Western Satraps

The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (Brahmi: , Mahakṣatrapa, "Great Satraps")

were Indo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of ancient India who ruled over the region of Sindh, Makran,
Saurashtra and Malwa (in modern Sindh, Balochistan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh of India and Pakistan), between 35 and 405 CE. The Western Satraps were
contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and
were possibly vassals of the Kushans. They were also contemporaneous with the Satavahana
(Andhra) who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western Satraps" in modern historiography
in order to differentiate them from the "Northern Satraps", who ruled in Punjab and Mathura until
the 2nd century CE.
 Western Satraps
35–405 CE

Approximate territory of the Western Satraps (35–405) in dark green, circa 350 CE.[1]

Capital Ujjain

Barygaza
 Common languages Pali (Kharoshthi script)

Sanskrit, Prakrit (Brahmi script)

Religion Hinduism, Buddhism

Government Monarchy
Satrap, King  
• c. 35 Abhiraka
• 388–395 Rudrasimha III
Historical era Antiquity
• Established 35
• Disestablished 405 CE

Preceded by Succeeded by
Indo-Scythians Gupta Empire

Today part of India

Pakistan

The power of the Western Satraps started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Saka rulers
were defeated by the Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty.[2] After this,
the Saka kingdom revived, but was ultimately destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire
in the 4th century CE.[3]

Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years.

Name

The rulers of the Western Satraps were called Mahākhatapa (𑀫𑀳𑀸 𑀔𑀢𑀧, "Great Satrap") in their Brahmi script inscriptions, as
here in a dedicatory inscription by Prime Minister Ayama in the name of his ruler Nahapana, Manmodi Caves, circa 100 CE.
Nahapana was also attributed the titles of Raño ("King") and Sāmi ("Lord") conjointly.[4]

They are named Western Satraps in contrast to the "Northern Satraps" who ruled around East
Punjab and the area of Mathura, such as Rajuvula, and his successors under the Kushans, the
"Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.[5]
Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of
"Western Satraps", Ptolemy in his 2nd century "Geographia" still called them "Indo-Scythians".[6]
The word Kṣatrapa has the same origin as the word satrap and are both descended from Median
xšaθrapāvan-, which means viceroy or governor of a provincem and according to John Marshall,
the word "kṣatrapa" means the viceroy of the "King of kings". The title of the "Mahakṣatrapa" or
the "Great Satrap" was given to the ruling Satrap, and the title of "kṣatrapa" was given to the heir
apparent. The western Kshatrapas were also known as Sakas to Indians.[7]

The title "Kṣaharāta" by which the Western Satraps styled themselves is a derivation of a Saka
language term *xšaθra-pati-, meaning "lord of the country", and was likely the Saka synonym for
the Indian title Kṣatrapa, which had itself been borrowed from the Iranian Median language.[8]

The Sakas of Western India spoke the Saka language, also known as Khotanese as it is first
attested in the Tarim Basin.[9]

First expansion: Kshaharata dynasty (1st century CE)

Coin of Bhumaka (?–119). Obv: Arrow, pellet, and thunderbolt. Kharoshthi inscription Chaharasada Chatrapasa
Bhumakasa: "Ksaharata Satrap Bhumaka". Rev: Capital of a pillar with seated lion with upraised paw, and wheel
(dharmachakra). Brahmi inscription: Kshaharatasa Kshatrapasa Bhumakasa.

The Western Satraps are thought to have started with the rather short-lived Kshaharata dynasty
(also called Chaharada, Khaharata or Khakharata depending on sources).[10] The term Kshaharata
is also known from the 6 CE Taxila copper plate inscription, in which it qualifies the Indo-
Scythian ruler Liaka Kusulaka. The Nasik inscription of the 19th year of Sri Pulamavi also
mentions the Khakharatavasa, or Kshaharata race.[11]
The earliest Kshaharata for whom there is evidence is Abhiraka, whose rare coins are known. He
was succeeded by Bhumaka, father of Nahapana, who only used on his coins the title of Satrap,
and not that of Raja or Raño (king). Bhumaka was the father of the great ruler Nahapana (whose
rule is variously dated to 24-70 CE, 66-71 CE, or 119–124 CE), according to one of the latter's
coins. His coins bear Buddhist symbols, such as the eight-spoked wheel (dharmachakra), or the
lion seated on a capital, a representation of a pillar of Ashoka.

Coin of Nahapana (whose rule is variously dated to 24-70 CE, 66-71 CE, or 119–124 CE), a direct derivation from Indo-
Greek coinage. British Museum.[12]

The Greco-Prakrit title "RANNIO KSAHARATA" ("ΡΑΝΝΙω ΞΑΗΑΡΑΤΑ(Ϲ)", Prakrit for "King Kshaharata" rendered in
corrupted Greek letters) on the obverse of the coinage of Nahapana.[13][14]
 Nasik
Junnar
Karli

Location of Western Satrap inscriptions in Buddhist rock-cut caves, indicating the southern extent of their territory, circa
120 CE.[15]

Nahapana succeeded him, and became a very powerful ruler. He occupied portions of the
Satavahana empire in western and central India. Nahapana held sway over Malwa, Southern
Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Bharuch to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona districts.[16] His
son-in-law, the Saka Ushavadata (married to his daughter Dakshamitra), is known from
inscriptions in Nasik and Karle and Junnar (Manmodi Caves, inscription of the year 46) to have
been viceroy of Nahapana, ruling over the southern part of his territory.[17][15]

Nahapana established the silver coinage of the Kshatrapas.

Circa 120 CE, the Western Satraps are known to have allied with the Uttamabhadras in order to
repulse an attack by the Malavas, whom they finally crushed.[18] The claim appears in an
inscription at the Nashik Caves, made by the Nahapana's viceroy Ushavadata:

...And by order of the lord I went to release the chief of the

Uttamabhadras, who had been besieged for the rainy season by the
Malayas, and those Malayas fled at the mere roar (of my approaching)
as it were, and were all made prisoners of the Uttamabhadra warriors.

— Inscription in Cave No.10 of the Nashik Caves.[19]

Support of Indian religions

An important inscription related to Nahapana in the Great Chaitya at Karla Caves (Valukura is
thought to be an ancient name for Karla Caves) shows his support of Buddhist as well as
Brahmanical religions:

Karla Caves, inscription of Nahapana.

Success!! By Ushabadata, the son of Dinaka and the son-in-law of the

king, the Kshaharata, the Kshatrapa Nahapana, who gave three
hundred thousand cows, who made gifts of gold and a tirtha on the
river Banasa, who gave to the Devas and Brahmanas sixteen villages,
who at the pure tirtha Prabhasa gave eight wives to the Brahmanas,
and who also fed annually a hundred thousand Brahmanas- there has
been given the village of Karajika for the support of the ascetics living
in the caves at Valuraka without any distinction of sect or origin, for all
who would keep the varsha.

— Inscription of Nahapana, Karla Caves.[20]

Construction of Buddhist caves

The Western Satraps are known for the construction and dedication of numerous Buddhist
caves in Central India, particularly in the areas of Maharashtra and Gujarat.[21][22] It is thought
that Nahapana ruled at least 35 years in the region of Karla, Junnar and Nasik, giving him ample
time for construction works there.[23]

Numerous inscriptions in the caves are known, which were made by the family of Nahapana: six
inscriptions in Nasik Caves, one inscription at Karla Caves, and one by Nahapana's minister in
the Manmodi Caves at Junnar.[24][25] At the same time, "Yavanas", Greeks or Indo-Greeks, also
left donative inscriptions at the Nasik Caves, Karla Caves, Lenyadri and Manmodi Caves.[26]

Great Chaitya hall at Karla Caves

In particular, the chaitya cave complex of the Karla Caves, the largest in South Asia, was
constructed and dedicated in 120 CE by the Western Satraps ruler Nahapana.[21][27][28]

Great Chaitya hall at Karla

Hall of the Great Chaitya Cave at Karla (120 CE)[21]

Right row of columns

Chaitya roof

Capitals
 Donative inscription by a Yavana ("Indo-Greek") named Vitasamghata.[29]

Cave No.10 of Nasik, the 'Nahapana Vihara'

Parts of the Nasik Caves, also called Pandavleni Caves, were also carved during the time of
Nahapana.[22]

The inscriptions of cave no.10 in the Nasik Caves near Nasik, reveal that in 105-106 CE,
Kshatrapas defeated the Satavahanas after which Kshatrapa Nahapana’s son-in-law and Dinika's
son- Ushavadata donated 3000 gold coins for this cave as well as for the food and clothing of
the monks. Usabhdatta's wife (Nahapana's daughter), Dakshmitra also donated one cave for the
Buddhist monks. Cave 10 - 'Nahapana Vihara' is spacious with 16 rooms.

Nasik Caves, cave No. 10

 Front

Veranda

Interior
 Chaitya and Umbrellas

Inscription

Two inscriptions in Cave 10 mention the building and the gift of the whole cave to the Samgha
by Ushavadata, the Saka[30] son-in-law and viceroy of Nahapana:

Nasik Cave inscription No.10. of Nahapana, Cave No.10.

One of the pillars built by Ushavadata, viceroy of Nahapana, circa 120 CE, Nasik Caves, cave No10.

Success! Ushavadata, son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the

Kshaharata Kshatrapa, (...) inspired by (true) religion, in the Trirasmi
hills at Govardhana, has caused this cave to be made and these cisterns.

— Inscription No.10 of Nahapana, Cave No.10, Nasik[31]

Success! In the year 42, in the month Vesakha, Ushavadata, son of

Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, has
bestowed this cave on the Samgha generally....

— Inscription No.12 of Nahapana, Cave No.10, Nasik[32]

According to the inscriptions, Ushavadata accomplished various charities and conquests on

behalf of his father-in-law. He constructed rest-houses, gardens and tanks at Bharukachchha
(Broach), Dashapura (Mandasor in Malva), Govardhana (near Nasik) and Shorparaga (Sopara in
the Thana district).

Junnar dedication

A dedication in the Lenyadri complex of the Junnar caves (inscription No. 26 in Cave VI of the
Bhimasankar group of caves), mentions a gift by Nahapana's prime minister Ayama in the "year
46":

The meritorious gift.... of Ayama of the Vachhasagotra, prime minister

of the King Mahakshatrapa the lord Nahapana

— Junnar inscription No. 26, 124 CE[33]

This inscription, the last one of the reign of Nahapana, suggests that Nahapana may have
become an independent ruler since he is described as a King.[33]

International trade: the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

Nahapana is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea under the name Nambanus,[34] as
ruler of the area around Barigaza:

Beyond the gulf of Baraca is that of Barygaza and the coast of the
country of Ariaca, which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus
and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia is
called Abiria, but the coast is called Syrastrene. It is a fertile country,
yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton and
the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many
cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in
color. The metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from which much
cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza.

— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap. 41 [35]

Nahapana coin hoard.

Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centers of Roman trade with India.
The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged:

There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian

preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and
topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored
girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar, antimony,
gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the
money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much.
And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels
of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines,
thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There
are exported from these places spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, agate
and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth,
yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the
various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt
make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.

— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 49.[36]

The Western Satraps under Nahapana, with their harbour of Barigaza, were among the main actors of the 1st century CE
international trade according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

Goods were also brought down in quantity from Ujjain, the capital of the Western Satraps:

Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly
a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for
the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our
trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much
ordinary cloth.

— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 48.[36]

Some ships were also fitted out from Barigaza, to export goods westward across the Indian
Ocean:

Ships are also customarily fitted out from the places across this sea,
from Ariaca and Barygaza, bringing to these far-side market-towns the
products of their own places; wheat, rice, clarified butter, sesame oil,
cotton cloth (the monache and the sagmatogene), and girdles, and
honey from the reed called sacchari. Some make the voyage especially
to these market-towns, and others exchange their cargoes while sailing
along the coast.

— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 14.[36]

Pompei Lakshmi
An Indian statuette, the Pompeii Lakshmi, was found in the ruins of Pompei and is thought to
have been the result of Indo-Roman trade relations in the 1st century CE.[37] There is a possibility
that the statuette found its way to the west during the rule of Western Satrap Nahapana in the
Bhokardan area, and was shipped to Rome from the port of Barigaza.[38]

Defeat by Gautamiputra Satakarni

The "Saka-Yavana-Palhava" (Brahmi script: 𑀲𑀓 𑀬𑀯𑀦 𑀧𑀮𑁆 𑀳𑀯) defeated by Gautamiputra Satakarni, mentioned in the Nasik
cave 3 inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri (end of line 5 of the inscription).[39]

Coin of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni struck over a drachm of Nahapana. Circa 167-196 CE. Ujjain symbol and three
arched mountain symbol struck respectively on the obverse and reverse of a drachm of Nahapana.

Nahapana and Ushavadata were ultimately defeated by the powerful Satavahana king
Gautamiputra Satakarni. Gautamiputra drove the Sakas from Malwa and Western Maharashtra,
forcing Nahapana west to Gujarat. His victory is known from the fact that Gautamiputra restruck
many of Nahapana's coins (such a hoard was found in Jogalthambi, Nashik District),[40]) and
that he claimed victory on them in an inscription at Cave No. 3 of the Pandavleni Caves in
Nashik:

Gautamiputra Satakarni (…) who crushed down the pride and conceit
of the Kshatriyas; who destroyed the Sakas (Western Satraps), Yavanas
 (Indo-Greeks) and Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians),[41] who rooted out the
Khakharata family (the Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored
the glory of the Satavahana race.

— Inscription of Queen Mother Gautami Balashri at Cave No. 3 of

the Pandavleni Caves in Nashik.

Colonization of Java and Sumatra

It seems that the Indian colonization of the islands of Java and Sumatra took place during the
time of the Western Satraps.[42] People may have fled the sub-continent due to the conflicts
there. Some foundation legends of Java describe the leader of the colonists as Aji Saka, a prince
from Gujarat, at the beginning of the Shaka era (which is also the Java era).[42]

Kardamaka dynasty, family of Castana (1st–4th

century)

Coin of the Western Satrap Chastana (c. 130 CE). Obv: King in profile. The legend typically reads "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC
CIASTANCA" (corrupted Greek script), transliteration of the Prakrit Raño Kshatrapasa Castana: "King and Satrap Castana".

A new dynasty, called the Bhadramukhas or Kardamaka dynasty, was established by the "Satrap"
Castana. The date of Castana is not certain, but many believe his reign started in the year 78 CE,
thus making him the founder of the Saka era.[43] This is consistent with the fact that his
descendants (who we know used the Saka era on their coins and inscriptions) would use the
date of their founder as their era. Castana was satrap of Ujjain during that period. A statue found
in Mathura together with statues of the Kushan king Kanishka and Vima Taktu, and bearing the
name "Shastana" is often attributed to Castana himself, and suggests Castana may have been a
feudatory of the Kushans. Conversely, the Rabatak inscription also claims Kushan dominion over
Western Satrap territory (by mentioning Kushan control over the capital Ujjain) during the reign
of Kanishka (c. 127–150 CE).

Territory under Chastana

Statue of Chastana, with costume details. The belt displays designs of horsemen and tritons/anguipeds, the coat has a
highly ornate hem. Inscription "Shastana" (Middle Brahmi script: Ṣa-sta-na).[44] Mathura Museum.[45]

The territory of the Western Satraps at the time of Chastana is described extensively by the
geographer Ptolemy in his "Geographia", where he qualifies them as "Indo-Scythians". He
describes this territory as starting from Patalene in the West, to Ujjain in the east ("Ozena-Regia
Tiastani", "Ozene/Ujjain, capital of king Chastana"),[46] and beyond Barigaza in the south.

Moreover the region which is next to the western part of India, is called
Indoscythia. A part of this region around the (Indus) river mouth is
Patalena, above which is Abiria. That which is about the mouth of the
Indus and the Canthicolpus bay is called Syrastrena. (...) In the island
formed by this river are the cities Pantala, Barbaria. (...) The Larica
region of Indoscythia is located eastward from the swamp near the sea,
 in which on the west of the Namadus river is the interior city of
Barygaza emporium. On the east side of the river (...) Ozena-Regia
Tiastani (...) Minnagara.

— Ptolemy, Geographia, Book Seven, Chapter I

Rudradaman I (130-150 CE)

Victory against the Satavahanas

Silver coin of Rudradaman I (130–150). Obv: Bust of Rudradaman, with corrupted Greek legend "OVONIΛOOCVΛCHΛNO".
Rev: Three-arched hill or Chaitya with river, crescent and sun. Brahmi legend: Rajno Ksatrapasa Jayadamasaputrasa Rajno
Mahaksatrapasa Rudradamasa: "King and Great Satrap Rudradaman, son of King and Satrap Jayadaman" 16mm,
2.0 grams.

The Junagadh rock contains inscriptions of Ashoka (fourteen of the Edicts of Ashoka), Rudradaman I (the Junagadh rock
inscription of Rudradaman)and Skandagupta.[47]
Around 130 CE, Rudradaman I, grandson of Chastana, took the title "Mahakshatrapa" ("Great
Satrap"), and defended his kingdom from the Satavahanas. The conflict between Rudradaman
and Satavahanas became so gruelling, that in order to contain the conflict, a matrimonial
relationship was concluded by giving Rudradaman's daughter to the Satavahana king
Vashishtiputra Satakarni. The inscription relating the marriage between Rudradaman's daughter
and Vashishtiputra Satakarni appears in a cave at Kanheri:

Of the queen ... of the illustrious Satakarni Vasishthiputra, descended

from the race of Karddamaka kings, (and) daughter of the
Mahakshatrapa Ru(dra)....... .........of the confidential minister Sateraka, a
water-cistern, the meritorious gift.

— Kanheri inscription of Rudradaman I's daughter.[48]

The Satavahanas and the Western Satraps remained at war however, and Rudradaman I
defeated the Satavahanas twice in these conflicts, only sparing the life of Vashishtiputra
Satakarni due to their family alliance:

Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of

having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of
Dakshinapatha, on account of the nearness of their connection did not
destroy him.

— Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman[49]

Rudradaman regained all the previous territories held by Nahapana, probably with the exception
of the southern areas of Poona and Nasik (epigraphical remains in these two areas at that time
are exclusively Satavahana):[50]

Rudradaman (...) who is the lord of the whole of eastern and western
Akaravanti (Akara: East Malwa and Avanti: West Malwa), the Anupa
country, Anarta, Surashtra, Svabhra (northern Gujarat), Maru
(Marwar), Kachchha (Cutch), Sindhu-Sauvira (Sindh and Multan
districts), Kukura (Eastern Rajputana), Aparanta ("Western Border" –
Northern Konkan), Nishada (an aboriginal tribe, Malwa and parts of
Central India) and other territories gained by his own valour, the
towns, marts and rural parts of which are never troubled by robbers,
 snakes, wild beasts, diseases and the like, where all subjects are
attached to him, (and) where through his might the objects of (religion),
wealth and pleasure (are duly attained).

— Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman.[49] Geographical

interpretations in parentheses from Rapson.[51]

Victory against the Yaudheyas

Later, the Junagadh rock inscription (c. 150 CE) of Rudradaman I[52] acknowledged the military
might of the Yaudheyas "who would not submit because they were proud of their title 'heroes
among the Kshatriyas'", before explaining that they were ultimately vanquished by Rudradaman
I.[53][54]

Rudradaman (...) who by force destroyed the Yaudheyas who were

loath to submit, rendered proud as they were by having manifested
their title of 'heroes among all Kshatriyas'.

— Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman[49]

Recently discovered pillar inscriptions describe the presence of a Western Satrap named
Rupiamma in the Bhandara district of the area of Vidarbha, in the extreme northeastern area of
Maharashtra, where he erected the pillars.[55]

Rudradarman is known for his sponsoring of the arts. He is known to have written poetry in the
purest of Sanskrit, and made it his court language. His name is forever attached to the
inscription by Sudharshini lake.

He had at his court a Greek writer named Yavanesvara ("Lord of the Greeks"), who translated
from Greek to Sanskrit the Yavanajataka ("Saying of the Greeks"), an astrological treatise and
India's earliest Sanskrit work in horoscopy.[56]

Jivadaman (178-181 CE, 197-198 CE)

A coin dated to the beginning of the first reign of Jivadaman, in the year 100 of the Saka Era (corresponding to 178 CE).

King Jivadaman became king for the centenary of the Saka Era, in the year 100 (corresponding
to 178 CE). His reign is otherwise undocumented, but he is the first Western Satrap ruler who
started to print the minting date on his coins, using the Brāhmī numerals of the Brāhmī script
behind the king's head.[57] This is of immense value to date precisely Western Satrap rulers, and
to clarify perfectly the chronology and succession between them, as they also mention their
predecessor on their coins. According to his coins, Jivadaman seems to have ruled two times,
once between Saka Era 100 and 103 (178-181 CE), before the rule of Rudrasimha I, and once
between Saka Era 119 and 120 (197-198 CE).

Rudrasimha I (180-197)

Coin of the Western Kshatrapa ruler Rudrasimha I (178 to 197).

An inscription of Rudrasimha I (178-197) was recently found at Setkhedi in Shajapur district,

dated to 107 Saka Era, that is 185 CE, confirming the expansion of the Western Satraps to the
east at that date.[58] There is also an earlier inscription related to Saka rule in Ujjain,[58] as well as
a later one, the Kanakerha inscription, related to Saka rule in the area of Vidisha, Sanchi and Eran
in the early 4th century.[58]

Great Satrap Rupiamma (2nd century CE)

A memorial pillar with an inscription in the name of "Mahakshatrapa Kumara Rupiamma" has
been recovered in Pauni in the central region of Vidharba,[59] and is dated to the 2nd century
CE.[60] Although this Great Satrap is not otherwise known from coinage, this memorial pillar is
thought to mark the southern extent of the conquests of the Western Satraps, much beyond the
traditionally held boundary of the Narmada River.[60] The use of the word "Kumara" may also
mean that Rupiamma was the son of a Great Satrap, rather than holding the title himself.[61]

Loss of southern territories to the Satavahanas (end of 2nd century CE)

The south Indian ruler Yajna Sri Satakarni (170-199 CE) of the Satavahana dynasty defeated the
Western Satraps in the late 2nd century CE, thereby reconquering their southern regions in
western and central India, which led to the decline of the Western Satraps.[62]

Yajna Sri Satakarni left inscriptions in Nasik Caves, Kanheri and Guntur, testifying to the renewed
extent of Satavahana territory.[63] There are two inscriptions of Yajna Sri Satakarni at Kanheri, in
cave No. 81,[64] and in the Chaitya cave No. 3.[65] In the Nasik Caves, there is one inscription of
Sri Yajna Satakarni, in the 7th year of his reign.[66]

There is a possibility, however, that the areas of Poona and Nasik had remained in the hands of
the Satavahanas since the time of Gautamiputra Satakarni after his victory over Nahapana, as
there are no epigraphical records of the Kardamakas in this area.[50]

Rudrasena II (256–278)

Rudrasena II (256-278 CE). Head right, wearing close-fitting cap / Three-arched hill; group of five pellets to right.[67]
 Eran
Devnimori
Vidisha/
Barigaza Ujjain Sanchi
Pauni

Ajanta
(Rupiamma
(Viśvasena pillar)
coinage)
Nagarjunako
nda

(Alliances)

Western Satrap territory extended from the west coast of India to Vidisha/ Sanchi and Eran, from the time of Rudrasena II
(256–278) well into the 4th century.[68] Marital alliances with the Ikshvaku of southern India are mentioned in inscriptions
at Nagarjunakonda (3rd century CE).[69][70]

The Kshatrapa dynasty seems to have reached a high level of prosperity under the rule of
Rudrasena II (256–278), 19th ruler of Kshatrapa.

A marital alliance between the Andhra Ikshvaku and the Western Satraps seems to have
occurred during the time of Rudrasena II, as the Andhra Ikshvaku ruler Māṭharīputra
Vīrapuruṣadatta (250-275 CE) seems to have had as one of his wives Rudradhara-bhattarika, the
daughter of "the ruler of Ujjain", possibly king Rudrasena II.[71][69][72][73] According to an
inscription at Nagarjunakonda, Iksvaku king Virapurushadatta had multiple wives,[74] including
Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of the ruler of Ujjain (Uj(e)nika mahara(ja) balika).[71][69][70]

The region of Sanchi-Vidisha was again captured from the Satavahanas during the rule of
Rudrasena II (255-278 CE), as shown by finds of Rudrasena II's coinage in the area.[68] The region
would then remain under Western Satrap rule until the 4th century CE, as attested by the
Kanakerha inscription.[68]

The last Kshatrapa ruler of the Chastana family was Visvasena (Vishwasen, r.293–304 CE),
brother and successor to Bhartrdaman and son of Rudrasena II. A coin of Visvasena was found
in excavations at the Ajanta Caves, in the burnt-brick monastery facing the caves on the right
bank of the river Waghora.[75]

Rudrasimha II family (304-396 CE)

Head of Buddha Shakyamuni, Devnimori, Gujarat (375-400). Derived from the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, an example
of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps.[76][77]

A new family took over, started by the rule of Rudrasimha II (304-348 CE). He declared on his
coins to be the son of a Lord (Svami) Jivadaman.[78]

His rule is partly coeval with that of other rulers, who were his sons as written on their coins, and
may have been sub-kings: Yasodaman II (317–332) and Rudradaman II (332–348).

Contributions to Buddhism

Under Rudrasimha II, the Western Satraps are known to have maintained their presence in the
Central Indian areas of Vidisha/Sanchi/Eran well into the 4th century: during his rule, in 319 CE, a
Saka ruler inscribed the Kanakerha inscription,[79] on the hill of Sanchi mentioning the
construction of a well by the Saka chief and "righteous conqueror" (dharmaviyagi
mahadandanayaka) Sridharavarman (339-368 CE).[68] Another inscription of the same
Sridhavarman with his military commander is known from Eran.[68] These inscriptions point to
the extent of Saka rule as of the time of Rudrasimha II.

The construction of Buddhist monuments in the area of Gujarat during the later part of Western
Satrap rule is attested with the site of Devnimori, which incorporates viharas and a stupa. Coins
of Rudrasimha were found inside the Buddhist stupa of Devnimori.[80] The Buddha images in
Devnimori clearly show the influence of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara,[76] and have been
described as examples of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps.[76] It has been
suggested that the art of Devnimori represented a Western Indian artistic tradition that was
anterior to the rise of Gupta Empire art, and that it may have influenced not only the latter, but
also the art of the Ajanta Caves, Sarnath and other places from the 5th century onward.[80]

Overall, the Western Satraps may have played a role in the transmission of the art of Gandhara to
the western Deccan region.[81]

Sasanian expansion in the northwest

Location of the Sasanian coinage of Sindh, circa 400 CE, in relation with the other polities of the time.

After a period of control of the areas as far as Gandhara by the Kushano-Sasanians, the
Sasanian Empire further expanded into the northwest of the subcontinent, particularly in the
regions of Gandhara and Punjab, from the time of Shapur II circa 350 CE.[82] Further south, as far
as the mouth of the Indus river, the Sasanians exerted some sort of control or influence, as
suggested by the Sasanian coinage of Sindh.[83][84] It is probable that the Sasanian expansion in
India, which put an end to the remnants of Kushan rule, was also made in part at the expense of
the Western Satraps.[85]

Defeat by the Guptas (c. 350-415 CE)

Central India conquered by Samudragupta (r.336-380 CE)

The Central Indian region around Vidisha/ Sanchi and Eran had been occupied by a Saka ruler
named Sridharavarman, who his known from the Kanakerha inscription at Sanchi, and another
inscription with his Naga general at Eran.[68] At Eran, it seems that Sridharavarman's inscription
is succeeded by a monument and an inscription by Gupta Empire Samudragupta (r.336-380 CE),
established "for the sake of augmenting his fame", who may therefore have ousted
Sridharavarman's Sakas in his campaigns to the West.[86] Sridharavarman is probably the "Saka"
ruler mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta, as having "paid homage" to
the Gupta Emperor,[87] forced to "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a
request for the administration of their own districts and provinces".[88]

Gujarat campaign

Coin of the last Western Satrap ruler Rudrasimha III (388–395).

Rudrasimha III seems to have been the last of the Western Satrap rulers.[89] A fragment from the
Natya-darpana mentions that the Gupta king Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta II,
decided to expand his kingdom by attacking the Western Satraps in Gujarat.

The campaign soon took a turn for the worse and the Gupta army was trapped. The Saka king,
Rudrasimha III, demanded that Ramagupta hand over his wife Dhruvadevi in exchange for peace.
To avoid the ignominy, the Guptas decided to send Madhavasena, a courtesan and a beloved of
Chandragupta, disguised as the queen. However, Chandragupta changed the plan and himself
went to the Saka King disguised as the queen. He then killed Rudrasimha and later his own
brother, Ramagupta. Dhruvadevi was then married to Chandragupta.

Conquests of Chandragupta II (r.380–415 CE)

The victorious Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II (412-413 CE).

The Western Satraps were eventually conquered by emperor Chandragupta II. Inscriptions of a
victorious Chandragupta II in the year 412-413 CE can be found on the railing near the Eastern
Gateway of the Great Stupa in Sanchi.[90]

The glorious Candragupta (II), (...) who proclaims in the world the good
behaviour of the excellent people, namely, the dependents (of the king),
and who has acquired banners of victory and fame in many battles

— Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II, 412-413 CE.[91]

The Gupta ruler Skandagupta (455-467 CE) is known for a long inscription where he describes
himself as "the ruler of the earth" on a large rock at Junagadh, in Gujarat, next to the older
inscriptions of Ashoka and Rudradaman I, confirming the Gupta hold on the western regions.[92]

Following these conquests, the silver coins of the Gupta kings Chandragupta II and his son
Kumaragupta I adopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived from the Indo-Greeks) with
bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle (Garuda, the
dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing the chaitya hill with star and crescent on the
reverse.[93]

Gupta Empire coins on the model of the Western Satraps

Coin of Gupta ruler Chandragupta II (r.380–415) in the style of the Western Satraps.[93]

Coin of Gupta ruler Kumaragupta I (r.414–455) (Western territories).[93]

 Coin of Gupta ruler Skandagupta (r.455-467), in the style of the Western Satraps.[93]

Coin of Gupta ruler Buddhagupta (r.476–495) in Malwa, derived from the style of the Western
Satraps.[93]

The campaigns of Chandragupta II brought an end to nearly four centuries of Saka rule on the
subcontinent. This period also corresponds to the wane of the very last Kushan rulers in the
Punjab and the arrival of the Kidarite Huns, the first Huna invaders from the steppes of Central
Asia. Less than a century later, the Alchon Huns in turn invaded northern India, bringing an end
to the Gupta Empire and the Classical period of India.

Coinage

The Kshatrapas have a very rich and interesting coinage. It was based on the coinage of the
earlier Indo-Greek Kings, with Greek or pseudo-Greek legend and stylized profiles of royal busts
on the obverse. The reverse of the coins, however, is original and typically depict a thunderbolt
and an arrow, and later, a chaitya or three-arched hill and river symbol with a crescent and the
sun, within a legend in Brahmi. These coins are very informative, since they record the name of
the King, of his father, and the date of issue, and have helped clarify the early history of India.
Regnal dates

Coin of Damasena. The minting date, here 153 (100-50-3 in Brahmi script numerals) of the Saka era, therefore 232 CE,
clearly appears behind the head of the king.

Coin of the Western Kshatrapa ruler Rudrasimha I (178–197). Obv: Bust of Rudrasimha, with corrupted Greek legend
"..OHIIOIH.." (Indo-Greek style). Rev: Three-arched hill or Chaitya, with river, crescent and sun, within Prakrit legend in
Brahmi script:Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Rudradamnaputrasa Rajna Mahaksatrapasa Rudrasihasa "King and Great Satrap
Rudrasimha, son of King and Great Satrap Rudradaman".

From the reigns of Jivadaman and Rudrasimha I, the date of minting of each coin, reckoned in
the Saka era, is usually written on the obverse behind the king's head in Brahmi numerals,
allowing for a quite precise datation of the rule of each king.[94] This is a rather uncommon case
in Indian numismatics. Some, such as the numismat R.C Senior considered that these dates
might correspond to the much earlier Azes era instead.

Also the father of each king is systematically mentioned in the reverse legends, which allows
reconstruction of the regnal succession.

Languages
Kharoshthi, a script in use in more northern territories (area of Gandhara), is employed together
with the Brahmi script and the Greek script on the first coins of the Western Satraps, but is finally
abandoned from the time of Chastana.[95] From that time, only the Brahmi script would remain,
together with the pseudo-Greek script on the facing, to write the Prakrit language employed by
the Western satraps. Occasionally, the legends are in Sanskrit instead.

The coins of Nahapana bear the Greek script legend "PANNIΩ IAHAPATAC NAHAΠANAC",
transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshaharatasa Nahapanasa": "In the reign of Kshaharata
Nahapana". The coins of Castana also have a readable legend "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA",
transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshatrapasa Castana": "In the reign of the Satrap Castana".
After these two rulers, the legend in Greek script becomes denaturated, and seems to lose all
signification, only retaining an aesthetic value. By the 4th century, the coins of Rudrasimha II
exhibit the following type of meaningless legend in corrupted Greek script:
"...ΛIOΛVICIVIIIΛ...".[96]

Influences

The coins of the Kshatrapas were also very influential and imitated by neighbouring or later
dynasties, such as the Satavahanas, and the Guptas. Silver coins of the Gupta kings
Chandragupta II and his son Kumaragupta I adopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived
from the Indo-Greeks) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a
royal eagle (Garuda, the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing the chaitya hill with star and
crescent on the reverse.[93]

The Western Satrap coin design was also adopted by the subsequent dynasty of the Traikutakas
(388–456).

Monuments

Sudarshan Lake of the Satrap period is mentioned in major rock edicts of Junagadh but no trace
of it remains. Six inscription-stones called Lashtis of 1st century were recovered from a hillock
near Andhau village in the Khavda region of Kutch and were moved to the Kutch Museum in
Bhuj. They are the earliest dated monuments of the Satrap period and were erected in the time
of Rudradaman I.[97]

The large number of stone inscriptions from Kutch and Saurastra as well as hundreds of coins
throughout Gujarat are found belonging to the Satrap period. The earlier caves at Sana,
Junagadh, Dhank, Talaja, Sidhasar, Prabhas Patan and Ranapar in the Barada Hills are mostly
plain and austere in looks except some carvings in the Bava Pyara Caves of Junagadh. They are
comparable to Andhra-Satrap period caves in Deccan. As they have almost no carvings, the
determination of their date and chronology is difficult. The Uparkot Caves of Junagadh and the
Khambhalida Caves belong to the later years of the Satraps.[98] The stupas excavated at Boria
and Intwa near Junagadh belonged to the Satrap period. The stupa excavated at Shamlaji
probably belonged to this period or to the Gupta period.[99]

Contribution to Sanskrit epigraphy

The inscription of Ushavadata, son-in-law of Nahapana, runs the length of the entrance wall of one of the Nasik caves, over
the doors, and is here visible in parts between the pillars. Actual image, and corresponding rubbing. Cave No.10, Nasik
Caves.

In what has been described as "the great linguistical paradox of India", Sanskrit inscriptions first
appeared much later than Prakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of
the Sanskrit language.[100] This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured
since the time of the influential Edicts of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE).[100]

Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to
the time of the Indo-Scythian rulers, either the Northern Satraps around Mathura for the earliest
ones, or, slightly later, the closely related Western Satraps in western and central India.[101][102] It
is thought that they became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian
culture: according to Salomon "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire
to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of
the educated Brahmanical elite".[102]
The Junagadh rock inscription, inscribed by Rudradaman I circa 150 CE, is "the first long inscription recorded entirely in
more or less standard Sanskrit".[103]

In western India, the first known inscription in Sanskrit appears to have been made by
Ushavadata, son-in-law of the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana, at the front of Cave n°10 in the
Nasik Caves. The inscription dates to the early 2nd century CE, and has hybrid features.[104]

Scythian warriors

"Scythian" soldier, Nagarjunakonda Palace site, circa 2nd century CE.[105][106][107]

The Junagadh rock inscription of Western Satraps ruler Rudradaman I (c. 150 AD, Gujarat) is the
first long inscription in fairly standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It
represents a turning point in Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon, being "the first extensive record
in the poetic style" in "more or less standard Sanskrit".[104] The Rudradaman inscription is "not
pure classical Sanskrit", but with few epic-vernacular Sanskrit exceptions, it approaches high
classical Sanskrit.[104] It is important because it is likely the prototype of the extensive Sanskrit
inscriptions of the Gupta Empire era.[104] These inscriptions are also in the Brāhmī script.[108]
During the reign of Rudradaman, circa 150 CE, it is also known that the Greek writer Yavanesvara
translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit, for "the use of those who could not speak
Greek", a translation which became an authority for all later astrology works in India.[109]

The spread of the usage of Sanskrit inscriptions to the south can also probably be attributed to
the influence of the Western Satraps, who were in close relation with southern Indian rulers:
according to Salomon "a Nagarjunakonda memorial pillar inscription of the time of King
Rudrapurusadatta attests to a marital alliance between the Western Ksatrapas and the Iksvaku
rulers of Nagarjunakonda".[102][73] The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are the earliest substantial
South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd-century to early 4th-century CE.
These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and to the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism, and parts
of them reflect both standard Sanskrit and hybridized Sanskrit.[110] An earlier hybrid Sanskrit
inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd-century, while a few later ones
include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and
Buddhism.[111] After the 3rd-century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have
survived.[112]

Possible vassalage to the Kushans

Statue of Chastana

Mathura Museum
 Inscribed statue of Saka King Chastana, with inscription "Shastana" (Middle Brahmi script: Sha-sta-na).[44] Kushan
Period.

It is still unclear whether the Western Satraps were independent rulers or vassals of the Kushan
Empire (30–375 CE). The continued use of the word "Satrap" on their coin would suggest a
recognized subjection to a higher ruler, possibly the Kushan emperor.[113]

The Western Satraps (orange) and the Kushan Empire (green), in the 2nd century CE

Also, a statue of Chastana was found in Mathura at the Temple of Mat together with the famous
statues of Vima Kadphises and Kanishka. The statue has the inscription "Shastana" (Middle
Brahmi script: Sha-sta-na).[44] This also would suggest at least alliance and friendship, if not
vassalage. Finally Kanishka claims in the Rabatak inscription that his power extends to Ujjain,
the classical capital of the Western Satrap realm. This combined with the presence of the
Chastana statue side by side with Kanishka would also suggest Kushan alliance with the
Western Satraps.
Finally, following the period of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura, the
"Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara are known from an inscription in
Sarnath to have been feudatories of the Kushans.[5]

Generally, the position taken by modern scholarship is that the Western Satraps were vassals of
the Kushans, at least in the early period until Rudradaman I conquered the Yaudheyas, who are
usually thought to be Kushan vassals. The question is not considered perfectly settled.

Main rulers

Genealogical table of the Western Satraps

Kshaharata dynasty
Yapirajaya

Hospises

Higaraka
 Abhiraka (Aubhirakes)

Bhumaka (?–119)

Nahapana (119–124)
Viceroy Ushavadata

Bhadramukhas or Kardamaka dynasty

Family of Chastana:

Chastana (c. 78-130) , son of Ysāmotika

Jayadaman, son of Chastana

Rudradaman I (c. 130–150) , son of Jayadaman

Damajadasri I (170–175)

Jivadaman (178-181, d. 199)

Rudrasimha I (180–188, d. 197)

Rudrasimha I (restored) (191–197)

Satyadaman (197-198)

Jivadaman (restored) (197–199)

Rudrasena I (200–222)

Prthivisena (222)

Samghadaman (222–223)

Damasena (223–232)

Damajadasri II (232–239) with

Viradaman (234–238)

Isvaradatta (236–239)

Yasodaman I (239)

Vijayasena (239–250)

Damajadasri III (251–255)

Rudrasena II (255–277)
 Visvasimha (277–282)

Bhartrdaman (282–295)

Visvasena (293–304)

Family of Rudrasimha II:

Rudrasimha II (304–348) , son of Lord (Svami) Jivadaman, with

Yasodaman II (317–332)

Rudradaman II (332–348) No coins known

(Sridharavarman (339-368)) No coins known

Rudrasena III (348–380)

Simhasena (380–384/5)

Rudrasena IV (382–388)

Rudrasimha III (388–395)

See also

History of India

Indo-Greek Kingdom

Indo-Scythians

Indo-Parthians

Kushan Empire

Rulers of Malwa

Notes

1. Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia (https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/sc

hwartzberg/pager.html?object=182) . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 145, map XIV.1 (h).
ISBN 0226742210.

2. World history from early times to A D 2000 by B .V. Rao: p.97

3. Ancient India by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar p. 234

4. Burgess, Jas (1883). Archaeological Survey Of Western India (https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.201

5.35775) . p. 103.
 5. Kharapallana and Vanaspara are known from an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the third
year of Kanishka, in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushanas. Source: "A Catalogue of the
Indian Coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc." Rapson, p ciii

6. Ptolemy, "Geographia", Chap 7

7. Marshall, John (1936). A guide to Sanchi. Patna: Eastern book House. p. 16. ISBN 978-81-85204-32-1.

8. Harmatta, János (1999). "Languages and scripts in Graeco-Bactria and the Saka Kingdoms". In Harmatta,
János; Puri, B. N.; Etemadi, G. F. (eds.). History of civilizations of Central Asia (https://en.unesco.org/silkr
oad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_II%20silk%20road_languages%20and%20scripts%20i
n%20graeco-bactria%20and%20the%20saka%20kingdoms.pdf) (PDF). 2. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Publishing House. p. 400. ISBN 978-8-120-81408-0.

9. Diringer, David (1948). Alphabet A Key To The History Of Mankind (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.

2015.57042/page/n351/mode/2up) . p. 350.

10. Rapson, p. CVII

11. "Kharoshthi inscription, Taxila copper plate of Patika", Sten Konow, p25

12. Alpers, Edward A.; Goswami, Chhaya (2019). Transregional Trade and Traders: Situating Gujarat in the
Indian Ocean from Early Times to 1900 (https://books.google.com/books?id=2lyNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1
00) . Oxford University Press. p. 99. ISBN 9780199096138.

13. Cribb, Joe (2013). Indian Ocean In Antiquity (https://books.google.com/books?id=PtzWAQAAQBAJ&pg=P

A310) . Routledge. p. 310. ISBN 9781136155314.

14. Alpers, Edward A.; Goswami, Chhaya (2019). Transregional Trade and Traders: Situating Gujarat in the
Indian Ocean from Early Times to 1900 (https://books.google.com/books?id=2lyNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT9
9) . Oxford University Press. p. 99. ISBN 9780199096138.

15. Tripathi, Rama Shankar (1942). History of Ancient India (https://books.google.com/books?id=rOVpOG6M

PMcC) . Motilal Banarsidass. p. 216. ISBN 9788120800182.

16. "The Satavahanas did not hold the western Deccan for long. They were gradually pushed out of the west
by the Sakas
(Western Khatrapas). The Kshaharata Nahapana's coins in
the Nasik area indicate that the
Western Kshatrapas controlled this region by the 1st century CE. By becoming master of wide regions
including Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and
Poona districts, Nahapana rose from the status of a mere Kshatrapa in the year 41 (58 AD) to that of
Mahakshatrapa in the year 46 (63 AD)." in "History of the Andhras"

17. "Catalogue of Indian coins of the British Museum. Andhras etc." Rapson. p. LVII

18. Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.188 (https://books.google.com/books?id=
Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA188)

19. Epigraphia Indica Vol.8 p.78-79 (https://archive.org/details/EpigraphiaIndica)

20. Epigraphia Indica Vol.7, Hultzsch, E. p.58 (https://archive.org/details/epigraphiaindica014351mbp)

21. World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 ʻAlī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora
Publishing, 2008 p.42 (https://books.google.com/books?id=fg-lGID3WpQC&pg=PA42)

22. Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 p.150 (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA150)

23. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay (https://books.google.com/books?id=5zgUAQAAMAAJ) .

Asiatic Society of Bombay. 1986. p. 219. "If Konow is right, then the length of time for Ksatrapa rule in the
Nasik-Karla-Junnar region would be at least thirty-fire years."

24. Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Zoroastrianism, Suresh K. Sharma, Usha Sharma, Mittal
Publications, 2004 p.112 (https://books.google.com/books?id=bmu3vZOSp_IC&pg=PA112)

25. The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, John M. Rosenfield p.131 (https://books.google.com/books?id=udnBk
QhzHH4C&pg=PA131)

26. Religions and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and
West (https://books.google.com/books?id=AXdfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97) . BRILL. 2013. p. 97.
ISBN 9789004255302.

27. Southern India: A Guide to Monuments Sites & Museums, by George Michell, Roli Books Private Limited, 1
mai 2013 p.72 (https://books.google.com/books?id=GdBbBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT72)

28. "This hall is assigned to the brief period of Kshatrapas rule in the western Deccan during the 1st century."
in Guide to Monuments of India 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu - by George Michell, Philip H. Davies, Viking -
1989 Page 374

29. Epigraphia Indica Vol.18 p.326 Inscription No1 (https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.367557)

30. Ushavadata also presents himself as a Saka in inscription 14a of Cave No.10 of the Nasik Caves: "
[Success !] By permanent charities of Ushavadata, the Saka, [son of Dinika], son-in-law of king Nahapana,
the [Kshahara]ta Kshatrapa...." in Epigraphia Indica p.85-86 (https://archive.org/stream/EpigraphiaIndica/
Epigraphia_Indica)

31. Epigraphia Indica p.78-79 (https://archive.org/stream/EpigraphiaIndica/Epigraphia_Indica)

32. Epigraphia Indica p.82-83 (https://archive.org/stream/EpigraphiaIndica/Epigraphia_Indica)

33. Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Zoroastrianism, by Suresh K. Sharma,Usha Sharma p.114 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=bmu3vZOSp_IC&pg=PA114)

34. "History of the Andhras", Durga Prasad Source (https://web.archive.org/web/20060422120411/http://20

2.41.85.234:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf)

35. Source (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html)

36. Source (http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html)

37. Pollard, Elizabeth Ann (7 August 2013). "Indian Spices and Roman "Magic" in Imperial and Late Antique
Indomediterranea". Journal of World History. 24 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1353/jwh.2013.0012 (https://doi.org/1
0.1353%2Fjwh.2013.0012) . ISSN 1527-8050 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1527-8050) .

38. Brancaccio, Pia (2010). The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion (https://
books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA64) . BRILL. p. 64 Note 94. ISBN 978-
9004185258.

39. Hultzsch, E. (1906). Epigraphia Indica Vol.8 (https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.56654#page/n7

5/mode/2up) . p. 60.

40. Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th
Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA383) . Pearson Education India.
p. 383. ISBN 9788131711200.

41. V.D, Mahajan (2016). Ancient India (https://books.google.com/books?id=7TJlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA315) .

S. Chand Publishing. ISBN 9789352531325.

42. Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 p.131 (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA131)

43. A. Jha and D. Rajgor: Studies in the Coinage of the Western Ksatraps, Nashik: Indian Institute of Research
in Numismatic Studies, 1992, p. 7.

44. Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society (https://books.google.com/books?id=yKZEAQAAMA

AJ) . The Society. 1920. "The three letters give us a complete name, which I read as Ṣastana (vide
facsimile and cast). Dr. Vogel read it as Mastana but that is incorrect for Ma was always written with a
circular or triangular knob below with two slanting lines joining the knob"

45. The Dynastic Art of the Kushans, John Rosenfield, University of California Press, xxxiv

46. Allchin, F. R.; Erdosy, George (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of
Cities and States (https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C&pg=PA279) . Cambridge
University Press. p. 279. ISBN 9780521376952.

47. Artefacts of History: Archaeology, Historiography and Indian Pasts, Sudeshna Guha, SAGE Publications
India, 2015 p.50 (https://books.google.com/books?id=jhqJCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50)

48. Burgess, James; Bühler, Georg (1883). Report on the Elura cave temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina
caves in western India; completing the results of the fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons' operations of the
Archaeological survey, 1877-78, 1878-79, 1879-80. Supplementary to the volume on "The cave temples of
India." (https://archive.org/stream/reportoneluraca00bhgoog) . London, Trübner & Co. p. 78.

49. Source (http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRock

Inscription.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdst
ate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm) 23 February 2009
at the Wayback Machine
50. Sircar, D. C. (2005). Studies in Indian Coins (https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=
PA118) . Motilal Banarsidass. p. 118. ISBN 9788120829732.

51. Rapson, "Indian coins of the British Museum" p.lx

52. Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I (http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMA

RYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2009022
3182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRo
ckInscription.htm) 23 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine, accessed on 23 March 2007.

53. Rosenfield, "The dynastic art of the Kushans", p132

54. Rapson, "A catalogue of the Indian coins in the British Museum", p.lx

55. "Vidarbha also was under the rule of another Mahakshatrapa named Rupiamma, whose pillar inscription
was recently discovered at Pavni in the Bhandara district [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. IV, p. 109 f.]. It
records the erection of a chhaya-stambha or sculptured pillar at the place. The Satavahanas had,
Therefore, to leave Western Maharashtra and Vidarbha. They seem to have repaired to their capital
Pratishthana where they continued to abide waiting for a favourable opportunity to oust the Shaka
invaders." Source (http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/nasik/005%20History/001%20Ancie
ntPeriod.htm)

56. Mc Evilley "The shape of ancient thought", p385 ("The Yavanajataka is the earliest surviving Sanskrit text
in astrology, and constitute the basis of all later Indian developments in horoscopy", himself quoting
David Pingree "The Yavanajataka of Sphujidhvaja" p5)

57. Rapson, p.cxxiv (https://archive.org/stream/catalogueofcoins00brit#page/82/mode/2up)

58. Misra, Om Prakash (2003). Archaeological Excavations in Central India: Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh (https://books.google.com/books?id=o0ISjDDWJwQC&pg=PA6) . Mittal Publications. p. 6.
ISBN 9788170998747.

59. "Siddham. The Asian Inscription Database, Pauni (पवनी Bhandara district). Memorial Pillar (OBNAG0032)
with Inscription (INNAG0031) of Rupiamma" (https://siddham.network/object/obnag0032/) .

60. Mirashi, V. V. (1965). "A Pillar Inscription of Mahakshatrapa Rupiamma from Pawni". Proceedings of the
Indian History Congress. 27: 51–54. ISSN 2249-1937 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2249-1937) .
JSTOR 44140583 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/44140583) .

61. "The pillar inscription of Rupiamma from Pauni (1-41) may present a similar example. In it, Rupiamma is
described as Mahakhattava-kumära ; he is a son or prince of the mahäksatrapa; the title in itself is felt to
be sufficient identification" Vienna Journal of South Asian Studies (https://books.google.com/books?id=u
F5OAAAAYAAJ) (in German). E.J. Brill. 1974. p. 21.

62. "later Satavahana named Yajna Satakarni seems to have conquered the Southern Dominions of the
Western Satraps. His coins contain figures of ships, probably indicating the naval power of the Andras.
He not only ruled Aparanta, but probably also the eastern part of the Central Provinces". Majumdar, p. 135
63. Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization (https://books.google.com/books?id=
Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA174) . New Age International. p. 174. ISBN 9788122411980.

64. Burgess, James; Bühler, Georg (1883). Report on the Elura cave temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina
caves in western India; completing the results of the fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons' operations of the
Archaeological survey, 1877-78, 1878-79, 1879-80. Supplementary to the volume on "The cave temples of
India." (https://archive.org/stream/reportoneluraca00bhgoog) . London, Trübner & Co. p. 79.

65. Burgess, James; Bühler, Georg (1883). Report on the Elura cave temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina
caves in western India; completing the results of the fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons' operations of the
Archaeological survey, 1877-78, 1878-79, 1879-80. Supplementary to the volume on "The cave temples of
India." (https://archive.org/stream/reportoneluraca00bhgoog) . London, Trübner & Co. p. 75.

66. Burgess, Jas (1883). Archaeological Survey Of Western India (https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.201

5.35775/2015.35775.Archaeological-Survey-Of-Western-India) . p. 114.

67. CNG Coins Coin image (https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=322826)

68. Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c.
Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 p58-59 (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=IUbUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR58)

69. "Another queen of Virapurusha was Rudradhara-bhattarika. According to D.C. Sircar she might have been
related to Rudrasena II (c. a.d. 254-74) the Saka ruler of Western India" in Rao, P. Raghunadha (1993).
Ancient and medieval history of Andhra Pradesh (https://archive.org/details/ancientmedievalh0000rag
h) . Sterling Publishers. p. 23 (https://archive.org/details/ancientmedievalh0000ragh/page/23) .
ISBN 9788120714953.

70. (India), Madhya Pradesh (1982). Madhya Pradesh District Gazetteers: Ujjain (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=lo5hAAAAIAAJ) . Government Central Press. p. 26.

71. K. Krishna Murthy 1977, p. 6.

72. Subramanian, K. R. (1989). Buddhist Remains in Andhra and the History of Andhra Between 225 and 610
A.D. (https://books.google.com/books?id=vnO2BMPdYEoC&pg=PA82) Asian Educational Services.
p. 82. ISBN 9788120604445.

73. Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1986). Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&pg=PA66) Motilal Banarsidass. p. 66. ISBN 9788120800267.

74. K. Krishna Murthy 1977, p. 5.

75. Mitra, Debala (2004). Ajanta (https://archive.org/details/ajanta00mitr) . Archaeological Survey of India.

pp. 94 (https://archive.org/details/ajanta00mitr/page/94) –95.

76. The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I An
Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2 (https://journals.ub.uni-heidelber
g.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8536/2443)
77. Los Angeles County Museum of Art description (http://collections.lacma.org/node/242276)

78. Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas, the Traikutaka dynasty, and the
"Bodhi" dynasty, by British Museum. Dept. of Coins and Medals; Rapson, E. J. (Edward James) p.170 (http
s://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins00brit)

79. Marshall, The Monuments of Sanchi p.392 (https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798)

80. Schastok, Sara L. (1985). The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=jh1fF8HvJmMC&pg=PA24) . BRILL. pp. 23–31. ISBN 978-9004069411.

81. Brancaccio, Pia (2010). The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion (https://
books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA107) . BRILL. p. 107. ISBN 978-9004185258.

82. Ghosh, Amalananda (1965). Taxila (https://books.google.com/books?id=0NA3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA787) .

CUP Archive. pp. 790–791.

83. Schindel, Nikolaus; Alram, Michael; Daryaee, Touraj; Pendleton, Elizabeth (2016). The Parthian and Early
Sasanian Empires: adaptation and expansion (https://books.google.com/books?id=GqONDAAAQBAJ&pg
=PA127) . Oxbow Books. pp. 127–128. ISBN 9781785702105.

84. Senior, R.C. (1991). "The Coinage of Sind from 250 AD up to the Arab Conquest" (http://orientalnumismati
csociety.org/JONS/Files/ONS_129.pdf) (PDF). Oriental Numismatic Society. 129 (June–July 1991): 3–
4.

85. Mahajan, Vidya Dhar (2016). Ancient India (https://books.google.com/books?id=7TJlDwAAQBAJ&pg=P

A335) . S. Chand Publishing. p. 335. ISBN 9789352531325.

86. "During the course of this expedition he is believed to have attacked and defeated the Saka Chief
Shridhar Varman, ruling over Eran-Vidisha region. He then annexed the area and erected a monument at
Eran (modern Sagar District) "for the sake cf augmenting his fame"." in Pradesh (India), Madhya;
Krishnan, V. S. (1982). Madhya Pradesh: District Gazetteers (https://books.google.com/books?id=7CYLA
QAAIAAJ) . Government Central Press. p. 28.

87. Mirashi, Vasudev Vishnu (1955). Corpus inscriptionum indicarum vol.4 pt.2 Inscriptions of the Kalachuri
Chedi Era (https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3725/page/n321) . Archaeological Society of India.
pp. 605–611.

88. Lines 23-24 of the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta: "Self-surrender, offering (their own)
daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces through
the Garuḍa badge, by the Dēvaputra-Shāhi-Shāhānushāhi and the Śaka lords and by (rulers) occupying all
Island countries, such as Siṁhala and others."

89. The Cambridge Shorter History of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9

3) . CUP Archive. p. 93.

90. Marshall, The Monuments of India p.388 (https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798)

 91. Marshall, The Monuments of India p.388 inscription 833 (https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.5
32798)

92. "Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman", Project South Asia. (http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Do

cs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm) Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGR
APHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm) 23 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine

93. "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver
coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of
the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type ... for the
chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The
Andhras etc.", p.cli

94. Rapson CCVIII

95. Rapson p. CIV

96. Rapson, "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc.", p.cxcii

97. Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia (1941). The Archaeology of Gujarat: Including Kathiawar (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=fvAdAAAAMAA) . Natwarlal & Company. p. 46. Alt URL (http://www.dli.ernet.in/handl
e/2015/51876)

98. Nanavati, J. M.; Dhaky, M. A. (1 January 1969). "The Maitraka and the Saindhava Temples of Gujarat" (htt
ps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.321094) . Artibus Asiae. Supplementum. 26: 15–17.
doi:10.2307/1522666 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1522666) . JSTOR 1522666 (https://www.jstor.org/st
able/1522666) .

99. Nanavati, J. M. (March 1961). "A Kshatrapa Head from Saurashtra" (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dl
i.2015.280444) . In Sandesara, B. J. (ed.). Journal Of Oriental Institute Baroda Vol.10. X. Maharaja
Sayajirao University of Baroda. pp. 223–224.

100. Salomon 1998, pp. 86–87.

101. Salomon 1998, pp. 87–88.

102. Salomon 1998, pp. 93–94.

103. Salomon 1998, p. 89 (https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC&pg=PA89) .

104. Salomon 1998, p. 89.

105. "In Nagarjunakonda Scythian influence is noticed and the cap and coat of a soldier on a pillar may be
cited as an example.", in Sivaramamurti, C. (1961). Indian Sculpture (https://books.google.com/books?id
=HL81AAAAMAAJ) . Allied Publishers. p. 51.

106. "A Scythian dvarapala standing wearing his typical draperies, boots and head dress. Distinct ethnic and
sartorial characteristics are noreworthy.", in Ray, Amita (1982). Life and Art of Early Andhradesa (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=uQXqAAAAMAAJ) . Agam. p. 249.
107. "National Portal and Digital Repository: Record Details" (http://museumsofindia.gov.in/repository/record/
nat_del-50-23-25222) . museumsofindia.gov.in.

108. Salomon 1998, pp. 10, 86–90

109. Selin, Helaine (2013). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen
Cultures (https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA906) . Springer Science &
Business Media. p. 906. ISBN 9789401714167.

110. Salomon 1998, pp. 90–91.

111. Salomon 1998, pp. 90-91 with footnote 51.

112. Salomon 1998, pp. 91–93.

113. "The titles "Kshatrap" and "Mahakshatrapa" certainly show that the Western Kshatrapas were originally
feudatories" in Rapson, "Coins of the British Museum", p.cv

References

Rapson, "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc."

John Rosenfield, "The dynastic art of the Kushans", 1976

Claudius Ptolemy, "The geography", Translated and edited by Edward Luther Stevenson, Dover
Publications Inc., New York, ISBN 0-486-26896-9

Sources

Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit,
Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages (https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQ
DxkC) . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509984-3.

K. Krishna Murthy (1977). Nāgārjunakoṇḍā: A Cultural Study (https://books.google.com/book

s?id=4gBSWyLTSzkC&pg=PA1) . Concept. OCLC 4541213 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45
41213) .

External links

[3] (http://www.katragadda.com/articles/HistoryOfTheAndhras.pdf) History of the Andhras,

Prasad 1988 With many references to Western Satrap rule

Online catalogue of Western Kshatrapa coins (http://coinindia.com/galleries-kshatrapas.html)

 Coins of the Western Kshatrapas (https://web.archive.org/web/20051224062028/http://www.
grifterrec.com/coins/india/ancientindia3.html)

The Kshatrapas in Nasik (https://web.archive.org/web/20061209050033/http://www.maharas

htra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/nasik/005%20History/001%20AncientPeriod.htm)

The Origins of the Indian Coinage Tradition (https://www.academia.edu/1563408/The_Origins

_of_the_Indian_Coinage_Tradition) at Academia.edu

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Western_Satraps&oldid=1046966752"

Last edited 5 days ago by Antiquistik

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless

otherwise noted.