I

The History of the Concept of C ivilite

1 . Th e decisive anrirhesis expressing the sel f i m age of rhe \Vest d u ri ng rhe

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M iddl e Ages was rhar between Ch r i s r i ani r y and pagan ism or, more exac tl y,
ber ween devour, Roman-Larin Ch r i s r i aniry on rhe one hand, and pag an i s m and
,

h eres y, i nc l u d i n g Greek and Eastern C h r i s r ian i ry on rhe o c her 1

, .

In rh e name of rhe Cross , and lacer in rhar of civi lization. \Xfesrern society
wag ed, du r i n g rhe Middle Ages, irs wars of colonization and expansion. And fo r
all irs secularizarion, rhe watchword civilizati on a l ways retai ned an echo of
" "

Larin Christendom and rh e k n ightly-feudal crusade. T he m e m ory r h ar c hi va l ry

and rhe Roman-Larin fairh bear w i tness ro a part icu lar stage of \Xfesrern soc i ety ,

a srage which all rhe m a jor Western peoples have passed th roug h , has c ertain l y
nor d i sa pp ea re d .
The co n cep t of civilite acqui red i ts m e a nin g for We ste r n soc iety at a rime whe n
knightly society and the u n i ry of the Carbolic church were d i s i n regra r i n g Ir was
.

rhe i nca r n a t i o n of a society which, as a s pecific stage i n r he formation of \Xfesrer n

manners or "civi lization", was no less i m po rrn n r than the feudal s oc iety before i r.
The concept of cfrilite, coo , was an expression and a symbol of a social for mation
e m braci ng rh e mosr diverse narionali ries, i n w hic h as i n rhe Churc h , a common
,

l a n g u age was spoken , first I ta lian and rhen inc reas i ngly French. These languages
rook over rhe function ea r lier perfo r m ed by Larin. They manifesred rhe unity of
Europe, and ar the same r i me the new social formation which for m ed i rs
backbone , court society. The s i ruarion , rhe s e l f i m age and the ch a rac rer is r i c s of
- ,

rhis society found e xpress i o n in rhe concept of civilite.

2 . Th e concept of civi!ite received r he s pec i fi c s tamp and function u nde r
discussion here in rhe second quarter of the sixreenrh cenrury. Irs i ndividual
s rar r i ng po inr can be exac t l y determi ned . I r owes rhe spec i fi c m ean i ng wh ich
-

became s o c i al l y ac c e p ted ro a sho rt rrearise by E ras m us of Rorre rda m De civilitate

,

11101w11 pmrili11111 (On civi l i ty in boys), which appeared in 1 5 30. This work clea r l y
treated a theme rhar was ripe for d i s cu ss i on Ir i mm ed i ate l y achieved an e nor m o us
.

circulation , going through edition after edi tion. Even w i th i n Erasmus's liferi me­
thar is, in rhe first six years after its pub li ca t i on it was repri n red more rhan rh i rry
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rimes . 2 In al l , more than 1 30 editions may be co u n r ed , 1 3 of rhem as !are as toe

eighreenrh cen r u ry The mulri rude of r ra n sl a r io n s imirarions and sequels is a lmos t
. ,

wi rhour l i m i t . Two years after the p u b li cation of rhe r re a ri se rhe first E nglish
translarion appeared I n 1 5 34 it was p u b l i s hed i n catechism form , and ar t h i s rime
.

it was already being i nrroduced as a schoolbook for rhe education of boys. German
and Czech rranslarions followed . In 1 5 3 7 , 1 5 5 9 , 1 5 69 and 1 6 1 3 it appeared i n
French , newly t ra nslat ed e ach ri m e .
48 Tix Cirilizing Pmce.rs

As early as rhe sixreenrh century a parricular French typeface was g iven rhe
name civiliti, afrer a French work by Marh urin Cord ier which combi ned doctrines
from Erasmus's treatise wirh rhose of anorher humanist, Johannes .Sulpicius. And
a whole genre of books , d i recrly or indirecrly influenced by E rasmus's treatise,
appeared under rhe ride C iviliti or Civiliti p11t!rile; rhese were pri med up to rhe
encl of rhe eighreenrh cenrury i n rhis civiliti rype. -'
3 . Here, as so ofren in rhe hisrory of words, and as was to happen larer i n rhe
development of rhe concept of civiliti i n to civilisation, an individual was rhe
ins tigator. By his treatise, Erasmus g a ve new sharpness and imperus to rhe long­
esrablished and commonplace word civifitas. Witti ngly or nor, he obviously
expressed in i r something char mer a social need of che rime. The concept of
cil'ilitas was henceforth fixed i n rhe consciousness of people wich rhe special sense
ir received from his rreacise. And correspond ing words were developed in rhe
various popular languages: che French civilite, rhe English "civi l i ty'' , rhe I ralian
civilta , and rhe German Zivifitat, which, admiccedly, was never so widely adopted
as r he corresponding words in rhe ocher grear cultures.
The more or less sudden emergence of words wirhin languages nearly always
points to changes in rhe lives of people themselves , particularly when che new
conceprs are desrined to become as central and long-lived as rhese.
Erasmus h i mself may nor have artribured any parricular i mporrance to his
shore rrearise De civilitr1te mom111 p11erili11111 within his coral oeuvre. He says i n rhe
i ntroducrion rhar rhe arr of formi ng young people involves various disciplines,
bur char rhe civifitas momm is only one of chem , and he does nor deny rhac ic is
crcmissima philosophiae pars (che grossest pare of phi losophy). This creacise has i rs
special imporrance less as an i ndividual phenomenon or work chan as a symptom
of change, an embodi ment of social processes. Above all , i r is rhe resonance, che
elevarion of rhe rirle word ro a cen tral expression of the self- i nterprerarion of
European sociery, which draws our arrenrion to chis rreacise.
4. \'(fhar is che rrearise about? I rs rheme muse explai n to us for whar purpose
and in whar sense rhe n �w concept was needed. Ir muse contain ind ications of the
social changes and processes which made rhe word fash ionable.
E rasm us's book is about somethi ng very simple: rhe behaviour of people i n
sociery-above al l , bur nor solely, "ourward bodily propriery" . Ir is dedicared to
a noble boy, a prince's son, and wricren for che insrruccion of boys. Ir contains
simple thoughts delivered with grea t seriousness , yet at rhe same rime w i r h
much mockery and irony, i n clear, polished language and wich enviable precision .
Ir can be said char none of irs successors ever equalled chis rrearise in force,
clarity and personal character. Looking more closely, one perceives beyond it a
world and a parrern of life which i n many respects are close to our own , yet i n
ochers still quire remote; che treatise points r o accirudes char w e have lose, char
some among us would perhaps cal l " barbaric" or "uncivi lized". le speaks of many
 Changes i11 the Beht1vio11r of the Semlar Upper C!t1Sses i11 the \fies! 49

rh in gs rh ar have in rhe meanrime become unspeakable, and of many orhers that

are n ow taken for granred :1
Erasmus speaks, for example, of the way people look. Though his comments
are meanr as i nsrruction, they also bear wirness to the direcr and l ively
observation of people of which he was capable. "Sinr oculi placidi, verecund i ,
compositi " , h e says, " non torv i , quod est cruculenriae . . . non vagi a c volubiles,
quod est i nsaniae, non limi quod esr suspiciosorum er i nsidias molenrium." This
can only with difficulty be translated withour an appreciable alcerarion of tone:
a wide-eyed look is a sign of scupidi ry, scaring a sign of inertia; the looks of rhose

prone to anger are too ',5 harp; too l ively and eloquent those of the immodesr; if
your look shows a calni m i nd and a respectful amiability, rhar is besr. Not by
chance do rhe ancients say: the seat of che soul is in che eyes. "Animi sedem esse
i n oculis. "
Bodily carriage, gestures, d ress, facial expressions-this "outward" behaviour
with which che treatise concerns i tself is rhe expression of the inner, the whole
person. Erasmus knows chis and on occasion scares ir explicitly: " Although chis
outward bod ily propriety proceeds from a well-composed mind, nevertheless we
someti mes find char, for wane of instruction , such grace is lacking i n excellent
and learned men . "
There should b e n o snot on the nostrils, he says somewhat later. A peasanr
wipes his nose on his cap and coat, a sausage maker on his arm and elbow. Ir does
nor show much more propriety to use one's hand and then wipe it on one's
clothing. Ir is more decent to rake up rhe snot in a cloth, preferably w h i le turn i ng
away. If when blowing the nose with two fingers somethings falls to rhe ground,
ic must be immediately trodden away with the foor. The same applies to spittle.
With the same infinite care and marrer-of-facrness with which these things are
said-the mere mention of which shocks the "civilized" person of a later stage
with a different affective mouldi ng-we are cold how one oughr to sir or greer.
Gestures are described rhar have become strange to us, e.g . , standing on one leg.
And we might reflect that many of the bizarre movements of walkers and dancers
that we see in medieval paintings or statues do nor only represent the " manner"
of rhe painter or sculptor bur also preserve actual gestures and movemenrs char
have grown strange co us, embodiments of a different mental and emotional
scrucrure.
The more one i mmerses oneself in the little treatise, the clearer becomes chis
picture of a society with modes of behaviour i n some respects related co ours , and
in many ways remote. We see people seared at table: "A dexcris sir poculum, er
culrellus escarius rite purgacus, ad laevam panis", says Erasmus. The goblet and
rhe well-cleaned knife on the right, on the left the bread . Thar is how the rable
is laid. :Most people carry a knife, hence the precept to keep it clean. Forks
scarcely exist, or at most for rak i ng meat from the d ish. Knives and spoons are
very often used communally. There is nor always a special i mplement for
50 The Civilizi11g Process

everyone: if you are offered someth i ng liquid , says Erasmus, rasre ir and rerum
rhe spoon afrer you have wi ped i r .
When dishes o f mear are broughr i n , usually everyone curs hi mself a piece,
rakes ir in his hand, and purs ir on his place if rhere are plates, orherwise on a
chick slice of bread _ The expression q11adrc1 used by Erasmus can clearly mean
ei rher a meral place or a sl ice of bread _
"Quidam ubi vix bene consideri ne max manus in epulas con jiciune." Some pm
rheir hands i nto rhe dishes when rhey are scarcely seared, says E rasmus. Wolves
or g l m rons <lu char_ Do nor be rhe firsr ro rake from a dish char is brought i n .
Leave dipping your fingers ineo r h e brorh r o r h e peasants. D o n o r poke around
in rhe dish bur rake rhe firsr piece char presents i rself. And jusr as ir shows a
wane of forbearance to search rhe whole dish wirh one's hand-" in omnes pari nae
plagas manum mirrere"-neirher is ir very police ro rum rhe dish round so rhar
a berrer piece comes ro you. Whar you cannor rake wirh your hands, rake on your
q11adra_ If someone passes you a piece of cake or pasrry wirh a spoon , eirher rake
it wirh your qlladm or rake rhe spoon offered ro you, pm rhe food on rhe qlladm
and rerum rhe spoon.
As has been mentioned , places too are uncommon. Pai nti ngs of cable scenes
from chis or earlier rimes always offer rhe same specracle, unfamiliar ro us, char
is indicared by E rasmus's rrearise. The cable is somerimes covered wirh rich clorhs,
sometimes nor, bur always rhere is lirrle on ir: dri nking vessels, sale-cellar,
knives, spoons, char is all. Somerimes we see rhe slices of bread, rhe qlladrae, char
i n French are called tmnchoir or tailloir_ Everyone, from rhe king and q ueen ro rhe
peasant and his wife, ears wirh rhe hands. In rhe upper class rhere are more
refined forms of chis. One oughr ro wash one's hands before a meal, says E rasmus.
Bur rhere is as yer no soap for chis purpose. Usually rhe guesrs hold our rheir
hands and a page pours warer over chem. The warer is somerimes slighdy scented
wirh chamomile or rosemary. 5 In good sociery one does nor put borh hands into
rhe dish. Ir is mosr refined to use only rhree fi ngers. This is one of rhe marks of
disrincrion benveen rhe upper and lower classes.
The fi ngers become greasy. "Digi ros uncros vel ore praelingere vel ad run icam
exrergere . . . i ncivile esr", says Erasmus. Ir is not police to lick chem or wipe
chem on one's coar. Ofren you offer ochers your glass, or all drink from a
communal rankard . E rasmus admonishes: "Wipe your mourh beforehand. " You
may wane ro offer someone you like some of rhe mear you are earing. "Refrain
from char", says Erasmus, "ir is nor very decorous ro offer somerhing half-earen
ro anorher. " And he says furrher: "To dip bread you have birren i nto rhe sauce is
ro behave like a peasant, and ir shows li rde elegance ro remove chewed food from
rhe mourh and pur i r back on rhe qlle1drc1 . If you cannor swallow a piece of food,
rum round discreedy and rhrow i r somewhere . "
Then h e says again: "Ir is good if conversarion i n terrupts rhe meal from rime
ro rime. Some people ear and drink wi rhour stoppi ng, nor because rhey are
 C hanges in the Behavio11r of the Semlar Upper Classes in the \Vest 51

hungry or rhirsry, bur because rhey can conrrol rheir movemenrs i n no ocher way.
They have ro scrarch their heads, poke their reech , gesticulate wirh their hands,
or play with a knife, or rhey can't help coughing, snoHing, and spitting. All chis

really comes from a rusric embarrassmenr and looks like a form of madness."
Bur i t is also necessary, and possible, for Erasmus ro say: Do nor expose
wirhour necessi ty " rhe parts ro which Narure has arrached modesty " . Some
prescribe, he says, char boys should "rerain rhe wind by compressi ng rhe belly".
Bur you can conrracc an i l l ness char way. And in anorher place: "Repri mere
sonirum , quern natura ferr, ineprorum esr, qui plus rribuunr civil iraci , q uam
saluri" (Fools who value civility more rhan health repress nacural sounds). Do nor
be afraid of vomiting if you muse; "for it is not vom iting bur holding che vomit
in your throat char is foul".
5 . \Vich great care Erasmus marks our i n his treatise rhe whole range of
human conduce, the chief siruacions of social and convivial life. He speaks with the
same maccer-of-facrness of rhe most elemenrary as of che subdesc quesrions of
human inrercourse. In che fi rsr chaprer he treats "che seemly and unseemly
condirion of rhe whole body" , in che second " bodily culcure" , in che rh ird " man­
ners at holy places", in che fourth banquets, in the fifth meeti ngs, in the sixrh
amusemenr and in rhe sevenrh che bedchamber. This is the range of questions in
rhe discussion of which Erasmus gave new imperus ro the concepr of civilitas.
Our consciousness is nor always able co recall chis ocher srage of our own
hisrory wi rhour hesirarion. The unconcerned frankness wi rh which Erasmus and
his rime could discuss all areas of human conduce is lose ro us. Much of whar he
says oversreps our rhreshold of repugnance.
Bur precisely chis is one of rhe problems ro be considered here. In tracing rhe
rransformarion of the conceprs by which differenr societies have cried ro express
themselves, in follow i ng back rhe concepr of civi lizarion ro i rs ancesror civilite,
one finds oneself suddenly on rhe crack of rhe civilizing process i rself, of rhe acrual
changes in behaviour char rook place in rhe Wesr. Thar ir is embarrassing for us
ro speak or even hear of much char Erasmus discusses is one of rhe symproms of
chis civilizin::,. process. The grearer or lesser discomfort we feel cowards people who
discuss or menrion their bodily funcrions more openly, who conceal and restrain
these functions less rhan we do, is one of rhe dom inanr feeli ngs expressed in rhe
judgemenr "barbaric" or "uncivi lized " . Such, then, is rhe nature of " barbarism
and its disconrents" or, in more precise and less evaluative rerms, rhe discontent
wirh the different structure of affecrs, the different standard of repugnance which
is srill ro be found roday in many socieries which we rerm " uncivilized " , the
srandard of repugnance which preceded our own and is irs precondirion. The
guescion arises as ro how and why Western society acrually moved from one
standard ro rhe ocher, how ic became "civilized " . In considering chis process of
civilizarion, we cannor avoid arousing feelings of discomforr and embarrassment.
I r is valuable ro be aware of chem.. I r is necessary, ar lease while considering chis
52 The Civilizing Process

process, ro attempt to suspend all the feelings of embarrassment and superiority,

all the value j udgements and criticisms associated with the concepts "civiliza­
tion" or " uncivilized " . Our kind of behaviour has grown our of that which we
call uncivilized . B ur these concepts grasp the actual change too scacically and
coarsely. In reali ty, our cerms "civilized " and "uncivilized " do nor consri rure an
anti thesis of the k i nd char exists between "good " and "bad " , bur represent stages
in a development which, moreover, is still continuing. le might well happen char
our stage of civil ization, our behaviour, will arouse i n our descendants feeli ngs of
embarrassment similar to chose we someti mes feel concerni ng the behaviour of
our ancestors. Social behaviour and rhe expression of emotions passed from a
form and a standard which was not a beginning, which could not in any absolute
and und i fferentiated sense be des ignated "uncivilized " , co our own , which we
denote by che word "civilized " . And to understand the laccer we m use go back in
rime to char from which it emerged . The "civilization" which we are accustomed
to regard as a possession char comes co us apparencly ready-made, wi chouc our
aski ng hmv we actually came to possess ic, is a process or pare of a process in
which we are ourselves i nvolved . Every particular characteristic chat we accribuce
to it-machinery, scientific discovery, forms of che state or whatever else-bears
wicness co a particular scrucrure of human relations, co a particular social
scrucrure, and to che correspond ing forms of behaviour. The quescion remains
whether che change in behaviour, in che social process of che "civi lization " of
people, can be understood , ac lease in isolated phases and in its elementary
features, wich any degree of precision.

II

On Medieval Manners

1 . In Erasmus of Rotterdam 's De civilitate 111om111 plferilim11 a particular kind of

social behaviour is d iscern ible. Even here, che si mple antithesis of "civilized " and
"uncivilized " hard ly applies.
Whar came before E rasmus? Was he che firsr co concern himself wirh such
maccers?
By no means. Similar quesrions occupied the people of rhe Middle Ages, of
Greco-Roman antiquity, and doubcless also of che related , preced i ng "civil i z­
ations".
This process has no beginning, and here we cannot trace i c back i ndefinitely.
Wherever we scare, there is movement, something chat wenc before. limits muse
necessarily be sec co a recrospeccive inquiry, preferably correspondi ng co the
phases of che process itself. Here che medieval standard muse suffice as a scarci ng­
point, wi chour i rself being closely examined, so char the movement, the curve of
development joini ng it to che modern age may be pursued.