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Mind the Gap: Framing of Women’s Success and Representation in STEM

Affects Women’s Math Performance under Threat

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DOI: 10.1007/s11199-012-0252-1

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Sex Roles (2013) 68:454–463
DOI 10.1007/s11199-012-0252-1
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Mind the Gap: Framing of Women’s Success and Representation
in STEM Affects Women’s Math Performance under Threat
Emily S. Shaffer & David M. Marx & Radmila Prislin
Published online: 19 December 2012
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012
Abstract Interventions designed to combat the negative
effects of stereotype threat have primarily taken an
individual-based approach. The current study sought to ex-
pand upon these strategies by taking a group-based ap-
proach to reduce stereotype threat effects. Specifically, we
investigated whether the success and numerical representa-
tion of women in STEM positively impacts women’s math
performance and affective reactions. We hypothesized that
1) women under threat (control) would perform worse than
men; 2) there would be a larger performance difference for
women than men when exposed to the success and balanced
representation of women in STEM compared to the control
condition; 3) there would be a larger performance difference
for women than men between the balanced condition and
the unbalanced condition where women are portrayed as
successful, but not equally represented in STEM. For this
study, male (n056) and female (n066) U.S. undergraduates
from a large southern California state university read infor-
mation about women’s success and representation in STEM
(or no information), completed a math exam under stereo-
type threat conditions, and then expressed their threat-based
concerns. Results revealed that women performed worse
than men in the control condition. Women in the balanced
condition performed better than women in the control and
unbalanced conditions. Men’s performance was unaffected
by the balance or imbalance of women in STEM. Women’s
affective reactions largely mirrored the performance results.
This study provides compelling evidence for using a group-
E. S. Shaffer (*)
Department of Psychology, Tulane University,
2007 Percival Stern Hall,
New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
e-mail: eshaffer@tulane.edu
D. M. Marx : R. Prislin
San Diego State University, San Diego, USA
based approach highlighting women’s advances in STEM to
alleviate stereotype threat.
Keywords Stereotype threat . Social progress . STEM .
Math performance
Introduction
Although men have historically dominated the fields of
science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM), recent
statistics show that U.S. male and female high school stu-
dents are now performing equally well in mathematics clas-
ses (Hill et al. 2010). However, in high-stakes testing
situations, such as the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)
or Graduate Record Exam (GRE), women continue to
underperform relative to men on the quantitative sections
(The College Board, 2011; Willingham & Cole, 1997). Over
the years, an increasing amount of research has been devot-
ed toward understanding this persistent gender gap in stan-
dardized test performance (e.g., Fredricks & Eccles, 2002;
Frome & Eccles, 1998; Schmader & Johns, 2003). One
factor that may play a role is stereotype threat, which is
defined as the situational pressure posed by the prospect that
a poor performance would be judged through the lens of a
negative group-relevant stereotype (Steele, 1997; Steele &
Aronson, 1995; Steele et al. 2002; these and all other studies
cited were conducted in the U.S. unless otherwise noted).
Since stereotype threat was first documented, a number
of interventions designed to reduce the negative effects of
threat have been proposed. Among them, the use of role
models in the U.S. (Marx & Roman, 2002; McIntyre et al.
2003) and the Netherlands (Marx et al. 2005), self-
affirmation (e.g., Martens et al. 2006), and alternative attri-
butions for the difficulty one may experience during a test
(Ben-Zeev et al. 2005; Johns et al. 2005) have all proven
effective among participant samples in the U.S. and Europe.
Sex Roles (2013) 68:454–463
Whereas these approaches proved successful, each incorpo-
rated an individual approach to what is widely considered a
group-based phenomenon (see Prislin, 2009). Although the
immediate impact of stereotype threat typically occurs at the
individual-level (e.g., decreased math performance), the
threat itself is not necessarily solely directed at the individ-
ual. Instead, threat can originate from more pervasive and
subtle cues about one’s group gathered from one’s environ-
ment and daily experiences (Murphy et al. 2007). In fact,
one of the early conceptualizations of threat (Steele, 1997)
was that of “a threat in the air” (p. 613). Hence, we felt it
important to examine whether a less individually directed,
group-based approach would also serve as an effective way
to disarm the adverse effects of stereotype threat. Instead of
placing the onus on the individual to disarm the threat,
another effective strategy may be to focus on changing
perceptions of the negative, group-wide impact of the threat
itself.
The need for an alternative approach seems critical in
light of recent theorizing by Shapiro and Neuberg (2007)
who argue that stereotype threat may originate from multi-
ple sources. Specifically, they contend that not only con-
cerns at the individual level, but also those at the group level
may be responsible for stereotype threat effects. Group-level
concerns refer to the apprehension regarding how one may
be judged by both ingroup and outgroup members if one
falters. In the current research, we propose that interventions
focused on the group-level may be a more widely effective
way to combat the negative effects of stereotype threat. For
the purposes of this research, we sought to investigate the
efficacy of this strategy on women’s performance in the
math domain. We propose that this strategy will not only
impact U.S. college women’s math performance, but may
also ameliorate their concerns about confirming the negative
gender stereotype regarding women’s math ability (i.e.,
threat-based concerns; Marx et al., 2005).
Group-Based vs. Individual-Based Strategies
The experience of stereotype threat is multifaceted. Indeed,
as Shapiro and Neuberg (2007) note, the concern one feels
in a stereotype threat situation may stem, not only from
potential self-insights, but also from what a person may
convey to ingroup and outgroup members. Thus, in addition
to the concern that one will confirm the stereotype in their
own eyes, it is the concern that one’s performance will
confirm the stereotype in the eyes of ingroup members,
outgroup members, or both that give rise to threat. This
multifaceted nature of stereotype threat is not reflected in
the frequently developed, individual-based intervention
strategies. As a result, group-level concerns that feed ste-
reotype threat (i.e., ingroup and outgroup threat) may not be
fully addressed. If so, then group-based sources of threat
455
may persist and continue to have adverse consequences for
those who are negatively stereotyped. In support of this
reasoning, Shapiro (2011) asserts that different types of
stereotype threats will require different interventions.
Further documenting the importance of a group-based inter-
vention against stereotype threat are the findings showing
that individuals under threat, relative to when they are not
under threat, are more focused on their group than individ-
ual identity (Marx et al. 2012a; Marx et al., 2005; cf. Rydell
et al. 2009).
To our knowledge, the extant literature has focused al-
most exclusively on individually-based interventions. An
exception is a study conducted in the U. K. by Rosenthal
and Crisp (2006) that focuses on “blurring inter-group
boundaries” (p. 501) or reducing the distinctions between
men and women. This strategy makes the stereotype less
relevant and therefore less threatening to women. Its effec-
tiveness was examined in a series of studies that encouraged
British college women to consider ways in which there was
intergroup overlap between men and women before com-
pleting a math exam under threat conditions. Results
showed that women who were encouraged to think about
the similarities between men and women performed signif-
icantly better on a math exam than those who were not
encouraged to blur these inter-group boundaries. Blurring
group boundaries may be effective because individuals are
no longer focused on what sets them apart from members of
another group. Although this method proved beneficial,
there may be a hidden consequence brought on by encour-
aging the elimination of group boundaries—one’s specific
group identity may become less distinct. In other words, for
women to perform well on the math exam, they need to
reduce what is unique to their group. In our view, a more
practical intervention should have a positive impact on
performance while also allowing the identities of stereo-
typed individuals to remain unchanged. That is, individuals
should not need to adapt their identity to become of less
value or importance in order to reduce the effects of stereo-
type threat. We argue that such an intervention may depend,
in part, on their group’s representation within the stereo-
typed domain (i.e., “are women becoming equally repre-
sented, or are women remaining underrepresented?”).
The Role of Group-Based Success in Stereotype Threat
Situations
Due to the salience of women’s gender identity in stereotype
threat situations, information regarding their group’s
achievement may be particularly impactful. For instance,
Brewer and Weber (1994) showed that exposure to success-
ful ingroup members can be both enhancing and threatening
to the self under certain conditions. In a negatively stereo-
typed situation, it may be particularly important to present
456
individuals with positive information about their group’s
achievement in the relevant domain in order to defend
against threat. Information regarding positive group-based
achievement may allow those who are targeted by the ste-
reotype to incorporate the successes of ingroup members
into the self. Thus, a woman who learns about the achieve-
ments of her group in STEM fields may recognize that
because she is a woman she can perform well and may
begin to think “we can do it” (Marx et al., 2005, p. 432).
This point is further underscored by Blanton, Crocker, and
Miller (2000) who showed that in a stereotyped context, the
success of an ingroup member is beneficial when that
ingroup member’s success disconfirms the stereotype.
Specifically, these researchers showed that self-esteem
among African American participants was higher when they
overheard that an ingroup confederate (i.e., a fellow African
American) scored particularly well on a math exam than
when the same ingroup confederate was reported to have not
achieved this level of success. These researchers also point
out that exposure to information regarding successful
ingroup members may have important implications for re-
ducing stereotype threat.
The Role of Group-Wide Representation in STEM
Notwithstanding the impact of information about success of
an ingroup member (a woman), it may be equally important
to provide comparative information about the representation
of ingroup (women) and outgroup (men) members in a
stereotyped domain. This information may not only have
an immediate effect on test performance, but may also speak
to the content of the stereotype itself. Whereas information
about the ingroup that disconfirms the stereotype can be
useful—especially in an immediate testing situation, infor-
mation that is favorable to the ingroup in relation to the
outgroup may have an additional and more lasting positive
effect. For instance, positive information regarding the
ingroup’s increased representation in the relevant domain
has the potential to make the stereotype less impactful. This
may occur because the increase in representation may send
the message to fellow ingroup members that they are not
only capable in this domain, but also that they will not be
judged in terms of the stereotype if they struggle. Altering
perceptions of women’s representation in STEM to reflect a
more balanced presence of men and women may effectively
alter perceptions of the field itself to be less threatening
(Murphy et al., 2007; Walton and Cohen 2007). In fact,
work by Rabinovich, Morton, Postmes, and Verplanken
(2011) conducted with a British sample of participants
showed that the valence of group-based information can
have differential effects on behavioral outcomes. In their
study, information that portrayed the participants’ own
group in a positive light led participants to report intentions
Sex Roles (2013) 68:454–463
to engage in more environmentally-friendly behaviors than
when the outgroup was portrayed more positively. Applying
this reasoning to the current research, we argue that when
provided with positive information about women’s progress
and improved representation relative to men in STEM-
related fields, women may feel inspired to enact these
achievements of their group. Information that emphasizes
social progress could reassure women that their group is
moving into these fields and may also decrease any concern
they may have regarding performance in STEM.
Conversely, information that emphasizes that women’s rep-
resentation in STEM still lags behind that of men may only
further exacerbate their concerns about performing well. In
essence, women may be doubly threatened in this situation
—first they are aware of the negative stereotype associated
with their group, and second they learn that in spite of all
efforts at improvement, their group still has yet to achieve
equal representation in STEM, further cementing their infe-
rior status in these areas.
Group-Level Change and Stereotyped Concerns
In addition to reducing the negative effects of stereotype threat
on performance, we sought to determine whether an interven-
tion focused at the group level would likewise be effective at
alleviating women’s concerns about confirming a stereotype
associated with their group. Previous research has shown that
even when performance is enhanced via exposure to female
role models, women still expressed some concern about con-
firming the negative stereotype regarding women’s ability in
math (e.g., Marx et al. 2005; Marx et al. 2012b). It is possible
that this continuing concern occurs because a single instanti-
ation of an ingroup member who disconfirms the stereotype is
insufficient to alleviate these threat-based concerns. After all,
a single role model or individual who defies a stereotype does
not necessarily invalidate a stereotype associated with one’s
group (Weber and Crocker 1983). It stands to reason that a
reduction of such stereotyped concerns may require an
approach that is focused at the group-level. To this end, we
argue that exposing women to messages that highlight both
the success of their group and their group’s progress in a
domain where they have been underrepresented in the past
may not only improve performance, but also has the potential
to alter women’s (and men’s) threat-based concerns.
Present Research
Providing women with information about their group’s suc-
cess and progress in STEM-related fields, in comparison to
men in those fields, allows women to see a more compre-
hensive picture of their standing in this domain. If this
information is presented in a way that allows women to
draw positive conclusions with regard to both their ingroup
Sex Roles (2013) 68:454–463
and their outgroup—that is, their ingroup can achieve suc-
cess and are almost equal to the outgroup—then this may
lessen the burden associated with overcoming the negative
stereotype. Accordingly, the present research sought to im-
plement a two-pronged, group-level approach to mitigate
the negative effects that women experience under stereotype
threat. Namely, this strategy aimed to reduce these effects by
not only showing that a woman can succeed in STEM, but
also by highlighting how the gender gap in STEM has been
closing. Such a strategy may be utilized when combating the
many different types of stereotype threat (Shapiro &
Neuberg, 2007) because it can speak to both self and group
threats. That is, this strategy incorporates information pre-
viously shown to be effective in individual-based strategies,
but also includes information that may disarm group-level
threats. Importantly, this strategy should improve women’s
performance, but not at the expense of men’s performance.
In this study, we tested five hypotheses that focused on
the effectiveness of our group-based strategy for reducing
the effects of stereotype threat on performance and threat-
based concerns among participants of comparable aptitude
and identification with math. Because prior math aptitude
and identification with math can vary widely between par-
ticipants, we created a composite covariate to equate all
participants on these variables. This was important as ste-
reotype threat and strategies aimed at reducing it operate to
affect individuals with similar math-related backgrounds.
Each of the five hypotheses was tested after first establish-
ing that there was a significant interaction of participant
gender with our experimental manipulations.
Hypothesis 1: Men will perform better than women in the
control condition where participants were
provided with neutral information regard-
ing the history of academics at SDSU, thus
demonstrating a typical stereotype threat
effect in performance.
Hypothesis 2: Compared to the control condition, there
will be a larger math performance differ-
ence for women relative to men in the
balanced condition where participants are
provided with information showing that
women can and do achieve success in
STEM, and that the progress of women is
altering the representation of their group in
these fields. Furthermore, women are
expected to perform as well as men in the
balanced condition.
Hypothesis 3: There will be a larger math performance
difference for women relative to men be-
tween the balanced and unbalanced condi-
tion where they are provided with
information about the success of women,
457
which, however, still leaves women under-
represented in STEM. Furthermore, men
are expected to perform better than women
in the unbalanced condition.
For threat-based concerns we tested the following two
primary hypotheses.
Hypothesis 4: Women will have higher threat-based con-
cerns relative to men in the control condition,
thus demonstrating a typical stereotype threat
effect on affective reactions.
Hypothesis 5: The difference between women’s threat-
based concerns in the balanced and unbal-
anced conditions will be larger than the
difference for men in these two conditions.
Additionally, women will show lower
threat-based concerns in the balanced con-
dition than in the control condition.
Method
Participants and Design
One hundred twenty two undergraduates (56 male, 66
female; see Table 1) from San Diego State University
(SDSU) participated in exchange for partial fulfillment of
a psychology course requirement. A post hoc power
analyses revealed that with our sample size (N0122)
and an expected moderate effect-size (η2 0.05), we had
approximately a 70 % chance of detecting a significant
effect. Participants were recruited via an online recruit-
ment system (SONA), which listed all available studies
being conducted in the psychology department.
Participants were unaware about the purpose of the study
prior to arrival at the laboratory. Further details about
participants’ demographic characteristics are contained in
Table 1. For this study we used a 2 (Participant Gender:
male, female) x 3 (STEM Representation: balanced, un-
balanced, control) between-participants design.
Procedure
Participants were greeted by an experimenter and then
shown to one of two separate cubicles that contained a
desktop computer. They were then told that the study was
about academics and student life and consisted of a series of
unrelated tasks that would be presented on the computer. To
manipulate stereotype threat, participants were first pre-
sented with information that past research has shown gender
differences in math favoring men, and that they would be
completing a math exam later in the session (Marx et al.
2012a, b; Rydell et al., 2009; Spencer et al., 1999).
458 Sex Roles (2013) 68:454–463

Table 1 Participant gender, age, and race/ethnicity across experimental conditions

Balanced Unbalanced Control

Men Women Men Women Men Women

Total N (%) 17 (43.6 %) 22 (56.4 %) 23 (52.3 %) 21 (47.7 %) 16 (41.0 %) 23 (59.0 %)

Age 19.00 18.86 19.22 18.67 19.25 19.17
SD (1.22) (1.13) (1.17) (.97) (1.13) (1.72)
Race
White 4 (23.5 %) 11 (50.0 %) 15 (65.2 %) 11 (52.4 %) 6 (37.5 %) 10 (43.5 %)
Latino/a 6 (35.3 %) 6 (27.3 %) 3 (13.0 %) 5 (23.8 %) 4 (25.0 %) 7 (30.4 %)
Asian 6 (35.3 %) 2 (9.1 %) 2 (8.7 %) 3 (14.3 %) 4 (25.0 %) 4 (17.4 %)
African-American 1 (5.9 %) 1 (4.5 %) 0 (.0 %) 1 (4.8 %) 0 (.0 %) 0 (.0 %)
Middle-Eastern 0 (.0 %) 0 (.0 %) 0 (.0 %) 0 (.0 %) 1 (6.2 %) 1 (4.3 %)
Other 0 (.0 %) 2 (9.1 %) 3 (13.0 %) 1 (4.8 %) 1 (6.2 %) 1 (4.3 %)

There were no significant differences in these demographic variables across conditions

Next, participants read a short bogus newspaper article
that served as our manipulation of STEM representation (see
Appendix). In the balanced condition, participants read an
article that highlighted the number of women in STEM fields
has significantly increased over the years, such that women
are now in nearly equal numbers to men in STEM careers. The
article in the unbalanced condition was nearly identical to the
aforementioned article except that participants read about how
the presence of women in STEM fields has increased over the
years, but women still remain underrepresented in comparison
to men. In addition to information regarding women’s STEM
representation, both articles provided examples of women
who have achieved success in the relevant domain as a way
to reinforce that women are capable of succeeding in STEM,
despite being equally or unequally represented in these
domains. Participants in the control condition read about the
history of academics at SDSU.
After reading their respective articles, participants took a
math exam under stereotype threat conditions. Afterwards,
they were asked a number of follow-up questions pertaining
to their threat-based concerns and basic demographic infor-
mation. Once participants completed these measures, they
were thanked and debriefed.
in math?” The scale was anchored with the terms (1) not at
all important and (7) very important (α0.78). To control for
prior math ability, we also collected participants’ self-
reported math SAT scores. To equate all participants on
math identification and math ability, we created a composite
covariate based on their self-reported math SAT and MIQ
scores (for a similar procedures, see Marx & Roman, 2002).
Specifically, to express each variable in a common metric,
we calculated z-scores and averaged across the standardized
variables. This composite variable was used as a covariate in
all subsequent analyses.
Main Dependent Measures
Math Performance
Participants completed ten GRE-like math problems that have
been used in prior work on stereotype threat (e.g., Marx et al.
2012a, b). Participants were given 10 min to complete the
math exam. Performance was determined by the number of
questions answered correctly, with a possible range from 0 to
10. Consistent with standardized testing procedures, calcula-
tors were not allowed, but scratch paper was provided.

Prescreen Measures Threat-Based Concerns

Math Identification and Math Ability
All participants answered a prescreen questionnaire prior to
participation in the study. This questionnaire included a
modified version of the Math Identification Questionnaire
(MIQ; Brown & Josephs, 1999), which assesses the extent
to which one is identified with the math domain. For exam-
ple, participants indicated how much they agreed with three
questions, including “How important is it for you to do well
This measure (Marx et al. 2012a, b; Marx et al., 2005;
Rydell et al. 2010; see also, Marx & Goff, 2005) consists
of three items that assessed how concerned participants were
about confirming a group-relevant stereotype (α0.63). For
instance, they were asked to rate how much they agreed with
statements such as, “I worry that my ability to perform well
on math tests is affected by my gender.” The scale was
anchored with the terms (1) strongly disagree and (7)
strongly agree. The three items were averaged to form a
Sex Roles (2013) 68:454–463 459

composite threat-based concern score with higher numbers
reflecting greater concern.
Previous research using this scale has reported alpha
levels from .70 to .83 (e.g., Marx et al., 2005; Marx &
Goff, 2005; Rydell et al. 2010). Because our observed alpha
was lower than expected, we submitted the three scale items
to a principle components analysis with varimax rotation to
test whether they reflected the same underlying factor.
Results confirmed that all three items loaded together on
one factor with loadings greater than .71.
Results
Math Performance
Participants’ math performance was assessed using a 2
(Participant Gender) × 3 (STEM Representation) Analysis
of Covariance (ANCOVA) on the total number of math
problems answered correctly, controlling for the covariate
(see Table 2). This analysis yielded an effect for the cova-
riate, F(1, 115)038.28, p<.01, and a main effect of gender,
such that men (M05.55) performed better than women (M0
4.64), F(1, 115)07.11, p<.01, η20.06. There was no main
effect of STEM Representation, F<1.00. We also found a
reliable Participant Gender by STEM Representation inter-
action, F(2, 115)03.19, p<.05, η2 0.03. To interpret this
significant omnibus interaction, we conducted planned con-
trasts that were informed by our hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1 predicted a typical stereotype threat effect on
performance (Spencer et al., 1999). Results revealed that men
(M05.81) did perform better than women (M04.15) in the
control condition F(1, 115)07.64, p<.01, η2 0.06. We next
tested Hypothesis 2, which anticipated that the performance
Table 2 Mean (SD) math performance and threat-based concerns as a
function of STEM representation and participant gender
difference between the balanced and control conditions would
be larger for women (M05.48 vs. M04.15) than men (M0
5.17 vs. M05.81). This hypothesis was supported, F(1, 115)0
5.40, p0.02, η2 0.04. That is, women did benefit from being
exposed to the balanced information relative to when this
information was not provided (control condition), F(1,
115)05.85, p<.02, η2 0.05, while men showed no difference
between these two conditions, F(1, 115)00.99, p0.32. Follow
up analyses revealed that within the balanced condition wom-
en (M05.48) performed as well as men (M05.17), F(1, 115)0
0.27, p0.60. Hypothesis 3 predicted that women would per-
form better in the balanced (M05.48) relative to the unbal-
anced (M 04.30) condition, but that there would be no
performance difference for men in these two conditions (M0
5.17 vs. M05.66). This hypothesis was also supported, F(1,
115)04.17, p0.04, η2 0.03. Follow up analyses demonstrated
that, consistent with a stereotype threat effect, men performed
better (M05.66) than women (M04.30) in the unbalanced
condition, F(1, 115)05.97, p<.02, η2 0.05.
Taken together, these performance results provide evi-
dence for the effectiveness of a group-based strategy in
combating stereotype threat. Moreover, these results show
that highlighting the unequal representation of women in
STEM, although seemingly necessary to inspire women to
overcome this underrepresentation, did not reduce stereo-
type threat effects on performance. A more effective strategy
appears to be highlighting that women are becoming more
equally represented and successful in STEM, thus reinforc-
ing women’s social progress in areas once dominated by
men. These results further illustrate that calling attention to
women’s success and subsequent equal representation in
STEM was clearly beneficial for women without harming
the math performance of men, providing support for the
practicality of our approach for combating the effects of
stereotype threat.
Threat-Based Concerns

Balanced Unbalanced Control

To examine participants’ threat-based concerns we conducted
Men Women Men Women Men Women a 2 (Participant Gender) x 3 (STEM Representation)
ANCOVA, controlling for the covariate (see Table 2). This
Performance 5.17b 5.48b 5.66b 4.30a 5.81b 4.15a analysis revealed a significant effect for the covariate, F
SD (2.62) (1.99) (2.51) (1.81) (1.67) (1.94) (1,115) 04.56, p < .04, but no main effects, Fs < 1.00.
Threat 2.67b 2.06b 2.25b 2.66b 1.83a 2.56c Importantly, we found a significant Participant Gender by
SD (.98) (1.31) (1.07) (1.10) (.97) (1.13) STEM Representation interaction, F(2, 115)03.94, p0.02,
η2 0.05. To interpret this significant omnibus interaction,
The balanced condition stressed women’s success and increased nu-
planned comparisons were conducted that were informed by
merical representation in STEM. The unbalanced condition presented
information about women’s success in STEM, but also showed that our final two primary hypotheses.
women remained underrepresented with regard to men. The control As expected and consistent with past research (Marx et
condition detailed the history of academics at SDSU. Higher numbers al. 2012a; Marx et al., 2005; Rydell et al., 2009), we found
indicate better math performance and greater threat-based concerns.
All means within a condition that do not share a subscript differ at
support for Hypothesis 4. Specifically, women in the control
p<.05. Participants’ math performance could range from 0 to 10 and condition were more concerned about confirming a group-
their threat-based concern scores could range from 1 to 7 relevant stereotype (M02.56) than were men (M01.83), F
460
(1,115)04.21, p0.04, η2 0.04. Next, we examined whether
women’s threat-based concerns would be higher in the un-
balanced compared to the balanced condition, whereas
men’s threat-based concerns would not differ between these
two conditions (Hypothesis 5). We again found support for
this hypothesis, F(1,115)04.45, p<.04, η2 0.04, such that
the difference in women’s threat-based concerns between
the balanced (M02.06) and unbalanced (M02.66) condi-
tions was greater than men’s (M 02.67 vs. M 02.25).
Follow up analyses revealed that for women, threat-based
concerns were somewhat reduced in the balanced condition
(M02.06) compared to the control condition (M02.56), F
(1,115)02.35, p<.13, η2 0.02, suggesting that the balanced
information did allay their concerns to some extent. This
finding thus demonstrates that a group-level approach is
somewhat beneficial in lowering women’s threat-based con-
cerns, something that has not been found in previous ste-
reotype threat intervention work (see e.g., Marx et al. 2012a;
Marx et al., 2005). This finding also suggests that an even
more targeted approach may be needed to fully reduce
women’s threat-based concerns. Interestingly, and unexpect-
edly, men’s threat-based concerns were higher in the bal-
anced compared to the control condition, F(1,115)04.87, p
<.03, η2 0.04, implying that information regarding women’s
equal representation and success in STEM may have raised
men’s threat-based concerns. That is, men may have felt
more negatively about their group’s place in the “STEM
hierarchy”, because of this positive portrayal of women.
On the whole, these results echo the findings for perfor-
mance: Just as women performed better when their group
was portrayed as being equally represented in STEM, rather
than unequally represented, their threat-based concerns were
likewise reduced. Men, however, seemed to be more sensi-
tive to variations in women’s representation in STEM, such
that their concerns were increased in the balanced condition
relative to the control condition, a point we return to in the
discussion.
Discussion
This study highlights a novel strategy for combating the
negative effects of stereotype threat: namely, presenting
positive group-based information regarding women’s suc-
cess and progress in STEM. When women were able to
see that not only can women succeed in STEM, but also
that their group is gaining ground in these fields, they
performed as well as men despite being in a stereotype
threat situation. When the success and representation of
their group was portrayed as being unequal to men,
women’s performance suffered relative to men. One
may assume this inequality in success and representation
would motivate women to perform well to defy or
Sex Roles (2013) 68:454–463
overcome the negative stereotype surrounding their
group; however, this did not appear to be the case. We,
thus, argue that providing information that highlights the
status quo (i.e., the overrepresentation of men) may only
solidify perceptions of women’s status in STEM, making
it difficult for women to envision change. This was
evident in women’s similarly subpar performance in the
unbalanced condition and in the control condition (i.e., a
typical stereotype threat condition). We also found that
these group-based messages had parallel effects on wom-
en’s threat-based concerns. Women in the balanced con-
dition were slightly less concerned about confirming a
group-relevant stereotype than in the unbalanced condi-
tion where they were confronted with women’s underrep-
resentation in STEM, even when provided with
information showing that women can succeed in STEM.
Men’s performance did not differ as a function of wom-
en’s group-based success even when presented with in-
formation showing that women were gaining ground in
STEM fields. The equal representation of women in
STEM increased threat-based concerns for men, yet, as
noted above, these concerns did not adversely impact
their performance. Importantly, this strategy, which
proved useful and practical for women, does not come
at the expense of men’s performance. It is interesting to
note that men did perform slightly less well in the
balanced condition than in the control condition. Future
research may examine whether a manipulation that more
explicitly threatens men’s status and numbers in the
STEM fields would have an even greater negative impact
on their performance. However, as a first step in inves-
tigating this group-based strategy, we felt it important not
to sacrifice men’s performance for the benefit of women.
Our findings also provide strong support for using group-
based strategies in addition to individual-based strategies
against the effects of threat. This is not to say that our
group-based intervention is more beneficial or effective than
individual-based strategies, such as role models. However,
when taking a group-based focus, providing information
regarding the success of women may only solve one side
of the equation. Showing that women are becoming more
equally represented in STEM may be especially impactful
because it changes perceptions of the field itself. This par-
ticular strategy not only had beneficial effects on women’s
performance, but it is also the first strategy that showed
some utility in diminishing threat-based concerns. We argue
that this occurred because highlighting the success and
representation of one’s group speaks specifically to group-
level concerns. Rather than presenting a single instantiation
of success in math, as with the use of role models, the
presentation of group-wide change seemed impactful
enough to reduce women’s threat-based concerns to some
degree.
Sex Roles (2013) 68:454–463
Men’s threat-based concerns were higher in the bal-
anced condition than in the control condition. In each of
these conditions, it was mentioned that women had at
least made some progress in STEM. That is, in both
conditions, participants were presented with information
about a woman who has made achievements in STEM.
However, only in the balanced condition were women
portrayed to be in equal numbers to men. It is possible
that men, who are positively stereotyped in this domain,
could have interpreted any positive progress of women as
potentially threatening to their place in the hierarchy. The
progress of women, albeit less significant in the unbal-
anced condition, may signal to men that they are losing
their stronghold in STEM. Because of this, men may feel
extra pressure to perform well in order to assert their
position in the field. In fact, Brown and Josephs (1999)
have shown that there can be disadvantages associated
with being positively stereotyped in a particular domain.
Presumably, men can become worried about confirming
the stereotype and living up to the positive performance of
their group. Because of this extra pressure, men’s perfor-
mance can also suffer. Brown and Joseph’s findings may
help explain why we found an increase in men’s threat-
based concerns when exposed to a woman’s success and
increased representation of women in STEM compared to
the control condition. Although this concern may have
been somewhat raised with exposure to positive informa-
tion regarding women’s progress in STEM, it was not
potent enough to impact men’s performance negatively.
It is worth noting that the alpha for the threat-based
concerns scale was relatively lower than in past research
using the same scale. However, due to the consistent pat-
terns of effects as well as the results of the principle com-
ponents analysis, we believe that this measure still provided
a valid assessment of participants’ threat-based concerns. It
is also worth noting that our study included conditions that
consistently provided positive information regarding wom-
en’s success and varied the extent of their representation. We
are reluctant to believe that receiving any type of positive
information, regardless of group membership, would ac-
count for the effects in this study. In fact, Brewer and
Weber (1994) have shown that, for numerical minorities,
positive information regarding the outgroup results in lower
evaluations of the self regardless of the resultant negative
consequences. That is, to minorities, this positive informa-
tion only highlights the outgroup’s superiority and their own
group’s inferiority. Indeed, the results of our study docu-
ment that not all positive information is treated equally. In
order for this positive information to be effective, it must
speak directly to the concerns of the individual. Concerns
about disconfirming the group-based stereotype were not
alleviated until it was shown that group-based change was
possible.
461
Coda
The results of this study extend research on stereotype threat
in two important ways. First, we documented the beneficial
effects of positive group-based information in reducing ste-
reotype threat. This study provides a first step toward de-
veloping a comprehensive strategy that may target multiple
types of stereotype threat. Whereas we agree with Shapiro
and Neuberg (2007, p. 126) that there is no “silver bullet” in
combating stereotype threat, we believe that a comprehen-
sive strategy is useful when multiple threats may be present.
Second, whereas most interventions have primarily focused
on relieving threat at the individual level, this study provides
strong evidence that taking a broader, group-based perspec-
tive can mitigate the performance effects and also the threat-
based concerns associated with stereotype threat.
When considering actions needed for further advancements
of women in STEM, caution should be used in order to present
an effective message. That is, highlighting the fact that women
are not equal in number to men in STEM-related careers,
which on the surface may sound motivating, may in fact
discourage women to a further extent and trigger a greater
threat. This is not to say that an effective tactic would be to
present an unrealistic picture that shows no disparity exists in
STEM. To the contrary, a message regarding underrepresen-
tation may be an effective call to action to achieve equality.
However, we contend that messages of underrepresentation,
specifically in immediate testing situations, may need to be
tempered with additional information showing that women
are gaining ground and those women who are already in
STEM fields are doing well.
Appendix
Balanced Condition
Recent Study Shows Men and Women Nearly Equal
in STEM
WASHINGTON, D.C. – Over the last 50 years, women
have been clearly outnumbered in Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields. However, a
recent study by the Department of Education shows that this
gender imbalance is getting smaller.
The Department of Education has been collecting statis-
tics on the number of men and women in STEM fields for
the last 25 years. The first study revealed that men out-
numbered women 4 to 1 in these fields and careers. Over
the years, the number of women present in STEM fields has
gradually increased. This latest study, which used data col-
lected from 2007 through 2008, revealed that women now
appear in these careers in nearly equal numbers to men.
462
Megan Gallo, head of the Mathematics department at
University of California, Berkeley, expressed her satisfac-
tion with this recent finding. “Finally, the statistics are
reflecting what we already know. Women are just as able
and successful in STEM as their male counterparts.”
Gallo also noted that women have been recognized for
their achievements in STEM fields. Notably, in 2003, Susan
Morris received the Fields Medal, the Nobel Prize equiva-
lent, for her continued work in Mathematics.
Ultimately, this study reveals that women have gained
ground in historically male dominated fields.
Unbalanced Condition
Gender Gap in STEM Closing, But Still Far To Go
WASHINGTON, D.C. – Over the last 50 years, women
have been clearly outnumbered in Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields. However, a
recent study by the Department of Education shows that this
gender imbalance is getting smaller.
The Department of Education has been collecting statis-
tics on the number of men and women in STEM fields for
the last 25 years. The first study revealed that men out-
numbered women 4 to 1 in these fields and careers. Over
the years, the number of women present in STEM fields has
gradually increased. This latest study, which used data col-
lected from 2007 through 2008, revealed that women are
moving into these fields and beginning to rival men.
Megan Gallo, head of the Mathematics department at
University of California, Berkeley, expressed her satisfac-
tion with this recent finding. “Finally, the statistics are
reflecting what we already know. Women are just as able
and successful in STEM as their male counterparts.
However, it is important to realize that women haven’t yet
achieved equality to men. I hope that a future study reveals
even more progress made by women in STEM.”
Gallo also noted that women have been recognized for
their achievements in STEM fields. Notably, in 2003, Susan
Morris received the Fields Medal, the Nobel Prize equiva-
lent, for her continued work in Mathematics.
Ultimately, this study reveals that women are gaining
ground in historically male dominated fields, but more
strides do need to be made to achieve equality.
Control Condition
Anniversary of SDSU Approaches
SAN DIEGO – This upcoming school year marks the 113th
anniversary of San Diego State University. In 1897, the
University opened as the San Diego Normal School with
only 91 students who attended classes above a pharmacy.
Sex Roles (2013) 68:454–463
The Normal School was designed to train female elementary
school teachers and it wasn’t until 1935 that other fields of
study were offered.
Today, SDSU has over 30,000 students enrolled each
year in 85 different undergraduate majors. SDSU also offers
75 master’s programs and 14 joint doctoral programs.
Among colleges with 14 or fewer PhD programs, SDSU
has been ranked number one as the most productive research
university for the past four consecutive years. SDSU is also
among top ranked schools in fields of education, interna-
tional business, social work, and biology.
Due to the demands of the continuously expanding stu-
dent body, the building of Arts and Letters and the Calpulli
Center were opened in the 2006–2007 school year. The
Imperial Valley branch campus was opened in 1959, and
just recently graduated its first 4-year class.
San Diego State University has come a long way since its
modest beginnings as a small teacher’s college. Its success
has been made possible by continued support from students,
faculty, staff and alumni.
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