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮ ﻣﻨﻌﺎ ﻟﻮﻗﻮع اﯾﺔ ﺣﻮادث ﻧﺎﺗﺠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻋﺪم اﻻﻧﺘﺒﺎه‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (6‬ﯾﻤﻨﻊ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺐ او اﻟﻤﺮض‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (7‬ﯾﻤﻨﻊ ﺗﻨﻈﯿﻒ اﻻﺟﮭﺰة وھﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (8‬ﯾﺠﺐ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻈﺎﻓﺔ اﻻرﺿﯿﺎت واﻻﺟﮭﺰة وطﺎوﻻت اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (9‬اﻟﺘﺎﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ اطﻔﺎء اﻟﻤﻀﺨﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻻﺟﮭﺰة اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻓﯿﮭﺎ ﺗﺸﻐﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻀﺨﺎت ﺑﻌﺪ اﻻﻧﺘﮭﺎء ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺠﺎرب وذﻟﻚ ﻟﺘﺎﻣﯿﻦ ﺳﻼﻣﺔ اﻻﺟﮭﺰة‪.‬‬

‫وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺸﺮف او ﻣﮭﻨﺪس اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮ ﻣﺮاﻋﺎة ﻣﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ‪:‬‬

‫)‪ (1‬اﻟﺘﺎﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ اﻟﺘﯿﺎر اﻟﻜﮭﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﻋﻦ ﺳﺨﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﯿﺎه ﻗﺒﻞ ﻣﻐﺎدرة اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮ‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (2‬اﻟﺘﺎﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ اطﻔﺎء اﻟﻜﮭﺮﺑﺎء واﻟﻤﺎء ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﻐﺎدرة‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (3‬ﯾﺠﺐ اﻟﺘﺤﻀﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺴﺒﻖ ﻟﻼﺟﮭﺰة واﻟﺘﺠﺎرب اﻟﻤﻨﻮي اﺟﺮاؤھﺎ واﻟﺘﺎﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻼﺣﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﮭﺰة ﻣﺴﺒﻘﺎ‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (4‬ﯾﺠﺐ ﺗﻮﻓﺮ ﺻﻨﺪوق ﻟﻼﺳﻌﺎف اﻻوﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮ‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (5‬ﯾﺠﺐ ﺗﻮﻓﺮ طﻔﺎﯾﺔ ﺣﺮﯾﻖ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮ ووﺿﻌﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻜﺎن ﻗﺮﯾﺐ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺎب اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮ‬
‫ﻟﺘﺴﮭﯿﻞ اﻟﻮﺻﻮل اﻟﯿﮭﺎ‪ .‬واﺑﻌﺎدھﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺼﺎدر اﻟﺤﺮارة واﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ واﺳﻄﻮاﻧﺎت اﻟﻐﺎز‪.‬‬

‫‪Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬

 Experiment 1
CALIBRATION OF BOURDON GAUGE

INTRODUCTION:
The bourdon gauge is the most popular pressure measuring device for both liquids and
gasses. It can be connected to any source of pressure such as a pipe or vessel containing a
pressurized fluid. The connection can either be direct or via a small tube called a capillary
tube. This means that it can be mounted at any convenient location. It is also very
versatile in that it can be designed to operate over virtually any range of pressures. The
Bourdon gauge normally measures so called Gauge Pressure, which is the difference
between the pressure in the pressure source and the current atmospheric pressure. It can
however be modified to measure difference in pressure between two sources of pressure
(i.e. pressure difference or differential pressure). The Bourdon gauge is an indirect
measuring device which depends for its operation on the tendency of an internally
applied pressure to cause an initially bent tube (called a bourdon tube) to straighten.
Because the measurement is indirect it is necessary to calibrate the gauge before it can be
use.
The calibration consists of applying a known pressure to the gauge and noting the
position of the gauge needle on the scale. The gauge can be calibrated in a wide variety of
units to suit the particular application provided that there is a linear relationship between
actual pressure and the unit of calibration.

OBJECTIVE:
 To perform pressure calibration on a Bourdon tube pressure gauge using a dead
weight tester.
 To establish the calibration curve of the Bourdon Gauge
APPARATUS:
 Bourdon Gauge and dead weight tester
 Set of Test weights
 Laboratory Scales

Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi 10

THEORY:
The use of the piston and weights with the cylinder generates a measurable reference
pressure, P:

= ( )

Where
=
And
F: is the force applied to the liquid in the liquid in the calibrator
M: is the total mass (including that of the of the piston)
A: is the area of piston
The area of the piston can be expressed in terms of its diameter, d, as:

PROCEDURE:
The weight of the Piston, and its cross sectional area should be noted. To fill the cylinder,
the piston is removed, and water is poured into the cylinder until it is full to the overflow
level. Any air trapped in the tube may be cleared by tilting and gently tapping the
apparatus. In point of fact, a small amount of air left in the system will not affect the
experiment, unless there is so much as to cause the piston to bottom on the base of the
cylinder. The piston is then re-placed in the cylinder and allowed to settle. A spirit level
placed on the platform at the top of the piston may be used to ensure that that the cylinder
is vertically upright. Weights are now added in convenient increments, and at each
increment, the pressure gauge reading is observed. As similar set of results is then taken
with decreasing weights. To guard against the piston sticking in the cylinder, it is
advisable to rotate the piston gently while the pressure gauged is being read.

Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi 11

TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
All readings and calculations are to be tabulated as follows:
Data for the Piston:
Mass of the piston (Mp) = 498g ≈0.5Kg
Diameter of the piston (d) = 0.01767m

Area of Mass of Gauge reading Cylinder Absolute gauge %Gauge

piston weights G(kPa) pressure error error
2
A(m ) Mw(Kg) P( kPa)) ( kPa))

Relative Error = (Measured Value – Actual Value) /Actual Value

Percent Error = │Relative Error│ × 100
Note: Also, show the sample calculation to calculate the Relative Error and
Percent Error.
GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP:
Plot the following graphs:
 Actual Pressure against Measured Pressure (Gauge Reading)
 Percent Error against Measured Pressure (Gauge Reading)

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

 Comment on the accuracy of the gauge.
 Is the relative height between the calibrator and the gauge important in
calibration?
 General comments about the experiment
 Your recommendations

Prepared by: Eng. Isra’a I. Al-Smadi 12

 Experiment 2
METACENTRIC HEIGHT OF FLOATING BODIES

INTRODUCTION:
The Stability of any vessel which is to float on water, such as a pontoon or ship, is of
paramount importance. The theory behind the ability of this vessel to remain upright must
be clearly understood at the design stage. Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant
force has a magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is
directed vertically upward. Buoyant force is a force that results from a floating or
submerged body in a fluid which results from different pressures on the top and bottom
of the object and acts through the centroid of the displaced volume.

OBJECTIVE:
 Determination of center of buoyancy
 Determination of metacentric height
 Investigation of stability of floating objects

APPARATUS:
 Flat bottomed pontoon (Figure 1).
 Hydraulic bench.

Figure 1: Flat bottomed pontoon

13
THEORY:

Consider a ship or pontoon floating as shown in figure 2. The center of gravity of the
body is at and the center of buoyancy is at . For equilibrium, the weight of the
floating body is equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces and the center of gravity
of the body and the centroid of the displaced liquid are in the same vertical line. The
centroid of the displaced liquid is called the "center of buoyancy". Let the body now
be heeled through an angle as shown in a subsequent figure, 1 will be the position
of the center of buoyancy after heeling. A vertical line through 1 will intersect the
center line of the body at and this point is known as the metacenter of the body
when an angle is diminishingly small. The distance is known as the metacentric
height. The force due to buoyancy acts vertically up through 1 and is equal to .
The weight of the body acts downwards through .

Figure 2: Illustrative figure of flat bottomed pontoon

Stability of submerged objects:

Stable equilibrium: if when displaced, it returns to equilibrium position. If the

center of gravity is below the center of buoyancy, a righting moment will produced
and the body will tend to return to its equilibrium position (Stable).
Unstable equilibrium: if when displaced it returns to a new equilibrium position. If
the center of gravity is above the center of buoyancy, an overturning moment is
produced and the body is unstable.

14
Note: As the body is totally submerged, the shape of displaced fluid is not
altered when the body is tilted and so the center of buoyancy unchanged relative
to the body.

Figure 3: Stability of submerged objects

Stability of floating objects:

Metacenter point : the point about which the body starts oscillating.

Metacentric height : is the distance between the center of gravity of floating body
and the metacenter.
 If lies above a righting moment is produced, equilibrium is stable
and is regarded as positive.

 If lies below an overturning moment is produced, equilibrium is unstable

and is regarded as negative.

 If coincides with , the body is in neutral equilibrium.

Figure 4: Stability of floating objects

15
Determination of Metacentric height

1- Practically

=
( )

Where = distance from pontoon centerline to added '

weight.
= weight of the pontoon including .
2- Theoretically

= + −
=

Where: = = ∗ ∗

ROCEDURE:
1. Assemble the pontoon by positioning the bridge piece and mast i.e. locate
the mast in the hole provided in the base of the vessel and clamp the bridge
piece fixing screws into the locating holes in the sides of the vessel.
2. The 'plumb-bob' is attached to the mounting dowel located on the mast and
is allowed to swing clear of and below the scale provided
3. Weigh the pontoon and determine the height of its center of gravity up the
line of the mast by balancing the mast on a suitable knife edge support and
measuring the distance from knife edge to outside base of pontoon.
4. Fill the hydraulic bench measuring tank, or other suitable vessel, with water
and float the pontoon in it. Trim the balance of the pontoon by applying one
of the small weights provided to the bridge piece at the required position so
that the vessel floats without any list, this condition being indicated by the
plumb-bob resting on the zero mark.

16
5. Move the weight on the bridge piece loading pin then measure and record
the angle value with displacement.
6. Repeat the previous procedure for angle in the opposite direction i.e. apply
the weights to the opposite side of the bridge piece.
7. Calculate GM practically. Draw a relationship between θ (x-axis) and GM (y-
axis), then obtain GM when θ equals zero.

8. Calculate GM theoretically.

TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

 Pontoon length =0.35m
 Pontoon width b =0.20m
 Pontoon height h =0.075m
 Total weight W =1.5084kg
 Inclining weight P=0.3062kg
Height of Depth of Theoretical Position of Angel of Experimental
reading

center of immersion Metacentric inclining heel Metacentric

gravity d(m) height weight θ (degrees) height
#

Y(m) GM(m) X(m) GM(m)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Important Note:
Substitute θ in the law without sign (ex: θ=-13.5, tan (θ) =tan (13.5) = 0.240078759)
"‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن ﺑﺪون اﻻﺷﺎرة‬θ ‫"ﻋﻮض اﻟﺰاوﯾﺔ‬

17
GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP:
Draw a relationship between θ (x-axis) and GM (y-axis).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

• Comment on the effect of changing of G on the position of metacenter
• Comment on why the values of GM at lowest level of Ɵ are likely to be less
accurate
• Explaine how unstable equilibrium might be achieved

18
 Experiment 3
OSBORNE REYNOLDS DEMONSTRATION

INTRODUCTION:
The flow of real fluids can basically occur under two very different regimes namely
laminar and turbulent flow. The laminar flow is characterized by fluid particles moving in
the form of lamina sliding over each other, such that at any instant the velocity at all the
points in particular laminar is the same. The laminar near the flow boundary move at a
slower rate as compared to those near the center of the flow passage. This type of flow
occurs in viscous fluids, fluids moving at slow velocity and fluids flowing through
narrow passages.
The turbulent flow is characterized by constant agitation and intermixing of fluid
particles such that their velocity changes from point to point and even at the same point
from time to time. This type of flow occurs in low density Fluids; flow through wide
passage and in high velocity flows.

OBJECTIVE:
To perform Reynolds experiment for determination of different regimes of flow

APPARATUS:
 Osborne Reynolds’ apparatus (F1-10)
 Dye
 Thermometer
 Stopwatch
 Graduated cylinder

THEORY:
Reynolds conducted an experiment for observation and determination of these regimes of
flow. By introducing a fine filament of dye in to the flow of water through the glass tube,
at its entrance he studied the different types of flow. At low velocities the dye filament
appeared as straight line through the length of the tube and parallel to its axis,
characterizing laminar flow. As the velocity is increased the dye filament becomes wavy

19
throughout indicating transition flow. On further increasing the velocity the filament
breaks up and diffuses completely in the water in the glass tube indicating the turbulent
flow.
After conducting his experiment with pipes different diameters and with water at
different temperatures Reynolds concluded that the various parameters on which the
regimes of flow depend can be grouped together in a single non dimensional parameter
called Reynolds number. Reynolds number is defined as, the ratio of inertia force per unit
volume and is given by
= /μ = /
Where;
Re: Reynolds number
V: velocity of flow
D: characteristic length=diameter in case of pipe flow
ρ: mass density of fluid
µ: dynamic viscosity of fluid
ν :kinematic viscosity of fluid
Reynolds observed that in case of flow through pipe for values of Re<2000 the flow is
laminar while offer Re>40000 it is turbulent and for 2000<Re<4000 it is transition flow

PROCEDURE:
1. Obtain the Reynolds’ Apparatus and rest it on the top channel of the Hydraulics
Bench.

2. Position the outlet pipe and the overflow pipe in the well of the Hydraulics Bench.

3. Securely connect the inlet quick release connector on the Hydraulics Bench to the
inlet valve on the Reynolds’ apparatus. If the ball bearings on the quick connect
are showing the piping is not secure.

4. The feet are adjustable so that the assembly can be leveled.

5. Check that ALL the valves on the Hydraulics Bench are completely CLOSED
(clockwise).

6. CLOSE the Flow Control Valve on the Reynolds’ apparatus.

20
7. Turn the motor switch to ON.

8. OPEN the Hydraulics Bench flow control valve found on the front of the
Hydraulics bench.

9. Slowly fill the head tank to the overflow level, and then CLOSE the hydraulics
bench flow control valve.

10. Open and close the flow control valve on the Reynolds’ apparatus to admit water
to the flow visualization pipe.

11. Allow the apparatus to stand at least 10 minutes before proceeding.

12. Adjust the height of the dye reservoir assembly such that the hypodermic needle
is close to the bell mouth entrance of the visualization tube.

13. Open the inlet valve slightly until water trickles from the outlet pipe.

14. Slowly open the dye flow control valve of the dye reservoir [Note: It takes a while
for the dye to exit the hypodermic needle. Do not loosen or tighten the reservoir
screw too much, or the thread could be damaged.].

15. Once the flow regime is identified, close the dye flow control valve.

16. The flow rate can be measured using a graduated cylinder and the stopwatch.

17. The temperature can be recorded using a thermometer.

18. Other flow regimes (and flow rates) can be obtained by regulating the flow
control valve on the Reynolds’ apparatus.

19. When the experiment is finished, turn the pump motor OFF.

20. Disconnect the Reynolds’ Apparatus from the Hydraulics Bench and return it to
the storage area

21
TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Volume Time to Pipe Volume Kinematic

Temperature Reynolds
collected collect Area flow rate Viscosity
(oC) Number
V(m3) t(s) A(m2) Q(m3/s) ʋ(m2/s)

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

 Dose the flow condition observed occur within the expected Reynolds’s number
range for that condition?
 Describe the velocity profile for laminar and turbulent flows. Dose the profile
differs between these two types of flow?

22
 Experiment 4
IMPACT OF JET (I)

INTRODUCTION:
Impact of jets apparatus enables experiments to be carried out on the reaction force
produced on vanes when a jet of water impacts on to the vane. The study of these
reaction forces is an essential step in the subject of mechanics of fluids which can be
applied to hydraulic machinery such as the Pelton wheel and the impulse turbine.

OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the reaction force produced by the impact of a jet of water on to various
target vanes (flat and semispherical)

APPARATUS:
 The F1-10 Hydraulic Bench
 F1-16 equipment
 Stopwatch
 Flat and semispherical plates.

THEORY:
When a jet of water flowing with a steady velocity strikes a solid surface (target plate),
the water is deflected to flow along the surface. Then the jet velocity can be calculated
from the measured flow rate and the nozzle exit area:

If the friction is neglected, also assuming that there are no losses due to shocks and the
magnitude of the water velocity remains having the same value but only its direction
changes. The pressure exerted by the water on the solid surface will everywhere be at
right angles to the surface (for a flat surface).
In the absence of friction,
 Magnitude of the velocity across the surface = Incident velocity, vi
 The impulse force exerted on the target = opposite to the force which acts on the
water to impart the change in direction.

23
Applying Newton’s second law in they- direction of the incident jet
= ( q − )
Where
Fy = force exerted by deflector on fluid
Qm = mass flow rate and
Q = rQ = rA
So,
= r ( q − )
For a static equilibrium, Fy is balanced by the applied load, W = Mg (M is the applied
mass) hence,
= r ( q − )
Graphically representing the results also will show how accurate the experimental data is.
Thus, the slope, s, of a graph of W plotted against 2 is obtained from a regression line
and this is compared to the value from:
=r ( q − )
PROCEDURE:
1. Position the weight carrier on the weight platform and add weights until the top of the
target are clear of the stop and the weight platform is floating in mid position. Move
the pointer so that it is aligned with the weight platform. Record the value of weights
on the weight carrier.
2. Start the pump and establish the water flow by steadily opening the bench regulating
valve until it is fully open.
3. The vane will now be deflected by the impact of the jet. Place additional weights onto
the weight carrier until the weight platform is again floating in mid position.
4. Measure the flow rate and record the result on the test sheet, together with the
corresponding value of weight on the tray. Observe the form of the deflected jet and
note its shape.

24
5. Reduce the weight on the weight carrier in steps and maintain balance of the weight
platform by regulating the flow rate in about three steps, each time recording the
value of the flow rate and weights on the weight carrier.
6. Close the control valve and switch off the pump. Allow the apparatus to drain.
7. Replace the flat vane with semispherical vane and repeat the test

TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

 Nozzle diameter, d=0.008m
 Nozzle cross sectional area, A=5.0265*10-5m2
 Density of Water, ρ=1000kg/m3

Volume of
Reading Mass
Plate type water collected Time (sec)
No applied(Kg)
m3
1
2
3 Flat plate
α=90o
4
5
1
2
semispherical
3 plate
α=180o
4
5

GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP:
Plot force on vane F (N) against the velocity squared values for both flat plate and a
hemispherical cup for theoretical and experimental values on the same plot.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:
 Comment on the agreement between your theoretical and experimental results and
give reasons for any differences
 Compare between theoretical slope for flat and semispherical plate and what does
it mean?
 Comment on the significant of any experimental errors

25
 Experiment 5
IMPACT OF JET (II)

OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the reaction force produced by the impact of a jet of water on to various
target vanes (conical and 30o plate)

APPARATUS:
 The F1-10 Hydraulic Bench
 F1-16 equipment
 Stopwatch
 Conical and 30o plates.

PROCEDURE:
1. Position the weight carrier on the weight platform and add weights until the top of the
target are clear of the stop and the weight platform is floating in mid position. Move
the pointer so that it is aligned with the weight platform. Record the value of weights
on the weight carrier.
2. Start the pump and establish the water flow by steadily opening the bench regulating
valve until it is fully open.
3. The vane will now be deflected by the impact of the jet. Place additional weights onto
the weight carrier until the weight platform is again floating in mid position.
4. Measure the flow rate and record the result on the test sheet, together with the
corresponding value of weight on the tray. Observe the form of the deflected jet and
note its shape.
5. Reduce the weight on the weight carrier in steps and maintain balance of the weight
platform by regulating the flow rate in about three steps, each time recording the
value of the flow rate and weights on the weight carrier.
6. Close the control valve and switch off the pump. Allow the apparatus to drain.
7. Replace the 30o vane with conical vane and repeat the test

26
TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
 Nozzle diameter, d=0.008m
 Nozzle cross sectional area, A=5.0265*10-5m2
 Density of Water, ρ=1000kg/m3

Volume of
Reading Mass
Plate type water collected Time (sec)
No applied(Kg)
m3
1
2
3 Conical plate
α=120o
4
5
1
2
30o plate
3
α=30o
4
5

GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP:
Plot force on vane F (N) against the velocity squared values for both Conical and 30o
plates for theoretical and experimental values on the same plot.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

 Comment on the agreement between your theoretical and experimental results and
give reasons for any differences
 Comment on the significant of any experimental errors

27
 Experiment 6
ORIFICE AND FREE JET FLOW
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY FROM
JET

INTRODUCTION:
The orifice consists of a flat plate with a hole drilled in it. When a fluid passes through an
orifice, the discharge is often considerably less than the amount calculated on the
assumption that the energy is conserved and that the flow through the orifice is uniform
and parallel. This reduction in flow is normally due to a contraction of the stream which
takes place through the restriction and continues for some distance downstream of it,
rather than to any considerable energy loss.
With the flow through apparatus, arrangements are mad extent of the reduction in flow,
contraction of the stream and energy loss, as water discharges into the atmosphere from a
sharp-edged orifice in the base of a tank.

OBJECTIVE:
 Determine Velocity coefficient for small orifice
 Comparing the measured jet trajectory with the theoretically predicted jet trajectory

APPARATUS:
 theF1-17 Orifice and free jet flow apparatus
 The F1-10 Hydraulic Bench
 Graph paper

THEORY:
From the application of Bernoulli's Equation (conservation of mechanical energy for a
steady, incompressible, frictionless flow): the ideal orifice outflow velocity at the jet vena
contracta (narrowest diameter) is where h is the height of fluid above the orifice.
=

28
Where h is the height of fluid above the orifice.

The actual velocity is

= < 1………………..( )

Cv is the coefficient of velocity, which allows for the effects of viscosity a

Cv can be determined from the trajectory of the jet using the following argument:
Neglecting the effect of air resistance, the horizontal component of the jet velocity can
be assumed to remain constant so that in time, t, the horizontal distance travelled,
= ………………..( )
Because of the action of gravity, the fluid also acquires a downward vertical (y-direction)
component of velocity. Hence, after the same time, t, (i.e. after travelling a distance x) the
jet will have a y displacement given by

This can be rearranged to give:

= ………………..( )

Substitution for t from (3) into (2) and for v from (1) into (2) yields the result:

Hence, for steady flow conditions, i.e. Constant h, Cv can be determined from the x, y
co-ordinates of the jet. A graph of x plotted against yh will have a slope of 2Cv

29
PROCEDURE:
For this experiment, you will need the Orifice and Free Jet Flow module and graph paper.

Figure 1: Orifice and Free Jet Flow Module Figure 2: Orifice and Jet Apparatus

1. Position the overflow tube to give a high head. Note the value of the head.
2. The jet trajectory is obtained by using the needles mounted on the vertical
backboard to
follow the profile of the jet.
3. Release the securing screw for each needle in turn and move the needle until its
point is just immediately above the jet and re-tighten the screw.
4. Attach a sheet of paper to the back-board between the needle and board and
secure it in place with the clamp provided so that its upper edge is horizontal.
5. Mark the location of the top of each needle on the paper. Note the horizontal
distance from the plane of the orifice (taken as x = 0) to the co-ordinate point
marking the position of the first needle.
6. This first co-ordinate point should be close enough to the orifice to treat it as
having the value y = 0.
7. Thus y displacements are measured relative to this position.
8. Estimate the likely experimental errors in each of the quantities measured.
9. Repeat this test for a low reservoir head.
10. Repeat this test for a low reservoir head.
11. Then repeat the above procedure for the second orifice.

30
 TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

 Small Orifice: Diameter=3mm=0.003m

Orifice Head Horizontal Vertical √( )

Diameter h(m) Distance Distance (m)
d(m) X(m) y(m)
1 0.003 0.0135
2 0.003 0.0635
3 0.003 0.1135
4 0.003 0.1635
5 0.003 0.2135
6 0.003 0.2635
7 0.003 0.3135
8 0.003 0.3635

 Large Orifice: Diameter=6mm=0.006m

Orifice Head Horizontal Vertical √( )

Diameter h(m) Distance Distance (m)
d(m) X(m) y(m)
1 0.006 0.0135
2 0.006 0.0635
3 0.006 0.1135
4 0.006 0.1635
5 0.006 0.2135
6 0.006 0.2635
7 0.006 0.3135
8 0.006 0.3635

GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP:
Plot x against yh and determine the slope of the graph.
The velocity coefficient Cv is equal to the average slope/2.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

Compare the values of Cv with values reported in the textbook for an Orifice Meter and
discuss any difference (or look for web resources).

31
 Experiment 7
ORIFICE AND FREE JET FLOW
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE FROM
JET

OBJECTIVE:
• To determine Discharge coefficient of small orifice for constant head flow

APPARATUS:
 theF1-17 Orifice and free jet flow apparatus
 The F1-10 Hydraulic Bench
 Stop watch
 Graduated cylinder

THEORY:
The ideal (theoretical) orifice outflow velocity at the jet vena contracta (narrowest
diameter) is:
=

Where h is the height of fluid above the orifice.

32
The actual velocity is:
=
Cv is the coefficient of velocity, which allows for the effects of viscosity
The actual flow rate of the jet is defined as:
=
Where: Ac is the cross-sectional area of the vena contracta, given by: =
Ao is the orifice area and Cc is the coefficient of contraction and, therefore, Cc <1
Hence;
=

The product CcCv is called the discharge coefficient, Cd , so finally

=

If Cd is assumed to be constant, then a graph of Qact plotted against will be linear and the
slope,
=

PROCEDURE:
1. Position the reservoir across the channel on the top of the hydraulic bench and
level the reservoir by the adjustable feet using a spirit level on the base.
2. Remove the orifice plate by releasing the two knurled nuts and check the orifice
diameter; take care not to lose the O-ring seal.
3. Replace the orifice and connect the reservoir inflow tube to the bench flow
connector.
4. Position the overflow connecting tube so that it will discharge into the volumetric
tank; make sure that this tube will not interfere with the trajectory of the jet
flowing from the orifice.
5. Turn on the pump and open the bench valve gradually. As the water level rises in
the reservoir towards the top of the overflow tube, adjust the bench valve to give a
water level of 2 to 3mm above the overflow level. This will ensure a constant
head and produce a steady flow through the orifice.
6. Measure the flow rate by timed collection using the measuring cylinder provided
and note that the reservoir head value.

33
 7. Repeat this procedure for different heads by adjusting the level of the overflow
tube. The procedure should also be repeated for the second orifice

TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Small Orifice: Diameter=3mm=0.003m

Orifice Head Volume Time Actual √

Diameter h(m) V(m3) t(sec) flow rate (m)0.5
d(m) Qt(m3/S)
1 0.003
2 0.003
3 0.003
4 0.003
5 0.003

Large Orifice: Diameter=6mm=0.006m

Orifice Head Volume Time Actual √

Diameter h(m) V(m3) t(sec) flow rate (m)0.5
d(m) Qt(m3/S)
1 0.006
2 0.006
3 0.006
4 0.006
5 0.006

GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP:
 Plot flow rate Qt vs. √h and determine the slope of the graph.
 The coefficient of discharge Cd can then be calculated from the slope equation

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

 Compare the values of Cd with values reported in the textbook for an Orifice
Meter and discuss any difference (or look for web resources).
 Find the value of Cc for both orifices.

34
 Experiment 8
COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE FOR A RECTANGULAR
NOTCH

INTRODUCTION:
 Discuss why there is a discrepancy between the theoretical and computed
discharge values
 What are the limitations of the experiment?
 How does the Cd value computed from the slope?
The reliability of weir measurements is affected by construction and installation, but
when properly constructed and installed, weirs are one of the simplest and most accurate
methods of measuring water flow. In fact, hydrologists and engineers treat this as a
simple method of measuring the rate of fluid flow in small to medium-sized streams, or in
industrial discharge locations.
There are different types of weir. It may be a simple metal plate with a V-notch cut into
it, or it may be a concrete and steel structure across the bed of a river. Common weir
constructions are the rectangular weir and the triangular or v-notch weir.

OBJECTIVE:
 To determine the 'Coefficient of Discharge' for a rectangular weir.

APPARATUS:
 The F1-10 Hydraulics Bench
 The F1-13 Stilling baffle
 The F1-13 Rectangular
 Vernier Height Gauge
 Stop Watch
 Spirit Level

THEORY:

35
The objective of this experiment is to study the relation between the discharge coefficient
and the parameters influencing the flow. Rectangular shape opening weir is used in this
experiment. Stilling baffle is used to ensure minimum turbulence. It will act as a reservoir
to collect water volume and slowly disperse in the water from the opening at the bottom
of the stilling baffle.
Rectangular Weir is used in practiced to measure a small free flow. A rectangular notch
is a thin square edged weir plate installed in a weir channel as shown in figure below. The
rectangular weir is able to measure higher flows than the v-notch weir and over a wider
operating range.

Figure 1: Rectangular Notch

Consider the flow in an element of height ℎ at a depth h below the surface. Assuming
that the flow is everywhere normal to the plane of the weir and that the free surface
remains horizontal up to the plane of the weir, then velocity through element 2 ℎ

∴ Theoretical discharge through element

= . = . .

Integrating between h = 0 and h = H,

Total theoretical discharge

36
 = . . = .

So,

Where, Cd = Coefficient discharge

B = Width of notch
H = Head above bottom of notch
Q = Flow rate
In practice the flow through the notch will not be parallel and therefore will not be
normal to the plane of the weir. The free surface is not horizontal and viscosity and
surface tension will have an effect. There will be a considerable change in the shape of
the nappe as it passes through the notch with curvature of the stream lines in both vertical
and horizontal planes in particular the width of the nappe is reduced by the contractions
at each end.

/
= =

PROCEDURE:
1. Weir apparatus was leveled on the hydraulic bench and the rectangular notch weir
was installed.
2. Hydraulic bench flow control valve was opened slowly to admit water to the
channel until the water discharges over the weir plate. The water level was
ensured even with the crest of the weir.
3. The flow control valve was closed and the water level was allowed to stabilize.
4. Vernier Gauge was set to a datum reading using the top of the hook. The gauge
was positioned about half way between the notch plate and stilling baffle.
5. Then, water was admitted to the channel. The water flow was adjusted by using
the hydraulic bench flow control valve to obtain heads (H).

6. Water flow condition was left to stabilize, head readings were taken in every

37
 increasing of 1 cm.
7. Step 4 and 5 were repeated for different flow rate.
8. The readings of volume and time using the volumetric tank were taken to
determine the flow rate. The volume taken was constant which 3L.
9. The results were recorded in the tables.

TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Time (s) Average
V(L) H (m) Q (m3/s)
T1 T2 T3 Time (s)

GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP:
 Plot Qact against H 3/2 and determine the slope of the graph. Then the coefficient of
discharge Cd can then be calculated.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

 Discuss why there is a discrepancy between the theoretical and computed
discharge values
 What are the limitations of the experiment?
 How does the Cd value computed from the slope?

Experiment 9

38
 COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE FOR A TRIANGULAR NOTCH

OBJECTIVE:
 To determine the 'Coefficient of Discharge' for a triangular or v-notch weir.

APPARATUS:
 The F1-10 Hydraulics Bench
 The F1-13 Stilling baffle
 The F1-13 Triangular or v-notch weir
 Vernier Height Gauge
 Stop Watch
 Spirit Level

THEORY:
The v-notch weir is a notch with a V shape opening. V-notch weir typically used to
measure low flows within a narrow operating range. The angle of the v-notch in the
figure 1 above is 90°.

= =

Where, Cd = Coefficient discharge

= The angle of notch
H = Head above bottom of notch
Q = Flow rate

Figure 1: V-notch weir

PROCEDURE:

39
 1. Weir apparatus was leveled on the hydraulic bench and the V- notch weir was
installed.
2. Hydraulic bench flow control valve was opened slowly to admit water to the
channel until the water discharges over the weir plate. The water level was
ensured even with the crest of the weir.
3. The flow control valve was closed and the water level was allowed to stabilize.
4. Vernier Gauge was set to a datum reading using the top of the hook. The gauge
was positioned about half way between the notch plate and stilling baffle.
5. Then, water was admitted to the channel. The water flow was adjusted by using
the hydraulic bench flow control valve to obtain heads (H).
6. Water flow condition was left to stabilize, head readings were taken in every
increasing of 1 cm.
7. Step 4 and 5 were repeated for different flow rate.
8. The readings of volume and time using the volumetric tank were taken to
determine the flow rate. The volume taken was constant which 3L.
9. The results were recorded in the tables.

TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Time (s) Average
V(L) H (m) Q (m3/s)
T1 T2 T3 Time (s)

GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP:
 Plot Qact against H 5/2 and determine the slope of the graph. Then the coefficient of
discharge Cd can then be calculated.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

 Discuss why there is a discrepancy between the theoretical and computed

40
 discharge values
 What are the limitations of the experiment?
 How does the Cd value computed from the slope?
 Compare between Cd value of both rectangular and triangular notches.

Experiment 10
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT WITH GROUND WATER FLOW

41
INTRODUCTION:
Ground water flows from areas of high hydraulic head (high water-level elevation) to
areas of low head (low water level elevation). The hydraulic gradient is the rate of change
in the total hydraulic head per unit distance of flow in a given direction.
The hydraulic gradient is usually estimated using groundwater elevation measurements
from observation wells and peizometer .Estimates of the direction and magnitude of the
hydraulic gradient in a given part of the aquifer may then be used with estimates of the
hydraulic conductivity and the effective porosity to characterize the direction and rate of
groundwater flow (i.e., groundwater seepage velocity) using a form of Darcy’s Law.

OBJECTIVE:
 To demonstrate ground flow and the resulting between two different potentials
APPARATUS:
 S-11 Ground Flow/Well Abstraction Unit
 0.1m3 of washed well graded coarse sand, range 0.6-2.0mm
 Stopwatch
 Volumetric measuring cylinder

THEORY:
The linear relationship between head loss h and flow rate Q expressed as approach
velocity V is given by Darcy’s Law
dh
V=k
dL
Where

 V=Volumetric flow rate per unit cross-sectional area

 =Hydraulic gradient

 K=Permeability coefficient

V may also be calculated from the flow rate using the average wetted area of sand (as
calculated from the water levels)

42
 =

PROCEDURE:
1. Turn on the water supply
2. Open the left hand flow control valve fully
3. Adjust the right hand flow control valve until a steady head is maintained .this will be
indicated by manometer tube No 13
4. Allow conditions to stabilize for several minutes
5. Record the manometer levels
6. Perform a timed volume collection to measure flow rate (Q) out of drainage tube

TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Volume Collected =----------------------
Time to Collect = -------------------------
Permeability coefficient (K) =-----------------------
Manometer
tube

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19
1

9
Height ( h )
mm
Distance ( L )
mm

GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP:

43
  Draw a graph of water height (h) against peizometer (tapping) distance (L) from
well

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

 How the hydraulic gradient did obtain from graph Compare to the hydraulic
gradient calculated using the measured flow rate?
 Give reasons to any discrepancies; suggest changes to the experimental method
that might help to reduce such discrepancies
 Comment on the effect of k on the gradient

References:

44
Alastal .K and Mousa.M (2015) .Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Lab Manual

EPA. (2014). A Tool for Estimating Groundwater Flow Vectors

Fuqha.M. (2013). Thermal Fluid Laboratory manual

NSCET. (2013). Hydraulic Engineering laboratory

Syahiirah.N (2015). CHE241 - Lab Report -Flow over Weirs, https://www.academia.edu/

18747051/CHE24 _Lab_Report_Solteq_Flow_Over_Weirs_FM26_2015_

The Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering-Qatar University-Lab manual of

fluid mechanics

45