1.

Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient North

Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the
Nile River, situated in the place that is now the
country Egypt. For almost 30 centuries—from its
unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by
Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.—ancient Egypt was
the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean
world. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom
through the military conquests of the New Kingdom,
Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists
and historians and created a vibrant field of study all its
own: Egyptology. The main sources of information about ancient Egypt are the many monuments,
objects, and artifacts that have been recovered from archaeological sites, covered with hieroglyphs that
had been deciphered by Jean Francois Champollion. The civilization has always been strongly connected
with other parts of the world, bringing in and exporting goods, religions, food, people, and ideas.

A number of names were used for Egypt in ancient times. A popular ancient name for Egypt was
"Kemet," which means the "black land." Scholars generally believe that this name derives from the
fertile soil that is left over when the Nile flood recedes in August. The country's ancient rulers are
referred to today as "pharaohs," although in ancient times they each used a series of names as part of a
royal titular, wrote Ronald Leprohon, an Egyptology professor at the University of Toronto, in his book
"The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary" (Society of Biblical Literature, 2013). The word
pharaoh actually originates from the term "per-aa" which means "the Great House,”.The term was first
incorporated into a royal titulary during the rule of Thutmose III.

Egypt’s history has traditionally been divided into 30 (sometimes 31) dynasties. This tradition started
with the Egyptian priest Manetho, who lived during the third century B.C. His accounts of ancient
Egyptian history were preserved by ancient Greek writers and, until the deciphering of hieroglyphic
writing in the 19th century, were one of the few historical accounts that scholars could read.

Modern-day scholars often group these dynasties into several periods. Dynasties one and two date back
around 5,000 years and are often called the "early dynastic" or "archaic" period. The first pharaoh of the
first dynasty was a ruler named Menes (or Narmer, as he is called in Greek). He lived over 5,000 years
ago, and while ancient writers sometimes credited him as being the first pharaoh of a united Egypt we
know today that this is not true — there was a group of Egyptian rulers that predated Menes. Scholars
sometimes refer to these pre-Menes rulers as being part of a "dynasty zero."

Dynasties 3-6 date from roughly 2650–2150 B.C. and are often lumped into a time period called the "Old
Kingdom" by modern-day scholars. During this time, pyramid building techniques were developed and
the pyramids of Giza were built. Pyramids were built for religious purposes because the Egyptians were
one of the first civilizations to believe in afterlife.The pyramids are used as tombs for the pharaohs, it is
shaped as a triangle because of their beliefs for the sun god Ra and their pyramids represent the rays of
the sun. The pyramid had sloping sides so that the dead pharaoh could symbolically climb to the sky and
live forever. The very first pyramid was the step pyramid which was built around 2780 BCE. King Djoser's
architect, Imhotep, built it by placing six mastabas, each smaller than the one beneath, in a stack to form
a pyramid rising in steps.

The pyramids of Giza The Step pyramid

From 2150–2030 B.C. (a time period that encompassed dynasties 7-10 and part of the 11) the central
government in Egypt was weak and the country was often controlled by different regional leaders. Why
the Old Kingdom collapsed is a matter of debate among scholars, with recent research indicating that
drought and climate change played a significant role. During this time other cities and civilizations in the
Middle East also collapsed, with evidence at archaeological sites indicating that a period of drought and
arid climate hit sites across the Middle East.

Dynasties 12, 13, as well as part of the 11th are often called the "Middle Kingdom" by scholars and
lasted from 2030–1640 B.C. At the start of this dynasty, a ruler named Mentuhotep II (who reigned until
about 2000 B.C.) reunited Egypt into a single country. Pyramid building resumed in Egypt, and a sizable
number of texts documenting the civilization’s literature and science were recorded. Among the
surviving texts is the Edwin Smith surgical papyrus, which includes a variety of medical treatments that
modern-day medical doctors have hailed as being advanced for their time.

Dynasties 14-17 are often lumped into the "second intermediate period" by modern-day scholars.
During this time central government again collapsed in Egypt, with part of the country being occupied by
the "Hyksos" a group from the Levant (an area that encompasses modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon,
Jordan and Syria). One gruesome find from this time period is a series of severed hands, cut off from
their human victims, which were found at a palace at the city of Avaris, the capital of Hyksos-controlled
Egypt. The cut-off hands may have been presented by soldiers to a ruler in exchange for gold.

Scholars often refer to dynasties 18-20 as encompassing the "New Kingdom," a period that lasted 1550–
1070 B.C. This time period takes place after the Hyksos had been driven out of Egypt by a series of
Egyptian rulers and the country was reunited. Perhaps the most famous archaeological site from this
time period is the Valley of the Kings, which holds the burial sites of many Egyptian rulers from this time
period, including that of Tutankhamun, whose rich tomb was found intact.

Dynasties 21-24 (1070–713 B.C.) are often called the "third intermediate period" by modern-day
scholars. The central government was sometimes weak during this time period and the country was not
always united. During this time cities and civilizations across the Middle East had been destroyed by a
wave of people from the Aegean, whom modern-day scholars sometimes call the "Sea Peoples." While
Egyptian rulers claimed to have defeated the Sea Peoples in battle, it didn’t prevent Egyptian civilization
from collapsing. The loss of trade routes and revenue may have played a role in the weakening of
Egypt’s central government.

Dynasties 25-31 ( 712–332 B.C.) are often referred to as the "late period" by scholars. Egypt was
sometimes under the control of foreign powers during this period. The rulers of the 25th dynasty were
from Nubia, an area now located in southern Egypt and northern Sudan. The Persians and Assyrians also
controlled Egypt at different times during the late period.

In 332 B.C. Alexander the Great drove the Persians out of Egypt and
incorporated the country into the Macedonian Empire. After Alexander
the Great’s death, a line of rulers descended from Ptolemy Soter, one of
Alexander’s generals and his half brother. The last of these "Ptolemaic"
rulers (as scholars often call them) was Cleopatra VII, who committed
suicide by letting herself be bitten by a venomous snake, in 30 B.C after
the defeat of her forces by the Roman emperor Augustus at the Battle of
Actium. After her death,her son Caesarion(Ptolemy XV), inherited the
throne and became the last pharaoh of Egypt in the Ptolemaic dynasty.
But his reign didn’t last because of his death. There are two theories
regarding his death, the first theory was he was killed by the soldiers of
Octavian(later on called Augustus Caesar); the second theory was he
inherited his father’s disease (stroke), that killed him even though he was
still young. After his death, Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire
by Augustus Caesar.
Although the Roman emperors were based in Rome, the Egyptians treated them as pharaohs. One
recently excavated carving shows the emperor Claudius was dressed as a pharaoh. The carving has
hieroglyphic inscriptions that say that Claudius is the "Son of Ra, Lord of the Crowns," and is "King of
Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands." But neither the Ptolemaic or Roman rulers are
considered to be part of a numbered dynasty.

The Egyptians had invented mathematics, geometry, surveying, metallurgy, astronomy, accounting,
writing, paper, medicine, the ramp, the lever, the plough, mills for grinding grain and all the
paraphernalia that goes with large organized societies. Their most famous invention are the pyramids,
which were the first monumental stone building designed and constructed that we know of. The science
and math behind the pyramids help us to form our
modern day architecture.

All early forms of writing were pictograms – pictures.

All writing systems developed in this way but their
original forms become lost as the pictures are refined
into abstract forms. What is interesting about the
Egyptians is that although their writing changed to the
abstract form of Hieratic they deliberately preserved
the hieroglyphic pictures in their original forms.
Papyrus sheets are the earliest paper-like material – all
other civilizations used stone, clay tablets, animal hide,
wood materials or wax as a writing surface. Papyrus was, for over 3000 years, the most important
writing material in the ancient world. It was exported all around the Mediterranean and was widely used
in the Roman Empire as well as the Byzantine Empire. Its use continued in Europe until the seventh
century AD, when an embargo on exporting it forced the Europeans to use parchment. The Egyptians
mixed vegetable gum, soot and bee wax to make black ink, to use as an instrument for writing. They
replaced soot with other materials such as ochre to make various colours.

Using the power of oxen to pull the plough revolutionised

agriculture and modified versions of this Egyptian
invention are still used by farmers in developing countries
around the world. The sickle is a curved blade used for
cutting and harvesting grain, such as wheat and barley. The
Egyptians constructed canals and irrigation ditches to
harness Nile river’s yearly flood and bring water to distant
fields. The Shadoof is a long balancing pole with a weight
on one end and a bucket on the other. The bucket is filled
with water and easily raised then emptied onto higher ground.

Shadoof
The Egyptians devised the solar calendar by recording
the yearly reappearance of Sirius (the Dog Star) in the
eastern sky. It was a fixed point which coincided with
the yearly flooding of the Nile. Their calendar had 365
days and 12 months with 30 days in each month and an
additional five festival days at the end of the year.
However, they did not account for the additional
fraction of a day and their calendar gradually became
incorrect. Eventually Ptolemy III added one day to the
365 days every four years. In order to tell the time
Egyptians invented two types of clock. Obelisks were used as sun clocks by noting how its shadow
moved around its surface throughout the day. From the use of obelisks they identified the longest and
shortest days of the year. An inscription in the tomb of the court official Amenemhet dating to the16th
century BC shows a water clock made from a stone vessel with a tiny hole at the bottom which allowed
water to dripped at a constant rate. The passage of hours could be measured from marks spaced at
different levels. The priest at Karnak temple used a similar instrument at night to determine the correct
hour to perform religious rites.

During the Old and Middle Kingdoms order was kept by local officials with their own private police
forces. During the New Kingdom a more centralized police force developed, made up primarily of
Egypt’s Nubian allies, the Medjay. They were armed with staffs and used dogs. Neither rich nor poor
citizens were above the law and punishments ranged from confiscation of property, beating and
mutilation (including the cutting off of ears and noses) to death without a proper burial. The Egyptians
believed that a proper burial was essential for entering the afterlife, so the threat of this last
punishment was a real deterrent, and most crime was of a petty nature.

During the hot summers many Egyptians shaved their heads to keep them
clean and prevent pests such as lice. Although priests remained bald as part
of their purification rituals, those that could afford it had wigs made in various
styles and set with perfumed beeswax. The Egyptian invented eye makeup as
far back as 4000 B.C. They combined soot with a lead mineral called galena to
create a black ointment known as kohl. They also made green eye makeup by
combining malachite with galena to tint the ointment. They did this not
only for aesthetics but to protect their skin from the desert sun or from heat
and research has also speculated that eye liner was worn to protect the
wearer from the evil eye. At the 2003 dental conference in Vienna, dentists sampled a replication of
ancient Egyptian toothpaste. Its ingredients included powdered of ox hooves, ashes, burnt eggshells and
pumice. Another toothpaste recipe and a how-to-brush guide was written on a papyrus from the fourth
century AD describes how to mix precise amounts of rock salt, mint, dried iris flower, and grains of
pepper, to form a “powder for white and perfect teeth.” The Egyptians were so expert at preserving the
bodies of the dead that after thousands of years we know of the diseases they suffered such as arthritis,
tuberculosis of the bone, gout, tooth decay, bladder stones, and gallstones; there is evidence, too, of the
disease bilharziasis (schistosomiasis), caused by small, parasitic flatworms, which still exists in Egypt
today.

2. The study about ancient Egypt is called Egyptology and the

people who do reasearches or the people who study this, are
called Egyptologists. They study all the aspects of ancient Egypt
that they can, across periods from about 7,000 BC to the early
middle ages. They work from many perspectives, using
approaches and methods ranging all the way from literary theory
in the humanities to hard sciences in the physics of radiocarbon
dating. They are active as academics, researchers, and museum
curators, and they communicate their work as widely as they
can.

Sometimes an Egyptologist will be considered a philologist, or someone who studies the nature and
language of historical documents and resources, though in other cases, the person may be considered a
type of archaeologist. The category a researcher will fall into often depends on the type of research he
or she is conducting in relation to the history of Egypt. Egyptologists will study various sources to help
determine the most accurate historical events and meaningful cultural developments, and they will
often publish their findings for consumption within the academic world or a greater readership at large.

The study of Egyptology is not a new field; ancient

Egyptian societies would have one or or many
Egyptologists working under the rule of a king or other
ruler. Egypt's history is a long one, so the study of that
culture's past is also an old practice. Other cultures,
such as the Greeks and Romans, also began studying
Egypt throughout the course of centuries, and an
Egyptologist historically did not necessarily need to be
Egyptian to study Egyptology. Egyptologists are likely to
have an extensive background in language theory and
development, and not necessarily only in regards to the
Egyptian language. Scientific studies also make up a good part of the curriculum one must complete
during a college or university tenure.

Westerners are the relative newcomers to the field of Egyptology, though even Western academics have
developed a significant past within the field. Perhaps the newest division of Egyptology is most likely to
be derided by a true Egyptologist: pseudoegyptology is the study of theories that ancient Egyptian
cultures may have derived from extraterrestrial origins. The theories within this sub-field are often
lacking in basic scientific concepts, and not all the information used to develop theories are based on
concrete or proven facts. It is not usually considered a valid form of Egyptology.

3. The fascinating art of the Egyptian culture stretches from 3000 BC to today, as remnants left for us.
This specific culture is so interesting because of the many remains left for us to examine and study. So
many exquisite pieces of Egyptian art have made it to this day and age because of the durable
substances that they were made of; a lot of their art was made of clay or stone and the climate in which
they were kept (hot desert air of Egypt) was perfect for preserving them.

Most art pieces were discovered from tombs, often of Egyptian nobility. However, in most cases we
have no idea who the artists of these pieces of work are because they didn’t sign their names or mark
any pieces of work that they created. Also, it was typically groups or teams that worked at a site and
created sculptures or objects. The Egyptians created magnificent pieces of artwork that portrayed their
beliefs and way of life.  Symbolic art was an important part of Egyptian architecture, such as buildings,
palaces, and temples. Common symbols and images formed the foundation and influenced all other
types of Egyptian art, as it was believed that they gave protection from evil in present life and afterlife.
The tombs that held the mummified deceased Egyptians contained a substantial amount of these
symbols and images

Egyptians believed that the immortal spirit of the

deceased remained linked to and dependent on its earthly
body. Egyptians tombs were full of items designed to help
and guarantee the soul’s rebirth and its successful passage
into the afterlife. Almost everything included with the
burial symbolized rebirth and renewal. The blue faience
cup, which most likely came from an ancient Egyptian
tomb. The vessel depicts the blue lotus, which is actually a
fragrant water lily, much loved by the Egyptians. Because
the petals open at sunrise and close at night, the flower
was associated with life eternally renewed by the rays of
the sun. The fully opened blossom on the cup forms the
container for wine, which is a favorite drink of Egyptians.
The lotus symbolizes the eternal cycle of life governed by the
sun. It is also a symbol of rebirth and The Egyptian Book of the Dead contains spells for “transforming
oneself into a lotus” and therefore fulfilling the Egyptian promise of resurrection.

A lot of their art is centered on their gods, goddesses, and preparation into the afterlife; in fact, most of
Egyptian art that has survived into our time is oriented towards the afterlife and life after death. One
could argue that their art was magical because of the Egyptian belief that art had the power to associate
with the gods and to appeal to them on behalf of people alive or dead. Their art often came in the form
of sculptures, paintings, tomb painting, and carvings. Egyptian tomb art was known to be the point of
contact between the dead and the living. Egyptians believed that some of the images, painting, or
carvings that they created in tombs would come to life and accompany the mummified deceased into
the afterlife. Tombs typically contained images of the mummified deceased carrying on an everyday task
or completing a deed or an achievement, images of the deceased offering a sacrifice to a god (most
likely Isis or Osiris), other images of snakes, gods, weapons, or scorpions to protect the tomb and keep
evil spirits away. According to Deborah White, an editor at the Australian Museum, “Egyptian tombs
were like secret art galleries that were never meant to be viewed. Instead, these amazing examples of
artistic craftsmanship spoke only to an elite group of visitors – the gods.”

There are many other ways where the Egyptians appreciate their gods or patrons and their pharaohs.
They build statues for the Pharaohs some famous statues are The statue of Ramesses II and the statue
of Hatshepsut. Egyptians appreciate not only the pharaohs but its consorts to, the famous evidence
regarding this statement is the bust of Nefertiti which was found on 6 December 1912 during an
excavation at the Middle Egyptian site of Tell el-Amarna. It was created by Thutmose to honor the
beauty of the queen consort (Nefertiti) of Akhenaten (the pharaoh).

Statue of Ramesses II Statue of Hatshepsut The bust of Nefertiti

Egyptians built statuettes for their patrons, some famous examples are the
statue of Osiris, Horus, Isis, and Anubis, which was displayed on palaces or in
the house of the egyptians. Since the egyptians are religious, they worship the
animals around them. Some egyptians let a cat enter their house, keep, feed,
and worship them because of their belief on their goddess Bastet (the
Egyptian goddess of home, domesticity, women's secrets, cats, fertility, and
childbirth). They also build temples for them like the temple of Deir El-Bahri,
which was built to commemorate the achievements of the great Queen
Hatshepsut and as a funerary Temple for her, as well as an honor for their god,
Amon Ra.

Temple of Deir El-Bahri

Egyptians also created cults to honor their patrons. Most cults centred on the daily tending and worship
of an image of a deity and were analogous to the pattern of human life. The shrine containing the image
was opened at dawn, and then the deity was purified, greeted and praised, clothed, and fed. There were
several further services, and the image was finally returned to its shrine for the night. Apart from this
activity, which took place within the temple and was performed by a small group of priests, there were
numerous festivals at which the shrine and image were taken out from the sanctuary on a portable
barque, becoming visible to the people and often visiting other temples. Thus, the daily cult was a state
concern, whose function was to maintain reciprocity between the human and the divine, largely in
isolation from the people. This reciprocity was fundamental because deities and humanity together
sustained the cosmos. If the gods were not satisfied, they might cease to inhabit their images and
retreat to their other abode, the sky. Temples were constructed as microcosms whose purity and
wholeness symbolized the proper order of the larger world outside.
 The priesthood became increasingly important. In early periods
there seem to have been no full-time professional priests; people
could hold part-time high priestly offices, or they could have
humbler positions on a rotating basis, performing duties for one
month in four. The chief officiant may have been a professional.
While performing their duties, priests submitted to rules of purity
and abstinence. One result of this system was that more people were involved in the cult and had access
to the temple than would have been the case if there had been a permanent staff. Although most
priestly positions were for men, women were involved in the cult of the goddess Hathor, and in the New
Kingdom and later many women held the title of “chantress” of a deity (perhaps often a courtesy title);
they were principally involved in musical cult performances.

They also perform festivals, which allowed more-direct interaction between people and the gods.
Questions were often asked of a deity, and a response might be given by a forward or backward
movement of the barque carried on the priests’ shoulders. Oracles, of which this was one form, were
invoked by the king to obtain sanction for his plans, including military campaigns abroad and important
appointments. Although evidence is sparse, consultation with deities may have been part of religious
interaction in all periods and for all levels of society.

Apart from this interaction between deities and individual people or groups, festivals were times of
communal celebration, and often of the public reenactment of myths such as the death and vindication
of Osiris at Abydos or the defeat of Seth by Horus at Idfū. They had both a personal and a general social
role in the spectrum of religious practice. Nonetheless, the main audience for the most important
festivals of the principal gods of state held in capital cities may have been the ruling elite rather than the
people as a whole. In the New Kingdom these cities were remodeled as vast cosmic stages for the
enactment of royal-divine relations and rituals.

From some periods numerous votive offerings are preserved from a few temples. Among these are Early
Dynastic and Old Kingdom provincial temples, but the fullest evidence is from New Kingdom temples of
Hathor at Thebes and several frontier sites and from the Late and Ptolemaic periods (664–30 BCE).

Although votive offerings show that significant numbers of people took gifts to temples, it is difficult to
gauge the social status of donors, whose intentions are seldom indicated, probably in part for reasons of
decorum. Two likely motives are disinterested pious donation for the deity and offering in the hope of
obtaining a specific benefit. Many New Kingdom offerings to Hathor relate to human fertility and thus
belong to the second of these categories. Late period bronze statuettes are often inscribed with a
formula requesting that the deity represented should “give life” to the donor, without stating a specific
need. These may be more generally pious donations, among which can also be counted nonroyal
dedications of small parcels of land to temples. These donations are recorded on stelae from the New
Kingdom onward. They parallel the massive royal endowments to temples of land and other resources,
which resulted in their becoming very powerful economic and political institutions.

Apart from the donation of offerings to conventional cult temples, there was a vast Late period
expansion in animal cults. These might be more or less closely related to major deities. They involved a
variety of practices centring on the mummification and burial of animals. The principal bull cults, which
gave important oracles, focused on a single animal kept in a special shrine. The burial of an Apis bull was
a major occasion involving vast expenditure. Some animals, such as the sacred ibis (connected with
Thoth), were kept, and buried, in millions. The dedication of a burial seems to have counted as a pious
act. The best-known area for these cults and associated practices is the necropolis of northern Ṣaqqārah,
which served the city of Memphis. Numerous species were buried there, and people visited the area to
consult oracles and to spend the night in a temple area and receive healing dreams. A few people
resided permanently in the animal necropolis in a state akin to monastic seclusion.

In modern days, present-day egyptians honor their culture and former pharaohs by having festivals and
parades. On the 3rd of April, year 2021, the Pharaoh’s Golden Parade occur, where twenty-two mummies
belonging to Kings and Queens of the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt (King Seqenenre Tao, Queen
Ahmose-Nefertari, King Amenhotep I, Queen
Meritamun, King Thutmose I, King Thutmose II,
Queen Hatshepsut, King Thutmose III, King
Amenhotep II, King Thutmose IV, King Amenhotep
III, Queen Tiye, King Seti I, King Ramesses II, King
Merenptah, King Seti II, King Siptah, King Ramesses
III, King Ramesses IV, King Ramesses V, King
Ramesses VI, King Ramesses IX) were moved from
the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square to the
National Museum of Egyptian Civilization in Fustat.

In summary, Egyptians honor their gods and pharaohs by creating art, like paintings, statues, and
temples. Modern egyptians honor their history, their culture by preserving them physically and
educationally, meaning they still teach and pass their culture on many generations.