A.

Logic in general can be divided into Formal Logic, Informal Logic and Symbolic
Logic and Mathematical Logic:

1. Formal Logic:
Formal Logic is what we think of as traditional logic or philosophical logic,
namely the study of inference with purely formal and explicit content (i.e. it can
be expressed as a particular application of a wholly abstract rule), such as
the rules of formal logic that have come down to us from Aristotle. (See the section
on Deductive Logic below).
A formal system (also called a logical calculus) is used to derive one
expression (conclusion) from one or more other expressions (premises). These
premises may be axioms (a self-evident proposition, taken for granted) or
theorems (derived using a fixed set of inference rules and axioms, without
any additional assumptions).
Formalism is the philosophical theory that formal statements (logical or
mathematical) have no intrinsic meaning but that its symbols (which are
regarded as physical entities) exhibit a form that has useful applications.
2. Informal Logic:
Informal Logic is a recent discipline which studies natural language
arguments, and attempts to develop a logic to assess, analyze and improve
ordinary language (or "everyday") reasoning. Natural language here means a
language that is spoken, written or signed by humans for general-purpose
communication, as distinguished from formal languages (such as computer-
programming languages) or constructed languages (such as Esperanto).
It focuses on the reasoning and argument one finds in personal exchange,
advertising, political debate, legal argument, and the social commentary that
characterizes newspapers, television, the Internet and other forms of mass
media.
3. Symbolic Logic:
Symbolic Logic is the study of symbolic abstractions that capture the formal
features of logical inference. It deals with the relations of symbols to each
other, often using complex mathematical calculus, in an attempt to solve
intractable problems traditional formal logic is not able to address.
It is often divided into two sub-branches:
o Predicate Logic: a system in which formulae contain quantifiable
variables. (See the section on Predicate Logic below).
o Propositional Logic (or Sentential Logic): a system in which formulae
representing propositions can be formed by combining atomic
propositions using logical connectives, and a system of formal proof
rules allows certain formulae to be established as theorems. (See the
section on Propositional Logic below).
4. Mathematical Logic:
Both the application of the techniques of formal logic to mathematics and
mathematical reasoning, and, conversely, the application of mathematical
techniques to the representation and analysis of formal logic.
The earliest use of mathematics and geometry in relation to logic and
philosophy goes back to the Ancient Greeks such as Euclid, Plato and Aristotle.
Computer science emerged as a discipline in the 1940's with the work of Alan
Turing (1912 - 1954) on the Entscheidungsproblem, which followed from the
theories of Kurt Gödel (1906 - 1978), particularly his incompleteness
theorems. In the 1950s and 1960s, researchers predicted that when human
knowledge could be expressed using logic with mathematical notation, it
would be possible to create a machine that reasons (or artificial intelligence),
although this turned out to be more difficult than expected because of the
complexity of human reasoning. Mathematics-related doctrines include:
o Logicism: perhaps the boldest attempt to apply logic to mathematics,
pioneered by philosopher-logicians such as Gottlob Frege and Bertrand
Russell, especially the application of mathematics to logic in the form of
proof theory, model theory, set theory and recursion theory.
o Intuitionism: the doctrine which holds that logic and mathematics does
not consist of analytic activities wherein deep properties of existence
are revealed and applied, but merely the application of internally
consistent methods to realize more complex mental constructs.