Class VIII Grammar

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JUNIOR
ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION

VIII Std
(CBSE)
R.M. SWAMY
M.A., B.Ed.,
PARAS VIDYA VIHAR
TILI WARD SAGAR - 470002

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CONTENTS
1. Sentence - 4
2. Subject and Predicate - 8
3 Noun - 11
4 Pronoun - 48
5 Adjective - 55
6 Determiner - 75
7 Verb - 81
8 Adverb - 107
9 Agreement of verb with subject - 124
10. Modal - 135
11. Tenses - 145
12. Conditional sentence - 148
13. Active and Passive Voice - 152
14. Phrase - 162
15. Clause - 165
16. Proposition - 172
17. Conjunction - 183
18. Interjection - 189
19. Punctuation - 194
20. Direct and Indirect Speech (Narration) - 199
21. Figure of speech - 211
22. Comprehension - 213
23. Composition - 217
(a) Notice - 217
(b) Message - 219
(c) Paragraph - 221

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(d) Diary Entry - 222
(e) Email writing - 224
(d) Report writing - 226
(e) Factual description - 228
(e) Biographical sketch - 230
(f) Letter writing - 234
(i) Formal Letter
(ii) Informal Letter
(g) Story writing - 238
(h) Essay Writing - 240
24. Antonyms - 243
25. Homophones - 248
26. Homonyms - 251
27. Proverbs - 254
28. Idioms - 257
29. Phrasal Verbs - 260
30. One word substitutes - 269
31. Spelling rules - 273
32.. Word Formation - 279
(a) Noun from Verbs
(b) Verb from Noun
(c) Noun from Adjective
(d) Adjective from Noun
(e) Verb from Adjective
(f) Adverb from Adjective .

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1. THE SENTENCE
1. Sentence: It is a group of words which places in a proper order and gives complete
and sensible meaning.
When we speak and write, we use words. We use words in groups in a proper order.
Such a group of words makes complete sensible meaning, we call it a sentence.
e.g.:
Mary had a little lamb.
Disha looks beautiful.
What do you do?
Teachers teach students.
We must obey elders.
Exercise : Which of the following groups of words are sentences?
(a) Rahul my cousin?
(b) I must understand others feeling.
(c) Beyond the window.
(d) My father and my mother are teachers.
(e) Better than strength in wisdom.
(f) There is no happiness without health.
(g) air fly birds in the.
(h) Ashok is a boy trusted by all.
(i) Ashes burnt the we to house saw.
(j) she cannot read English.
2. Kinds of sentences. There are five kinds of sentences un-English. They are given
below:-
(a) Assertive or Declarative Sente4ncve. It is a kind of sentence which can make

a statement and declares something.
e.g. (i) I never tell a lie.
(ii) The sun rises in the East,

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(iii) School reopens on 01 Jul.
(iv) The quality of the mangoes was not good.
(v) The Arabian Nights is an interesting book.
(b) Interrogative or Question Sentence. It is a kind of sentence that asks a single

and double question.
e.g. (i) Single Question.
(aa) Do you know French?
(ab) Were they playing hockey?
(ac) Will she be telling us the truth?
(ad) Shall we spend the whole money?
(ae) Had the postman delivered the letters?
(ii) Double Question.
(aa) When did he complete his assignment?
(ab) Who will be teaching you English Grammar?
(ac) Where is the Tajmahal?
(ad) Whom does he love?
(ae) How old are you?
(c) Imperative Sentence. It is a kind of sentence which expresses a command, a

request, an entreaty or a desire etc.
e.g.
(i) Stand up (Command)
(ii) Please lend me your bicycle (Request)
(iii) Oh! God help me (Entreaty)
(iv) Almighty saves his life. (Wish)
(d) Exclamatory Sentence. A sentence that gives some strong or sudden feeling.
e.g. (i) Alas! How foolish I have been! (Worry)
(ii) Hurrah! We have won the match. (Happy)
(iii) How stupid he has been! (Surprise)

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(iv) What a terrible storm it is! (Surprise)
(v) Bravo! You have done well. (Happy)
(e) Optative Sentence. A sentence that can give some wish or bless and curse.
e.g. (i) My God bless her with a long life. (Wish)
(ii) May God bless you. (Bless)
(iii) May you ruin. (Curse)
(iv) May they destroy. (Curse)
(v) May he disgraces. (Curse)
From the above it is clear that :
(a) Every sentence begins with a capital letter.

(b) A full stop (.) is placed at the end of declarative, Impetrative and Optative
sentences.
(c) A Question mark (?) is placed at the end of every interrogative sentence.
(d) An Exclamation Mark (!) is placed at the end of every exclamatory
sentence.
EXERCISE- I
Find out the kinds of sentence from the following:
(a) Mend your ways.
(b) Has the peon ring the bell?
(c) Kindly allow me to go ahead.
(d) What an idiot you are!
` (e) Excuse me, would you mind to flock on the fan switch.
EXERCISE- II
Rewrite each of the following sentences correct after putting in the proper punctuation marks:
(a) Could I speak to Mr Raju
(b) What a good chap he is
(c) What is the time by your watch
(d) Would you mind waiting outside
(e) What has he done to defend you

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(f) How sweet this lily smells.
(g) Will you have some rupees
(h) what nonsense she is talking
(i) One must never lie or cheat
(j) kindly help to move the vehicle
EXERCISE – III
Re-arrange the following jumbled words according to the order:
Note: You have known that only a group of words which arranges in a proper order and
makes sensible meaning is called sentence., You must be knowing that a group of words
which does not arrange in a proper order, will not make a sentence.
(a) pardon/to/him/the/judge/prisoner/the/begged
(b) defence/something/students/do/also/can/for/the/their/country/of
(c) prime/the/adnnounced/minister/relief/the/people/to/all/the/of/district
(d) me/he/to/study/law/advised
(e) where/soldiers/determined/were/they/the/were stay/to
EXERCISE- IV
Re-arrange the words given below to form meaningful sentences:
(a) telling/lies/let/never/me/catch/you.
(b) is/works/man/considered/who/hard/to//as//be/a/honest/an/man
(c) now/then/and/looking/way/that/she/not/help/could
(d) a/joy/is/for/ever/of/beauty/a/thing
(e) you/can/tell/me/the/way/the/nearest/petrol bunk/to/?
(f) you/would/mind/staying/my/here/longer//little/?
(g) have/these/.mangoes/flavour/delicious/what/a/!
(h) like/luggage/carrying/I/odd/jobs/to/used/do
(I) there/were/people/many/at/concert/the/?
(j) they/come/not/heave/pity/what/!
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2. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
1. Every sentence that we speak or write consists of two parts. They are:
(a) Subject: The person, the thing or the place we speak about.
(b) Predicate: What we speak about the person, thing or place.
e.g.
Somu is a clever boy
In this sentence :
(i) We speak about Somu - It means /Somu is a subject of this sentence.
(ii) What we say about Somu is –a clever boy - predicate.
2. The name of the person, thing, or place that we speak about is called subject. What
we say about the subject is called Predicate.
Subject Predicate
Mary had a little lamb.
Mountains add to the beauty of the country.
The students of our school made Rahul as a Head Boy.
The poor boy sat in a corner.
The cruel wolf bit the little girl.
Birds fly in the sky.
Cows eat grass.
3. Sometimes sentences expressing orders, requests and wishes will not have subject as:
(a) “Stand up” - it means you stand up.
(b) “Thank you” - it means I thank you.
EXERCISE – I
4. Divide the following sentences separately as a Subject and Predicate.
(a) Simple Simen met a Pieman.
(b) All the boys and girls of our school take part in games.
(c) Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
(d) The man standing in the corner is my uncle.
(e) Little Bo-Peep lost her sheep.
(F) The Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world.

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(g) Birds build nest in trees.
(h) Some mischievous boys are throwing stones at birds.
(i) He goes to church on Sunday.
(j) Barking dog seldom bite.
EXERCISE –II
5. Choose from the column B the Predicate which suits with the Subject in the column
A.
A (Subject) B (Predicate)
(a) All the questions makes much noise.
(b) A committee of fire work in a hospital.
(c) A nurse soon faded away.
(d) The beautiful rainbow blames his tools.
(e) An empty vessel wears a helmet
(f) A bad workman flies in the air.
(g) A fireman was appointed.
(h) An aeroplane were not easy.
(i) The master slept into the street.
(j) The piper taught in a little school.
6. Write Predicate to the following Subjects.
(a) The Mahabharata.............
(b) All the students of our school............
(c) The most intelligent boy in our class..............
(d) The girl standing in the corner..............
(e) The shortest month of the year................
(f) The woman holding a baby in her arms...............
(g) The richest man in our city.......
(h) His mother and father..........
(i) My books...............
(j) The sun...................
EXERCISE –IV
7. Add subjects to the following Predicates:
(a) ........................can speak French very well.

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(b) .........................made a great deal of noise
(c) ........................was the greatest leader of our country.
(d) ...........................is the highest mountain in the world.
(e) ............................was appointed monitor.
(f) ...........................sells fruit and vegetables.
(g) ...........................moves round the sun.
(h) ..............................is celebrated by our school every year.
(i) ............................wrote a letter to her father.
(j) ...........................killed the goat.

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3. NOUN
3. It is a naming word. It indicates the name of a person, place, things, animals and
quality. It can be used as a subject, object and complement in sentences.
4. Let us see them in details.
(a) Mr Ganesh is a police inspector.
(b) Mr Rahman is a Postman.
(c) Avinash is a dull student.
(d) Many people speak in English in India.
(e) Amla’s father is an engineer.
5. All the underlined words are name of persons.
6. Read the following sentences carefully.
(a) Washington is the capital of America.
(b) Kolkata is a big city in India.
(c) Wild animals live in forests.
(d) Coimbatore is a Manchester of India.
` (e) My school is behind the Shiva temple.
7. All words which are underlined are names of place.
8. Read the following sentences carefully:-
(a) Cows eat grass.
(b) Sheep are meek animals.
(c) My brother rears hens and ducks.
(d) Tigers and lions are strong animals.
(e) Cats are domestic animals.
9. All the underlined words are named of animal.
(a) Mangoes and melons are summer season’s fruits.
(b) Many pictures and charts are hanging on the wall of classroom.
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(c) My mother bought a fountain pen.
(d) The petty hawkers is selling potatoes.
(e) Butchers sell us meat and fish.
11. All the underlined words are names of things.
(a) Honesty is the best policy.
(b) Beauty cannot be made.
(c) Patience is so dear to God.
(d Kindness will bring peace among humans.
(e) Elephants are strengthful animal.
13. All underlined words are names of quality.
EXERCISE-I
1. Identify the name of nouns in the following sentence:-
(a) She was struck with grief.
(b) There are many desks and benches in my school.
(c) Our school is located eight km far away from my house.
(d) My uncle is a great writer.
(e) Your brother has fared well in the test.
(f) There is a little milk in the pot.
(g) Dogs have curved tails.
(h) The cuckoo sings sweetly.
(i)_ The oxen draw our carts and work in our fields.
(j) Butchers sell meat and fish.
EXERCISE – II
2. Write the name of:
(a) Five persons
(b) Five animals

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(c) Five things
(d) Five qualities
(e) Five places
EXERCISE- III
3. Fill up each blank with suitable Noun.
(a) A nation’s strength is in her................
(b) There are many ..............in the garden.
(c) My mother reads ...........daily in the morning.
(d) Indian...............are bravest in the world.
(e) I am unwell; send for the .............at once.
(f) ....................is the largest city in India.
(g) .................grow wheat for us in...................
(h) The dogs chased the ................in the jungle
(i) My .................is seriously ill.
(j) Cars, buses, trucks and tempos are means of ..............
EXERCISE – IV
4. Use the following Nouns in sentences.
(a) prosperity, disorder, slavery, excitement, anxiety.
(b) success, play, laughter, walk, sleep, race.
(c) slate, sharpener, black board, satchel, map, desk, chart.
(d) road side, town, roof, jungle, floor, market.
(e) modesty, hatred, delight, pride, wonder, grief.
EXERCISE –V
5. Write:-
(a) Three Nouns naming persons in a family.
(b) Three Nouns naming parts of the body.
(c) Three Nouns naming heavenly bodies.

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(d) Three Nouns ending in letter ‘t’.
(e) Three Nouns naming subjects.
KINDS OF NOUNS
1. We have seen in the previous chapter that nouns are names of persons, places, things
animals and qualities.
2. There are two main classes in all these nouns l. Look at the illustration.
Noun
Concrete Noun Abstract Noun
Proper Common Collective Material
Noun Noun Noun Noun
Feeling Action Event State Quality Art
3. Concrete Noun. Names or nouns that we can touch hear and smell .They can occupy
space. They have concrete forms. Read the following sentences and observe the words in
bold :
(a) Madurai is an ancient city in Tamil Nadu.
(b) Our house may win the shield.
(c) The dog is faithful animal.
(d) Jewellery is made of gold.
(e) Mohemmad Ali was a great boxer.

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4. All the words in bold letters are names of person, places and collections of things.
We can touch all these things. They occupy a place too. So they are known as Concrete
Nouns.
5. Most concrete nouns can be counted. Such nouns are called Countable Concrete Noun
e.g.
Table, book, pen, pencil, etc.
6. Some concrete nouns cannot be counted. Such nouns are called Uncountable
Concrete Noun.
e.g.
Milk, oil, wheat, rice, etc.
7. Countable Concrete Nouns are singular and plural whereas Uncountable Concrete
Nouns are neither singular nor plural.
EXERCISE-I
8. Write Concrete Nouns naming:
(a) Five materials
(b) Five things
(c) Five places
(d) Five animals
(e) Five persons
EXERCISE- II
9. Underline the Concrete Nouns in the following sentences:
(a) Whose bunch of keys is this?
(b) Turtles are different from tortoises.
(c) A fish cannot live on land.
(d) My teacher was impressed with my manner.
(e) Praveen is a diligent honest student.
(f) Most Indian ladies are orthodoxy.
(g) The mob stoned the policemen.

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(h) The cowherd is following his herd of cattle.
(i) The train is bound for Chennai.
(j) Mr Ahmed is a famous singer.
EXERCISE –III
10. Insert a suitable Concrete Noun for each blank:
(a) I asked my ....................to my birthday party.
(b) I have.............and...............for breakfast.
(c) This ................is made of pure gold.
(d) Early man used tools made of...............
(e) The general ordered the .............to advance.
EXERCISE - IV
11. Sort out the countable and uncountable noun from the following nouns:
(a) boat
(b) butter
(c) rice
(d) book
(e) sugar
(f) pencil
(g) water
(h) bench
(i) honey
(j) hare
12. Concrete Nouns are of four kinds. They are:
(a) Proper Nouns –Name of person, places and things
(b) Common Noun- Name of common persons, places, things.
(c) Collective Noun- Name of collection of persons and things.
(d) Material Nouns – Name of materials.

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13. Proper Noun. It is the name of particular person, place and things. Read the
following sentences and observe the words in bold.
(a) New Delhi is the capital of India.
(b) Laxmana was a younger brother of Rama.
(c) The Geeta is a sacred book of the Hindus.
(d) Tajmahal is made of white marble.
(e) The Indian Ocean washed the feet of India.
14. The words in bold are names of particular person, place and things. Hence they are
Proper Noun. Proper Nouns have no plurals. Proper Nouns always begin with capital letter.
15. Common Noun. It is the name of a person, place or thing of the same class or kind.
Read the following sentences and observe the words in bold letters.
(a) Man is mortal.
(b) The dog is very faithful animal.
(c) Horses run very fast.
(d) The children stood round the pole.
(e) The beggar sits by the road-side.
16. The words in bold letters are names of common things, place or person. Each of them
belongs to a class with many others of its kind. Such nouns are known as Common Nouns.
Common Nouns have their plural form.
17. Collective Nouns. It is the name of a group or collection of persons, animals or

things considered as one. Read the following sentences and observe the word in bold letter:-
(A) A herd of cattle is passing.
(b) Indian army is stronger than Pakistan
(c) A family comprises parents and children.
(d) There are thirty five students in the class.
(e) The mother pig bore a litter of ten piglets.
Flock, crowd, bunch, bundle, chain, cluster, crew, fleet, gang, group, heap, herd, hive, pack,
pair, peal, pile, shoal, team, swarm, quiver, range, ream reel, ser, sheaf, shower stack, string,
wad, chest, cluster, cloud, party, patrol, posse, regiment, staff , team, tribe, troop, ,bunch,
class, company, string, stud, colony, board, body caravan, choir, gaggle haul , gang, group,
horde, host, line, mob, party, troupe, catch, battery, block, book , bouquet, bowl, bundle,
catalogue, nest, plague, pride, school, body ,zoo, crowd, anthology, horde, bale, basket,
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batch, galaxy, fleet, hand , harvest, heap, chest, glaring, coalition, cohort, zeal, lodge,
mischief, sloth, gaggle, haul, hedge, library, outfit, forest, etc.
17. Material Noun. It is the name of substances or materials. Read the following
sentences and observe the words in bold letters.
(a) The admiral is made of steel.
(b) Buildings are made of stone, bricks, cement and iron.
(c) The ear rings are made of gold.
(d) Bread is made from flour.
(e) Tables and chairs are made of wood.
EXERCISE – V
18. Write sentences using:-
(a) Five Proper Nouns.
(b) Five Common Nouns.
(c) Five Collective Nouns.
(d) Five Material Nouns.
EXERCISE- VI
19. Arrange the following Nouns according to their class:-
(a) Mob, cluster, bull, chain, hill, swarm.
(b) Group, metal, copper, grove, Kalidasa, Spain.
(c) Bedding, Mahavira, sailor, hockey-stick.
(d) ball, watchman, aluminium, crane, Chennai.
(e) Jackal, crowd, box, chair, lame.
EXERCISE- VII
20. Underline the each Noun in the following sentences. Mention its kinds too:-
(a) The police dispersed the crowd.
(b) Her ear-rings are made of gold.
(c) The dark clouds are full of rain.

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(d) Unloose the shoe laces and lie down on the cot.
(e) The labourers work very hard by day .
(f) The building has two bed rooms.
(g) Jesus Christ breached many good things.
(h) This plane is bound for Guwahati.
(i) Our mother land is the best land of all.
(j) The firemen put out the fire in no time.
EXERCISE-VIII
21. Fill up the blanks withy suitable noun and mention its kind:-
(a) It gave me a..............of grapes.
(b) Our..................has won the tournament.
(c) The king consulted his .............of ministers.
(d) A strong force is started at.................
(e) People made houses of .............in the past,
(f) The angle caught a big ...............of fish.
(g) Fix a ..........of flowers in the vase.
(h) A..................or robbers over-took the travellers.
(i) Our ..............played a match against them.
(j) Trees bring forth new ..........during spring.
EXERCISE-IX
22. Insert suitable Collective Noun:-
(a) A ..............of cattle.
(b) A................of soldiers.
(c) A ..............of ships.
(d) A ................of keys.
(e) A..................of fish.
(f) A....................of pups.

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(g) A..................of girls.
(h) A..............of people.
(i) A ....................of students.
(j) A.....................of policemen.
(k) A.........of shoes.
(l) A..................of stars.
(m) A.................of birds.
(n) A..................of hills.
(o) A.....................of hounds.
(p) A......................of flowers.
(q) A.....................of trees.
(r) A..........................of books.
(s) A.....................of players.
(t) A....................labourers.
EXERCISIE –X
23. Insert suitable noun for each blank:-
(a) A garland of............
(b) A herd of......................
(c) A bundle of...................
(d) A litter of................
(e) A ....................of singers.
(f) A clump of...................
(g) A fleet of.....................
(h) A.............of players.
(i) A caravan of....................
(j) A coir of..................
(k) A gang of......................

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(l) A............of wolves.
(m) A ......................of girls and ladies.
(n) A mob of...................
(o) A swarm of.................
(p) A ..........of sheep
(q) A collection of.................
(r) A ...................of student.
(s) A troupe of.................
(t) A troop of................
EXERCISE – XI
24. Pick out Common Nouns in the following sentences and write them in the space
provided: -
(a) The pony tottered after the mare..........................
(b) I drank a glass of milk..................
(d) The bird flapped its wings............................
(d) A cold wind is blowing........................
(e) The meadow is full of green grass. .................
(f) I have solved all the sums in my book.....................
EXERCISE –XII
25. Define each of the following and give five examples too:-
(a) Proper Nouns.
(b) Common Nouns.
(c) Collective Nouns,.
(d) Material Nouns.

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ABSTRACT NOUN
1 Abstract Nouns refer to things which are not physical and have no material body.
These nouns including name of actions, feelings, qualities, states and events etc. An abstract
noun may be countable but most abstract nouns are uncountable Let us see about abstract
nouns in details. Read the following sentences and observe the words in bold letters:-
(a) Music soothes a worried mind. (Art)
(b) Exercise gives strength to muscles. (Quality)
(c) Slavery is a great curse. (State)
(d) Famine took a heavy toll of life. (Event)
(e) Maran has won the race. (Action)
(f) Sorrow eats up the life of a man. (Feelings)
2. The above mentioned bold letters words can be only thought or felt. We cannot touch
or smell them. They do not occupy any place either because they are abstract things. Hence
they are known as Abstract Nouns. An abstract Noun is the name of an abstract thing, action,
quality, feeling, state , event etc. Abstract Nouns are generally formed from Common Nouns,
Adjectives and main verbs. Let us see the Abstract Nouns one by one in details:-
(a) Forming from Common Nouns :
Common Noun Abstract Noun

1. Bond Bondage
2. Captain Captaincy
3. School Schooling
4. Infant Infancy
5. Burglar Burglary
6. Minister Ministry
7. Master Mastery
8. Friend Friendship
9. Relation Relationship
10 King Kingship
11. Coward Cowardice
12. Agent Agency
13. Robber Robbery
14. Dacoit Dacoity
15. Rascal Rascality
16. Boy Boyhood
17. Child Childhood
18 Owner Ownership
19. Hero Heroism
20. Thief Theft
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(b) Forming from Adjective.
Adjective Abstract Noun

1. Polite Politeness
2. Quick Quickness
3. Big Bigness
4. Bold Boldness
5. Dark Darkness
6. Eager Eagerness
7. Diligent Diligence
8. Rude Rudeness
9. Able Ability
10. Active Activity
11. Poor Poverty
12. Rapid Rapidity
13. Courteous Courtesy
14. Cruel Cruelty
15. Foolish Folly
16. Humble Humility
17. Efficient Efficiency
18., Deficient Deficiency
19. Brave Bravery
20. Broad Breadth
21. Free Freedom
22. High Height
23. Intelligent Intelligence
24. Ignorant Ignorance
25. Patient Patience
26. Just Justice
27. Merry Mirth
28. Grateful Gratitude
29. True Truth
30. Slow Sloth
31. Deep Depth
32. false Falsehoods
33. Hot . Heat
34. Long Length
35. Dear Dearth
36. Proud Pride
37. Quiet Quietude
38. Wide Width
(c) Forming from Main Verbs (Lexical).
Verbs Abstract Noun

1. Practise Practice
2. Advise Advice
3. Serve Service
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4. Arrive Arrival
5. Try Trial
6. Acquit Acquittal
7. Utter Utterance
8. Tell Tale
9. Choose Choice
10. Live Life
11, Offend Offence
12. Act Action
13. Describe Description
14. Expect Expectation
15. Prescribe Prescription
16. Protect Protection
17. Solve Solution
18. Define Definition
19. Deceive Deception
20. Move Motion
21. Oppose Opposition
22. Present Presentation
23. do Deed
24. Fly Flight
25. Carry Carriage
26. Defend Defence
27. Give Gift
28. Go Gait
29. hat Hatred
30. Heal Health
31. Injure Injury
32. Judge Judgement
33. Punish Punishment
34. See Sight
35. seize Seizure
36. Please Pleasure
37. Think Thought
38. Bear Birth
39. Believe Belief
40. Bee Being
41. Meet Meeting
42. Laugh Laughter
43. Pray Prayer
44. Save Saving
45. Sit Sitting
46. Speak Speech
47. Enclose Enclosure
48. Re4lieve Relief
49. Treat Treatment
50. Offend Offence
51. Remove Removal
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52. Write Writ
(d) Verbs having same forms as Abstract Noun.
Verbs Abstract Noun

1. Cry Cry
2. Desire Desire
3. Fear Fear
4. Help Help
5. Hope Hope
6. Joke Joke
7. Mark Mark
8. Play Play
9. Talk Talk
10, Touch Touch
11. Want Want
12. Touch Touch
13. Sleep Sleep
14. Respect Respect
15. Rest Rest
16. Ride Ride
17. Stay Stay
18, Step Step
19. Love Love
20. Need Need
21. regret Regret
22. Taste Taste
23. Walk Walk
24. Work Work
EXERCISE – I
3. Indentify the Abstract Nouns in the following sente4nces:-
(a) Courage and diligent lead to success.
(b) Feed the fever and starve the cold.
(c) A day light robbery occurred in Mumbai.
(d) The earth’s roundness causes day and night.
(e) Painting and music are fine arts.
(f) Childhood knows no worry at all.
(g) Every living thing grows in height and girth.
(h) Her walk and talk are full of grace.

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(i) Childhood is innocent but youth is rash.
(j) Honesty pays in the long run.
EXERCISE –II
4. Insert suitable Abstract Noun:-
(a) Good food gives .............to the body.
(b) We must show .....................to our teacher.
(c) We get..............and ................from the sun.
(d) Necessity is the mother of.....................
(e) ..................to parents is the greatest worship.
(f) A hare and a tortoise had a.....................
(g) .....................is my favourite subject, but I am at sea in.........
(h) .....................to animals is a great virtue.
\ (i) ..........................is the best policy. It brings honour.
(j) ....................always begins at home.
EXERCISE – III
5. Write Abstract Nouns from the following Common Nouns:-
School, bond, mother, coward, dacoit, here, owner, slave, infant, child fool,
thief .
EXERCISE –IV
6. Make Abstract Nouns from the following Adjectives:-
Patient, short rapid, deep, poor, false, quiet, merry, grateful, diligent, proud,
just, slow, dear, cruel, active, etc.
EXERCISE –V
7. Make Abstract Nouns from the following Verbs.
Taught, go, define, see, hear, describe, live, be, carry, write, do, refuse, move,
give, fly, advisee, etc.
NUMBER
1. Let us review the illustration which made earlier in Kinds of Noun:

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Noun
Branches Number Case Gender
Concrete Noun Abstract Noun
Singular Plural
Nominative Objective Positive Reflexive
Dative Instrumental Ablative Locative Vocative
Muscular Feminine Common Neuter
2. Since we have already learnt Branches (concrete/Abstract Nouns) in the previous

chapter, let us learn about the rest of nouns:
3. Numbers. Countable Noun can be one or more than one. Hence the noun has two
categories in terms of number:-
(a) Singular
(b) Plural
4. Singular. A noun which refers one person, place or thing etc is in singular as pen,
pencil, boy, man, foot, tooth, etc.
5. Plural. A noun that refers more than one person, place, things etc is in plural number
as pencils, boys, men, feet, teeth etc.
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6. It has been learnt in the previous chapter that generally proper, material and abstract
nouns have no plural forms. Only common and collective nouns have their plural forms. Let
us learn the formation of plurals.
(a) By adding ‘S’ to the singular noun:
Singular Plural
(i) Window Windows
(ii) idea ideas
(iii) dog dogs
(iv) book books
(v) state states
(vi) house houses
(vii) envelope envelopes
(viii) ear ears
(ix) pupil pupils
(x) door doors
(xi cow cows
(xii) brother brothers
(xiii) question questions
(xiv) law laws
(xv) holiday holidays
(xvi) eye eyes
(b) By adding ‘es’ to the singular noun which ending in ---ch, s, sh, ss, x, z--:
(i) dish dishes
(ii) bench benches
(iii) bush bushes
(iv) bus buses
(v) latch latches
(vi) match matches

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(vii) ass asses
(viii) princess princesses
(ix) boss bosses
(x) tax taxes
(xi) quiz quizzes
(xii) fpx foxes
(xiii) brush brushes
(xiv) gas gases
(xv) inch inches
(xvi) watch watches
(xvii) wish wishes
(xviii) glass glasses
(xix) dress dresses
(xx) box boxes
(xxi) tax taxes
(c) Nouns ending in ‘y’ after a cons0onantg form plural by dropping ‘y’ and
adding ‘ies’:
(i) daisy daisies
(ii) country countries
(iii) city cities
(iv) baby babies
(v) army armies
(vi) trophy trophies
(vii) fly flies
(viii) dictionary dictionaries
(ix) copy copies
(x) body bodies

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(xi) ally allies
(xii) victory victories
(xiii) story stories
(xiv) lobby lobbies
(xv) luxury luxuries
(xvi) family families
(xvii) lily lilies
(xviii) fairy fairies
(d) Noun ending in ‘y’ after a vowel letter from plurals by adding‘s’ only.
(i) guy guys
(ii) joy joys
(iii) boy boys
(iv) ray rays
(v) bay bays
(vi) donkey donkeys
(vii) essay essays
(ix) play plays
(x) prey preys
(xi) toy toys
(xii) way ways
(xiii) day days
(xiv) key keys
(xv) monkey monkeys
(xvi) storey storeys
(xvii) tray trays
(e) Nouns ending in ‘f’ or ‘fe’ form plurals by removing ‘f’ or ‘fe’ and adding
‘ves’ instead
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(i) sheaf sheaves
(ii) loaf loaves
(iii) life lives
(iv ) half halves
(v) calf calves
(vi) shelf shelves
(vii) thief thieves
(viii) self selves
(ix) leaf leaves
(x) knife knives
(xi) elf elves
(xii) staff staves (staffs)
(xiii) wolf wolves
(xiv) wife wives
(xv) leaf leaves
(f) But the following nouns ending ‘f’ will have exception to the above rule:
(i) belief beliefs
(ii) roof roofs
(iii) hand kerchief hand kerchiefs
(iv) chief chiefs
(v) dwarf dwarfs
(vi) cliff cliffs
(vii) relief reliefs
(g) The following nouns ending in ‘f’ have double plural:
(i) scarf scarfs /scarves
(ii) staff staffs/staves
(iii) wharf wharfs/wharves

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(iv) hoof hoofs/hooves
(h) Noun ending in ‘o’ form plural by adding ‘es’
(i) zero zeroes
(ii) tomato tomatoes
(iii) hero heroes
(iv) volcano volcanoes
(v) halo haloes
(vi) motto mottoes
(vii) buffalo buffaloes
(viii) mango mangoes
(ix) cargo cargoes
(x) negro negroes
(xi) echo echoes
(xii) potato potatoes
(i) The following nouns ending in ‘o’ will form plural by adding single ‘s’:
(i) rhino rhinos
(ii) fiasco fiascos
(iii) bamboo bamboos
(iv) studio studios
(v) photo photos
(vi) piano pianos
(vii) radio radios
(viii) cuckoo cuckoos
(ix) folio folios
(x) Polio polios
(j) Some Nouns form their plurals by adding ‘n’, ‘en’, ‘ren’ or by changing
vowel letters.
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(i) woman women
(ii) man men
(iii) foot feet
(iv) tooth teeth
(v) mouse mice
(vi) louse lice
(vii) dormouse dormice
(viii) child children
(ix) ox oxen
(x) goose geese
(k) Some Nouns have the same form both in singular and plural form:-
(i) deer deer
(ii) yoke yoke
(iii) stone stone (stones) refer to Subject and
(iv) fish fish(fishes) verb agreement
(v) sheep- sheep
(vi) rice rice
(vii) scenery scenery
(viii) species species
(ix) fruit fruit/fruits
(x) furniture furniture
(xi) wheat wheat
(xii) series series
(l) Some compound nouns will have their plural like:
(i) governor general governor generals
(ii) horseman horsemen
(iii) footman footmen

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(iv) Passer –by passers-by
(v) Looker-on lookers-on
(vi) hanger-on hangers-on
(vii) father-in-law fathers-in-law
(viii) mother-in-law mothers-in-law
(ix) daughter-in-law daughters-in-law
(x) officer-in-charge officers-in-charge
(xi) prime-patron prime-patrons
(xii) son-in-law sons-in-law
(m) Some compound nouns will have double plural:
(i) lord- justice lords justices
(ii) woman-servant women-servants
(iii) man-servant men-servants
(n) Plural letters, figures, sign and symbols are formed by adding ‘s’ :
(i) i i’s
(ii) M.L.A M.L.A’s
(iii) M.P M.P’s
(iv) 2 2’s
(v) Double B.A/M.A B.A*/M.A*
(o) Plural of some Latin nouns :
(i) formula formulae
(ii) phenomenon phenomena
(iii) stratum strata
(iv) datum data
(v) oasis oases
(vi) medium media
(vii) syllabus syllabi

35
(viii) basis bases
(ix) axis axes
(x) radius radii
(xi) focus foci
(p) Zero plural. Some nouns do not have plural form. They are written in singular
form :
(i) dozen dozen
(ii) hundred hundred
(iii) score score
(iv) thousand thousand
These nouns are generally plural in nature. They are preceded by numeral.
e.g. three dozen, five score, two hundred, several thousand etc.
(q) Some plural nouns do not have singular form. They are:
(i) cattle
(ii) Livestock
(iii) people
(iv) police
(v) poultry
(v) vermin
(vi) alms
(vii) arms
(viii) clothes
(ix) customs
(x) manners
(xi) premises
(xii) trousers
(xiii) scissors
(xiv) binoculars
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(xv) spectacles
(xvi) jeans
(xvii) parts
(xviii) shorts
(xix) glasses
(xx) dividers
(xxi) briefs
(r) Some miscellaneous plural.
(i) Mr -Messrs
(ii) Miss -Misses
(iii) Mrs -Mesdames
(iv) Mr Bansol -The Bansols
(v) Mr Verma -The Vermas
EXERCISE-I
7. Write the plural forms of the following nouns:
(a) tree, box, child, ox, knife, lady, key.
(b) Focus, radius, medium, axis, phenomenon .
(c) man, servant, passer-by, on-looker, step-son.
(d) sheep, fish, dee4r, series, wheat, rice.
(e) elf, dwarf, wolf, hood, gulf, cliff.
(f) story, storey, diary, dairy, family, pony,
(g) church, latch, bench, branch, brush.
(h)_ mosquito, piano, ratio, negro, buffalo, halo.
(i) I, he, she, you, it, this, that, him, mine.
(j) M.P, M.L.A, B.A, t, p, 2, 5.
EXERCISE –II
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8. Write the singular form of the following nouns:
(a) Mesdames, messrs, radii, formulae,
(b) they, us, theirs, ourselves.
(c) hooves, stories, lice, them, our
(d) flies, latches, pianos, rhinos, loci, bushes.
(e) dwarfs, the Kapoors, bases, data.
EXERCISE-III
9. Read the example and change each sentence into plural form:
e.g. A dog is a domestic animal - Singular
Dogs are domestic animals. - Plural
(a) A peacock is a very proud bird.
(b) The girl is playing with a doll.
(c) I cannot tolerate such insult.
(d) The radius of the circle is long.
(e) A mouse was caught in a trap.
(f) A duck quacks but a goose cackles.
(g) A child was flying its kite.
(h) I fill my pen with ink.
(i) We make a loaf from wheat flour.
(j) A doctor can be a man or woman.
EXERCISE – IV
10. Observe the example and change the following sentences into singular form:
(a) Lice are sucking blood -Plural
Louse is sucking blood _Singular
(a) Our teeth are aching.
(b) Sparrows build nest in houses
(c) All the innings have been over.

38
(d) Parrots are in the cages.
(e) These roads are closed for repairs.
(f) No children are playing there.
(g) Students are making noise in their class.
(h) They give us hundred rupee notes.
(i) Bells ring but sirens wail.
(k) Our feet became wet.
EXERCISE – V
11. Tick out the correct combined Nouns:
(a) The syllabus (has/have) been revised.
(b) The (cargo/cargoes) has arrived.
(c) The summons (was/were) given.
(d) Alms (was/were) given to the poor.
(e) The innings of the match (is/are) over.
(f) They will keep two (male servant/men servants).
(g) The farmer has three goats and two (sheep/sheeps).
(h) He is the first (M.A/M.A’s) in our village.
(i) He has two (brother-in-law/brothers-in-law).
(j) A School premises (is/are) neat and clean.
EXERCISE –VI
12. Tick the correct word according to the number:
(a) Where (is/are) these cattle?
(b) No news (is/are) good news.
(c) Mathematics (is/are) my favourite subject.
(d) Goods (is/are) lying on the floor.
(e) Scissors (is/are) used for cutting clothes.
(f) Pants (are/is) comfortable to wear.

39
(g) Alms (were/was) given to beggars.
(h) Police (is/are) chasing the thieves.
(i) Several (thousand/thousands) applied for the job.
(j) He weighs above eight (stone/stones)
CASE
1. It refers the relation that a noun has with other word or words. Case can be classified
in nine categories. They are given below:-
(a) Nominative case: When a noun or pronoun is used as the subject of a verb,
the noun will be considered a nominative case
e.g.
(i) Raju laughed at me.
(ii) The teacher is teaching.
(iii) I bought a bicycle.
(iv) My father is a simple man.
(v) She was singing a song.
(b) Objective Case. When a noun or a pronoun is used as the object of a verb,
the noun will be considered as objective case.
e.g.
(i) The man killed the snake.
(ii) He helped me.
(iii) She prepared tea.
(iv) They stole our things.
(V) Rahim can solve this sum.
(c) Possessive case. When a noun or a pronoun refers the possession, the noun
will be considered a possessive case.
e.g.
(i) These are my books.
(ii) These books are mine.

40
(iii) She has his pencil.
(iv) We hear their voices.
(v) The baby plays with its toy.
(d) Reflexive case. When the noun or pronoun is used to denote the specific
action, the noun will be considered as reflexive case. This noun can be used in
two methods. One is Reflexive method and another is Emphatic method.
e.g. Reflexive.
(i) I wash my clothes myself.
(ii) Mala can play piano herself.
(iii) He has to complete his work himself.
(iv) Many people have developed their communication skill in English

themselves.
e.g. Emphatic.
(i) I myself wash my clothes.
(ii) Mala herself can play piano.
(iii) He himself has to complete his work.
(iv) Many people themselves have developed their communication skill in

English.
(e) Dative Case. When a noun or a pronoun is used as an indirect object of a

verb, the noun will be considered Dative Case.
e.g.
(i) I gave him a pen.
(ii) The teacher gave the boy a tight slap.
(iii) My father bought me a new bicycle.
(iv) My mother cooked us tasty food.
(v) Sheila’s uncle presented her a wrist watch.
(f) Instrumental case. When a noun or a pronoun acts as an instrument for any
action, the noun can be considered as instrument case.
e.g.
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(i) My friend broke my windowpane with a stone.
(ii) The mother cuts vegetables with a knife.
(iii) The soldiers killed the enemy with rifles.
(iv) The carpenter split the wood with chisel.
(v) The farmers work in the field with spade.
(g) Ablative Case. When a noun or a pronoun shows separation, the noun is in
the Ablative case.
e.g.
(i) Dry leaves fall from the branches.
(ii) He came from Delhi to see me.
(iii) I have received a letter from my friend.
(iv) He jumped off the roof.
(h) Locative Case. When a noun or a pronoun refers location, it is the locative
case.
e.g.
(i) There is a cat under the table.
(ii) There is a bridge over the river.
(III) The rat is sitting on a mat.
(iv) The pen is in the ink pot.
(i) Vocative Case. When a noun or pronoun is used for the sake of address, it is
in the Vocative Case.
e.g.
(i) Lien to me you all.
(ii) Where were you Ram?
(iii) Come on boys.
(iv) Lend me your ears friends.
(iv) Come here guys.
2. Case of Pronouns.
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Person Pronoun Nominative Objective Possessive Reflexive

st
I Singular I I Me My/mine Myself
Ist Plural We We Us Our/ours Ourselves
IInd Thou/you Thou/you Thee/you Thy/your/yours Thyself/yourself
Singular
IInd Plural You You You Your/yours Yourselves
IIIrd He He Him His Himself
Singular
-do- She She Her Hers Herself
-do- It It It Its Itself
IIIrd Plural They They Them Their Themselves
GENDER
1. The word gender refers to sex. There are two sexes ----Male sex and Female sex.
Hence gender is a feature that divides human into classes in terms of sex. A noun is
belonging to four genders. They are:
(a) Male Gender (Masculine)
(b) Female Gender (Feminine)
(c) Common Gender
(d) Neuter Gender
2. Masculine Gender. Noun that refers to males are known as Masculine Gender.
e.g. man, husband, stag, boy, horse, etc.
3. Feminine Gender. Noun that denotes females are known as Feminine Gender .
e.g. woman, wife,, hind, girl, mare, etc.
4. Common Gender. Noun which does not refer any definite sex and the noun can be
either of the two sexes are known as Common Gender .
e.g. baby, child, infant, parent, teacher, friend, etc.
5. Neuter Gender. Noun which denotes lifeless things are known as Neuter Gender.
e.g. book, pen, pencil, chair, table, etc.
6. Most of the Masculine have their feminine. Let us learn them:
(a) Different Words:

43
Masculine Feminine
bachelor spinster/maid
swain nymph
horse mare
uncle aunt
husband wife
gander goose
drake duck
dog pitch
bridegroom bride
ox cow
widower widow
lad lass
sir madam
ram ewe
peacock peahen
monk nun
lord lady
bullock heifer
brother sister
stag hind
hero heroine
fox vixen
drone bee
colt filly
cock hen
boar sow
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boy girl
bull heifer
wizard witch
son daughter
papa mama
man woman
king queen
buck doe
bull cow
earl countess
nephew niece
hart roe
sultan sultana
signor signora
milkman milkmaid
cock-sparrow hen-sparrow
land lord land lady
(b) By adding ‘ess’
Author authoress
God goddess
Host hostess
Poet poetess
Prince princess
Shepherd shepherdess
Giant giantess
Heir heiress
Lion lioness
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Priest priestess
Prophet prophetess
Patron patroness
(c) By dropping the vowel letter and adding ‘ess’
Actor actress
Director directress
Hunter huntress
Inspector inspectress
Waiter waitress
Conductor conductress
Tiger tigress
Porter portress
Mister mistress
Editor editress
(d) By adding ‘ess’ in an irregular way.
Duke ditches
Emperor empress
Governor governess
Murderer murderess
Master miss
Wizard witch
Mr mrs
(e) By adding a word before or after the masculine
He goat she goat
Land lord land lady
Peacock peahen
Man servant maid servant

46
Jack ass
Bull calf cow calf
Milk man milk maid
Washer man washer woman
Buck rabbit doe rabbit
Grand uncle grand aunt
Salesman saleswoman
(f) Some important common gender.
Author artist student teacher baby
Bird child cook cousin dentist
Doctor enemy friend orphan parent
Passenger customer poet pupil servant
EXERCISE-I
1. Write the feminine of the following:
Dog, horse, king, god, lion, hunter, peacock, uncle, brother, tiger,, bull, bullock,
cock, lad, prince, father, milkman, negro, sir, emperor, niece, widower, actor.
EXERCISE – II
2. Write the masculine of the following :
Miss, madam, heroine, bride, hind, bitch, witch, bee, nun, gander,
she, ass, empress, queen, lass, mare, duchess, lady, duck, daughter, milk-
maid.
EXERCISE –III
3. Identify the following nouns into Common and Neuter:
Pupil, servant, table, teacher, cot, cousin, knife, chart, box, baby, orphan, stool,
parent, chair.
EXERCISE-IV
4. Rewrite the following sentences changing the gender of every noun:
(a) The Negro was put before a hungry lion.

47
(b) The milkman is very honest man,.
(c) His master is a kind hearted man.
(d) The tigress sprang at the heifer and tore it up.
(e) He married alas of seventeen.
(f) The bride is the daughter of an inspector.
(g) My land lady is charming, slim, tall and healthy.
(h) The hunter shot down a doe.
(i) The ditches want you in her presence.
(j) Though he is a widower, yet he looks like a bachelor.
EXERCISE –V
5. Write the gender of the following:
(a) Mr Das is an intelligent doctor.
(b) The sun sheds the beam of light on rich and poor alike.
(c) Teachers are real builders of the nation.
(d) A friend in need is a friend indeed.
(e) Rani Laxmi Bhai was very brave queen.
(f) I have large number of friends.
(g) The bride is extremely beautiful.
(h) A peacock is a very proud bird.
(i) The shepherd is tending his flock.
(j) The lion is the king of the forest.

48
4. PRONOUN
1. It is a word used in place of a noun to avoid its repetition. Observe the following:
Ram and Shyam are students. Ram and Shyam are good friends. Ram and Shyam like
each other. Ram and Shyam are good in studies. Teachers like Ram and Shyam.
Each of above sentences is about Ram and Shyam. Their names have been repeated
again and again. It looks very awkward and irritating indeed.
2. Now observe the following:
Here are Ram and Shyam. They are students and good friends. They like each other.
They are good in studies. Teachers like them.
Now it does not look awkward or irritating. The words ‘they’, ‘them’ have been used
in place of Ram and Shyam. These words have used to support the nouns. Such words are
called Pronoun. They are classified into seven parts according to their nature.
3. Look at the illustration:
Pronoun
Personal Reflexive/ demonstrative Interrogative relative Indefinite Reciprocal

Emphatic
4. Personal Pronoun. Pronouns which are used for three type of persons, are called
personal pronoun. Personal pronouns have the same number and gender as the nouns. Let us
see each person:
(a) First Person. The person who speaks is first person. The following pronouns
are used for the first person both singular and plural:
(i) Singular. I, me, my, mine
(ii) Plural. We, us, our, ours
(b) Second Person. The person who is spoken to is second person. The
following pronouns are used for the second person both singular and plural:
(i) Singular. Thou, thee, thy
(ii) Plural. You, you, your, yours
(c) Third Person. The person who is spoken of is third person. The following
pronouns are used for the third person both singular and plural:
49
(i) Singular. She, her, hers
He, him, his
It, it, its
(ii) Plural. They, them, their, theirs
5. Reflexive Pronoun. Reflective pronouns are formed by adding ‘self ‘or ‘selves’ to
personal pronouns. e.g.:
(a) She praised herself.
(b) I hurt myself.
(c) They seated themselves.
(d) He solved the problems himself.
(e) We have done it ourselves.
6. Emphatic Pronoun. These are also used. It is formed by adding ‘self’ or ‘selves’ in
the personal pronoun but these are used before the noun whereas Reflexive pronoun are used
as object to subject. e.g.:
(a) I myself saw him smoking in the bedroom.
(b) The teacher himself gave her the medal.
(c) Sita herself opened the door.
(d) The tow itself is not very large.
(e) They themselves confessed their guilt.
7. Demonstrative Pronoun. These pronouns point/mark to the noun. They are used
as:
(a) This is my pen.
(b) That is your pencil.
(c) It is Ram.
(d) The colour of my pen is better than that of Mohan.
(e) You sang a song to her and sing the same to me.
(f) Your toy is red but mine is a blue one.
8. Interrogative pronoun. These are used to ask question. e.g.

50
(a) Who has stolen my wristwatch?
(b) What will happen to you?
(c) Which of them is at fault?
(d) Whose is this bull pen?
(e) Whom do you want to meet?
9. Relative Pronoun. A relative pronoun is one that refers to a noun mentioned before
it. It also relates two sentences as conjunction. The noun to which a Relative Pronoun refers
o relates is called its antecedent. e.g:
(a) He is the boy who was late.
(b) This is the man who met me in the market.
(c) She is the girl whom was punished by teacher.
(d) Here is the child whose father died yesterday.
10. Indefinite Pronoun. It is a kind of pronoun which does not refer to any noun
definitely. It refers to some noun but we cannot locate/spot the noun. e.g.:
(a) Someone somebody something somewhere
(b) Everyone everybody everything everywhere
(c) Anyone anybody anything anywhere
(d) No one nobody nothing/none nowhere
EXERCISE – I
1. Underline the personal pronoun in each of following sentence:
(a) She failed in the test.
(b) it was charming time indeed .
(c) I can’t follow your advice.
(d) We are all Indians.
(e) They are ignorant of what you say.
(f) You have made the wall dirty.
(g) He will pass the test in the first division.
(h) Anil likes her very much.

51
(i) Who is there? It is I, sir.
(j) How many pens has he?
EXERCISE –II
2. Underline the correct pronouns in each sentence:
(a) We enjoyed ourselves very much.
(b) The king cursed himself for what he had done.
(c) The child shut itself in the room.
(d) You can do this job yourself.
(e) We pleased ourselves with this idea.
(f) the queen fed her ailing maid herself.
(g) Tom blamed himself for the accident.
(h) The barber shaved himself.
(i) They are blaming themselves.
(j) Labourers are helping themselves
EXERCISE –III
3. Underline the demonstrative pronoun in the following each sentences:
(a) What is that?
(b) These are all my dresses.
(c) Your shirt is yellow; mine is white one.
(d) You told her a story. Tell me the same.
(e) He is our boss; we must respect him.
(f) This is my shoes.
(g) That is Vimla my cousin.
(h) Those are beautiful flowers.
(i) This is Mr Arun Kumar a professor.
(j) These children are very naughty.

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EEXERCISE- IV
4. Underline the interrogative pronouns:
(a) Who is standing at the door?
(b) Whom are you talking with?
(c) Whose are these books?
(d) Which of these boys is the cleverer?
(e) What made you laugh so loudly?
EXERCISE-V
5. Underline the relative pronoun.
(a) Let me know what you want?
(b) God helps those who help themselves.
(c) Handsome is that handsome does.
(d) She is the lady about whom we are speaking.
(e) Here is the lost that was lost in the fair.
(f) That is the watch which I bought yesterday.
(g) This is the girl whose brother is a doctor.
(h) The Students who had come late were fined.
(i) You are the man who has ruined me.
(j) It is I who am at fault.
EXERCISE-VI
6. Underlined the indefinite pronoun in the each following sentence:
(a) None of my friends was in the playground.
(b) Nobody was there to rescue the child.
(c) Anybody can do this.
(e) There is something in your pocket.
(f) Someone is there on the roof.
(g) One should take care of one’s health.

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(h) He is not seen anywhere.
(i) He may be seen somewhere.
(j) Nowhere can be seen him.
EXERCISE – VII
7. Find out pronouns in the following sentences and mentioned the kind of each:
(a) This is the boy who works hard.
(b) We often deceive ourselves.
(c) Hari is absent ,because he is ill.
(d) The jug was full of milk. I drank only some of it.
(e) Which of these boys is to blame?
(f) What has happened to your brother?
(g) Why can’t you yourself do it?
(h) The dog that bit me was not a mad.
(i) The baby is lying. It is crying for milk.
(j) You, he and I helped the beggar.
EXERCISE-VIII
8. Supply a suitable pronoun for each blank:
(a) He got ...........he had desired.
(B) Make......easy after sitting on the sofa.
(c) ................is going to happen next?
(d) she..............can stitch her blouse.
(e) ............is the green bike.
(f) One must know ...............short comings.
(g) Is this the man..................you want for?
(h) It is a long lane...............has no turns.
(i) You ............should manage your affairs.

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(j) We must help ............in trouble.
EXERCISE-IX
9. Rewrite the following sentences changing all the pronouns to plural form:
(a) I am certain it was not he.
(b) Between you and me, he is a liar of the first rate.
(c) She must do her deity carefully.
(d) He has nothing of his own.
(e) This grey horse is mine,
(f) I will do this job myself.
(g) Everyone must love the motherland.
(h) He has presented a golden watch.
(i) You yourself completed the job.
(j) She wears that she likes.
EXERCISE –X
10. Choose the correct pronoun within the bracket:
(a) Yes, it is (he/him) sure enough.
(b) My daughter and (he/him) make good partnership.
(c) You are a gentleman like (he/him).
(d) My pen is much better than (you/your/.yours).
(e) Who is there at the door? It is (I/me).
(f) They are not as poor as (we/.us).
(g) We know that it was (she/her).
(h) (We/us) Indians have much to be proud of.
(i) You and (he/him) make good friendship.
(j) T his book is neither for you nor for (she/her).

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5. ADJECTIVE
I. An adjective is a word that adds to the meaning of a noun or a pronoun and it gives
qualification to the noun and pronoun. Adjective is generally used before a noun or pronoun
but sometimes it can be used after a noun too. Observe the following sentences:
(a) Rahul is a lazy boy.
(b) Rahul is very lazy.
Adjectives are of fourteen different kinds in English. Look at the illustration:-
Adjective
Quality Quantity Number Distributive Demonstrative Interrogative Possessive
Proper Class Colour Emphasising Precision Substitute Compound
1. Adjective of Quality. A word which denotes some quality (good/bad) of a noun or

pronoun is known as an adjective. Observe the following sentences:
(A) Delhi is an ancient city in India.
(b) Indian Army has brave soldiers.
(c) The Tajmahal is a wonderful monument.
(d) I was presented a golden bracelet.
(e) Prema is a beautiful girl.
2. Adjective Quantity. It is an adjective that shows how much of a thing is indented.

Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) My father has sufficient money.
(b) Is there any salt in the container?
(c) The washer man does not have much money.
(d) My uncle had eaten little pulav.
3. Adjective of Number. An adjective which shows the number of person or things in t

he sentence. Observe the following in the sentences:
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(a) I have two elder brothers.
(b) The primary teachers taught children many things.
(c) Thousands of books are kept in our school library.
(d) It is very easy to run five kilometres.
(e) Gandhi Jayanti is celebrated on second October every year.
4. Distributive Adjective. An adjective which shows specific person, place or things.

(a) Every boy and girl has been instructed about the final examination.
(b) There are a lot of trees either side of the river.
(c) Each of them is brilliant.
(d) Neither my brother nor his friends have come.
(e) Either she, or I am mistaken.
5. Demonstrative Adjective. An adjective which points the particular person, placed

things. Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) This bus does not go to Madurai.
(b) Those buffaloes are not grazing
(c) That is my wallet.
(d) These women are highly educated.
(e) It is an innocent animal.
6. Interrogative Adjective. An adjective which asks question. Observe them in the

following sentences:
(a) Whose bag is this?
(b) Which class do you study?
(c) What colour shirt do you like to wear on special days?
7. Possessive Adjective. An adjective which shows ownership or possession. Observe

them in the following sentences:-
(a) It is his book.
(b) Where is my bag?

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(c) I like your bicycle.
(d) Her aunt is our class teacher.
(e) These shoes are theirs.
8. Proper Adjective. It is an adjective which forms from a proper noun. Observe them
in the following sentences:
(a) The Indian Nation is a great nation.
(b) The Gandian ideas are very popular.
(c) Chinese pilgrims are allowed to come into India.
(d) The Spanish Empire was very vast.
(e) The Gangetic plain is very fertile.
(a) The Indian culture is famous across the world.
9. Class adjective. An adjective which describes the class or category to which its noun
belongs to .Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) India is getting industrial development.
(b) Indians are having many religious festivals.
(c) We are tending domestic animals.
(d) People have many social evils.
(e) Christians are merciful.
10. Colour adjective. It describes the colour of its noun. Observe them in the following
sentences.
(a) Your face looks reddish today.
(b) She has brown eyes and grey hair.
(c) Ramesh has a dark blue suit.,
(d) Neha is wearing pale green top.
(e) He has blue eyes.
11. Emphasising Adjective. An emphasizing adjective gives stress on a fact about a

noun. Observe them in the following sentences.
(a) He looks an outstanding idiot.

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(b) He seems to be a complete nitwit.
(c) What is the total expenditure on it?
(d) She is a true patriot.
(e) We are pure vegetarian.
12. Precision Adjective (Definite/Accurate). It is an adjective which is used before the

main adjective to make the assertion clear.
(a) You have told the same old story again.
(b) Certain basic human needs are common.
(c) He is the only living heir to the throne.
(d) The old man was in his usual white suit.
`(e) Your success in the last tough competition is amazing.
13. Substitute Adjective. It is not an original adjective but it serves as an objective.

(a) Her pleasing manners are nice indeed.
(B) He is a known writer of many books.
(c) My father bought a furnished flat.
(d) The servant gazed me with frightened eyes.
(e) The disappointed student fell ill.
14. Compound Adjective. It is an adjective which is made up of two words written with
a hyphen in between. Observe them in the following sentences.
(a) The parents are quite well-off.
(b) The kind-hearted princess embraced the poor.
(c) He is doing a part-time job now-a-days.
(d) I want a clear-cut answer to this question.
(e) The built-up area is very small.

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II. Degrees of Adjective. Adjectives are used to describe, identify, modify or quantify
nouns or pronouns as you have already learnt. Adjectives have three degrees(stage)
that compare one thing to another. They are:
(a) Positive Degree
(b) Comparative Degree
(c) Superlative Degree
1. Positive Degree. It is the base form of the adjective. It shows the simple quality of a
person, place or thing. It does not make a comparison with anyone. In other words the
positive degree of adjective is the normal form of an adjective. Observe them in the
(a) Raju is a smart boy.
(b) Sita is an intelligent girl.
(c) Jayaram is a rich man
(d) Rama Shankar is a great wrestler.
(e) Today is very hot.
(f) Vikas is a good student
2. Comparative Degree. It compares two people, places or things. If the adjective is

one syllable, the comparative is formed by adding ‘er’ to the word and followed by
the word’ than’. If the adjective is more than one syllable, the word ‘more’ is to be
added before the adjective Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) Raju is smarter than Mohan.
(b) Sita is more intelligent girl than her friend Seema.
(c) Jayaram is richer than his brother.
(d) Rama Shankar is greater than his counterpart in wrestling.
(e) Today is hotter than yesterday.
(f) Vikas is better than Rahim.
3. Superlative Degree. An adjective is used to note which of the things is of the highest
or very high degree of quality. It is typically formed by adding ‘est’ to the end of the
adjective. However, words with multiple syllables superlative can be formed by
adding ‘most’ in front of the adjective. Some superlative form of adjectives is
irregular. Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) Raju is the smartest boy in the class.

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(b) Sitra is the most intelligent girl in the school.
(c) Jayaram is the richest man in his village.
(d) Rama Shankar is the greatest wrestler in India.
(e) Today is the hottest day.
(f) Vikas is the best student in the class.
III Comparative and superlative forms formed by adding ‘r’ and ‘st’. This happens when
the positive form ends with ‘e’
Positive Comparative Superlative

Able Abler Ablest
Brave Braver Bravest
Wise Wiser Wisest
White Whiter Whitest
Fine Finer Finest
Close Closer Closest
Large Larger Largest
Nice Nicer Nicest
Noble Nobler Noblest
Pale Paler Palest
Simple Simpler Simplest
IV. Comparative and superlative forms formed by adding ‘er’ and ‘est’.

Clever Cleverer Cleverest
Dear Dearer Dearest
Great Greater Greatest
Kind Kinder Kindest
Near Nearer Nearest
Small Smaller Smallest
Sweet Sweeter Sweetest
Young Younger Youngest
Bright Brighter Brightest
Black Blacker Blackest
Bold Bolder Boldest
Cold Colder Coldest
Fast Faster Fastest
High Higher Highest
Kind Kinder Kindest
Long Longer Longest
Rich Richer Richest
Small Smaller Smallest
Strong Stronger Strongest
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Sweet Sweeter Sweetest

Tall Taller Tallest
Thick Thicker Thickest
IV. When the positive degree ends in a consonant with a vowel before it, we double the
consonant & then add ‘er’ and ‘est’.

Big Bigger Biggest
Fat Fatter Fattest
Hot Hotter Hottest
Sad Sadder Saddest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Dim Dimmer Dimmest
VI. When the positive degree ends in ‘y’ and has a consonant before it , we change ‘y’
into ‘i’ and then add ’er’ and ‘est’.

Costly Costlier Costliest
Dry Drier Driest
Easy Easier Easiest
Happy Happier Happiest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Lazy Lazier Laziest
Mercy Mercier Merciest
Wealthy Wealthier Wealthiest
Gay Gayer Gayest ‘y’ remains
Grey Greyer greyest
VII. Comparative and superlative forms formed by adding ‘more’ and ‘most’

Difficult More difficult Most difficult
Fascinating More fascinating Most fascinating
Melodious More melodious Most melodious
Proper More proper Most proper
Active More active Most active
Attractive More attractive Most attractive
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Brilliant More brilliant Most brilliant
Careful More careful Most careful
Courageous More courageous Most courageous
Cunning More cunning Most cunning
Famous More famous Most famous
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Faithful More faithful Most faithful

Important More important Most important
Popular More popular Most popular
Splendid More splendid Most splendid
Suitable more suitable Most suitable
VIII. Some adjectives do not follow any of the rules explained earlier. They are compared
irregularly. Here are the different forms of such adjectives.

Bad Wise Worst
Good Better Best
Little Less Least
Many More Most
Ill Worse Worst
Far Farther Farthest
Well Better Best
Evil Worse Worst
Late Later Latest (Time)
Late Later Last (Position)
Much More Most
Near Nearer Nearest
Old Older Oldest
Old Elder Eldest
EXERCISE- I
1. Find out the adjective of quality in the following sentences:
(a) Nimi is a nice lady.
(b) The foolish crow tried to sing.
(c) Trains are a cheap means of travel.
(d) He has a very simple nature.
(e) Mr Dinesh is a short and plump.
(f) The camel is a clumsy animal.
(g) Avinash is the latter student in the class.
(h) Austraila is the smallest continent.
(i) India is a very large country.
(j) Mr Kamal is a respectable person.

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EXERCISE –II
2. Underline the interrogative adjectives and proper adjectives in the following

sentences:
(a) Which pen do you prefer?
(b) Which lady student stood first in your class?
(c) Whose necklace was stolen yesterday?
(d) Mount Everest is a Himalayan peak.
(e) English people are very industrious indeed.
(f) Ashokan pillars can be seen even today.
(g) This is a Shakespearean play.
(h) What subject have you chosen for you?
(i) Punjabi foods are generally wholesome.
EXERCISE – III
3. Find out the class adjectives and colour adjective in the following sentences:
(a) Your hair is turned grey.
(b) He dies a glorious death.
(c) The girl with violet scarf is John’s sister.
(d) I mostly wear a white dress in summer.
(e) She is working in a private company.
(f) Every story must have a moral lesson.
(g) She is wearing light blue sari.
(h) Historical monuments must be looked after.
(i) This is the natural result of his efforts.
(j) The human nature cannot be judged.
EXERCISE –IV
4. Find out the emphasizing adjectives and precision adjectives in the following
sentences:
(a) It is one of the top Indian companies.

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(b) Ravi is a complete drunkard.
(c) We are standing at the very bottom of the hill.
(d) Your black suit looks very fine on you.
(e) You will find the shop at the very end of the street.
(f) The firm has made further progress in finance.
(g) It is hard truth indeed.
(h) He is a complete duffer.
(i) You have committed a gross blunder.
EXERCIE- V
5. Find out the substitute adjective in the following sentences:
(a) My father is wearing his usual grey suit.
(b) The required amount will be paid before long.
(c) Life is becoming an increasing struggle.
(d) The widow spoke in frightened voice.
(e) Ravishankar is doing a booming business.
(f) Satisfied customers are an asset indeed.
(g) The interested parties are welcome.
(h) Certain basic rights are to be followed by Indian citizen.
(i) Same old stories were narrated to us.
EXERCISE –VI
6. Fill in the blanks with the type of adjectives given in the brackets:
(a) ...............school is on the other side of the street (Possessive Adjective)
(b) ...............girls who shouted in the class, have run away. (Demonstrative Adj)
(c) ................note books are these which are lying here? (Interrogative Adj)
(d) Can I have ....................salt please? (Quantitative Adjective)
(e) It was long ...........train journey. (Adjective of Quality)

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DEGREE OF COMPARISON
1. We have studied adjective and their kind in the previous chapter. Every adjective has only one
form which is used with singular and plural noun and all the genders as:
(a) a good student good students
(b) a good teacher good teachers
(c) a good school good schools
An adjective generally places before the noun as:
(a) a large box a white pant
(b) an idiot boy a yellow flower
2. If two or more adjectives qualify the one noun they should be placed continuously. Observe
them in the following sentences:
(a) A large beautiful almirah.
(b) A slim beautiful girl.
(c) A round yellow orange.
3. Adjectives can be placed before the noun according to its degree when comparing with other
Noun. All adjectives can be divided into three degrees. They are:
(a) Positive degree
(b) Comparative degree
(c) Superlative degree
(i) Positive Degree. It is used to express a quality in a positive state of the noun
and pronoun. Observe them in the following sentences:
(aa) Pooja is an intelligent girl.
(ab) Mr Antony is a noble person.
(ac) Rima is a charming girl.
(ad) It is fine day.
(ae) Ramu is an honest servant.
(ii) Comparative Degree. It is used to compare two persons, things or groups. It

is always followed by ‘than’. Observe them in the following sentences:
(aa) Pooja is more intelligent than Poorvi.
(ab) Mr Antony is nobler than Mr John.

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(ac) Rima is more charming than Ritika.
(ad) It is finer day than yesterday.
(ae) Ramu is more honest than Raju.
(c) Superlative Degree. It is used to compare a person or thing with a group. It

is preceded by definite article ‘the’ and followed by ‘of’ or ‘in’. Observe
(aa) Pooja is the most intelligent girl of all the girls.
(ab) Mr Antony is the noblest man in the city.
(ac) Rima is the most charming girl of all others.
(ad) It is the finest day of the month.
(ae) Ramu is the most honest servant of all the servants.
4. Formation of degrees.
(a) One syllable adjectives are formed their comparative and superlative degrees by
adding ‘er’ or ‘r’ and ‘est’ or ‘st to their positive degrees .Look at the degrees of comparison
of adjectives in the given table.
Able abler ablest
Bold bolder boldest
Bright brighter brighter
Cold colder coldest
Cool cooler coolest
Clean cleaner cleanest
Clever cleverer cleverest
Dark darker darkest
Dear dearer dearest
Deep deeper deepest
Fast faster fastest
Few fewer fewest
Gay gayer gayest
Grand grander grandest

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High higher highest
Mild milder mildest
Great greater greatest
New newer newest
Noble nobler noblest
Proud prouder proudest
Small smaller smallest
Short shorter shortest
Sweet sweeter sweetest
Strong stronger strongest
Tall taller tallest
Thin thinner thinnest
Thick thicker thickest
Long longer longest
Low lower lowest
Brave ` braver bravest
Vain vainer vainest
Small smaller smallest
Fine finer finest
Dense denser densest
Grave graver gravest
Humble humbler humblest
Large larger largest
Safe safer safest
True truer truest
Wide wider widest
Broad broader broadest
White whiter whitest

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(b) One syllable adjectives ending in a consonant letter proceeded by a vowel letter ‘er
and ‘est’ after doubling their last consonant letter. Observe them in the following sentences:
Big bigger biggest
Dim dimmer dimmest
Fat fatter fattest
Fit fitter fittest
Hot hotter hottest
Mad madder maddest
Red redder reddest
Sad sadder saddest
Slim slimmer slimmest
Thin thinner thinnest
Wet wetter wettest
(c) Adjectives ending in semi vowel ’y’ preceded by a consonant change the ‘y’ into ‘i’
and add ‘er’, est’ to make them comparative and superlative degrees. Observe them in the
Busy busier busiest
Dry drier driest
Easy easier easiest
Funny finnier finniest
Happy happier happiest
Healthy healthier healthiest
Holy holier holiest
Healthy healthier healthiest
Jolly jollier jolliest
Merry merrier merriest
Pretty prettier prettiest
Ugly uglier ugliest

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Wealthy wealthier wealthiest
(d) Adjectives which have more than one syllable add more and most to make them
comparative and superlative degrees. Observe them in the following sentences:
Active more active most active
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Brilliant more brilliant most brilliant
Careful more careful most careful
Wonderful more wonderful most wonderful
Faithful more faithful most faithful
Sincere more sincere most sincere
Fantastic more fantastic most fantastic
Superb more superb most superb
Splendid more splendid most splendid
Splendid more splendid most splendid
Charming more charming most charming
Difficult more difficult most difficult
Diligent more diligent most diligent
Harmful more harmful most harmful
Honest more honest most honest
Hardworking more hardworking most hardworking
Interesting more interesting most interesting
Polite more polite most polite
(e) Irregular comparison.
Bad worse worse
Ill worse worst
Good better best
Much more most

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Many more most
Old older/elder oldest/eldest
Near nearer nearest
Out outer outermost/utmost
Late later latest/last
Hind hinder hindmost
Forth further furthest
Fore former foremost/first
Far farther farthest
5. Some important points which are to be kept in mind while comparing. Observe them in the
following sentences carefully:
(a) The word ‘top’ when it is used as an adjective does not have its comparative degree.
It has superlative degree only
Positive comparative superlative
Top - topmost
(b) When selection of one out of two persons or things which is in comparative degree, is
preceded by ‘the’ (like superlative degree) and followed by ‘of’. Observe them in the
(i) Rama is the stronger of the two girls.
(ii) Which of these two books is the better?
(iii) Of the two books, this is the better.
(iv) Sham is the more honest boy of the two brothers.
(c) There are some adjective which do not change in any degree. They will remain same
in all the degrees. They are given below:
` (i) Junior
(ii) Senior
(iii) Inferior
(iv) Superior
(v) Prior
(vi) Anterior
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(viii) Posterior
(aa) I am senior to him in age.
(ab) I am senior to all the students in the class.
(ac) The pen is superior to that pen.
(ad) The pen is superior to all the pens.
(ae) The cloth is inferior to your cloth.
(d) Double Comparative. When the adjective are used in double comparatives, we often
commit mistakes in writing. Observe them in the following:
(i) Richa is more beautiful than Nancy (incorrect)
Richa is far prettier than Nancy (correct)
(ii) Mr Saleem is nobler than Mr Ali (incorrect)
Mr saleem is much nobler than Mr Ali (Correct)
(Note – In the above cases far, much should be used before the comparative degrees)
(e) ‘The’ is not used before the superlative degree when a possessive pronoun proceeds.
(i) He is my the best friend.(incorrect)
He is my best friend (correct)
(ii) Ms Alkha is our the most favourite teacher.(incorrect)
Ms. Alkha is our most favourite teacher (correct)
(f) When no comparison is made, a very high degree of a quality is used as:
(i) This is most unfortunate.
(ii) That was most unwise on your part.
(g) Some people who lack the knowledge of grammar create some confusion in the
correct use of pronouns in terms of comparative degrees. Observe them in the
(i) I love you more than he.
(ii) I love you more than him
(Note- Both sentences are correct in the nature but differ a lot in sense and meaning)
(i) Sentence 1 means that I love you more than he loves you.
(ii) Sentence 2 means that I love you more than I love him.
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So, be careful while comparing with pronouns and not to confuse the difference in their
meaning.
EXERCISE – 1
1. Give the comparative degree and superlative degree of the following adjectives:
(a) Diligent, hardworking, cunning, honest, innocent, active, intelligent, interesting,

careful, polite.
(b) Ill, good, fore, in, out, little, many, bad, well, much, hind, old, near, and far.
(c) Dry, easy, busy, holy, jolly, merry, pretty, wealthy.
(d) Dim, fit, mad, slim, trim, well, sad, hot, and thick, by.
(e) Able, dense, grave, true, white, large, humble.
(f) Low, glad, sweet, clever, grey, fast, clean, vain, proud, thick, small, tall.
EXERCISE-2
2. Fill up an adjective in the positive degree for each blank:
(a) Usha is ....................but, Uma is.................
(b) The ass kicked the lion with its..........legs
(c) The cow is a very.........................
(d) Ms. Mala is a ...............girl.
(e) Susan is an extremely ................lass.
(f) India is fairly .................country
(g) The lion is as very...............animal.
(h) It was a ....................forest.
(i) Soon, we entered a ............forest
(j) We have bought a ......................house.
EXERCISE – 3
3. Place an adjective in the comparative degree for each blank.
(a) You are ...............to me than anybody else.
(b) There is no animal..................than the tiger.
(c) My friend is ..................than I.
(d) Gold is much....................than silver.

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(e) He is more ...........than his brother.
(d) This story is ....................than that.
(e) Iron is .................than any other metal.
(f) Kolkata is .............than any other Indian city.
(g) Ramesh is ..............to me than anybody else.
(h) Rice is a ................food than wheat.
(i) Green vegetables keep you..............than pulses.
EXERCISE – 4
4. Supply an adjective in the superlative degree for each blank:
(a) Things are not at their------------yet.
(b) It was the ..............of the season.
(c) London is the ................city in the world.
(d) Mount Everest is the .............peak in the world.
(e) I shall be the ............man to oppose you.
(f) It is the ...........day of my life.
(g) This is the........ .....edition of the book.
(h) That is the .................hospital from her..
(i) It is the ...............knife I have ever used.
(m) That was ................indeed .
EXERCISE – 5
5. Correct the following sentences:
(a) He is more honest than me.
(b) Sunder is my oldest brother.
(c) Which is the tallest of the two sisters?
(d) A jackal is cleverer than a fox.
(e) Milk is a superior drink than tea.
(f) Which is the heavier, you or him?
(g) He is a very bigger fool than her.

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(h) Iron is the most useful of any metal.
(i) You are senior than me in service.
(j) This plan is more better to that.
EXERCISE – 6
6. Complete the sentences by adding suitable degree of adjectives:
(a) Honesty is the..............policy.
(b) Prevention is .....................than cure.
(c) This is the ................................that can happen.
(d) Always be prepared for the.............................
(e) He is a .............................gentleman.
(f) What is the .......................news of the day?
(g) The grapes are..................................
(h) Do .......................and forget.
(i) Handsome is that .......................does
(j) Man is the .......................creation of God.
(k) The .................................the..........................
(l) A..........................workman quarrels with his tools.
(k) Only men can make a nation..............and..................
(l) Prevention is ............................cure.
(m) Of two evils choose the...........................
(n) The pen is ..................than the sword.
(o) A live ass is ..................than a dead lion.
(p) Strike the iron when it is.......................
(q) That is .......................unlucky.
EXERCISE-7
7. Answer the following questions.
(a) When is ‘the’ not used before a superlative degree?

(b) By what word is the superlative degree of adjectives generally preceded?
(c) What is the comparative degree of an adjective?
(d) Which is the positive degree of an adjective used for?
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6. Determiner
Definition. Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear (like an
adjective) what the noun refers to. Determiners were formed called adjectives as they are
used with nouns to clarify the noun. The types of determiner used depend on the type of
noun. Singular nouns always need s a determiner. Plural nouns need optional. Uncountable
nouns are also optional. There are many types of determiner in English. They are:
1. Definite Determiner - It refers to a noun in the specific or definite way in the

sentence. It is used before the noun in many situations. It is also known as Definite
Article. The definite article ---the--- is called definite determiner, there are certain
rules in order to use this definite determiner in the sentence which are given below:
(a) It is used before the specific reference.
e.g. The dog jumped into the river
(b) It is used before both singular and plural nouns
e.g. The boy is going to school.
The boys are going to the school.
(c) When the noun is existing only one in the universe.
e.g. the sun, the moon, the sky, the Indian ocean, the earth, etc.
(d) Before names of the specific train.
e.g. The Jayanti Express, the G.T. Express, the Southern Express. Etc.
(e) Before the names of holy books.
e.g The Bible, the Gita, The Ramayana, the Kuran, etc.
(f) Before the news paper and magazine.
The Indian Express, the Hindu, the Illustrated weekly, the time, etc.
(g) Before the name of sea.
The Pacific Ocean, the Arabian Ocean, the Indian Ocean, etc.
(h) Before the name of river.
The Ganga, the Cauvery, the Yamuna, etc.
(i) Before the name of mountain.
The Himalaya, the Everest, the Denali, the Kilimanjaro, etc.
(j) Before the name of islands.

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The East Indies, the West Indies, the Greenland island, The Baffin Island,
etc.
(k) Before the plural name of country.
The USA, the USSR, the UK, the Netherland, etc.
(l) Before an adjective that is placed before the noun.
The Poor, the brave soldiers, the bad companions, etc.
(m) Before the noun which indicates whole group/community.
The owl, the horse, the ant, etc.
(n) Before superlative Degree.
The Himalayas are the highest mountain range.
(o) Before a noun that has already been mentioned.
Once there lived a python under a tree. The python was very cruel.
(P) Before the comparative degree.
Of the two sisters, the younger is the most beautiful.
(q) Before a noun followed by an apostrophe.
The King’s minister, the child’s toy, the student’s bag, etc.
(r) Before the word ---- of----.
\ The legs of the table are broken.
The seat of the chair is torn.
(s) Before the surname,
The Swamy, The Gupta, The Verma, The Dubey, The Khan, etc
(t) Before a noun that points to a general feature.
The culprits do not hesitate to break the law...
Amitabachan is as dignified on the screen as in real life.
(u) The Definite Determiner is used with phrases.
In the past, in the morning, at the moment, in the mean time, etc.
2. Indefinite Determiner (General Determiner). A--- And ---An--- are used to refer
the noun in a general way. They are also called as indefinite article.
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A boy, an old man, a uniform, an elf, a litter
This is the general way of referring to someone or something. So the words like a, and
are called general determiner or indefinite determiner. For more details students are
advised to refer indefinite article.
3. Demonstrative determiner. Of late it was called demonstrative adjectives. In modern

English it is taken into as a demonstrative determiner. It refers to nouns in a specific
way. They are given below:-
- This, that, these, those, such, same, certain.
(a) This table is very big.
(b) That bag is not yours.
(c) These flowers are looking very beautiful.
(d) Those apples are not for sale.
(e) Ravi is such an idiot whom nobody can trust.
(f) This is the same pair of shoes as I purchased last week.
(g) There are certain aspects we get to know.
4. Possessive Determiner – It is a kind of determiner which constitutes a sub class of

determiner which modifies a noun by attributing possession to someone or something.
They are also known as possessive adjective. They are as under “
My, our, your, his, her, its, their, whose, my friend’s,
(a) This is my book.
(b) We have sold our house.
(c) I like your hair style.
(d) His name is John.
(f) Her name is Mary.
(g) The dog licked its wounded paw.
(h) The students thanked their mathematics teacher.
(i) I like Rohit Sharma whose batting is superb.
(m) My friend’s grandmother celebrates her hundredth birthday.
5. Numerical determiner. Numerals are determiners when they appear before a noun.
There are three types of numerical determiner in English. They are as under:
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(a) Cardinal Numeral. It expresses quantity of the noun.
e.g. One, two, three, four, five, ten, thirty, forty five ,seventy seven, etc.
(b) Ordinal Numeral. It expresses sequence of the noun.
e.g. First, second, third, fourth, fifth, ninth, eleventh, twenty first, once, twice,
thrice etc.
(c) General Ordinal. The general ordinal numeral is a set of words which is not
directly related numbers.
e.g. next, last, previous, etc.
6. Quantitative Determiner - It comes before a noun to indicate its amount of

quantity. The following determiners are used under this category
few, a few, the, little, a little, the little, much, many, more, most, a lot of , lots of,
, some, any, enough, a bit, a great deal of, several, very, each, every, other,
another, all , both, certain, such, whole, none, a number of, all,. Fewer.
7. Distributive Determiner- It gives some information about the noun in a clause or

sentence. They refer to a group or every individual in the group. The following words
are considered as Distributive determiners.
Each, every, all, half, both, either, neither.
Each child was laughing.
Every child was laughing
All milk was spoiled.
Half of his money goes to charity.
Both of my cars are black.
Either of the books was worth keeping.
Neither of the cows gives milk.
8. Pre determiner. A word that is sometimes used before a determiner to give more
information about a noun in a noun phrase. It is used to express a proportion of the
whole indicated in the noun phrase. The following words are considered to be pre
determiners in English Grammar.
All, both, twice, rather, many, such, double, what, quite, just.
Observe the following examples.
Her buys will arrive in half an hour.

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This turned out to be such a beautiful day!
It was quite a nice surprise.
Your mother is rather a nice woman.
What an interesting idea!
He broke both his arms in the accident.
All her friends came to her convocation function.
Many a problem is being faced by common people during pandemic lockdown.
He paid twice (double) for his electricity bill.
9. Interrogative determiner. There are three interrogative determiners in English

grammar --- what----- which--- whose----. They are used to frame a question; Interrogative
determiners usually ask questions about a noun and are always followed by the noun.
Interrogative determiners should not be confused with the interrogative adverbs/Pronouns and
the two are completely different in the purpose they serve in a sentence or clause. For
example observe the following sentences:
What time did you reach here?
Which school do you study?
Whose shirt are you wearing?
In the earlier chapter you have read that all WH words are interrogative pronouns
also. The main difference between interrogative pronouns and interrogative determiners are
varied from their usage in the sentence only. As a determiner it follows by nouns but as a
pronoun they stand for nouns as independent words; as:
Interrogative Determiner Interrogative Pronoun
Which bicycle is yours? Which is your bicycle?
What name do you have? What is your name?
Whose puppy is this? Whose is the puppy?
Exercise. Fill in the blanks with suitable determiners.
1. Do you like to meet _____such an idiot?
2. My Grandfather is an _____ person.
3. ______satchel has no books.
4. There is ______ crowd over there.

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5. _______ cheese will give more calories.
6. _______student is not fit for everything.
7. The ______ boy in the third row is Vivek.
8. There are ________ shops around my house.
9. My sister has ________ knowledge about computer.
10. _________ battings do you like the most in the Indian Cricket Team.
Exe3rcise. Choose the correct determiner
1. Could you bring me ____books left in the garden?
(a) this (b) these (c) those
2. ________sun rises in the East.
(a) the (b) a (c) an
3. The doctor advised me to eat ________ apple every morning.
(a) an (b) the (c) an
4. There aren’t ______students in the library.
(a) much (b) many (c) a lot
5. I haven’t got ________pictures in my bedroom.
(a) some (b) any (c) many
6. She have a cookie to _____child.
(a) any (b) all (c) each
7. I’ve got to solve _________math problems before I go to sleep.
(a) any (b) some (c) all
8. ________Cherries are delicious.(keeping a bowlful of cherries on your la)
(a) this (b) these (c) that (d) those
9. My mother doesn’t drink ______ coffee.
(a) much (b) many (c) a lot
10. I always keep ______money in my wallet for emergencies.
(a) any (b) every (c) some

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7. VERB
1. A verb is a word or combination of words that indicates action or a state of being or

condition. A verb is the part of a sentence that tells us what the subject performs. Verbs are
the hearts of English sentences. Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) Raju goes to school by bus.
(b) The teacher helps in studies.
(c) Birds fly in the sky.
(d) Raju is a student.
(e) They are good teachers.
(f) Nancy had a puppy.
2. Look at the illustration carefully:

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Verb
Main Verb/ Auxiliary Verb/

Lexical Verb/ Helping Verb/
Principal Verb Relating Verb
Conjugation Transitive Intransitive Finite Non-finite
Present Past (V2) Past (V3) Present Indefinite Infinitive Perfect

(V+1) Participle Participle participle
Infinitive Participle Gerund
Bare Simple continuous perfect perfect continuous
Present Past Perfect

Participle Participle Participle
Primary Modal
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3. Principal/Lexical/Main verb. Conjugation. It means to give its chief forms derived

from the root verb. The root verb is called the first form or base form. Each main verb has
seven forms. They are used to form different tense, moods etc in the sentences. The formation
verbs can be categorised in three. They are:
(a) Strong Verb - All formations are different in spelling and different in
Pronouncing.
(b) Weak Verb – Second and third formation are similar in spelling and
Pronouncing
(c) Irregular verb- First, second and third formation are similar in spelling and
Pronouncing.
4. Let us see the formation of strong main verb.
Present Past Past Participle Present Participle

V1 V2 V3 V4
Arise Arose Arisen Arising
Awake Awoke/awaked Awaken/awaked Awaking
Bear Bore Borne Bearing
Bear Bore Born Bearing
Bid Bade Bidden Bidding
Bite Bit Bitten Biting
Blow Blew Blown Blowing
Break Broke Broken Breaking
Begin Began Begun Beginning
Become Became Become Becoming
Beat Beat Beaten Beating
Choose Chose Chosen Choosing
Crow Crew/crowed Crowed Crowing
Do Did Done Doing
Draw Drew Drawn Drawing
Eat Ate Eaten Eating
Fly Flew Flown Flying
Forget Forgot Forgotten Forgetting
Forsake Forsook Forsaken Forsaking
Freeze Froze Frozen Freezing
Forbid Forbade Forbidden Forbidding
Fall Fell Fallen Falling
Give Gave Given Giving
Go Went Gone Going
Grow Grew Grown Growing
Get Got Gotten/got Getting
Hide Hid Hidden Hiding
Know Knew Known Knowing
Lie Lay Lain Lying
Mow Mowed Mown/mowed Mowing
Ride Rode Ridden Riding
Ring Rang Rung Ringing
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Rise Rose Risen Rising

Run Ran Run Running
See Saw Seen Seeing
Shake Shook Shaken Shaking
Shrink Shrank Shrunk Shrinking
Show Showed Shown Showing
Sing Sang sung Singing
Sink Sank Sunk Sinking
Slay Slew Slain Slaying
Spring Sprang Sprung Springing
Speak Spoke Spoken Speaking
Steal Stole Stolen Stealing
Swear Swore Sworn Swearing
Swim Swam Swum Swimming
Sow Sowed Sown Sowing
Spin Span Spun Spinning
Sew Sewed Sewn/sewed Sewing
Smite Smote Smitten Smiting
Take Took Taken Taking
Throw Threw Thrown Throwing
Tear Tore Torn Tearing
Tread Trod Trodden Treading
Thrive Throve/thrived Thriven/thrived Thriving
Wake Woke Woken Waking
Wear Wore Worn Wearing
Write Wrote Written Writing
Undertake Undertook Undertaker Undertaking
5. Let us see some weak verbs.
Present Past Past Participle Present Participle

V1 V2 V3 V4
Act Acted Acted Acting
Abuse Abused Abused Abusing
Accuse Accused Accused Accusing
Addict Addicted Addicted Addicted
Advise Advised Advised Advising
Abide Abode Abode Abiding
Bathe Bathed Bathed Bathing
Buy Bought Bought Bought
Bring Brought Brought Brining
Believe Believed Believed Believing
Bend Bent Bent Bending
Bind Bound Bound Bounding
Borrow Borrowed Borrowed Borrowing
Burn Burnt/burned Burnt/burned Burning
Become Became Become Becoming
Bring Brought Brought Brining
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Built Built Built Building

Bleed Bled Bled Bleeding
Beget Begot Begot Begetting
Breed Bred Bred Breeding
Cling Clung Clung Clinging
Catch Caught Caught Catching
Creep Crept Crept Creeping
Conceal Concealed Concealed concealing
Cleave Cleft Cleft Cleaving
Dig Dug Dug Digging
Dwell Dwelt Dwelt Dwelling
Deal Dealt Dealt Dealing
Die Died Died Dying
Dye Dyed Dyed Dying
Drown Drowned Drowned Drowning
Expel Expelled Expelled Expelling
Fight Fought Fought Fighting
Feel Felt Felt Feeling
Feed Fed Fed Feeding
Fell Felled Felled Felling
Find Found Found Fining
Flee Fled Fled Fleeing
Gird Girt Girt Girding
Grind Ground Ground grining
Hang Hanged Hanged Hanging
Hang Hung Hung Hanging
Heal Healed Healed Healed
Keep Kept Kept Keeping
Kneel Knelt Knelt Kneeling
Learn Learnt/learned Learnt/learned Learning
Lie Lied Lied Lying
Lie Lay Lain Lying (SV)
Lose Lost Lost Losing
Lend Lent Lent Lent
Learn Learnt Learnt Learning
Lead Led Led leading
Light Lit Lit Lighting
Laugh Laughed Laughed Laughing
Leave Left Left left
Mean Meant Meant Meaning
Meet Met Met Meeting
Owe Owed Owed Owing
Shred Shredded Shredded Shredding
Boast Boasted Boasted Boasting
Toll Tolled Tolled Tolling
Yoke Yoked] Yoked Yoking
Hold Held Held Holding
Fling Flung Flung Flinging
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Get Got Got Getting

Rend Rent Rent Renting
Shine Shone Shone Shinning
Sit Sat Sat Sitting
Stink Stunk Stunk Stinking
Spin Spun Spun Spinning
Stand Stood Stood Standing
Stick Stuck Stuck Sticking
Strike Struck Struck Striking
Swing Swung Swung Swinging
Sleep Slept Slept Sleeping
Smell Smelt Smelt Smelling
Spell Spelt Spelt Spelt
Spoil Spoilt Spoiled Spoilt/spoiled Spoiling
Sweep Swept Swept Swept
Seek Sought Sought Seeking
Sell Sold Sold Selling
Send Sent Sent Sending
Spend Spent Spent Spending
Shoot Shot Shot Shooting
Seem Seemed Seemed Seeming
Spit Spat Spat Spitting
Starve Starved Starved Starving
Teach Taught Taught Teaching
Think Thought Thought Thinking
Win Won Won Winning
Wind Wound Wound Winding
Wound Wounded Wounded Wounded
Yield Yielded Yielded Yielding
6. Let us see some weak verbs.
Present(V1) Past Past Participle Present Participle

V1 V2 V3 V4
Bet Bet Bet Betting
Bid Bid Bid Bidding
Burst Burst Burst Bursting
Cast Cast Cast Casting
Cost Cost Cost Costing
Cut Cut Cut Cutting
Hit Hit Hit Hitting
Hurt Hurt Hurt Hurting
Knit Knit Knit Knitting
Let Let Let Letting
Put Put Put Putting
Quit Quit Quit Quitting
Read Read Read Reading
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Rid Rid Rid Ridding

Set Set Set Setting
Shed Shed Shed Shedding
Shut Shut Shut Shutting
Thrust Thrust Thrust thrusting
Spread Spread Spread Spreading
Sweat Sweat Sweat Sweating
Wed Wed Wed Wedding
7. There are two chief kinds of main verb. They are Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.
(a) Transitive Verb. It refers an action which does not stop with the subject but passes
on to some other noun or pronoun as an object. It means the verb which has object to
itself is called Transitive verb Observe the Transitive verb in the following sentences:
(i) Lata sings a song.
(ii) The wolf hunts small animals.
(iii) Students played football.
(iv) The crow stole a piece of cheese.
(v) Some people speak French in India.
The words in bold letters are Transitive Verb because:
(i) Lata’s action of singing passes on to a song.
(ii) Wolf’s action of hunting passes on to small animals.
(c) Students’ action on playing passes on to football.
(e) Crow’s action on stealing passes on to a piece of cheese.
(e) Some people’s action on speaking passes on to French.
(b) Intransitive Verb. It refers an action which stops with the subject. It does not pass
on to any other noun or pronoun as an object. Observe the Intransitive Verb in the
(i) |The child weeps.
(ii) The cruel man laughed loudly.
(iii) My school starts at 7.40a.m.
(iv) The guest slept soundly.
(v) The students played in the play ground.
The words in the bold letters are intransitive verb because:

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(i) |The action of weeping stops with the child.
(ii) The action of laughing stops with the cruel man.
(III) The action of starting stops with the school.
(iv) The action of sleeping stops with the guest.
(v) The action of play stops with the students.
8. Verbs of incomplete Predication. There are some verbs both in Transitive and Intransitive
that do not make complete sense even after taking the object. They require some words to complete
the predicate. Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) We appointed him a Director.
(b) The police found him guilty.
(c) The dacoits set me free.
9. The above sentences are having object and they are Transitive verbs. But still each of them
needs an additional words Director, guilty, free to complete its predicate. Look at the following
sentences:
(a) You look cheerful.
(b) Sita fell ill.
(c) The man went mad.
10. The above sentences are not having object and they are called Intransitive verb. But each of
them needs an addition word cheerful, ill and mad to complete its predication. Such verbs are called
verbs of incomplete predication.
11. Finite and Non-Finite Verbs. We have read about verb in detail in the previous chapter. Verb is
nothing but it is a word of action. No sentence can be formed without verb. Thus verb is the very soul
of a sentence.
12. Now every action is expressed in a certain manner by the verb, Different action is expressed
din different manner. In this chapter we study about finite and non finite verb in detail. Finite verbs
are entire4ly verbs family whereas non finite verbs are not entirely verb family but they are partly
related to noun adjective and adverb. Thus they are called verbal noun, verbal adjective and verbal
adverb.
13. Look at the illustration carefully.

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Verbal (Verb)
Finite Non-finite
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect continuous
Present Past Perfect
Subject Object to Object to complementary A prohibition

to verb verb preposition to verb
14. Finite Verb. The verb which keeps on changing its formation according to the tense or
subject is known as Finite Verb. Finite Verb may be either in Transitive or Intransitive. Observe them
(a) Rajan drinks a cup of tea,
(b) Rajan is drinking a cup of tea,
(c) Rajan has drunk a cup of tea.
(d) Rajan has been drinking a cup of tea.
15. The words in bold are finite verbs because they change their formation according to the tense
16. Non-finite Verb. The verb which does not change its formation according to tense or subject
and it stands same in all tenses. Such type of verbs are called Non-finite verb because they are partly
verb and partly noun adjective or adverb . Observe them in the following sentences :
(a) Rajan wants to drink a cup of tea.

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(b) Rajan wanted to drink a cup of tea.
(c) Rajan will want to drink a cup of tea.
17. The verb drink preceded by a preposition ‘to’ is no finite verb because they are partly verb as
well as adverb to the finite verb want. It has not changed its formation according to the tense. Non-
finite verbs can be divided into three parts. Look at the illustration carefully.
Non-finite Verb
18. Infinitive. It is such a verb which is partly used as a verb and partly as a noun, an adjective and
an adverb. Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) To read a book is a good habit.
(b) I have a book to read.
(c) I want to read book.
19. In the first sentence (a) ‘to read’ is a infinitive verb which is used as the subject of a finite
verb . Hence the word ‘to read’ acts as a noun of the sentence.
20. In the second sentence (b) the word ‘to read’ is an infinitive verb which is used as an object of
finite verb and acts partly as an adjective.
21. In the third sentence (c) the word ‘to read’ is an infinitive which is used as preposition to verb
and acts as an adverb to the finite verb.
22. Therefore infinitive verb can be served partly as a noun, an adjective or an adverb having to +
verb no 1 . Infinitive is used both with and without ‘to’ .Observe them in the following sentence.
(a) I want to dance.
(b) I can dance.
23. In the first sentence the infinitive verb is sued with ‘to’ so, it is called as simple infinitive .In
the second sentence the infinitive is used without ‘to’ so, it is called bare infinitive.
24. Simple Infinitive. It is used with ‘to’ along with verb no 1. Observe them in the following
sentences:
(a) I am waiting for his to come.
(b) I advised him to go there.
(c) The desired to leave immediately.

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(c) The rook needs to repair
(f) This house is to let.
25. Continuous infinitive. This infinitive will carry ‘to +be + v4. Observe them in the following
sentences:
(a) The dog seems to be running towards me.
(b) He is thought to be living in Newyark.
(c) He pretends to be studying whenever his father comes home.
(d) The wizard seems to be showing many tricks in magic.
26. Perfect Infinitive. This infinitive will carry ‘to+ have + V3.Observe them in the following
sentences:
(a) The journey is likely to have taken a month.
(b) The rain is likely to have stopped by the evening.
(c) He is likely to have fled the country.
(d) Your letter does not to have received as yet.
27. Perfect continuous Infinitive. This infinitive will carry ‘to+have+been+V4.Observe them in
the following sentences:
(a) He seems to have been befooling us.
(b) He appears to have been spying.
(c) They seem to have been loving with each other.
(d) He feigns to have been completing his home assignment.
(e) The door looks to have been breaking.
28. Participle. It is also a non-finite verb’s family .It acts as a verb in the sentence but it adds
the qualification of the noun. So, the verb is called verbal adjective. Participle is a word that is partly
a verb and partly an adjective. There are three types of participle in the non-finite family. They are:
(a) Present Participle.
(b) Past Participle
(c) Perfect Participle.
29. Present Participle. V4 is used in the sentence as an adjective. Observe them in the following
sentences:
(a) I can hear her singing a song.
(b) I met a girl carrying a basket of flowers.

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(c) Hearing the voice, the child woke up.
(d) I caught a thief stealing my bicycle.
(e) Arriving late, he found that the show had already begun.
(f) Walking in the garden, I heard a scream at the other end of the street.
30. Past Participle. V3 is used in the sentence as an adjective. Observe them in the following
sentences:
(a) The faded flowers were thrown away.
(b) Lord Buddha took pity on the wounded swan.
(c) The police recovered the stolen money.
(d) His broken leg was plastered.
(e) Wounded woman was taken to the hospital.
31. All of the above bolded verbs are behaved as an adjective and are followed or preceded by
nouns. So these verbs are called verbal adjectives or Past participles.
32. Perfect Participle. V3 preceded by’ having’ is used to describe the adjectives. Observe them
(a) Having met my Principal, I entered into my classroom.
(b) Having fed her dog, she went to work.
(c) Having completed his home work, he went to bed.
(d) Having beaten the student, the teacher felt quilt.
(e) Having married the wicked lady, Raju felt his life miserable.
33. Gerund. It is V4 which is used partly a verb and partly a noun. Observe them in the
(a) Walking is good for health.
(b) We enjoyed riding very much.
(c) He deserves a sound beating.
(d) Playing card is good sport.
(e) We went shopping yesterday.
34. Gerund can be used in the following ways:
(a) Subject to a verb.
(i) Gardening is a good hobby.

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(ii) Drinking has ruined his health.
(b) Object to a verb.
(i) We will go hunting tomorrow.
(ii) I love reading novels.
(c) Object to preposition.
(I) I am tired of hearing such words.
(ii) Children are very fond of playing.
(d) Complement to verb.
(i) What he needs is beating.
(II) She hates your coming here.
(e) A prohibition.
(i) No smoking.
(ii) No parking.
(f) An activity after the verb ‘go’
(i) I shall go hunting tomorrow.
(ii) Sunil went riding yesterday.

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EXERCISE
1. Find out the infinitives in the following sentences.
(a) David always tries to find fault with others.
(b) The water is not fit to drink.
(c) We went to see a show.
(d) Mohan ran fast to catch the bus.
(e) I am very glad to see you.
(f) Fetch me water to drink.
(g) The ship is about to sell.
(h) It is time to take tea.
(i) To forgive is divine.
(j) He appears to be rude.
(k) It is crime to cheat others.
(l) To speak the truth is a virtue.
(m) He tried to solve the sum.
(n) I promised to help him.
(o) The match was about to start.
(p) The procession is about to enter the capital.
(q) My hoppy is to collect old coins.
(r) The house is to let.
(s) To err is human.
(t) To tell lies is a sin.
(u) I like to play carom.
(v) I wish to see her.
(w) The hound ran fast to catch the hare.
(x) To steal is wrong.
(y) To find fault is easy.
(z) To play with explosion is dangerous.

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(aa) To waste your money is foolish.
(ab) To eat too much is harmful.
(ac) To walk on the pavement is safe.
(ad) To call elders’ name is not polite.
(ae) To read your writing is very difficult.
(af) To miss the opportunity would be a pity.
(ag) To deceive your best friend is disgraceful,
(ah) To live without air is impossible.
(ai) To sit by the fire on cold evening is pleasant.
(aj) She was rude to say that.
(ak) She was foolish to sell her ornaments.
(al) Those boys were cruel to throw stone at birds
(am) Your uncle is very kind to give us lift in his car.
(an) She was foolish to refuse the offer.
(ao) The policeman was very kind to help the children.
(ap) They were going to put the blame on their juniors.
(aq) She is silly to say such things.
EXERCISE-2
1. Fill up the blank with suitable infinitives.
(a) Our teacher advised us ...........the truth.
(b) My mother forbade me .............lies
(c) I promise ...............you in every way
(d) The old farmer was about...........
(e) It is sin........God’s laws.
(f) I do not fear .................there.
(g) We hope ............in our efforts.
(h) It is time ......................to bed.
(i) I went to the market..................a new book.

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(j) ..................is a great virtue.
(j) Teach me how ............such sum.
(l) ..................is a very good habit.
(m) ..................sincerely is a great value.
(n) Who does not want ......................long?
(o) There is much money for me..........
(p) The old man was too old.................
(q) The shirt is too tight to..............
(r) Sarita worked hard...........................
(s) It is time...................
(t) I tried my best..................
(u) It is kind of you.........................
(v) To get up late is a....................
(w) To err is human to..................
(x) They tried hard.......................
EXERCISE-3
3. Find out the present and past participle in the following sentences:
(a) They went away laughing.
(b) All living creatures breathe.
(c) Atul is a promising lad.
(d) The master found the servant sleeping.
(e) It is difficult to see in the dazzling light.
(f) His mother is lying on her dying bed.
(g) Hearing the noise, the thief ran away.
(h) I saw him stealing a ring.
(i) Steam was coming out of the boiling water.
(j) These were the last words of the dying man.
(k) The teacher found the pupils dozing.

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(l) A farewell party was given to the outgoing class.
(m) It is a bad habit to kiss a sleeping child.
(n) I found her weeping.
EXERCISE-4
4. Find out the past participle in the following sentences:
(a) The failed student began to weep.
(b) The withered flowers were thrown away.
(c) May God grant peace to the departed soul.
(d) A burnt child dreads the fire.
(e) The loaded gun went off itself.
(f) The minister read the written report.
(g) The lumbermen cut the fallen trees into logs.
(h) Wounded woman has taken to hospital.
(i) His broken leg was cut off.
(j) The stolen ornament was found.
(k) His brother has found his stolen watch.
(l) I bought a broken pencil yesterday.
(m) Terrified, they stood crowded together.
(N) We saw the trees laden with apples.
(o) Blinded by listening, she fell senseless.
(p) Driven by fury, the lion attacked the hunter.
(q) The boys seem contended.
EXERCISE-5
5. Complete the sentence by adding suitable infinitive or present participle.
(a) We saw the thief................
(b) We watched the train.....................
(c) We eat......................
(d) The stopped......................

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(e) He has gone out................................
(f) This house is.......................
(g) Don’t hesitate..............................
(h) The great pleasure is.......................
(i) Can you smell something........................?
(j) She could feel her heart.................................
(k) Did you notice anyone...............................?
(l) Just look at the balloon....................................
(m) We hear her............................
(n) We must not keep our guests...........................
(o) I found her.......................
(p) The news left us............................
(q) We caught her.............................
(r) You had better start the engine..........................
(s) Don’t let me catch you.........................
EXERCISE – 6
6. Find out the Gerund in the following sentences:
(a) Drinking liquor has ruined his health.
(b) She likes running a race daily.
(c) I love reading books.
(d) Borrowing is equal to begging.
(e) Hunting is a good sport.
(f) Playing card is a bad habit.
(g You must avoid indulging with bad boys.
(h) We enjoyed riding very much yesterday.
(i) It is no use crying over spilt milk.
(j) It is no use learning by rote.
(k) He deserves for tight slapping.

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(l) No spitting please.
EXERCISE -7
7. Here are some sentences with infinitive used as verbal Noun. Change them into Gerund.
Q_ To gamble is a crime as well as a sin.
Ans Gambling is a crime as well as a sin.
(a) To drink is a vice.
(b) To pluck flowers is to spoil the garden.
(c) Teach me how to reading.
(f) To tell lies is to do sin.
(g) To laugh is to grow healthy.
(h) To work is to worship.
(i) To take pain means to reap gain.
(j) To speak truth is to love God.
EXE4RCISE – 8
8. Fill up the blank with a suitable Gerund.
(a) He is expert in......................
(b) ................flowers are strictly prohibited.
(c) No ........................here.
(d) ........................between the meals is a bad habit
(e) Lend me some money. I am to go......................
(f) He left the hotel, without ......................................his bill.
(g) He succeeded ..................a high first division.
(h) We prevented him from ...............into deep water.
(i) This pen is not worth ....................at all.
(j) ................the middle of a busy road could be dangerous.
(k) ..............in the sea could be quite adventurous.
(l) He was accused of ...................by his wife.
(k) My friend doesn’t like............................

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EXERCISE-9
9. Each of the following sentence has a participle and a gerund. Pick out both.
(a) I practise swimming in a swimming pool
(b) Eating between eating hours leads to ill-health.
(c) Begging must be done with begging bowl.
(d) Only drinking water should be used for drinking.
(e) Sleeping with the help of sleeping pill is harmful.
(f) The working of the working committee is not satisfactory.
EXERCISE-10
10. Look at the following infinitives which are used as the subjects of finite verb.
(a) To steal is wrong.
(b) To ask question is easy.
(c) To play with sharp tools is dangerous.
(d) To waste money on luxurious is foolish.
(e) To eat oily food is harmful.
11. If these above sentences are not liked, these can be written by using a preparatory ‘it’, so the
subject in each case observe them in the following sentences:
Preparatory ‘it’
(a) It is wrong to steal.
(b) It is easy to ask question.
(c) It is dangerous to play with sharp tools.
(d) It is foolish to waste money on luxurious.
(e) It is harmful, to eat oily food every day.
12. The same pattern may be used with a noun instead of an adjective preceding the infinitive.
(a) It is wrong to steal, the old man’s things.
(b) It is easy to ask question from children.
(c) It is dangerous to play with sharp knives.
(d) It is foolish to spend money on luxurious car.

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(e) It is harmful to eat burger and pizza.
13. Preparatory ‘it’ is used when the subject comes with for + noun/pronoun +infinitive. Observe
(a) It is wrong for us to steal old man’s things.
(b) It is easy for anyone to ask question from children.
(c) It is dangerous for children to play with sharp tools.
(d) It is difficult for them to spend money on luxurious car.
(e) It is harm for children to leach junk food.
EXERCISE-11
14. Rewrite the following sentences, using the introductory word ‘it’
(a) To walk on the pavement is safe.
(b) To tell lies is wrong.
(c) To read your writing is difficult.
(d) To miss the opportunity would be a pity.
(d) To deceive your best friend is disgraceful.
(e) To take more than your share of food is selfish.
(f) To live without air is impossible.
(g) To play with explosives is dangerous.
(h) To sit by the fire on a cold evening is pleasant.
EXERCISE -12
12. Express the meaning of the following sentences by using an introductory word ‘it’ and ‘of’ as
shown below:
She was kind to help us

It was kind of here to help us
(a) She was kind to help us.
(b) She was rude to say that.
(c) They are stupid to forget the tickets.
(d) She was foolish to sell her ornaments.
(e) Those boys were cruel to throw stone at dogs.
(f) Your uncle was very kind to give us lift in his car.
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(g) She was foolish to refuse the offer.
EXERCISE 13
13. Rewrite each of the following sentences in such a way that the verb is replaced by an
infinitive. Look at the first sentence in the box.
They say that she is very rich.

She is said to be very rich.
(a) They say that he is very rich.
(b) We were surprised when we heard the news.
(c) We were surprised when we heard the news
(d) It was believed that she was innocent.
(e) He expects that we shall pass.
(f) We believed that she was guilty.
(g) It was known that he was a great liar.
(h) She promised that would help us.
(i) He has promised that he will do his best for us.
(k) The governor ordered that the house should be burnt.
(l) I hope I shall meet you again soon,
(m) He studied hard that he might win a scholarship
(n) The teacher expected that Tony would get a first class.
(o) The chairman was the first man who arrived at the meeting.
14. The infinitive without ‘to’. ‘To’ is very commonly used with the infinitive. But it is not a
necessary sign of the infinitive. Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) He can run very fast -without infinitive
(b) He is able to run very fast - With infinitive
(c) You must go - without infinitive
(d) You are commanded to go - with infinitive
(e) Let him stand there.
(f) I bade him go there.
(g) You need not go there.

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(h) You dare not do it.
(i) I felt him touch me.
(j) Bid him do it.
(k) Please go there. Without infinitive we can use such type of sentence
(l) Make her sit.
(m) I saw him win the race
(n) I hear her sing
15. The infinitive without ‘to’ is used after the mixed helping verb like had better, had rather, had
sooner, would rather, and would sooner as:
(a) You had better read this book (not you had better to read this book)
(b) I would rather die than suffer all these problems.
(c) I had rather dance than sing.
(d) I had sooner run than walk.
EXERCISE – 14.
16. Complete the following sentences by adding a construction with gerund or an infinitive
whichever you think correct:
(a) My sister dislikes..................................
(b) He was punished...........................
(c) I am fired.............................
(d) I am surprised.........................
(e) She is waiting...............................
(f) She persisted....................................
(g) I do not intend.............................
(h) The manager objected...........................
(i) We have prevented......................................
(k) He was punished...............................
(l) The headmaster is certain............................
(m) My parents are not accustomed.......................
(n) We were very disappointed...............................

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(o) He discouraged us..........................................
(p) He went home without..................................
(q) The little boy likes.........................................
(r) Most children enjoy....................................
(s) Would you mind............................................?
(t) I am sorry......................................
(u) She is fond of..........................................
EXERCISE – 15
17. Rewrite the following sentences by using the participle construction as show below in the
box.
(a) The hunter took careful aim and shot the lion
Taking careful aim, the hunter shot the lion.
(b) I saw her weeping and went to see what was wrong.
Seeing her weeping, I went to see what was wrong.
(c) As the weather was warm, I took off my coat.

The weather being warm, I took off my coat.
(d) When we arrived at the station, we saw the train just going out.
On arriving at the station, we saw the train just going out.
(a) The thief saw the policeman and ran away.
(b) Mr Gill put on his overcoat and went out for a walk.
(c) We turned to the left end entered into the wood.
(d) As my friend was not ready, l had to go alone.
(e) He loudly knocked at the gate and demanded admission.
(f) As the weather was fine, we went out.
(g) When he returned home, he found his child missing.
(h) The boy heard the noise and woke up.
(i) The holy man took pity on the mouse and turned it into a cat.
(j) As it was a very hot day, I stayed in the house.
(k) When we arrived at the station, we found that the train had just left.
(l) I walked up to the front door and rang the bell.

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(m) The policeman ran with all his speed and was able to catch the thief.
(n) The thief opened the window and entered into the bedroom very quietly.
(o) As they were unable to find the house of their friend they came home again.
EXERCISE -16
18. Complete the following sentences as shown under:
e.g. Hearing a noise .................................
Ans Hearing a noise, I turned round.
(a) Opening the door....................
(b) Seizing the stick with both hands..............................
(c) Seeing the sunshine................................
(d) Riding his scooter towards town....................................
(e) Getting into the bus....................................
9f) Entering the room....................................
(g) Seizing him by the arm....................................
(h) Taking up his gun...................................
(i) Climbing up the hill....................................
(j) Walking along the road...................................
EXERCISE – 17
19. Join the following pair of sentences by using ‘having +V3. The first one has been done and
shown in the box:
He received permission from his father. He went to Delhi.

Ans Having received permission from his father, he went to Delhi.
(a) He reached at the end of the road. He got off his motor bike and waited.
(b) He bought his ticket. He made his ways towards the hall.
(c) She had played the piano for the whole morning. She did not like to go to the concert
in the evening.
(d) He received no reply to his letter. He decided to send a telegram.
(e) He searched in vain for the ring. He decided to go to the police station.
(f) She wrote to her mother. She went out to play with her friends.
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(g) She passed all her examination. She went up to the USA.
(h) He had worked all day. He lay down to rest.
(i) He had failed in the first attempt. He made no further attempt.
(j) He had finished eating. He stood up to make a speech.
EXERCISE- 18
20. Join the following sentences together using ‘en/ed’ phrases. The first sentence in each case
should be changed into the phrase as shown in the box:
Eg. He was defeated in the final match. He decided to retired from the sport.
Ans Defeated in the final match, he decided to retire from the sport.
(a) He was dissatisfied with his progress at school. He gave up his studies.
(b) The king was driven out of his country. He decided to become a sanyasi.
(c) He was struck by her beauty. He decided to marry her.
(d) She was respected by everyone. She was elected treasurer and secretary of the club.
(e) He was rejected by all his friends. He decided to leave the country.
(f) She was deserted by her husband. She dies of a broken heart.
(g) The horse was terrified by the loud explosion. The horse bolted at full speed.
(h) He was disappointed with his new employer. He decided to resign his position.
(i) The town is situated on national highway. It is a big centre for trade.
(j) They were beaten by their enemies. They decided to attack again.
EXERCISE-19
21. Rewrite the following sentences by using gerund in place of an infinitive in each case:
(a) To do something is better than to do nothing.

(b) To tell a lie is easier than to speak the truth.
(c) To find fault with everybody is not desirable.
(d) To eat too many sweets is bad for the health.
(e) To please everybody is to please nobody.
(d) To praise all alike is to praise none.
(e) To ask question is easier than to answer them.
(f) To give is better than to receive.
(g) To see is to believe.
(h) Can you teach me to swim?
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8. ADVERB
1. It is a word which is modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. We

know verbs are words of action. An action may be done in any place, at any time, in any matter, any
number of times to some degree and for some reason. So the words that tell the time, place, manner,
frequency, degree or reason of an action are called adverb.
2. Adverbs are generally classified into four groups. Observe them in the illustration given
below:
Adverb
Simple Interrogative Relative Affirmation

&Negation
Time Place Manner Frequency degree Reason
3. Simple Adverb. This type of adverbs is divided into many sub kinds. They are given in the
succeeding paragraphs.
(a) Adverb of Tine. When the adverb indicates the time to the verb in the sentence,
adverb of time is used. Observe them in the following sentences:
(i) We shall see you shortly.
(ii) Complete this task right now.
(iii) I have heard such a thing before.
(iv) They have already had their lunch.
(iv) My uncle shall come tomorrow.
The words which are in bold letters tell the time of the action. So they are known as
Adverb of time.
(b) Adverb of Place. When the adverb indicates the place to the verb in the sentence,
adverb of place is used. Observe them in the following sentences:
(i) Move ahead with courage.
(ii) The cuckoo flew away.
(iii) I could not find him anywhere.

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(iv) Sit down.
(v) Go there.
The words which are in bold letters tell the place of the action. So, they are adverbs of place
(c) Adverb of Manner. Observe the following.
(I) Raju eats an ice cream slowly.
(ii) We must speak gently to others.
(iii) Walk quickly or we shall miss the bus.
(iv) Mr Ashok accepted the invitation gladly.
(v) Students must do their homework carefully.
(vi) She should loudly for help.
Each word in bold letter tells the manner of the action. So it is an adverb of manner.
(d) Adverb of Frequency. Observe the following sentences:
(i) Kindly do it again.
(ii) I told you twice.
(iii) He often makes mistakes.
(iv) He frequently comes unprepared.
(v) They seldom come to see me.
(vi) I always try to do my best.
The words which are in bold letters show the frequency of the action. So they are known as
adverb of Frequency.
(e) Adverb of Degree. Observe the following sentences.
(i) He was too careless
(ii) He is quite worry.
(iii) It is extremely hot.
(iv) The runner was almost exhausted.
(v) She has done fairly well in the test.
(vi) I am fully prepared.
(f) Adverb of Reason. Observe the following sentences.
(i) He is hence unable to refute the charge

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(ii) He therefore left the school.
4. Interrogative Adverb. When some adverbs are used in asking question, they are called
Interrogative Adverb. Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) When will you come? (Indicating Time)
(b) Where is Mr Kamal? (Indicating place)
(c) How do you go to school (Indicating manner)
(d) How often do you smoke? (Indicating frequency)
(e) How far is your home located? (Indicating degree)
(f) Why are you late? (Indicating reason)
5. All words in bold letters are adverb of time, place, manner, frequency, degree and reason.
But they are used to ask question. So, they are Interrogative Adverbs.
6. Relative Adverb. It acts as a connector to join sentences together. Observe them in the
(a) Nobody knows when he will come back? (Indicating time)
(b) Could you tell me where he puts up? (Indicating place)
(c) She knows how to drive a car? (Indicating manner)
(d) God knows how often he insulted me. (Indicating frequency)
(e) Tell me how far he is an honest boy. (Indicating degree)
(f) Can anyone say why he has gone? (Indicating reason)
7. All words in bold litters are adverb of time, place, manner, frequency, degree and reason.
They are served as a connector in the sentences so they are called Relative Adverbs.
8. Adverb of Affirmation and Negation. An adverb that affirms a statement and negates a
statement are called adverb of affirmative and negation respectively. Observe them in the following
sentences:
(a) Have you completed your work? - Yes I have.
(b) Are you an officer? - No, I am not.
(c) He hates you, I think. - Perhaps you are right.
(d) Are they satisfied? - By all means, they are.
(e) Will they help him? - Certainly, I shall.
(f) Is he really a rowdy? - Of course, he is.

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9. The words which are in bold letters either affirm a statement or negate it. So they are called
Adverb of affirmation or Negation.
10. More above Adverb.
(a) Some adverbs which are placed at the beginning of the sentence modifying the entire
sentence. Observe them in the following sentences:
(i) Luckily they escaped from the dog.
(ii) Evidently the figures are incorrect.
(iii) Unfortunately no one was present there.
(iv) Probably he is mistaken.
(b) Some adverbs are the same form as an adjective. Some words can be used sometimes
as an adjective and sometimes as an adverb. Observe them in the following
sentences:
As an Adjective As an Adverb
Rahul is a fast bowler. Rahul can be bowl fast.
He went to the back entrance. Go back.
He is the best student. He behaves best.
He is quick to commit offence. Run quick.
Are you an early riser? We started early.
I have a high opinion on him. Always aim high.
He spoke in loud voice. Don’t talk so loud.
(c) Sometimes adverbs have two forms. The first form is ended in ‘ly’ and the other form
without ’ly’. Observe them in the following sentences:
(i) She sings very loud. She sings very loudly.
(ii) He runs very quick He runs very quickly.
(iii) I speak in English fluent I speak in English fluently.
(iv) He sits quiet He sits quietly.
(v) He speaks nice. He speaks nicely.
(d) Sometimes the two forms of the adverb have different meaning. Observe them in the
(i) Rama works hardly.
(ii) Rama could hardly work.
(iii) Vinita stands near to the stage.
(iv) Vinita and Sunita are nearly related.
(v) The teacher arrived late.

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(vi) The teacher has not seen him lately.
(e) Some adverbs are derived from the pronouns. They are given below:
Place Motion to Motion from Time Manner
There thither thence then thus
Here hither hence - -
Where wither whence when how
(f) Some Adverbs are combined with preposition. They are mentioned below:
(i) Thenceforth, thenceforward
(ii) Henceforth, henceforward
(iii) Hitherto
(iv) Whereof, whereon, wherein, wherefore, whereabouts, whereby,

Whereupon, wherein, whereof, whereat.
(v) Herewith, herein, hereafter, hereby, hereupon, hereabout, hereof,

Hereon, hereto, heretofore, hereunder, hereupon.
(vi) Therewith, thereon, therein, thereby, there from, thereof, thereto,

thereabouts, thereafter, thereat, therefore, thereof, thereupon, therewithal.
(g) Two adverbs joined by conjunction.
Adverb Meaning
(i) far and near, - in all direction.
(ii) far and away - by a great deal, beyond all comparison.
(iii) for and wide - comprehensively.
(d) first and foremost - first of all.
(iv) off and on - not regularly, intermittently.
(v) once and again - more than one occasion, repeatedly.
(vi) out and away - beyond comparison, by far.
(vii) over and above - in addition to, besides, as well as.
(viii) over and over - many times, frequently, repeatedly,
(ix) again and again - more than one, repeatedly.
(x) by and by - before long, presently, after a time.

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xii) far and near - in all direction.
(xiii) now and then - from time to time , occasionally.
(xiv) now and again - sometimes, at intervals, occasionally,
(o) through and through - completely, thoroughly.
(xv) thus and thus - in such and such a way.
(xvi) to and fro - up and down, forwards and backwards.
(h) Observe them in the following sentences:
(i) He walked to and fro without reason.
(ii) Thus and thus only we shall succeed.
(iii) He has read Kuran through and through.
(iv) I believe Bhaskar is out and out the best bowler.
(v) I read all the novels of RK Narayan over and over.
(vi) Over and above being hard working he is thoroughly honest.
(vii) He gained over and above this, the goodwill of all people.
(viii) This is out and away the best work on Astronomy.
(ix) I have told you once and again that you must not read such trash.
(x) He worked ten years, off and on, on his Pali Dictionary.
(xi) I write to him now and then.
(xii) He is far and away the best bowler in our eleven.
(xiii) As a statesman he saw far and wide.
(xiv) His fame has spread far and near.
(xv) I warned him again and again.
(i) If the sentence has helping verb such as am, is, are, was, were, has, have, had etc. the
adverb has to be placed after the helping verb and not before the helping verb.
(i) He is never telling lie.
(ii) She is always at home on Sundays.
(iii) We are just off.
(iv) They have already done their work.

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(v) I often have to complete my home work. (placed before has to/ have to/will
Have to/had to.
(vi) He always used to drink plenty of water (placed before used to/ought to/ need
to/dare to.
(j) Adverb modified an adjective or another adverb the adverb comes before them.
(i) Vinay is rather lazy boy.
(ii) The snake was quite dead.
(iii) The book is very interesting.
(iv) He runs very fast.
(k) The adverb ‘enough’ is always used after he word it modifies. Observe them in the
(i) The box is big enough.
(ii) He was tall enough.
(iii) He speaks loud enough.
(iv) He eats food enough.
(l) In general rule the adverb ‘only’ should be placed immediately before the word it
modifies. Observe them in the following sentences:
(i) He ate only two chapattis.
(ii) He speaks only English in the school.
(m) Some confusing adverbs.
(i) free - freely
(ii) late - lately
(iii) near - nearly
(iii) hard - hardly
(I) I got the books free. (paying no money)
(ii) I can get this book freely (without any difficulty)
(iii) My father reached late (not in time)
(iv) My father reached lately. (recently)
(v) His end is near (very much)

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` (vi) He is nearly forty (about)
(vii) She works hard(very much)
(ix) She hardly works (rarely)
(n) ‘Fairly’, ‘rather’ are the words which have the same meaning ‘moderately’. ‘Fairly’ is
generally used with favourable adjectives and adverbs whereas ‘rather’ is used before
unfavourable adjectives and adverbs. Observe them in the folioing sentences:
(i) Vimla is fairly clever but her brother is rather stupid.
(ii) He is fairly rich, but his uncle is rather poor.
(iii) You did fairly well in your examination, but your sister did rather badly.
(iv) The box is rarely heavy, but that one is fairly light.
(v) We are rather late, let us hurry up.
(vi) You have given me rather a lot; I don’t think I can eat so much.
(o) Adverb of frequency is used before the main verb. Observe them in the following
sentences:
(i) I always speak the truth.
(ii) He often comes here late.
(iii) We generally have breakfast at eight.
(iv) She rarely visits us.
(v) He usually gets up early.
(vi) He never does anything wrong.
(vii) He frequently goes to the cinema.
(viii) He sometimes smokes.
(ix) Nothing even happens in the village.
(x) He seldom comes in time.
(p) Adverbs are placed after the helping verb. Observe them in the following sentences:
(i) I am always at home on Sundays.
(ii) I am never late to school.
(iii) He is often late for school.
(iv) We are sometimes late for school.
(v) He is usually early.

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11. Formation of Adverbs. Adverbs are formed in different ways. They are:
(a) By adding ‘ly’ to adjectives.
Adjective Adverb
First Firstly
Extreme Extremely
Curt Curtly
Cool Coolly
Careless Carelessly
Calm Calmly
Bright Brightly
Brief Briefly
Bitter Bitterly
Awful Awfully
Apt Aptly
Angry Angrily
Active Actively
Able Ably
Firm Firmly
Aimless Aimlessly
Bad Badly
Brave Bravely
Brisk Briskly
Careful Carefully
Cold Coldly
Crooked Crookedly
Due Duly
Last Lastly
Loud Loudly
Near Nearly
Noble nobly
Nosy Nosily
Odd Oddly
Peaceful Peacefully
Perfect Perfectly
Polite Politely
Quick Quickly
Quiet Quietly
Ready Readily
Sad Sadly
Short Shortly
Simple Simply
Heavy Heavily
Idle Idly
Tardy Tardily
Timid Timidly
Useful Usefully
Very Verily
Faithful Faithfully
Short Shortly
Great Greatly
Fantastic Fantastically
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Similar Similarly
Single Singly
Skilful Skilfully
Slow Slowly
Smart Smartly
Smooth Smoothly
Special Specially
Ste4ady Steadily
General Generally
Generous Generously
Grateful Gratefully
Happy Happily
Humble Humbly
Wrong Wrongly
Thankful Thankfully
True Truly
Useful Usefully
Wise Wisely
Sincere Sincerely
Fast Fatly
Bad Badly
Long Longley
Often Often
Wide Widely
(b) Adverb is formed from Noun.
Noun Adverb
Day daily
Month monthly
Year yearly
Hour hourly
Week weekly
Fortnight fortnightly
(c) Adverb is formed from present participle.
Present Participle Adverb
Exceeding exceedingly
Amazing amazingly
Surprising surprisingly
Loving lovingly
Knowing knowingly
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Willing willingly
(d) Adverb is formed from Past Participle.
Past Participle Adverb
Hurried hurriedly
Worried worriedly
Studied studiedly
Fixed fixedly
12. The adjective and adverb are both qualifying words Adjectives have their degree of
comparison, so, do the adverbs.
(a) Comparison of Adverb. Single syllable
Fast faster fastest
Hard harder hardest
High higher highest
Near nearer nearest
Soon sooner `soonest
Early earlier earliest
Late later latest
(b) Comparison of Adverb. More than one syllable.
Carefully more carefully most carefully
Gladly more gladly most gladly
Slowly more slowly most slowly
Quickly more quickly most quickly
Usefully more usefully most usefully
Faithfully more faithfully most faithfully
Wonderfully more wonderfully most wonderfully
Certainly more certainly most certainly
Cunningly more cunningly most cunningly
Loudly more loudly most loudly

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Greatly more greatly most greatly
Strongly more strongly most strongly
Thinly more thinly most thinly
Thickly more thickly most thickly
Nicely more nicely most nicely
Specially more specially most specially
Speedily l more speedily most speedily
(c) Irregular comparison.
Far farther farthest
Forth further furthest
Ill worse worst
Little less lest
Much more most
Well better best
EXERCISE-I
1. Choose the Adverbs in their correct position.
(a) Suresh arrives at 9 O’clock. (always)
(b) This is not good. (enough)
(c) She has recovered from her illness. (quietly)
(d) We should come one morning. (here)
(e) The train has left. (just)
(f) I have to reach the office by 9.30 a.m. (usually)
(g) I know the answer. (already)
(h) He played guitar in the concert. (brilliantly)
(i) I am determined to yield this point. (never)
(j) He is invited me to visit him. (often)
EXERCISE – 2
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2. Fill in the blanks with suitable simple adverb.
(a) Some people ....................ask, “Where is god”
(b) We have ......................tea.
(c) He looks to be ..........................worried.
(d) She can speak English.............................
(e) I get up ......................in the morning.
(f) Are you not feeling.................?
(g) Your conduct is ...........................disgusting.
(h) I........................do my home work at night.
(i) Your answer is ...............incorrect.
EXERCISE -3
3. Make sentences by using the following Adverbs of time.
(a) already, soon, immediately.
(b) before, shortly, now, early, daily.
4. Make sentences by using the following adverbs of place.
(a) above, everywhere, nowhere, away
(b) away, here, there, inside.
5. Make sentences by using the following adverbs of manner.
(a) soundly, gently, loudly, carefully.
(b) well, gladly, nicely, steadily.
6. Make sentences by using the following adverbs of frequency.
(a) always, ever, never, sometimes
(b) seldom, often, again, once.
7. Make sentences by using the following adverbs of degree.
(a) enough, quite, rather, somewhat
(b) nearly, fully, too, very much.
EXERCISE- 4
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8. Complete the following sentences:
(a) He speaks to me......................
(b) Anish met me four years.......................
(c) This ground is big.....................................
(d) I have often told you to get up...........................
(e) You must practise it..........................
(f) They can speak French...........................
(g) My father was very pleased.........................
(h) We reached home...........................
(i) He waited for me..............................
(j) The water is too dirty.......................
EXERCISE – 5
9. Find out interrogative, relative, affirmation or negation adverbs in the following sentences:
(a) Why did you beat him?
(b) She knows how to cook briyani.
(c) How will he solve these problems?
(d) Will she help us?
(e) Let us decide how far to go on foot.
(f) She cannot explain how she did it.
(g) How often have you been Ooty?
(h) Is Rahall ready to help me? Certainly he is.
(i) Would you take the trouble? By all means I would.
(j) Where do you reside?
EXERCISE- 6
10. Write down four adverbs of relative:
(a) ............... (b).................. (c)......................... (d).......................
11. Write down four interrogative adverbs:
(a)....................... (b)............................ (c).......................... (d)........................

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12. Write down four adverbs of negation:
(a)............................... (b)................................ (c)................................ (d)............................
13. Write down four adverbs of affirmation:
(a)............................... (b)............................... (c)............................ (d)............................
EXERCISE – 7
14. Fill up the blanks with a related adverb:
(a) Explain to us ....................to solve this sum.
(b) I was warmly received ..................I went.
(c) Let me know..............you paid for this pen.
(d) Do you know.............................he has gone?
(e) I don’t know .....................long she will take to reach.
(f) She knows.......................you have insulted.
(g) I want to know..........................fast you can type.
(h) Nobody knows........................ long he or she will live.
(i) Ask the tailor...........................long he would take to stitch it.
EXERCISE -8
15. Form Adverb from the following adverbs:
(a) Wise, perfect, public, broad, speedy.
(b) Dull, very, full, gay, immediate.
(c) foot, shore, side, long, far.
(d) Back, good, one.
(e) Yond, hind, bad, three, twain.
(f) Loving, worried, knowing, anxious.
(g) Deed, fore, loft, low.
(h) Head, way, kind, bad.
(i) One, two, three.
EXERCISE -9
16. Choose the correct words from the words in the brackets:
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(a) I could get the shirt (free/freely)
(b) Ram runs very (fast/fastly).
(c) Susan sings (sweet/sweetly).
(d) It is raining (heavy/heavily).
(e) Are you sitting (comfortable/comfortably).
(f) The animals can run about in the forest (free/freely).
(g) You have done the entire sum (correct/correctly).
(h) The sun is shining (bright/brightly).
(i) Rahul does his home work (neat/neatly).
(j) The ship is going (slow/slowly).
EXERCISE – 10
17. Compare the following adverb:
(a) near, nobly, seriously, early, forth.
(b) much, ill, soon, well, little, comfortably.
(c) far, truly, hard, soon.
EXERCISE – 11
18. Replace the words in italics with an adverb:
(a) Mohan was roaming without any aim.
(b) The man beat the bull in a cruel way.
(c) You must do your work with care.
(d) The widow was weeping with bitterness.
(e) Women generally speak to others in a polite manner.
(f) Students welcomed the new teacher with warmth.
(g) My mother helps the poor in a generous way.
(h) The army advanced on and on.
(h) The fire-men fought the fire in the brave manner.
(i) John left the room in a hurry.
EXERCISE – 12
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19. Rewrite the following sentences using the word in brackets in its proper place:
(a) The train is fast. (fastly).
(b) I have any money. (hardly)
(c) We are late, let us hurry. (rather)
(d) We deceive ourselves.(sometimes)
(e) He makes a mistake. (rarely)
(f) She has come in. (just)
(g) He hasn’t finished. (yet)
(h) He gets up at six. (usually)
(i) The film was good. (fairly)
(j) He was tall to reach the self. (enough)
(k) I know her well. (quite)
(l) I have been told that. (often)
(m) I am late for my lectures. (often)
(n) He has hurt any person. (never)
(o) He avoids bad companions. (generally)
(p) We lost the match. (nearly)
(q) The bottle is full. (quite)
(r) He was brave to defy his employers. (enough)
(s) The exercise is bad. (rather)
EXERCISE – 14
20. Use the following words both as an adjective land as an adverb:
Hard, fast, little, late, long, early, high, better, near.

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9. AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH SUBJECT
Definition. Subject and verb agreement (concord) refers to the fact that the subject and verb
in s sentence must agree in number. In other words, they both must be singular or they both
must be plural. You can’t have a singular subject with a plural verb or vice versa. The tricky
part is in knowing the singular and plural forms of verbs and subjects. Singular and plural
verbs are usually pretty easy because they are nouns. In most cases the plural form of a noun
has an “s” at the end.
In verb we don’t follow this pattern. Adding “s” to a verb doesn’t make a plural. Here are
some more guidelines for subject verb agreement.
The following Rules are to be kept in mind while constructing sentences with subject and
verb agreement:
Rule No 1. When two subjects joined with either...or and Neither.... nor, the verb agrees
with the latter subject.
Either you or Gaurav is responsible for this mistake.
Either I or he is playing
Either Gaurav or you are responsible for the mistake.
Neither they nor he has to go.
Neither he nor they have to go.
Either shed or her brothers want to call you.
Either her brothers or she wants to call you.
I or you were supposed to join the meeting.
He or his friends don’t want to play.
Rule No 2. When two subjects joined with the word “and” the verb agrees with plural.
Ravi and Shankar are friends.
Time and tide wait for none.
Conductor and driver get the bus run.
Rule No 3. When the two subjects joined with the word “and” denoting one matter, the verb
agrees singular.
Bread and butter is my favourite dish.

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Rice and curry is main dish of South Indian.
Horse and carriage is rarely seen.
My bag and baggage has been thrown out of the hotel due to non payment.
Rule No 4. When two subjects joined with the word “and” but refers to the same person
or thing the verb agrees singular.
The director and producer of the movie was present here.
(If the definite article is placed before both the nouns then the verb agrees plural)
The director and the producer of the movie were present here.
Rule No 5. If the following words are placed in the sentence where subject consists of two
nouns or pronouns, the verb agrees according to the first noun or pronoun.
As well as, along with, together with, in addition to, with, not, and not.
Riya as well as his brothers is not at home.
He as well as I visits Goa every year.
I along with he have to celebrate his birthday.
Priya together with us has visited Agra.
A pen in addition to three pencils is to be given.
I with my friends am coming.
He not his friends has been punished.
Ravi and not his brothers goes to school.
Rule No 6. When a sentence begins with “there” ... “here” the verb agrees with the real
subject that follows there.
There is a saint in that village.
There were few literate people in that village.
Here is no one in this house.
Here is the money you are looking for.

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Here are your pens.
There comes he.
There meet they.
Rule No 7. In condition sentence with the following clause, the verb “were “ is used.
If I were you, I wouldn’t go.
If he were you, he wouldn’t stop me.
If he were PM, he would take immediate decision in terms of NRC, CAA, and NPR.
Or
Were he the PM, he would take immediate decision in terms of NRC, CAA and NPR.
If she were not at home, how could she call you.
Or
Were she not at home, how could she call you.
If I were a little taller, I could touch the ceiling.
If she were a graduate, she could get a good job.
If Ravi were here, I am sure; he would participate in this event.
If they were in the office, I wouldn’t go.
(Note. This can be both was and were if it is indicative mood. This will be as under:
If I was you, I wouldn’t go there.
If it is subjunctive (hypothetical mood) it can be like this:
If I were you, I wouldn’t go.
Or
Were I you, I wouldn’t go
(For more about this refer condition sentence rules)
Rule No 8. Nouns denoting weights, measures, amount, time and distance, the verb agrees
singular.
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Rs 10 are enough to buy it.
10 km is not long distance to travel by bike.
3 hours is not sufficient to prepare for an interview.
Thousand rupees is my salary.
Five thousand rupees is too much as pocket money for a child.
Fifteen kilometres is a long distance to travel by bicycle.
Seven litres of petrol was consumed to dry clean the carpet.
Three fourth of the work has been completed.
Rule No. 9- When a sentence has many, many a verb agrees plural for the former and
singular for the latter.
Many soldiers were killed in the war.
Many gifts have been received so far.
Many a soldiers was killed in the war.
Many a person was standing in the queue.
Many a flower fades away unseen.
Rule No 10. When a sentence has two nouns without article before them, the verb agrees
plural. Having two nouns with article before the first noun, the verb agrees singular. Having
two nouns with article before both nouns then the verb agrees plural.
Ram and Shyam are brothers.
The Correspondent and Principal of the school has met the parents.
The Correspondent and the Principal of the school have met the parents.
Author and Contributor are supposed to attend the press conference.
The Bank Manager and the Social Reformer are my close friends.
Rule No 11. When two nouns are placed in a sentence with “of” between them, the verb
agrees singular.
This Almirah of books is mine.
A bouquet of roses has been sent to his house.

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A list of Cheese dishes was written on that page.
The period of three months is not enough to appear for civil service examination.
The house of them is small but beautiful.
Rule No 12. When the following determiner place before the noun or pronoun in a sentence
the verb agrees according to the second noun.
All of, A lot of (lots of), some of
All of the Books are mine.
All of the Book is mine.
All of it is made in India.
All of these are made in India.
Some of the mobiles are malfunctioning.
Some of the water is polluted.
A lot of people are gathered.
A lot of money is not needed to start small business.
Rule No 13. When indefinite pronouns which do not refer to any specific person, place and
thing, place in a sentence the verb agrees according to third person singular and plural. The
list of indefinite pronoun in third person singular and plural are given below for student’s
ready reference. (Refer determiner and indefinite pronoun for more details)
List of indefinite pronouns in Third person singular.
Under third person singular category.
Someone, somebody, something, somewhere, Anyone, anybody, anything,

anywhere, everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere, no one, nobody, none, nothing,
nowhere, each, every, one, other, little, a little, the little, much, either, neither, another
(Verb agrees singular)
Someone is at the door.
Does anyone want to work with me?
One is able to achieve easily if the decision is firm.
Nobody knows about it.

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No one hates me.
Everyone has come.
Each brother of mine is intelligent.
Every friend of yours is naughty.
Something was kept on the table.
Anything is achievable.
Everything was available in the shop.
Nothing is difficulty.
A little is known to me.
Much has been expected from him.
Either is my enemy.
Neither has money.
Either of them was in the office.
Neither of them has been seen in the office.
Another pen is to be used.
Under third person plural category.
Both, few, a few, the few, many, several, others
(Verb agrees plural)
Both are my friends.
Both of them have cars of their own.
A few have cars while others don’t even have bikes.
Others have already been sent to school.
Many have come back home.
Several companies opposed the decision.
Under third person both singular and plural.

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All, some, more, none, any.
(Verb agrees both singular and plurals)
All are my friends.
All is well.
Some petrol has been sent to Bombay during the lockdown.
Some doctors have been sent to Gujarat during lockdown.
More money is coming out of my business.
More persons are coming from America.
More stones are needed (American English)
More stone are needed (British English)
Is there any in the class (indicating one person)
Are there any in the class (indicating more than one)
None is sitting there. (One pers)
None are sitting there.(more than one)
None of this mobile is made in India.
None of these mobiles are made in India.
Rule No 14. When subject is differing in number which connected by “and” the verb must
be plural.
He and I are well.
I and my father have lived here.
You and he are birds of the same feather.
Generally the subject can be placed in the following order:
Second person will place at first
Third person will place in second
First person will place at last.

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E.g. : You, he and I are students of PVV.(Singular Pers)
You, they and we are students of PVV (Plural Pers)
Rule No 15. When collective noun takes place in a sentence, the verb agrees singular if the
collection is thought of as a whole.. The verb agrees plural when the collection is thought of
individually.
All are well - individually
All is well - as whole
The council has chosen its President. As whole
The council have different opinion - individually
The committee was agreed on the main question.
The committee were divided in their opinion.
A bunch of keys is lying under the pillow.
A series of lectures was delivered on environmental pollution.
Rule No 16. When the subject is relative pronoun, the verb agrees with the antecedent.
Singular antecedent – Singular verb
Plural antecedent - Plural verb
I who am your friend, should have been informed.
I am the person who has helped you.
This is the one of the best books that are available on the subject.
Rule No 17. When the following words are placed in the sentence, the singular noun will
have singular verb and plural noun will have plural verb:
This/that + kind/sort/type of
These/those +kinds/sorts/types of
This kind of behaviour is not acceptable.
This type of people does not impress me.
Those kinds of expensive gadgets are not available in the market.

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Rule No 18. (a) More than one + singular Noun
More than one person has been honoured with Bharat Ratna this year.
(b) More + plural noun + than one
More persons than one have been honoured with Bharat Ratna this year.
Rule No 19. A pair of shoes, scissors, trousers, etc. will have singular verb.
A new pair of shoes is lying under the bed.
The pair of scissors is meant to cut only paper.
(However, if we omit a pair of and merely use the plural word, it takes a plural verb)
My shoes are lying under the bed.
These scissors are meant to cut only paper.
Rule No 20. The following nouns will have singular verb:
Food, furniture, cutlery, crockery, stationery, etc.
Food was good and affordable.
The entire old furniture in the house has been disposed of.
Beautiful cutlery is available in the supermarket.
The crockery becomes outdated.
Sufficient stationery is available in my office.
Rule No 21. The following nouns are singular in nature but treated as plural:
Scissors, pants, trousers, glasses, pliers, tongs, tweezers Cattle, people,
Rule No 22. Nouns singular in form but plural in meaning.
The people were agitated against the corona virus.
The cattle are grazing in the field.
Rule No 23. Name of some diseases, sports and some branches of learning which are
plural in nature but will take singular verb.
Mumps, measles, billiards, Mathematics, Economics, Physics, Statistics

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Rule No 24. The following words which refer to amount or quantity will take singular verb
whereas when they refer to number will take plural verb:
A lot of, a great deal of, plenty of, most of, some of, etc.
A lot of time was spent on preliminary enquiries.
Lots of food was distributed among the poor.
Plenty of help was available.
Lots of people are taking part in the marathon.
Plenty of shops are accepting payments by a credit card
Exercise-1
Correct the following sentences.
1. The Chief as well as his staff are present in the meeting.
2. The behaviour of the men and women were highly objectionable.
3. Throwing litters are forbidden.
4. Neither Arun nor Varun were present in the school yesterday.
5. He is a man who always help his friends in need.
6. The Chairman and secretary take morning walk every day.
7. The scholar and the poet was dead.
8. Tom as well as Jill are waiting for you
9. Sohan with his brothers were punished.
10. Every student and every teacher have their own book.
11. The study of mathematics required brains.
12. Everyone of the students are punished.
13. Each boy and each girl were awarded.
14. Neither of these questions appear difficult.
15. It is one of the best pictures that has ever been painted.
16. Lamb’s tales are an interesting book.

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17. Game after game were played.
18. Bread and butter are his favourite dish.
19. Patience as well as perseverance are necessary for success.
20. Each of the boys was given reward.
Exercise-2
Select the correct form of the verb shown in the brackets in each sentence.
1. The quality of the apples was/were not good.
2. One of the boys do not/does not have pen.
3. Each of the boys was/were given scholarship.
4. Neither the children nor their mother was/were admitted.
5. All that glitters is/are not gold.
7. Three and three make/makes six.
8. Manu as well his friend is/are guilty.
9. A hundred Kilometres is / are long distance to travel by bicycle.
10. The great poet and novelist has been/have been conferred cash prize.
11. Every boy and every girl has/have to join school.
12. None but the children was/were admitted.
13. Two thousand rupees is /are a good amount.
14. Slow and steady win/wins the race.
15. A large number of women do/does not have basic education.
16. More than forty boys was/were present in the special class.
17. None but the brave deserves/deserve the fair.
18. Time and tide waits/wait for no man.
19. A knowledge of Basic English Grammar is/are essential these days.
20. He as well as you is/are intelligent.

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10. MDOAL
Definition. A Modal verb is a type of auxiliary verb that is used to indicate modality i.e.
likelihood, ability, permission, request, capacity, suggestion, order, obligation, advice,
habitual, preference and so on. They are special verbs which give additional information
about the function of the lexical verb that follows it. They have a great variety of
communicative functions. They have grammatical functions and are used for forming tenses,
questions, the passive etc. Modal verb is always preceded by first form of lexical verb.
There are mainly two kinds of modal verbs. They are:
(a) Bona fide Modal. They are 11 in number which are used in communicative
functions. They are given under:
(i) will (ii) would
(iii) shall (iv) should
(v) can (vi) could
(vii) may (viii) might
(ix) must (x) ought to
(xi) Used to
(b) Semi Modal. There are seven semi modals which are in vogue. They are:
(i) need (ii) dare
(iii) has to (iv) have to
(v) had to (vi) will have to
(vii) had better
The situations under which the Bona fide Modal Verb is used are given chronologically:
Will
1. Willingness.
She is confident you will pass the examination.
2. Asking question.
Will you have a cup of coffee?
3. Showing Determination.
The sports teacher will detain him for his misbehaviour.

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4. Expressing threat.
I will dismiss you if you don’t complete your assignment.
5. Expressing promise or extension.
I will do better this time.
6. Definite Statement. (I and We)
We will learn functional grammar in English.
7. Indefinite Statement. (You, He, She, It, They)
They will sing a song.
8. Belief.
He will help me.
9. Decision.
I will go on foot tomorrow.,
10. Statement of facts.
It will be Wednesday tomorrow.
11. Offer.
I will help you in completing your project.
12. Request.
Will you stop smoking please?
13. Likely prediction.
We will see you next week.
14. Conditional sentence with if and unless.
If you go out in the rain, you will get wet.
15. As a Noun.
My grandfather made a Will before his demise.
16. As an adjective.
If there is a will there is a way.
Would
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1. Past Tense of will.
Divyansh said that he would go to the maths class.
2. Habitual action in the past.
After dinner we would sit and talk for hour.
3. Polite request.
Would you mind lending me your memory card?
4. Willingness/Wish.
Would you like to eat a cheese burger?
5. Conditional Statement.
If you have noted the number, the thief would have been caught.
6. Preference.
I would rather go to cinema than circus.
7. Polite Question.
Would you like to have another cup of tea?
8. Unreal past Tense.
He would have got a better grade if he had worked hard.
Shall
1. Future Time.
I shall do fashion designing course.
2. Determination.
You shall do what I have told you.
3. Command.
Children shall not play here.
4. Promise.
I shall clean my desk tomorrow.
5. Threat.
They shall pay for their negligence.

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6. Polite suggestion in question form.
Shall we inform the police?
7. Offer help.
Shall I carry your luggage?
Should
1. Past Tense of shall in narration.
Vasu said that he should be reaching on time.
2. Supposition/Possibility.
Should we turn up now? I have nothing to give him.
3. Duty/Moral obligation.
Pupils should obey their teachers.
4. Advice/Suggestion.
You should not have your meals without washing your hands with soap.
5. Past Tense of shall used in clause.
I should never have won the scholarship without your guidance and support.
6. Likelihood in present or future.
The effect of the economic reforms should be visible within the next three years.
The teacher should not come for another period, so we need not get ready.
7. Possibility.
He should be tired.
8. Should + have
You should have asked me.
Can
1. Ability.
I can speak French fluently.
2. Request and ask polite question.
Can you help me finish my home work?

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3. Permission in informal usage.
You can go now.
4. Prohibition.
You cannot smoke in an educational institute.
5. Permission granted by rules.
The President can return the bill to the parliament.
6. Question form.
Can Netaji still be alive?
7. Offers.
Can I get you something to drink sir?
8. Permission.
Can I borrow your pen please?
Could
1. Past Ability
Garimma could write with both her hands.
2. Request and polite question.
Could you lend me your motorcycle?
3. Possibility in present, past and future.
The train could be late. (Present)
Robert could have gotten this job if he had gone to the interview.(past)
If you don’t study, you could fail.(Future)
4. Suggestion.
You could ask your sister to lend you some money.
5. Request.
Could you pass me the salt?
6. Offer.
Could I get you something to eat?

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7. Permission.
Could I take the day off tomorrow?
8. Suggestion with anger.
You could take bathe at least once in a month.
May
1. Permission (formal)
May I come in sir?
2. Probability.
Anuja may be elected as SPL.
3. Purpose.
We eat that we may live.
4. Wish
May God bless you!
5. Fear/Hope.
I hope you may arrive today.
The doctor fears that he may not love long.
6. Used with well to express strong likelihood.
Our team may well win the math,
You may well fail to recognise him.
7. Possibility.
It may rain (50%)
8. Followed by an infinitive w/o to.
He may come.
9. General truth.
The poor may during the pandemic lockdown.
10. In doubt (not sure)
The Chairman may be late for the meeting.

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11. Guessing about the past.
I haven’t received your letter. It may have got lost in the post.
Might
1. Past tense of May in indirect speech.
He said that he might go home.
2. Purpose in the past tense.
I wrote down his address so that I might not forget it.
3. Polite request for permission.
Might I come in sir?
Might I sit down in the chair?
4. Suggestion.
You might at least say thank you when someone gives you a gift.
5. Past likelihood. (With as well)
He might as well have won the match.
You might as well have stood first in the examination.
6. Express humour or pomposity.
What might this mean?
Who might he be?
7. Possibility.
He might be hungry.
I might go there if I get time.
8. Uncertainty.
It might drizzle now.
9. Followed by an infinite w/o to.
He might pass.
10. Guessing.
They might have arrived by now.

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11. Question.
Might we ask you a question?
Might I just interrupt for a moment?
Must
1. Obligation.
You must take your passport when you go to abroad.
2. Duty.
A judge must be upright.
3. Strong Possibility.
She must have reached home by now.
4. Necessity.
I must finish my work by six.
You must pay your bill in time.
5. Obligation.
We must serve our country.
You must not say so.
6. Determination.
I must do well this time.
7. Possibility general.
He has not eaten anything since morning.
He must be hungry.
You have won the first prize. You must be happy.
8. Advice.
You must travel with ticket in the train.
You must take medicines regularly.
Ought to
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1. Moral Binding.
We ought to love our country.
We ought to respect of teachers.
2. Advice.
You ought to take up music as a career.
3. Past obligation that was not fulfilled.
We ought to have been more careful.
4. Natural expectation.
The car ought not to give any trouble as it has been recently repaired.
5. Past action which was not fulfilled.
You ought to have informed me.
You ought to have asked me.
Used to
1. Past habitual.
He used to live in the village before marriage.
I used to drink plenty of milk when I was in teenage.
The situations, under which the Semi Modal Verb is used, are given chronologically:
Need: It is used both as a Modal and Lexical verb. It can be used as a modal in Negative and
Interrogative sentences. It acts as lexical verb in affirmative sentences.
1. As a Modal (in negative sentence)
You need not pay the fine.
2. As a Lexical (in affirmative sentence)
We need an extra class for English Grammar.
3. As a Modal (in interrogative sentence)
Need we isolate during pandemic?
Dare. It is used both as a Modal and Lexical verb. It can be used as a modal in Negative and
Interrogative sentences. It acts as lexical verb in affirmative sentences.
1. As a Modal (in negative and interrogative sentence)

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Students dare not shout during the class hours in the school. (Negative sentence)
How dare they are? (Interrogative)
2. As a Lexical.
The thieves dared to escape from the prison.(Affirmative)
3. Has to/Have to.
Compulsion.
She has to clean the room.
We have to focus on studies.
You don’t have to wait for me.
He doesn’t have to work.
4. Had to.
Past compulsion.
We had to learn English Grammar.
He had to fight.
5. Will have to.
Necessity.
Sandeep will have to attend the meeting.
Ayansh will have to meet his teacher.
6. Had better. It refers to the present or future to talk about actions we think people
should do or which are desirable in a specific situation.
It is five o’clock; you had better go now before traffic gets too bad.
You had better hire a taxi to reach the place .

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11. TENSE
Definition of Tense. Tense is a form of verb that indicates the time or a state of an action and
event.
Tenses play a crucial role in the English language. It denotes the time an action takes place,
whether sometime in the past in the present or will take some time in the future.
Kinds of Tenses. From a general view of tenses, there are three types of tenses in English
language. They are:
(a) Doing Tense.
(b) Being Tense.
(c) Owning Tense.
Doing Tense. This type of tense is a lexical verb form that shows the time of an action of
the subject. There are mainly three types of tenses under this category. They are:
(a) Present Tense
(b) Past Tense
(c) Future Tense
Each tense further will have four sub tenses. Thus the total tenses under Doing Tense
will be twelve. They are:
(a) Simple
(b) Continuous
(c) `Perfect
(d) Perfect Continuous
Look at the formula of all tenses of Doing Tense.
Structure of Subject + Formula of Tense +Object

Sentence
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect continuous
Present Tense V1 Is/am/are+V4 Has/have+V3 Has+have+been+V4
Past Tense V2 Was/were+V4 Had+V3 Had+been+V4
Future Will +V1 Will + be +V4 Will + have+V3 Will+have+been+V4
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Look at the Tense Chart of Doing Tense.
Present Past Future

Simple Tom Plays piano Tom played piano Tom will play piano
Continuous Tom is playing Tom was playing Tom will be playing
piano piano piano
Perfect Tom has played Tom had played Tom will have
piano piano played piano
Perfect Tom has been Tom had been played Tom will have been
continuous playing piano piano playing piano
Look at the formula of Being Tense.
Structure of Subject + Formula

Sentence of Tense +Object
Simple
Present Tense Am/is/are
Past Tense Was/were
Future Tense Will + be
Look at the Tense Chart of Being Tense.
Present Past Future

Simple John is a student John was student Johan will be a
student
Look at the formula of Owning Tense.
Structure of Subject + Formula

Sentence of Tense +Object
Simple
Present Tense Has/have
Past Tense Had
Future Tense Will + have
Look at the Tense Chart of Owning Tense.
Present Past Future

Simple Jack has a pussy cat Jack had a pussy cat Jack will have a
pussy cat
Note. Lexical Verbs are not used in Being and Owning Tenses. The Primary Auxiliary verbs
are used as main verbs.
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EXERCISE
1. Recognise and tell the tense of each sentence:
(a) All of you are honest persons.
(b) Raju was a notorious boy.
(c) Jimmy will be in her best clothes.
(d) Akbar had many wise ministers.
(d) My father will have a car next month.
2. Fill up the blank with a verb in present perfect tense:
(a) My uncle .....................his old car.
(b) Our School .................. on 01 Mar.
(c) Our teacher ...............us a new lesson
(d) The children ...............their books.
(e) Ronald .................a while lie.
3. Supply the past perfect continuous tense of the verb given in brackets:
(a) I ...................for two good hours (run)
(b) He ............very hard since January (work)
(c) We .........this sum for an hour (solve)
(d) You ...........for help for an hour (shout)
(e) The writer ............a story for a week.
4. Name the tense of each sentence given below:
(a) Good Children will greet the elders.
(b) We shall be fighting corona virus.
(c) The cook lights a match stick.
(d) George has stood first in the class.
(e) The earth revolves round the sun.

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12. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE.
Definition
Sentence that informs us about a condition affecting an action is called conditional

sentence. Conditional sentence is complex sentence made up of two clauses in which several
tenses may be used. They are dependent clause and independent clause which join together
to express the condition. |Condition is something that can only happen if something else
occurs. The dependent clause expressing the condition and the main clause expressing the
consequence. Sentences having dependent and independent clause that almost always begins
with ‘if’. Some condition clauses might begin with ‘when’. Observe them in the following
examples.
(a) If I save enough, I can go on vacation
The dependent clause is - “If I save enough. ”
The independent6 clause is –“ I can go on vacation.”
(b) You can have dessert if you finish your home work.
The dependent clause is – “if your finish your homework.”
The independent clause is – “you can have dessert.”
Types of conditional sentence
As a rule, conditional sentence is categorised by whether its situation is real or

imagined. However, there are many types and forms of conational statements and they can
be quite complicated, varying depending on time, its likeliness of occurring, and other
factors, etc.
There are few different kinds of conditional, sentences in English. Here is a brief
outline of each kind.
(a) Real Condition or Zero conditional Sentence. It is a sentence that expresses

a fact or simple implication. The dependent clause of the zero conditional begins with
‘if’ or ‘when’. The independent clause of the zero conditional begins with the simple
present tense or the imperative tense. Zero conditional statements express conditions
that are always true and that will happen or do happen in certain conditions or
circumstances. Zero conditional sentences can come in many forms. But since they
based in fact, they only share past and present situations, Not possible future
situations. So, we write them using combination of past and present tenses. Observe
Present Tense + Present Tense
(i) If it rains, things get wet.

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(ii) If you stare at the sun, your eyes damage.
(iii) If you touch a flame, you burn yourself.
But we also write them using other present censes. Observe them in the following
sentences
Present Continuous+ Present simple
If it is snowing, we don’t drive.
I eat at home if Priya is cooking dinner.
Present continuous + Present continuous
If he is staying, I am going
If the plant is dying, you are not watering it
Zero conditionals can also reflect satiation that already happened.
Simple Past + Simple past
If it is snowed, we never drove.
If we had chocolate chips, we made cookies
Simple Past + Past continuous
We always made showmen if it was snowing
If Priya was cooking, I ate at home.
(b) Imagined conditional. It is a sentence to talk about hypothetical or imagined

conditions that are possible, likely, or even impossible. Based on the level of
possibility, there are three conditions, first, second and third.
(i) First conditional sentence shares the result of situation in the future
that we think, is pretty likely to happen. Its form uses a conditional
clause in the present simple, and the main clause in the future tense.
The main clause will use a modal,
* If I sleep now, I will work over the night.
* If I do well in my examination, I will get valuable presentation.
*If you take the highway, you will reach very soon.
* If he likes cookies, I will take some for him.

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Of all the conditionals, the first conditional expresses things that are mot possible or
likely to happen, As we will explain, with the second and third conditions, things become less
likely or even completely imagined.
(ii) Second Conational Sentence. It is a sentence that shows possible

outcomes that could occur in the present or future, if specific conditions exist.
The second conditional’s form uses a conjditi09onalk clause in the simp0le
past and the main clause in the past modals. Here are some examples.
If you slept till 3 p.m., you wouldn’t tire.
If you did well in examination, you would get valuable presentation.
If you took the highway, you could reach very soon.
If he liked cookies, I would take some for him.
(iii) Third Conditional. It lets us contemplate what could have happened if

things went differently in the past. It lets us reflect upon things in the way of
“if this had happened, this could have happened.” Its form uses the past
perfect for the conditional statement, and would + have + past participle for
the main clause .Here are some examples:
If you had slept till 3 p.m., you wouldn’t have tired.
If you had done well in examination, you would have got valuable
presentation.
If he had taken the highway, he could have reached very soon.
If he had liked cookies, I would have taken some for him.
Punctuating in conditional sentences.
Conditional sentences are fairly easy to identify because they almost always begin
with ‘if’. They might also begin with ‘when’ ‘provided that’, ‘given that’, or ‘considering ‘.
Just like other sentence in English, a conditional sentence only requires comma after the
dependent clause when the dependent clause is placed before the independent clause.
(a) If the baby wakes, I will be frustrated.
(b) If you go outside, you can see the storm clouds.
(c) When you finish your dinner, you will clean your plate.
If the dependent clause is after the independent clause, no comma is necessary.

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(a) I will be frustrated if the baby wakes.
(b) You can see the storm clouds if you go outside.
(c) You will clean your plate when you finish your dinner.
Exercise
Complete the Conditional Sentences deciding whether to use Type I, II, III or zero.
1. If I had time, I ......................shopping with you.
2. If you ...........................English, you will get along with them perfectly.
3. If they had gone for a walk, they .............................the lights off.
4. If she ........................to see us, we will go to the zoo.
5. I would have told you, if I ..................him.
6. Would you mind if I ...................the window?
7. If they.................me, I wouldn’t have said no.
8. My friend...................me at the station if he gets the afternoon off.
9. if I.......................it, nobody would do it.
10. If my father....................me up, I will take the bus home.

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13. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Definition.
The sound provided in a person’s larynx and uttered through the mouth as speech is called
voice. In traditional grammar voice is the quality of a verb that indicates whether its subject
acts or is acted upon. Voice is the term used to describe whether the verb is active or passive.
There are mainly two voices in English Grammar. They are:
(a) Active Voice. When the subject of the verb in a sentence performs the action
named in the verb, the sentence is said to be in the active voice.
Look this sentence:
Elima sings a song.
In this sentence the subject (Elima) performs the action named in the verb (sings), so
this sentence is known as active voice.
(b) Passive Voice. When the subject of the verb in a sentence receives the action
named in the verb, the sentence is said to be Passive Voice.
Look at the sentence:
A song is sung by Elima.
In this sentence, the subject (A song) receives the action named in the verb (is sung).
Such a sentence is said to be Passive Voice
Rules for changing Active Voice into Passive Voice.
When a verb in the Active voice is changed into Passive voice, the following rules are to be
kept in mind.
1. The subject of the verb becomes the object.
2. The object of the verb becomes the subject
3. The third form i.e. Past Participle of the verb is always used in all tenses.
4. Suitable Auxiliary verb is to be used before main verb in accordance with

tense.
5. The subject in the Active Voice becomes the object of the preposition ‘by’
6. Sentence having ‘be’ ‘been’ in active voice, is changed into passive voice.
7. In order to change the active voice into passive voice transitive verb is
required. Without transitive verb passive voice is probably not made.
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Normally, we use the active voice while speaking or writing. Active verbs are simple and
direct, so communication is easy and effective. Passive verbs are indirect, so they may be
less effective. However, there are certain situations where it is pertinent and preferable to use
the passive voice.
Let us see how the active voice is changed into passive voice in terms of tenses.
1. Simple Present (Present indefinite)
(Rule No 1. Am/is/are+ V3)
Active Voice Passive voice

Affirmative A man writes a poem A poem is written by Aman.
Double Q Who writes a poem? By whom is a poem written?
Double Q What does Aman write? What is written by Aman?
Single Q Does Aman write a poem? Is a poem written by Aman?
Positive Yes, Aman writes a poem. Yes, a poem is written by Aman.
Answer
Negative No, Aman does not write a poem No, a poem is not written by Aman.
Answer
2. Present continuous
(Rule No 2- is/am/are/+being +V 3)

Affirmative Aman is writing a poem. A poem is being written by Aman.
Double Q Who is writing a poem? By whom is a poem being written?
Double Q What is Aman writing? What is being written by Aman?
Single Q Is Aman writing a poem? Is a poem being written by Aman?
Positive Yes, Aman is writing a poem. Yes, a poem is being written by Aman.
Answer
Negative No, Aman is not writing a poem. No, a poem is not being written by Aman.
Answer
3. Present Perfect
(Rule No 3- has/have + been + V3)

Affirmative Aman has written a poem A poem has been written by Aman.
Double Q Who has written a poem? By whom has a poem been written?
Double Q What has Aman written? What has been written by Aman?
Single Q Has Aman written a poem? Has a poem been written by Aman?
Positive Yes, Aman has written a poem . Yes, a poem has been written by Aman.
Answer
Negative No, Aman has not written a poem No, a poem has not been written by Aman.
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4. Present perfect continuous.
(Rule No 4- No passive voice)

Affirmative Aman has been writing a poem
Double Q Who has been writing a poem?
Double Q What has Aman been writing?
Single Q Has Aman been writing a poem?
Positive Yes, Aman has been writing a poem.
Answer No Passive voice
Negative No, Aman has not been writing a
Answer poem
5. Simple Past (Past indefinite)
(Rule No 5 – was/were +V3)

Affirmative Aman wrote a poem A poem was written by Aman.
Double Q Who wrote a poem? By whom was a poem written?
Double Q What did Aman write? What was written by a man?
Single Q Did Aman write a poem? was a poem written by a man?
Positive Yes, Aman wrote a poem . Yes, a poem was written by a man.
Answer
Negative No, Aman did not write a poem No, a poem was not written by man.
Answer
6. Past Continuous.
(Rule No 6 – was/were+ being + V3)

Affirmative Aman was writing a poem A poem was being written by Aman.
Double Q Who was writing a poem? By whom was a poem being written?
Double Q What was Aman writing? What was being written by Aman?
SingleQ Was Aman writing a poem? Was a poem being written by Aman?
Positive Yes, Aman was writing a poem . Yes, a poem was being written by Aman.
Answer
Positive Yes, Aman was writing a poem . Yes, a poem was being written by Aman.
Answer
Negative No, Aman was not writing a poem No, a poem was not being written by Aman.
Answer
7. Past Perfect.
(Rule No 7- had + been + V3)

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Affirmative Aman had written a poem A poem had been written by Aman.
Double Q Who had written a poem? By whom had a poem been written?
Double Q What had Aman written? What had been written by Aman?
Single Q Had Aman written a poem? Had a poem been written by Aman?
Positive Yes, Aman had written a poem. Yes, a poem had been written by Aman.
Answer
Negative No, Aman had not written a poem No, a poem had not been written by Aman.
Answer
8. Past Perfect continuous.

Affirmative Aman had been writing a poem
Double Q Who had been writing a poem?
Double Q What had Aman been writing?
Single Q Had Aman been writing a poem?
Positive Yes, Aman had been writing a poem.
Answer No Passive Voice
Negative No, Aman had not been writing a
Answer poem
9. Simple Future (Future Indefinite)
(Rule No 9- will/shall + be + V3)

Affirmative Aman will write a poem A poem will be written by Aman.
Double Q Who will write a poem? By whom will a poem be written?
Double Q What will Aman write? What will be written by Aman?
Single Q Will Aman write a poem? Will a poem be written by Aman?
Positive Yes, Aman will write a poem . Yes, a poem will be written by Aman.
Answer
Negative No, Aman will not write a poem No, a poem will not be written by Aman.
Answer
10. Future Continuous.
(Rule No 10- No Passive Voice)

Affirmative Aman will be writing a poem
Double Q Who will be writing a poem?
Double Q What will Aman be writing?
Single Q Will Aman be writing a poem?
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Positive Yes, Aman will be writing a poem. No Passive Voice

Answer
Negative No, Aman will not be writing a poem
Answer
11. Future Perfect.
(Rule No 11 – will have/shall have + been + V3)

Affirmative Aman will have written a poem A poem will have been written by Aman.
Double Q Who will lhave written a poem? By whom will a poem have written?
Double Q What will Aman have written? What will have been written by Aman?
Single Q Will Aman have written poem? Will a poem have been written by Aman?
Positive Yes, Aman will have written a poem. Yes, a poem will have been written by Aman
Answer
Negative No, Aman will not have written a No, a poem will not have been written by Am
Answer poem
12. Future perfect continuous.

Affirmative Aman will have been writing a poem
Double Q Who will have been writing poem?
Double Q What will Aman have been writing?
Single Q Will Aman have been writing a No Passive Voice
poem?
Positive Yes, Aman will have been writing a
Answer poem.
Negative No, Aman will not have been writing
Answer poem
Modal Auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, must, would, should, ought to, used to.
Can
Active Voice : I can life the box.
Passive Voice : The box can be lifted by me
Could
Active voice : He could do this work.
Passive voice : This work could be done by him.

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May
Active voice : She may ask a question.
Passive voice : A question may be asked by her.
Might
Active voice : We might miss the bus.
Passive voice : The bus might be missed by us.
Must
Active voice : Everyone must take maths book.
Passive voice : Maths book must be taken by everyone.
Ought to
Active Voice : People ought to respect National Flag.
Passive Voice: National Flag ought to be respected by Children.
Used to
Active Voice : My grandfather used to drink coffee.
Passive voice: Coffee used to be drunk by my grandfather.
Imperative Sentence.
(a) Command and Order.
Active voice: Open the Window.
Passive Voice: Let the widow be opened.
Active Voice: Bring a glass of water.
Passive Voice: Let a glass of water be brought.
Active Voice: Tell him to leave at once.
Passive voice; Let him be told to leave at once.
Active Voice: Leave at once.
Passive Voice: You are ordered to leave at once.

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(b) Advice/Suggestion.
Active Voice: Take these tablets with warm water.
Passive Voice: These tablets should be taken with warm water.
Active Voice: Don’t give false evidence.
Passive voice: False evidence should not be given.
Or
You are advised not to give false evidence
(c) Request.
Active Voice: Please grant me leave for today.
Passive voice: I may kindly be granted leave for today.
Or
You are requested to grant me leave.
Active Voice: Please give me some more time to finish the work.
Passive Voice: I may please be given more time to finish the work.
(d) Starting with let in Active Voice.
Active Voice: Let him complete the work.
Passive voice: Let the work be completed by him.
Active Voice: Let us discuss the matter.
Passive Voice: Let the matter be discussed by us.
Active Voice: Let us dance.
Passive Voice: It is suggested that we should dance.
Active voice : Love your country.
Passive voice : Your country should be loved.
Active Voice : Don’t insult the poor.
Passive voice : The poor should not be insulted.

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Active Voice : Please come in.
Passive Voice : You are requested to come in.
Active voice : Kindly do this work.
Passive voice : You are requested to do this work.
Active voice : Go there please.
Passive Voice ; you are requested to go there.
(e) Miscellaneous
Active Voice : It is time to adopt aggressive marketing techniques.
Passive voice : It is time for aggressive marketing techniques to be adopted.
Active Voice : There is no time to waste.
Passive Voice : There is no time to be wasted.
Active voice : I saw him carrying your suitcase.
Passive Voice : I saw your suitcase being carried by him.
Active Voice : He likes people to flatter him.
Passive Voice : He likes to be flattered.
Active Voice : It is your duty to make your parents feel happy.
Passive Voice : You are supposed to make your parents feel happy.
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Exercise- 1
Change the voice of these sentences.
1. Nobody has brought this fact to my notice.
2. Amrish Puri is said to be a versatile actor.
3. Shall we ever hear that sweet voice again?
5. She is believed to be honest.
6. They brought up their children with great care.
7. Whom did you approach to recommend your case?
8. There is no time to waste.
9. It is possible to make this payment by a credit card.
10. Keep all the lights on till midnight.
Exercise-2
Change the following sentences into passive voice.
1. Someone has stolen my pen.
2. They speak English in Nagaland.
3. They don’t like strangers in this town.
4. They are serving tea to the guests.
5. They drank a whole barrel of beer at the party.
6. They always ask some hard questions in the Science examination.
7. People always admire a courageous person.
8. No one has opened the chest for the last hundred years.
9. Someone has broken one of my dinner plates.
10. They bought a big battle here three hundred years ago.
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Exercise-3
Put the following sentences into the Active Form.
1. A lion may be helped even by a little mouse.
2. The king was welcomed by the people.
3. My cares are left behind.
4. He was taken for a thief.
5. He was known to be a kind man.
6. Men have been ruined by gambling.
7. War was declared against Pakistan by India.
8. A present was brought for her by her lover.
9. He was made general.
10. By whom was this letter written.

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14. PHRASE
Definition. Phrase is group of words that stands together as a single grammatical unit,
typically as part of a clause or a sentence. A phrase does not contain a subject and verb and
consequently cannot convey a complete thought and meaning. A phrase contrasts with a
clause. There are ten phrases in modern English. They appended below:
1. Noun phrase. It consists of a noun and all its modifiers.
(a) They hired a huge beautiful home ( Noun phrase as an object)
(b) She bought a decent black shirt (Noun phrase as an object)
(c). One of our close relatives bought a beautiful red car (Noun phrase as a
subject and an obj)
(d). Ram is a good person (Noun phrase as a complement)
2 Prepositional phrase. It is a group of words that consists of a preposition, its object

which will be a noun or a pronoun and any words that modify the object.
(a) The kids were laughing at the Joke (Preposition phrase and Noun phrase
also)
(b) A girl with red hair teaches in the college. ( pre phrase+ Adj Phrase and Pre
phrase + Adv phr)
(c) He is sleeping on the carpet ( Pre phr + adv phr)
The teacher looked at the black board. (here it is place, so Pre phr +Adv phr)
3. Adjective phrase. It is a group of words headed by an adjective that modifies a noun.

In these examples, the adjective phrases are in bold and underlined.
(a) A kid on the roof is looking at the sky ( Adj Ph and Adv Ph)
(b) The boy in the shop is my friend.(Adj Ph + Pre Ph)
(c) She bought a beautiful piano . (Adj ph)
(d) A lady with a long hair is walking in the garden. ( Adj ph and Adv ph)
4. Adverb phrase (Adverbial). It is a group of words that functions as an adverb. In

these examples, the adverbial phrases are underlined and bolded.
(a) He drives a car in a very high speed. ( Adv ph) (how, where, when, why)
(b) The racer was running very fast. ( Adv ph) ( how)
(b) They walked along the wall ( Adv ph) (Where)

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5. Verb phrase. It is group of words functioning as a verb including auxiliary verb.
(a) She is working a letter
(b) He has taken his annual exam
(c) Students must reach in time for the class.
(d) They have been playing game since morning.
6. Infinitive phrase. It is the infinitive form of a verb plus any complements and
modifiers.
(a) I enjoy to drive a car.
(b) To get success in examination is an ambition of every student.
(c) Government made a plan to help the poor.
(d) She sang a song to please the audience.
7. Gerund Phrase. It is a phrase which consists of a gerund, its object, and any
modifiers.
(a) I enjoy listening to the music,
(b) He started writing the letter.
(c) Crying of a baby disturbed me a lot.
8. Participle Phrase. It always functions as adjective , adding description to the

sentence.
(a) The student raising their hands need extra page.
(b) She got a mail mentioning about her exam.
9. Absolute phrase. It is group op words that modifies a noun in a sentence, but it is not
connected by a conjunction . It is set off with a comma only and it could be removed
from the sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence.
(a) She is looking very much happy, her face expressing a shine of happiness.
(b) He, having books in his hand, was going to his college.
(c) She, having anger in her eyes, met her enemy.
10. Appositive phrase (complementary). It is a noun or a noun phrase that sits next to
another noun to rename it or to describe it in another way.
(a) Ram, my younger brother, went there.

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(b) Gandhiji , once a lawyer, was a great leader.
(c) Thomas Edison, the inventor of the light bulb, is often called USA’s greatest
inventor.
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15. CLAUSE
A Clause is a group of related words that contains a subject as well as a verb,. A clause is a
meaningful combination of words, as it can, along express a complete thought. A clause can
be simple sentence. Hence clause is also sometimes defined as group of words having a
subject and predicate.
There are three clauses in English. Look at the illustration:
Clause
Main Clause Subordinate clause Coordinate clause
(Principal Clause) (Dependent clause) (Correlative clause)
(Independent Clause)
Noun Clause Adjective Clause Adverb Clause
AS A SUBJECT TO VERB ADVERB OF PLALCE CUMULATIVE

AS OBJECT TO VERB ADVERB OF TIME (COPUATIVE)
AS OBJECT PREPOSITION ADVERB OF CAUSE ADVERSATIVE
SUBJECT TO COMPLEMENT PURPOSE DISJUCTIVE
CONDITION ILLATIVE
COMPRISON
MANNER
I. Main Clause (principle or Independent) Clause. Main Clause is a combination of

related words containing subject, verb and object. It can be simple sentence or a part of
compound sentence. It stands independently to give full meaning. It does not depend on
other sentence. It has its own subject and verb and object if need be.
(a) I saw a man.
(b) I met a friend yesterday.
(c) He does not like pet animal.
(d) She loves her children.

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(e) My father can speak many languages fluently.
II. Subordinate clause (dependent clause). It is the clause which cannot express a
complete meaning. It alone cannot stand as a sentence because it depends on the other clause
i.e. independent clause to give complete meaning. It serves as a subordinate role in the
sentence. It has much division. They are enumerated in the succeeding paragraphs. Students
are advised to go through them carefully with their examples given against each.
.1. Noun clause. It is dependent clause that acts as a noun (Subject/Object) in the
sentence
(a) As a subject.
(i) Where Shiva lives is not known to me. (Noun clause as a subject)
(ii) What she wore to the party amazed me. (Noun cl as a subject)
(b) As an object.
(i) I know that Shiva will come today. (Noun cl as an obj)
(ii) He wanted to know when shiva would go (Noun cl as an obj)
(c) As an obj to preposition.
(i) Please listen to what he says.
(ii) You must not be held responsible for what he does.
(ii) I could not come for it was dark.
(d) As a subject to complement.
(i) Ram’s problem was that he didn’t practice enough.
(ii) Ram’s excuse for being late was that he forgot to set his alarm.
2. Adjective clause. Adjective clause ids a dependent clause. It begins with relative
pronoun which connects them to the word they describe such as: that, where, when, who
whom, whose, when why
1. I have a watch. The watch was given to me.
2. I have a watch which was given to me.
A crow was sitting on the tree. A fox saw it.
3. A boy came to me yesterday. He was very wise.
A boy who was very wise came to me yesterday.
4 A man speaks the truth. Everybody loves him.

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A man whom everybody loves speaks the truth.
5. He was Raju. His father is a doctor.
He was Raju whose father is a doctor.
6. He is Vijay. I teach him every day.
He is Vijay whom I teach every day.
7. We waited for our friends,. We waited till their arrival.
. We waited for our friends until, their arrival.
3. Adverb Clause or Adverbial clause. It is also dependent clause that function is as

adverb. It begins with the following situation:-
When.
After, when, until, soon, before, once, while, as soon as, whenever, by the time
etc.
How.
If, whether, or not, provided, in case, unless, even if, in the event, etc.
Why.
Because, as, since, so, in order that, now that, inasmuch, etc.
Where.
Where, wherever.
(a) Adverb of Place. (Where, Wherever)
(i) He went to many places. He was welcomed everywhere.
He went to many places where he was welcomed.
(ii) I know the house. You live.
I know the house where you live.
(b). Adverb clause of time. This adverb clause answers the question when who,
whoever, while, after, before, since as till, until etc.
(i) I reached the station. The train had departed.
I reached the station after the train had departed.
Or
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The train had departed before I reached the station.
(ii) We had hardly reached the station. The train left the platform.
The train left the platform when we hardly reached the station.
(c) Adverbial Clause of cause. This will answer the question why, because,, as ,
since etc.
(i) She was ill. She could not attend the meeting.
She could not attend the meeting as she was ill.
Because she was ill
Since she was ill
(ii) The man cannot come. He is not at home.
The man cannot come because he is not at home.
As he is not at home.
Since he is not at home.
(iii) She can solve the sum. She knows the theory.
She can solve the sum as/because/since she know the theory.
(d) Adverbial clause of purpose. That, lest, or else, should, so that etc.
(i) Study carefully. You will fail.
Study carefully lest you should fail.
(ii) Walk slowly. You may fall down.
Walk slowly or else you should fall down.
(iii) We eat. We live.
We eat so that we may live.
(e) Adverbial clause of condition. if, whether, unless,. Until etc.
(i) I will not give you money. You will not return my book.
I will not give you money unless you return my book.
(ii) Work hard. You will get success.
If you work hard, you will get success.

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(iii) I don’t know. She will come. She will not come.
I don’t know whether she will come or not.
(f). Adverbial clause of comparison. As ....as, so....as, than, etc.
(i) She is wise. Her brother is equally wise.
She is as wise as her brother.
(ii) Ram is intelligent. Mohan is not equally intelligent.
Mohan is no so intelligent as Ram.
(iii) She is very wise. Her sister is not wise.
She is wiser than her sister. Or
Her sister is not so wise as she. Or
Her sister is not wiser than she.
(g). Adverbial clause of manner. as if, as, as though, etc.
(i) Ram lived a luxurious. He seems to be a king.
Ram lived a luxurious life as if he were a king
Ram live a luxurious life as though he were a king.
(ii) I pretended. I was mad.
I pretended as if I was mad.
I pretended as though I was mad.
III. Coordinate clause. An independent clause that is connected to another one of equal
importance, often with coordinate conjunction such as --- and--- but--- or—etc. For example:
He died and his wife married again
There are two coordinate clauses joined with a coordinate conjunction “and”. The
linking of two syntactically equal sentences, as by a coordinate conjunction.
He died. - Main Clause
His wife married again.- Main clause
The above two main clauses are joined together by coordinate conjunction --- and ----
.Thus becomes coordinate clause. The following conjunction are categorised as coordinate
conjunction in English:
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And, but, for, nor, or, so , yet , only that, only, neither...nor, either....or, else , as well
as, still, both ...and, not only... but also , nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding,
,whereas ,however, otherwise, hence, therefore.
1. Cumulative or Copulative. It merely adds one statement to another. The

following coordinate conjunctions are used:
And, not only ....but also, so, as well as.
(a) Be just . Fear none.
Be just and fear none.
(b) The night was dark. The journey was long.
The night was dark and the journey was long.
(c) He is good. He is wise.
He is good and wise. Or
He is good as well as wise. Or
He is not only good but also wise.
(d) The wind blew .The rain fall .The lightning flashed.
The wind blew, the rail fall and the lightning flashed.
2. Adversative. Expressing opposite or contrast between two statements. The

following coordinate conjunctions are used under this Adversative:
But, yet, still, whereas, however,
(a) He is slow. He is sure.
He is slow but he is sure.
(b) I was annoyed. I kept quiet.
I was annoyed but I kept quiet.
(c) Sunita worked hard. She failed.
Sumita worked hard but failed.
3. Disjunctive or Alternative. Expressing a choice between two alternative

statements. The Following coordinate conjunctions are used in this category:
Or, either.....or, neither.....nor, otherwise, else (or else),lest.
(a) She must weep. She will die.

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She must weep or she will die or
She must weep lest she should die. Or
She must weep or else she should die.
` (b) He is good; He is bad.
He is either good or bad.
Don’t buy this. Don’t buy that.
Buy neither this nor that.
(c) Walk quickly. You will not overtake him.
Walk quickly otherwise you will not overtake him.
(d) Don’t buy this .Don’t buy it.
Buy neither this nor that.
4. Illative. Expressing an inference statement. The following coordinate

conjunctions are used:
Therefore, hence, for, so.
(a) It is dark. I cannot come.
It is dark so I cannot come. Or
I cannot come for it is dark.
(c) He was invited. He did not go to the function.
He was invited so he did not go to the function. Or
He was invited therefore he did not go to the function.
(d) The police arrested him. He was sent to jail.
(e) Mosquitoes spread malaria. We must destroy them.

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16. PREPOSITION
Definition. A pre position is an important part of the English Language. It is used to show
a relationship between the noun and pronoun in a sentences. A preposition must always be
followed by a noun or pronoun in a sentence. There are many preposition examples that will
make it easy to understand how the parts of a sentence fit together and how the rules apply
when it comes to using a preposition in a sentence. There are more than hundred prepositions
in the English language. In addition, there are endless possibilities for creating prepositional
phrases which begins with preposition and end with a noun or pronoun
Observe the following preposition in sentences.
1. I am going to America.
2. Ashok threw a stone into the river.
3. The present is inside the box.
4. They have gone out of the town.
The list of preposition is given below in Toto.
In, into, on, onto, up, down, upon, at, atop, by, about, along, across, against ,
round, around, after, before, behind, beyond, under, beneath, underneath, down,
above, below, from, to, beside, besides, among, amongst, between, since, for,
during, except, inside, out, outside, near, of, off, over, past, through,
throughout, toward, towards, till, until, with, within, without, against, amid,
amidst, barring, because, via, concerning, considering, according, despite, during,
considering, , regarding, pending, respecting, barring, next, except, opposite, unlike,
via, on account of, on behalf of, in favour of, on favour of, on top of, owing to, with
view to, in case, in case of, in spite of, instead of , in lieu of, so far as, as a result of ,
by fear of, together with, rather than, because of, close to, on top of, according to,
in accordance with, in terms of, ahead of, by means of , in addition to, in front of, in
place of, except for, next to, prior to, by way of, by dint of , with a view to, away
from, for the sake of, with regard to, apart from, aside from, by means of, due to,
set aside, ahead of, excluding, prior to,
There are few interesting linguistic logic about preposition which are enumerated as under:
Logic No 1. We use some fixed set of preposition in English Language. No other

new preposition sets added to the language.
Logic No 2. It does not have any other form like verb, adjective and adverb etc.
Logic No 3. It cannot be plural, possessive, inflection, or anything else.
Logic No 4. Most of the preposition has been fixed to the contextual.

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Logic No 5. Preposition can be one, two, three or even more words .Preposition
consisting more than two words are called Phrasal preposition.
Logic No 6. Preposition can never be a plural form.
Position of the preposition.
The word preposition means pre + position i.e. placed before noun or pronoun.
However, the same can be placed in the following ways:
1. While using preposition with an infinite, it is placed at the end. For example”
The wild animals need shelter to live in.
Here is a knife to cut with.
2. As a general rule the preposition is placed before its object. For example :
The squirrel fell from the tree.
My younger brother is sitting near his friend.
3. When the object of the preposition is a relative pronoun ---that---- the

preposition is placed at the end and not before the subject. For example:
This is the girl that the teacher starred at.
Get me the knife that he was cutting with.
4. When the object of a preposition is an interrogative pronoun the preposition is

placed at the end of the sentence. For example:
(a) Whom are you laughing at?
(b) What are you writing on?
5. When the object of a preposition is a relative pronoun, the preposition is

placed at the end. For example:
(a) This is the man whom we are waiting for.
(b) We don’t know whom they were talking about.
Preposition can be used in many positions. They are mentioned below:
(a) Preposition of time. The prepositions of time are used go help indicate when
something happened, happens or will happen. The following prepositions are used in
this category:
At, on, in, from, to, for, since, ago, till, by, before, after, during,
about, around, until, throughout, etc.
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e.g. (a) I was born on 26 Oct 1956.
(b) I was born in 1956.
(c) I was born at exactly 2 a.m.
(d) I was born after the Great War ended.
(b) Preposition of place and direction. It shows the relationship of place

between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence. The following prepositions are
used under this category:
On, at, in by, into, from, to, towards, up, down across, between,
among, through, in front of, behind, above, over, under, below, etc
e.g. (a) He is at home.
(b) He came from Australia.
(c) The thief broke into the house.
(d) I live across the river.
(c) Preposition of agents or things. It indicates a casual relationship between

nouns and other parts of the sentence. The following preposition are used under this
category”
Of, for, by, with, about, etc.
e.g. (a) This article is about smart phones.
(b) Most of the guests have already left.
(c) I will always be here for you.
(9) He is playing with his brothers.
e.g. (a) They along with their children went to temple.
(b) According to the new rules, you are right.
(c) In spite of being good player, he was not selected.
(d) I am going out of the city.
There are five different types of prepositions:

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Preposition
Simple Double Compound Participle Phrase
(a) Simple preposition. The following prepositions are simple preposition:
At, for, in, off, of, on, over, from, out, through, till, up, under,
to, by, near, with, since, over, , down, from, out, down, during,
except, for, from, like, past, since, through, till under with , atop, etc.
e.g. (a) He sat on the chair,
(B) There is some milk in the fridge.
((c) She is hiding under the table.
(d) The cat jumped off the counter.
(e) He drove over the bridge.
(f) she lost her ring at the beach.
(g) The book belongs to Antony.
`` (h) They were sitting by the tree.
(i) We are running in the gym.
(k) The sun is above the clouds.
(l) She lives near the work place.
(m) She drew the picture with a crayon.
(n) He swam at the lake.
(o) He located at the key for the lock.
(p) The car went through the tunnel.
(q) I got a package from a friend.
(r) I have liked that song since 19990.
(s) She put the flowers by the window.
(t) The food was placed on the table.

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(b) Double Preposition. It is two simple prepositions used together, often

indicating direction. Whenever a simple preposition fails to express the correct
sense, the double preposition will serve the purpose. Some double
prepositions are given below:
Into, onto, upon, within, without, inside, outside, out of, atop, etc.
e.g. (a) Once upon a time there was a beautiful princess.
(b) The squirrel climbed onto the guava tree.
(c) It is up to you to find a solution.
(d) The loud noise came from within the classroom.
(e) She never goes without her Smartphone.
(f) The caterpillar turned into a butterfly.
(g) The parakeet sat atop the oak tree.
(h) He was unable to get out of the job.
(c) Compound preposition. It consists of two or more words, usually as simple

preposition, and another word, to convey location. It is formed by prefixing a
preposition. Some Compound prepositions are given below:
Behind, beside, besides, beneath, beyond, amidst, before, across,

along, about, around, below, between,
(d) Participle preposition. There are few words which are present participles of
verbs are used as preposition without noun or pronoun. This type of
prepositions have an ending with ---- ing--- form. Some Participle Prepositions
are given below:
Considering, pending, concerning, during, providing, touching,

regarding, following, including, excluding, respecting, barring, starring,
according, etc.
e.g. (a) considering his age, he did a great job.
(b) The teacher said no talking during class.
(c) The principal was asking questions regarding her behaviour.
(d) Al the neighbours were there including the new one.
(e) She is interested in anything concerning horses.
(e) Phrase Preposition. It is a group of words used as preposition. It includes a

preposition at the end. Some Phrase preposition is given below:
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Along with, apart from, because of, by means of,

according to, in front of, contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in
reference to, in addition to, in regard to, instead of, on top of , out
of, with regard to, by way of, on behalf of, in case of, on the side of,
agreeably to, away from, because of, by dint of, by means of, by
reason of, by virtue of, conformably to, for the sake of, in accordance
with, in behalf of, on behalf of, in comparison to, in compliance with,
in consequence of, in course of, in favour of, in front of, in lieu of, in
order to, in place of, in reference to, in regard to, in the event of,
owing to, with a view to, with an eye to, with reference to, with regard
to, in regard to, in terms of, in sight of, etc.
Correct uses of preposition for time
In the 2000’s
In the 90’s
In the month of June
In 5 weeks
In the spring
In the future
In the Diwali holiday
In the morning
In the evening
In the afternoon
Correct uses of preposition ---At ( VERY SPECIFIC)
At 8 a.m.
At 8 p.m.
At midnight
At the moment
At Easter vacation
At 456, cross road
At the station
Correct uses of preposition --- on--- (SPECIFIC)

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On the week end.
On Monday
On Apr,03
On my birthday
On Sunday morning
On Shastri street
On seventh avenues
On the floor
On the bus
On the radio
Correct uses of preposition of place (at, on, in)
At the office in the cinema on the ground
At the station in the line on the left
At the top in a queue on the right
At the front in a row on a farm
At the side in a garden on an elephant
At reception in a park on the ceiling
At the stop in the sky on the roof
At someone’s house in bed on the second floor
At the entrance in a room on a bicycle
At the front desk in a race on a list
At the top of the page in the final stage on the menu
Ata concert in a lift on a wall
At the door in a building on a map
At conference in a town/country on the carpet
At a party in an arm chair on television
At the corner in the book on an island

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At the front in London on the beach
At the cross road in the journal on the left
At the front in the kitchen on the right
At the back in the bank on the shelf
At home in the market on the phone
At the bottom in a basket on a page
At the end of the road in the article on the table
At school In the picture
At work In the world
At the In the street
At the library In the North
At the cinema In the water
In the mirror
In the classroom
In the newspaper
In a pool
In the bag
The following nouns will take the preposition ---- to---.
slave attention submission sequel

obedience Exception repugnance menace
encouragement reference Limit
likeness key duty disgrace
Allergy assent devotion claim
antipathy allegiance accession antidote
aversion alternative
The following nouns will take the preposition ----after----
Victim neglect danger control

need Want use lack
charge chance Grasp slave result
fear care Abhorrence experience
proof observance distrust
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The following nouns take the preposition----for----
Zeal partiality concern compensation

passion Tolerance surety pity
compassion cause Opportunity sympathy
search love capacity Candidate
longing remorse regard hatred
Blame bid freedom pretext
pity Fondles appetite apology
excuse penalty Payment desire
anxiety aptitude cure Preference
prediction craving affection
The following verbs take the preposition-----to----
Yield object attribute attend

listen Testify take lead
aspire ascribe Explain surrender
succumb decide appoint Apologise
consent subscribe stoop complaint
Allude allot contribute revert
refer Agree adhere conform
prefer occur Belong accede
The following verbs take the preposition-----from-----
Refrain part detract desist

exclude Recover recoil emerge
derive debar Elicit prohibit
preserve digress cease Alight
differ protect prevent deviate
Abstain
The following verbs take the preposition ----on-----
Trample feed depend deli berate

enlarge Subsist enlarge deliberate
decide encroach Live intrude
embark count comment Call
dwell determine impose insist
The following verbs take the preposition----in----

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Trust indulge employ delight

increase Persist persevere glory
dabble believe fall involve
meddle excel acquiesce Abound
enlist interfere
The following adjectives and participles take the preposition ---to---
Necessary prone true tantamount prior

loyal lost prejudicial suited subject
preferable limited Liable pertinent serviceable
sensitive peculiar indigenous Impervious partial
senior sacred painful immaterial Injurious
opposite restricted responsible open injured
Insensible offensive relevant related obliged
inimical Indulgent obedient reduced indispensable
indifferent disastrous Applicable averse devoted
indebted inclined detrimental Answerable amenable
derogatory incidental impertinent deaf alive
alien creditable hostile hurtful contrary
Akin agreeable congenial grateful foreign
conformable affectionate adjacent conductive favourable
fatal condemned Adequate addicted comparable
faithful exposed common accustomed accessible
callous essential equal blind Acceptable
beneficial entitled
Exercise. Fill the gaps with the correct prepositions given below :
1. We live ............London
(a) at (b) in (c) on
2. Would you like to go ......the cinema tonight?
(a) in (b) to (d) at
3. No, thanks .I was ....the cinema.
(a) at (b) into (c) to
4. We are going ..........holiday next week.
(a) in (b) on (c) to
5. There is a bridge........the river.
(a) outside (b) across (c) through

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6. The flight from Delhi to London was ..........Frankfurt.
(a) about (b) along (c) via
7. ...........my wall, there are many picture postcards.
(a) at (b) on (c) onto
8. Who is the person...........this picture?
(a) at (b) in (c) on
9. Come..........the sitting room, we want to watch TV.
(a) at (b) in (c) into
10. Munich lies 530 meters ...............sea level.
(a) above (b) across (c) past
Exercise. Fill in the blanks with suitable preposition.
1. Tiny bacteria lived ..............giant worms.
2. Many plants and animals lived ...............this spot.
3. Show me the pencil that you were writing...........
4. ...............decision of the court, he will act as a head clerk in the office.
5. Success depends .........your hard work.
6. I have no influence ..........her.
7. The teacher beat me ............stick.
8. He has been ill ..............yesterday morning.
9. Cigarette smoking is injurious ...............health.
10. Divide this money ...........Rama and Shyama.

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17. CONJUNCTION
Definition. It is a word that joins words, phrases, clauses and sentences together.
Conjunctions are very essential in speech and in writing. They improve the cohesion between
the different parts of the text and enable us to construct long sentences without sounding
awkward. Although the concept of conjunction may seem too simple, one should take time
and make sure to place the punctuations properly as punctuation is also considered to be a
conjunction. Choose the appropriate conjunctions, and notice it that you adhere to the
standard rules of grammar.
There are four types of conjunction in English Grammar. They are illustrated as under:
Conjunction
Coordinating Subordinating Correlative Conjunctive

Adverb
Cumulative Alternative Adversative Illative
General comparison time condition reason purpose contrast place

manner
1. Coordinating Conjunction. It is a single word that joins similar words or phrases or

elements. It links equal parts of sentence that may be words, phrases, or independent
clauses.
e.g. He was late for school, so he took a shortcut.
Her favourite colours were purple and red.
She doesn’t like coffee, nor does she like tea.
The following words are used as Coordinate Conjunction in English Grammar.

Students are advised to practise them correctly while speaking and writing:
For, And, Nor, But, Yet, So, or, etc.
(Note-Apart from the words that are used in specific situations, there are a few rules
that need to be followed while using coordinating conjunctions.)
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Rule No 1. A comma is used before the coordinating conjunction only when it

connects two independent clauses. e.g.
I wanted to go to the movie, but my friend preferred to laze at home.
Rule No 2. When a coordinating conjunction is used to join two words/phrases,

we do not use a comma. e.g.
I love to eat Indian and Chinese dishes.
Rule No 3. When a coordinating conjunction is used with more than two items, the
comma before the coordinating conjunction is optional. e.g. WITH COMMA.
Manshi teaches English, French, and Hindi in School.
e.g. WITHOUT COMMA.
Manshi teaches English, French and Hindi in School.
Coordinate conjunction has further four sub kinds. They are:
(a) Cumulative Conjunction. The conjunction which has sense of cumulating is

known as Cumulative conjunction. The following conjunctions are used under
this category:
and, also, too, as well as, as well, both....and, no less then,

not only.... but also, etc.
(b) Alternative or Disjunctive conjunction. The word offering an alternative, so

it is called alternative conjunction. The following words are considered as
alternative conjunction:
Or, otherwise, else, wither... or, neither....nor, etc.
(c) Adversative conjunction. Word with a sense of adverse meaning is known as

adversative conjunction. The following words are treated as adversative
conjunction:
Yet, but, still, while, only, however, nevertheless, whereas,

while, etc.
(d) Illative Conjunction. The word which has a sense of inference or illative is
known as Illative Conjunction. The following words are considered as Illative
conjunction in English Grammar:
So, therefore, for, hence, consequently, etc.
2. Subordinate conjunction. It also joins similar words, phrases or elements but exist
in pairs. It is used in linking two clauses together. Aside from the fact that they
introduce a dependent clause, subordinating conjunctions also describe the
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relationship between the dependent clause and the independent clause in the sentences
to link. It links a dependent clause to an independent clause, helping to show the
relationship between the two clauses and emphasize the main idea of the
freestanding/independent clause.
e.g. 1. Because it was raining, we had to cancel the class picnic.
2. The house was a mess after the crazy party we had last night
3. He doesn’t to skiing any more, since he had the accident.
The following words are used as subordinating conjunction in English Grammar:
(a) General. After, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon
as, as though, because, before, after, even if, when , whenever, where ,
wherever, even though, every time, if, in order that, since, so, so that,
so....that, than, unless, until, whereas, while, whether, how, provided,
once, supposing, in case, since, for, as well as, as well, yet, such, such as,
such... that, even now, even then, as yet, till now, by now, so far,
providing, till then, by then, hither, hither to, whither, whence, hence,
henceforth, thence, thenceforth, comma mark (,), semi colon mark (;),
colon mark (:), etc.
Comparison. Denoting comparison.
Rather.... than, as much as, whether, than,
Time. Indicating time or period.
Before, After, As soon as, As long as, By the time, Since, for, Till, until,
when, whenever, while,
Condition. Indicating condition or necessity.
If, only if, unless, provided that, assuming that, even if, in case, lest,
Reason. Indicating cause or reason.
Because, since that, as, for
Purpose.
So, so that, so ....that, in order that
Concession or Contrast. Conjunction denoting contrast.
Though, although, even though,
Place. . Conjunction denotes places.

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Where, wherever,
Manner. Conjunction which denotes manner extent.
How, as though, as if ,
3. Correlative conjunction. It is a type of conjunction that functions in pairs, with both

words working together to balance words, phrases, or clauses which have equal
importance within a sentence, like either...or, such...that
e.g. You can have either chocolate or vanilla ice cream.
He not only plays the guitar but also the drums.
Such was his strength that he was easily able to move the fallen tree
The following words are used as Correlative conjunction in English Grammar.
Either...or , Neither...nor, not only....but also, both.....and, whether....or,

just as .....so, the.....the, as....as, as much ....as, no sooner....than,
rather....than, hardly.....than, so....as, if .,...then, what with....and,
such...that, so ... that, scarcely....when, the more....the more, etc.
4. Conjunctive Adverbs. It indicates conjunctive adverbs BUT they act as connectors

also. Conjunctive adverb needs a semicolon or a full stop before it and a comma after
it. Although it is not a real conjunction, this kind of word functions as connector in a
sentence. Some examples of conjunctive adverbs are:
e.g. (a) AR Rehman is an excellent pianist; however, he rarely practises.
- (b) Caroline loves the sweater; after all, purple is her favourite colour.
(c) The experiment’s findings vaccine for Novel Corona virus is not
groundbreaking. Therefore, the scientists focus on further findings. .
(d) I never take any vitamins. Nevertheless, I force my kids to take them.
The following conjunctive adverbs are used as connector in English Grammar

.Students are advised to practise thoroughly.
After all, besides, finally, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, then,

therefore, in addition, for example, on the contrary, in fact, Otherwise,
or else, as a fact, indeed, still, thus, on the other hand, furthermore,
instead, incidentally, finally, likewise, meanwhile, consequently, eventually,
in contrast, accordingly, additionally, also, anyway, anyhow, certainly,
comparatively, conversely, elsewhere, equally, finally, further, hence,
henceforth, thence, thenceforth, in comparison, namely, notwithstanding,
inasmuch, next, now, rather, regardless, similarly, subsequently,
thereafter, then, therefore, undoubtedly, yet, additionally, etc.
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Exercise. Complete the following sentences using appropriate conjunctions:
1. God made the country ...........man mad the town.
2. She must cry ...........she will die.
3. He is poor ----------he is honest
4. ....................take it ..........leave it.
5. He is neither intelligent.....hard working.
6. I don’t care ..........you stay or leave.
7 He is ..........foolish, but also obstinate.
8. All precautions must have been neglected, the epidemic spread violently.
9. .............he possessed all the qualifications; he did not get the job.
10. He was crying ..........the teacher had punished him.
Exercise. Complete each sentence using the subordinating conjunction from the
parenthesis.
1. I visit the Gate of India..........I go to Bombay.
(a) Once (b) whenever (c) wherever
2. This is the place .........we stayed last time.
3. .............you win first place, you will receive a prize.
(a) Wherever (b) if, unless
4. You won’t pass the test ..........you study.
(a) Wherever (b) if (c) unless
5. I could not get a seat, I came early.
(a) as (b) though (c) when
6. We are leaving on Wednesday..........or not it rains.
(a) if (b) whether (c) though
7. Pay attention to your work ...........you will not make mistakes.
(a) so that (b) unless (C) or
8. The musicians delivered a rousing performance ..............they had rehearsed

often.
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(a) though (b) as (c) once
9. She is honest ...........everyone trusts her.
(a) if (b) so (c) when
10. Write this down .........you forget.
(a) or (b) when (c) lest

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18. INTERJECTION
1. Definition. Interjection is a part of speech in English language. An interjection is a

word that expresses a strong emotion. It expresses emotion of joy, sorrow, excitement,
wonder surprise, pain, sadness, happiness and so on.
e.g. Oh, Wow, Hurrah, Alas, Ouch, Oops, Aha, Yahoo, Eww, etc.
Examples:
(a) Oh! I forgot to bring my purse! (Emotion of sorrow)
(b) Wow! What a beautiful car it is! (Emotion of surprise)
(c) Hurrah! We won the game! (Emotion of joy)
(d) Alas! I failed the exam! (Emotion of sorrow)
(e) Ouch! It hurts me! (Emotion of pain)
(f) Oops! I forgot to tell you where to go! (Emotion of disgust)
(g) Aha! I found the answer! (Emotion of happy)
(h) Yahoo! I got a job! (Emotion of joy)

(i) Eww! It tastes so bad! (Emotion of disliking)
(j) Huh! I don’t care! (Emotion of scorn)
2. Interjections are usually specific words such as ‘Hurrah, Wow, Oh, Ouch, Huh’.
Apart from these specific words, some nouns and adjectives are also sometimes used as
interjections. Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) Adjectives used as Interjections.
(i) Great! You helped the poor!
(ii) Nice! You played very well!
(iii) Good! We can use it!
(iv) Sweet! It looks so cute!
(b) Nouns used as Interjections.
(i) Congratulations! You got a job!
(ii) Hello! How are you?
(iii) Man! Where were you?
3. Interjections mainly have four roles. They are given below:
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(a) Rule No 1. Interjections express a sudden mood, emotions, and feeling

with emphasis. There are also many taboo words that are usually used in
everyday conversation but not in formal aspects. These words fall into the
category of interjections.
e.g. (i) Wow! That is an amazing scene.
(ii) Aw! I did not want him to9 come.
(iii) What? You never told me that!
(b) Rule No 2. Some interjections interrupt a conversation or a thought or hold
someone’s attention for a moment. These4 are just sounds, not words because
these sounds do not make any sense.
e.g. (i) Your, um! shirt has a stain on the back.
(ii) I want to, uh! Ask you out on a date.
(c) Rule No 3. Some interjections express only yes or no.
(i) Yes! I will most definitely do it.
(ii) Nah! We are not going.
(d) Rule No 4. Some interjections are used to get someone’s attention.
(i) Yo, Aman! Get in the car!
(ii) Hey! Will you give me that ball?
(iii) Yoo-hoo! Is there anyone?
(e) Rule No 5. Some interjections are used to greet any person.
(i) Hi! How is your health how?
(ii) Hello! How are your Aadi?
(iii) Hey! Where are you going?
(f) Rule No 5. Some interjections are used to express happiness or joy.
(i) Hurray! My team has won the tournament!
(ii) Wow! The scenery is so eye-catching!
(iii) Yippee! We are going for picnic?
(g) Rule No 6. Some interjections are used to express an intense sense of surprise
on the happening of something.
(i) What! You have broken the show piece!
(ii) Eh! You have done a mess!
(iii) Ah! What have you done?
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(iv) Oh! What a glorious victory!

(h) Rule No 7 . Some Interjections are used to express grief/pain in any
unfortunate event.
(i) Alas! Kartik’s father died yesterday!
(ii) Ouch! I have fallen down!
(iii) What a pity! You have lost your Motorbike!
(i) Rule No 8. Some Interactions are used to express an intense approval on
something that has occurred.
(i) Bravo! Sandeep has taken a wicket!
(ii) Well done! You have done a good job!
(III) Brilliant! Your article is so helpful!
(iv) Yummy! The cake is so delicious!
(v) Splendid! I like your design!
3. Some common Interjections and the feeling they express.
Hush! -To make silent
Hurrah!, Ha! -Joy
Bravo -Happy
Oh! Alas!, Ah! -Sorrow
Pooh!, What a shame! - Disgust
My! What!, Good heavens! – Surprise
Hush! - Quiet
Oh!, no! - Dismay
Listen!, behold!, look! - Draw attention
Good bye! - Bid farewell
Ouch! -Grief
Hello!, Hi! -Greeting
Hey!, Hi!, Hello! - -Greeting
Hurrah!, Good!, Wow! -Joy
Look!, Listen!, Behold! Shh! -Draw attention
Well done!, Brilliant!, Bravo! -Approval
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Ah!, Oh!, What! -Surprise

Ouch!, Oops!, Alas! -Sorrow
Hmm!, Er!, Um -Doubt
Hmhp!, Huh!, Hey!, Oy! -Irritation
Athem, Er! -Embarrassment
Hurrah!, Ha!, Yippee!, Whoopee!,
Woo!, hoo! -Elation
Mmm!, Yeah!, Hooray! _Pleasure
Oww!, Oh!, Ouch! -Pain
Help!, Ah!, Uh!, Oh! - Panic
Dear!, Alas! - Pity
Exercise
1. Fill in the blanks with suitable interjections.
(a) ...............That was a nice movie!
(b) ..............A pleasant day it is!
(c) ...............This looks delicious!
(d) ................She has been selected in the MNC Bank!
(e) ................I am so sorry!
(f) ...............I am Varun!
(g) .............. The little dog was run over!
(h) .............. so you expect me to remain silent!
(i) .................That was great shot!.
(j) .................Shat a silly thing to do!
2. Underline the interjections in each sentence below:
(a) Nonsense! Who would ever believe a story like that?
(b) Gosh! I wish I had thought of that!
(c) Terrific! What a great hit that was!
(d) Ugh! What is that awful smell?
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(e) Sh, the baby is sleeping.

(f) Oh, No! What a mess I made!
(g) Whew, that was a close call.
(h) Alas! I should have studied harder.
(i) My, what an unkind thing that was to say!
(j) Past, listen to this.
3. Fill in the blanks choosing the correct interjections given below:
(a) ..............I failed to score good marks.
(i) Oh! (ii) Good God! (iii) Alas! (iv) Whew!
(b) ................I have won the game.
(i) Bravo! (ii) Hurrah! (iii) Alas! (iv) What!
(c) ...............You have done a good job.
(i) Yippee! (ii) Hurrah! (iii) Oh god! (iv) Congratulations!
(d) .................She had an accident.
(i) Bravo! (ii) Wow! (iii) Oh God! (iv) Tut! Tut!
(e) ...................What a delicious cake!
(i) Oh! (ii) Hurrah! (iii) Wow! (iv) What!
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19. PUNCTUATION
1. Definition. Punctuation is the name of the marks used in writing. They are very
essential signs to understand a sentence in correct way. They represent the expression and
feeling in a sentence. It is used to bring clarity and meaning to writing. Punctuation marks are
symbols that help us to organize and structure sentences. The following marks are used as
punctuation in English:
(a) Capital letters.
(i) A capital letter is used at the beginning of a sentence.
e.g. (aa) The bear in the Zoo was a big one.
(ab) Cycling is a good form of exercise
(ac) His favourite pastime is reading mystery stories.
(ii) A Capital letter is used with proper Nouns.
e.g. (aa) On Saturday morning we have Inter School Soccer Match.
(ab) Rogan is a good tennis player.
(ac) Mother Teresa was born in Skopje.
(iii) A Capital letter is used with adjectives that are derived from proper
nouns.
e.g. (aa) Most tombs of the Mughal era were inspired by Persian
architecture.
(ab) We had dinner at a Chinese restaurant.
(ac) David Copperfield is my favourite Dickensian character.
(iv) The pronoun “I” always written in capital.
e.g. (aa) My parents say I spend too much time surfing the Internet. I
think it is a great way to gather information.
(v) In title, the first letter of each main word is capital.
e.g. (aa) Buckingham palace is the home to the queen of England.
(ab) He has a degree in Nuclear Physics from Cambridge

Universality.
(b) Period/Full Stop (.)

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(i) A full stop marks the end of a sentence. While reading a sentence we
need to pause after a full stop. Full stops end sentences that are not questions
or exclamations. A full stop is used at the end of every telling sentence.
e.g. (aa) This is an Elephant.
(ab) Anuja is an excellent teacher.
(ac) America is a rich country.
(ii) A full stop is also used at the end of an abbreviated word or between
the letters of an abbreviated word. We do not use a full stop with
abbreviations formed from the first capital letters. For example BBC,
USA, MA.
e.g. (aa) Co.
(ab) etc.
(ac) e.g.
(ad) no.
(c) Comma (,). A comma is used to organise thoughts into logical groups. It
indicates a much shorter pause than a full stop. It separates the different parts of a
sentence or names in a list. A comma places a pause between clauses within a
sentence. It separates items in a list. It separate adjectives in a series.
e.g. (i) We were late, although it didn’t matter.
(ii) You will need eggs, butter, salt and cheese.
(iii) I wore a red-coloured, long and frilly skirt.
(d) Semicolon (;). It is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer

relationship between the clauses than a period (full stop) would show.
e.g. John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.
(e) Colon (:) It has three main uses. The first is after a word introducing a
quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series.
e.g. He was planning to study four subjects : Politics, Philosophy, Sociology, and
economics.
The second is between independent clauses:
e.g. I didn’t have time to get changed: I was already late.
The third use of a colon is for emphasis:

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e.g. There was one thing she loved more than any other: her dog.
A colon also has non grammatical uses in time, ratio, business correspondence and
references.
e.g. (i) 2.15 a.m.
(ii) 3: 2
(f) Question Mark (?). A question mark is needed after a direct question. The
question can be a short word or a whole sentence. Question marks end sentences that
are questions
e.g. (i) Is this your assignment?
(ii) Where have you come from?
(iii) Would you like to have a cup of coffee with me?
(g) Exclamation Mark or sign (!). An exclamation mark is used after a strong
interjection and after strong imperative sentences which mark certain direct
commands. Exclamation marks end a sentence that is an exclamation.
e.g. (a) Don’t pick that!
(b) What a beautiful flowers these are!
(c) Alas! We lost the match.
(h) Single Quotation Marks. It completely encloses clauses inserted in a

sentence. It marks the speech from words denoting who said that.
e.g. (i) We were, though we had rushed to get there, late for the film. ‘Thank
you,’ I said.
(ii) Who can pronounce the word ‘bouquet’?
(iii) ‘9’is my favourite numeral.
(i) Double Quotation Marks. Double quotation mark encloses quotations. It

marks a direct speech. It can be double or single. Quotation Marks are used at the
beginning and end of a phrase to show that it is being written exactly as it was
originally said or written. Commas and periods (Full stop) are always placed
immediately before the closing quotation mark.
e.g. (a) “How are you”, she asked me.
(b) The teacher said to the students, “Have you completed your home
assignments?”
(c) “I cannot do this work”, said Raju with tender voice.

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(j) Hyphen (-). It is used to link words and parts of words. There are three main
cases where you use them.
(i) in compound words
My mother-in-law is visiting us soon.
(ii) to join prefixes to other words\
The novel is clearly intended to be a post-Marxist work.
(iii) to show word breaks
He collects eighteenth-and nineteenth-century vases.
(k) En Dash (---). It indicates a period of time, range of Nos or a distance.
She lived in London from 99 --- 05.
The number range from 1 --- 20
(l) Em Dash(-----). It is long dash that can be used instead of comma, colon or
brackets. This adds emphasis or enhances readability.
I can’t wait to see Arvind ---- my best friend ---- on Sunday.
My parents are visiting tomorrow ---- I am going to miss them so much.
(m) Apostrophe(‘). There are two main cases where apostrophes are used.
(i) Using apostrophes to show possession.
Shivam’s cat was extremely friendly.
We took a day trip to the Gibson’s house.
(ii) Using apostrophes to show omission.
I’m afraid the pie isn’t suitable for vegetarians.
We didn’t think about the conseque4nces of our actions.
(n) Parentheses, Braces and Brackets. They are symbols used to contain words
that are a further explanation or are considered a group. There are three types
of brackets .They are:
(i) Parentheses ( ). It is known as Round bracket. It is mainly used to

separate off information that isn’t essential to the meaning of the rest
of the sentence. If you removed the bracketed material the sentence
would still make perfectly good sense.
Mount Everest (in the Himalayas) is the highest mountain the world.
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There are several books on the subject (see page 120)
(ii) Brackets [ ]. It is known as Square bracket. It is also called brackets

but especially in America it is used to enclose words added by
someone other than the original writer or speaker. Typically in order to
clarify the situation:
He [the police officer] can’t prove they did it.
(iii) Braces { }. It is known as curly bracket. It is used to contain two or

more lines of text or listed items to show that they are considered as a
unit.
(o) Ellipsis (...). It indicates omitted words or to add effect to a sentence.
She walked into the shop --- then walked straight back out...
“Sorry, I forgot my home work”, said Anu...

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20. DIRET AND INDIRECT SPEECH

1. Definition. English Language has two ways to narrate the spoken words of a person.
These two ways are as follows:
(a) Direct Speech
(b) Indirect Speech
2. These two ways are usually used to convey a message of one person to another
person. For example. You are at your School, Mr Swamy who is your teacher, says to you, “ I
want to meet your parents”. When you come home, you would inform your parents in the
following two ways:
(a) Direct Speech - Mr Swamy said, “I want to meet your parents”
(b) Indirect Speech- Mr Swamy said that he wanted to meet my parents.
3. So, these two ways are also used to simply narrate spoken words of one person to
another. In direct speech the actual words of speaker are quoted. The exact words of the
speaker are enclosed din inverted commas or quotation marks. There is always a comma or a
colon after “said” that introduces the spoken words.
e.g He Said, “ I am going to school.”
4. In indirect speech, the actual words of the speaker are changed. The reason for
change in actual words is that the actual words have been spoken by the speaker in past,
hence narrating it in the present will require change in the tense of the actual words. The
pronouns of the sentence are also changed accordingly. The words of speaker are not
enclosed in inverted commas or quotation marks. The word that will be used before the
spoken words of the speaker.
e.g Direct Speech - He said,” I am not going to school today.”
Indirect speech- He said that he was not going to school that day.
5. How to convert direct speech into indirect speech. When you ask yourself this
question the answer is very simple. Observe the following rules while converting a direct
speech into indirect speech:
(i) Before learning all the rules for conversion of Direct Speech into Indirect
Speech, you must learn the following two components of a sentence of Direct Speech:
(aa) Reporting Verb. The verb of the first sentence (i.e. He said, She says,
they said, they say, etc.) before the actual words of the speaker is called a
Reporting Verb.
e.g. She said, “I am listening to music.”
He says, “You are a clever student.”

200
You will say, “ I need your help.”
(ab) Reported Speech. The second sentence (actual words of speaker) that
is enclosed in Inverted commas or Quotation Marks is called reported speech.
e.g. He said, “ I got a job in school.”
He says, “I want to become a doctor.”
They said, “We play basketball in the playground.”
6. Basic Rules for Indirect Speech
(a) Rule No.1. Words of the speaker (reported speech) are not enclosed in
Inverted Commas in Indirect Speech.
(b) RuleNo.2. usage of word “that” : The conjunction “that” is always used
between reporting verb and reported speech in indirect speech.
e.g. Direct Speech : He said, “ I write a letter.”
Indirect Speech : He said that he wrote a letter.
(c) Rule No 3.Change in tense of the reported speech. A change is made in

tense of reported speech for changing a direct speech into indirect speech if
the reporting verb for first sentence of direct speech is either Present tense or
Future tense, no change will be made in the reported speech for making
indirect speech. Only if the reporting verb (or first sentence) of direct speech
belongs to the Past tense, changes will be made in tense reported speech for
making indirect speech.
e.g. Direct Speech : She said,” I am watching a movie.”
Indirect speech : She said that she was watching a movie.
Direct Speech : He says, “ I am playing cricket.”
Indirect Speech : He says that he is playing cricket.
(d) Rule No 4.Changtes in Pronoun. The pronoun (or subject) of reported

speech is sometime changed according to the pronoun (or subject) or object of
the reported verb (first sentence of Direct Speech). The possessive pronouns
(i.e. his, her, my, their, your, etc) may also change according to subject or
object of the first sentence.
e.g. Direct Speech : He said, “ I eat two oranges.”
Indirect speech : He said that he ate two oranges.
Direct Speech : She said to me, “I like your motorbike.”

201
Indirect Speech : She told me that she liked my motorbike.
(e) Rule No 5. Denoting time, place and position. If there is time, place and
position mentioned din the sentence of Direct speech, the time will be changed
in Indirect Speech. There are certain rules changing the time i.e.
This That
These those
Here there
Now then
Thus so
Ago before
Hither thither
Come go
Hence thence
Next following
Today that day
Tonight that night
Last night the night before/the previous night
Last week the week before/the previous week
Next week the following week/the week after
Tomorrow the next day/the day after/the following day
Today that day
Yesterday the previous day/ the day before
e.g. Direct Speech : She said, “ I am buying a laptop today.”
Indirect Speech : She said that she was buying a laptop that day.
Direct Speech : He said, “ I need your help now.”
Indirect Speech : He said that he needed my help then.
(f) Rule No 6. If the reporting verb is in the Past Tense, the tenses in the reporting
speech are changed as under:
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Simple present : Simple past
Present continuous : Past Continuous
Present perfect : Past perfect
Present perfect continuous : Past perfect continuous
Simple Past : Past perfect
Past continuous : Past perfect continuous
Past Perfect : Past perfect
Past perfect continuous : Past perfect continuous
Will : would
Shall : should/would
Will be : would be
Shall be : should be /would be
Will have : would have
Shall have : should have/would have
Will have been : would have been
Shall have been : should have been /would have been
Can : could
May : might
(g) Rule No 7.Univereal truth. If the reported speech indicates the universal
truth, scientific facts and habitual action the tense of the reporting speech
remains unchanged.
e.g. Direct Speech : The teacher said, “ Sun rises in the East.”
Indirect Speech : The teacher said that the sun rises in the east.
Direct Speech : Mother said, “Cow is an innocent animal”
Indirect Speech : Mother said that the cow is an innocent animal.
7. We have already learnt about sentences and its kinds in the previous chapter. There
are five types of sentences in English Language. They are:
(a) Assertive/Declarative sentence - Statement sentence

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(b) Interrogative Sentence - Question sentence
(i) Single interrogative - Auxiliary Verb Question
(ii) Double interrogative - ‘Wh’ and ‘Ho’ family Question
(c) Imperative Sentence - Requesting/commanding sentence
(d) Exclamatory Sentence - Feeling sentence
(e) Optative Sentence - Cursing and wishing sentence
8. All the above quoted sentences cannot be rendered into the indirect speech in the
same manner. Different sets of rules will govern different kinds of sentences. These rules are
enumerated in the succeeding paragraphs.
9. Changing of Assertive/Declarative sentences (Statement).
* The reporting verb ‘said’ should be changed into ‘told’ if it is following by an

object. In case there is no object, it should be left unchanged.
* Conjunction ‘that’ is to be used.
* Tenses, pronouns and possessive adjectives and words mentioning time and place
are to be changed according to the rules already taught.
10. The following words can be used as a reporting verb in place of ‘said’ in the reporting
verb:
(a) remark
(b) argue
(c) answer
(d) suggest
(e) point out
(f) reply
(g) promise
(h) object
(i) agree
(k) explain
(l) boast
(m) mutter
(n) complain
(o) insist
(p) claim
(q) admit
(r) deny
(st) shout
(t) assure
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(u) remind
(v) remark
(w) add
(x) reveal
(y) utter
(z) express
(aa) regret
Examples.
She says, “ I am a little bit nervous.” - DS
She says that she is a little bit nervous. - IDS
The student said to the teacher, “ Sir, I shall definitely complete my assignment.” DS
The student respectfully assured to the teacher that he would definitely complete his
assignment. IDS
Mayank Said to Shankar, “ I regret the mistake I was unable to attend the party.” DS
Mayank regretted the mistake that he was unable to attend the party. IDS
Mother said to her son, “ You will not be allowed to eat chocolate.” DS
Mother denied her son that he would not be allowed to eat chocolate. IDS
The principal said, “That is why your studies has prospered so well.” DS
The principal remarked that that was why his studies had prospered so well. IDS
Exercise.
Rewrite the following Assertive sentences in reported speech.
(a). They said, “ This is our book”
(b) She said to me, “I went to the cinema yesterday.”
(c) He said to his teacher, “I am writing my test tomorrow.”
(d) You said, “I will do this for him.”
(e). She says, “I am not hungry now.”
(f). The teacher said to the students, “The Ganga originates in the Himalayan
mountains.”
(g) They said, “We have never been here before.”
(h) Ranjit said to me, “I won’t sleep here.”

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(i) Mohit said to him, “They will have gone to their houses.”
(j) We said to them, “You have to prepare for online examination.”
11. Changing of Interrogative Sentence (Question)
* The reporting verb is changed to ask, enquire, want to know, demand, etc.
Enquire and demand are always followed by the preposition ‘of’.
* The interrogative form is changed into the assertive form. The mark of
interrogative is dropped.
* No conjunction is used if the sentence begins with double question word like
who, whose, what which, where, when why, whom, how, how much, how
many, how often, how far, how far, etc.
* If it is single question i.e. begins with auxiliary verbs if or whether is to be

used as a conjunction.
* Other rules are followed as already explained.
Examples.
(a) The teacher said to the student, “Why didn’t you come to school yesterday?
The teacher asked the student why he had not come to school the previous
day.
(b) The teacher said to Shivani, “Which line of this poem have you not
understood?”
The teacher asked Shivani which line of that poem she had not understood.
(c) Mohit said to Rohit, “Are you willing to join with us for a weekend picnic?”
Mohit asked Rohit if he was willing to join with them for a weekend picnic.
(d) The Principal said to the newly appointed teacher, “Can you teach
mathematics for grade VIII students?”
The Principal enquired the newly appointed teacher whether she could teach
mathematics for grade VIII students.
(e) He said, “ Are you not being hasty in your decision? “ No,” said I . “In fact I
have given a careful thought to the whole issue.
He asked me if I was not being hasty in my decision. I replied that I was not. I
further added that I had , in fact, given a careful thought to the whole issue.
Exercise.
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Rewrite the following Interrogative sentences in reported speech.
(a) The policeman said to the thief, “Why did you steal his wallet?”
(b) Vikash said to his mother, “Why have you not wake me up?
(c) Mr Brijesh said to him, “How are you going to manage this issue?”
(d) The bus conductor said to the passengers, “Have you received your tickets?
(e) Sneha said to her friend, “ Are you studying well ?”
(f) Aarti Said to her sister, “Do you have any friends in your class?”
(g) Father said to his son, “Amit, How long are you watching television?”
(h) My elder sister said to me, “Shall I fetch a glass of water for you?”
(i) The doctor said to the patient, “What is wrong with you?”
(j) Husband said to his wife, “Why did you wake me up?”
12. Changing of Imperative Sentence (Request/Command/Advice etc.)
* The reporting verb is changed into request, order, or advice.
* The verb of the direct speech is changed into an infinitive.
* If the direct speech begins with the words do not, the word not is placed before
the simple infinitive .
* Other rules are followed as already explained.
Example:
(a) The teacher said, “Keep quiet, students. Do not disturb me while I am
checking your notebooks.”
The teacher commanded the students to keep quiet and not to disturb him
while she was checking their notebooks.
(b) Rajesh said to his friend, “Please help me to arrange these books on the shelf.”
Rajesh requested his friend to help him to arrange those books on the shelf.
(c) The Saint said to his disciples, “Have a deep respect for every living creature.”
The saint advised his disciples to have a deep respect for every living creature.
(d) The Science teacher said to Khemhand, “ Khem do not forget to bring your
science project tomorrow.”
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The science teacher reminded Khemhand to bring his science project the next
day.
(e) The Youngman said, “O God, help me clear this interview.”
The Youngman prayed to God to help him clear that interview.
(f) The son said to his father, “Pardon me, Dad.”
The son respectfully sought his father’s pardon.
Exercise :
Rewrite the following Imperative sentences in reported speech.
(a) She said to me, “Go to the market at once.”
(b) I said to him, “Open the gate.”
(c) Ram said to Shyam, “please help me.”
(d) The teacher said to students, “Don’t waste your time.”
(e) The master said to his servant, “Bring me a glass of water at once.”
(f) Mother said to her daughter,” Put on your shoes.”
(g) Uncle said to Uma, “ Don’t befool me.”
(h) The coach said to James, “Get on your feet.”
(i) Anil said to his sister, “Please help me with my homework.”
(j) The Police said to us, “Don’t park here.”
13. Changing imperative Sentence with let.
(a) He said, “Let us go out for a walk.”
He suggested going out for a walk.
Or
He suggested that they should go out for a walk.
(b) Anya said to Om, “Let’s go to see a movie.”
Anya proposed to Om going to see a movie.
Or
Anya proposed to Om that they should go to see a movie

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(c) Kishore said, “Let me take two chocolates.”
Kishore wished taking two chocolates.
Or
Kishore wished that he should take two chocolates.
(d) Jai said to his teacher, “Let me go home early today.”
Jai requested his teacher to let him go home early that day.
Or
Jai requested his teacher to allow him to go home early that day.
Exercise.
Rewrite the following Imperative sentences in reported speech.
(a) He said, “Let’s wait for him one more time here.”
(b) She said to him, “Let’s think if there is any alternative to this issue.”
(c) Manali said, “Let’s not waste out time here by waiting for him.”
(d) I said to him, “Let’s attend another lecture.”
(e) She said to her friend, “Let me find some good clothes for Anita.”
(f) Manisha said to Niharika, “Let’s go on a stroll,”
(g) The teacher said to the students, “Let the holidays come so we can plan a
visit.”
(h) She said , “Let my son work for you.”
(i) I said, “Let’s decide who takes what.”
(j) They said to each other, “Let’s make a united protest against the policies of
government.”
14. Changing of Exclamatory and Optative sentence (Feeling and Wishes)
* In case of exclamatory sentences, the reporting verb is changed to exclaim

with joy/sorrow/fear/anger, etc., applaud, regret, cry out, or other verb that
properly conveys the tone of the exclamation.
* In the case of Optative sentences (wishing/cursing), the reporting verb is

changed to wish/ pray/long for/yearn/earnestly/desire/curse, etc.
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* The exclamatory or optative sentence is changed into an assertive one before it

is put into indirect speech.
* The conjunction that is used to introduce the reported speech.
* Interjections and exclamation i.e. oh, ah, alas, hurrah, etc, are omitted and
their sense is conveyed by means of adverbs or adverb phrases.
* Other rules are followed as explained earlier.
Example:
(a) Boys said, “Hurrah! We have won the match.”
Boys exclaimed with joy that they had won the match.
(b) We said, “Alas! We have lost the game,”
We exclaimed with sorrow that we had lost the game.”
(c) She said, “What a nice fellow your are!”
She exclaimed that he was a very nice fellow.”
(d) The crane said, “Fox, how clever you are!”
The crane exclaimed that the fox was very clever.
(e) He said, “What a pretty the child is!”
He exclaimed that the child was very pretty.
(f) The captain said, “Pooh! What a clumsy fellow he is!”
The captain exclaimed with contempt that he was a very clumsy fellow.
(g) The young lady said, “Good morning, gentlemen.”
The young lady wished the gentlemen good morning.
(h) The boy said, “Good bye, mother.”
The boy bade his mother good bye.
(i) She said, “May God bless you with success!”
She prayed that God might bless him with success.
(j) The old man said to him, “May you ruin!”
The old man cursed him that he might ruin.
Exercise:
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Rewrite the following Exclamatory and Optative sentences in reported speech.
(a) He said to her, “May God bless you with a big prize!”
(b) The Priest said, “O, for a lodge in the wilderness!”
(c) The beggar said, “Hurrah! I have found a big treasure.”
(d) The lad said, “Good bye, my dear friends!”
(e) The gentleman said, “What a fine piece of art it is!”
(f) The shopkeeper said to the customer, “Good morning sir!”
(g) The captain said, “Bravo! You have broken the record, boys.”
(h) Isha said to Disha, “Alas! I am undone.”
(i) The student said to the teacher, “ Yes sir! I have done my homework.”
(j) The stranger said to the man, “May your business ruin!”
`
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21. FIGURE OF SPEECH

Definition. A figure of speech is a word or phrase that possesses a separated meaning from
its literal, definition. It is also a figurative language which is used to draw picture mentally to
convey message or idea much quicker effectively and vividly. There are hindered figure of
speeches in English Language. The important figure of speech is seven .They are given below
with examples
(a) Simile. Comparison to two things by using a word ‘as’, ‘like’ and ‘so’. In
this speech one thing is common.
e.g. (i) our soldiers are as brave as lion.
(ii) She is like an angel.
(iii) Love is patient and so is my mother.
(b) Metaphor. Comparison to two things directly without using ‘like’, ‘as;, and
‘so’. One thing is common in this speech.
(i) Our soldiers are lion.
(ii) The camel is ship of the desert.
(iii) Life is a dream.
(c) Personification. It reveals the quality of human being like emotions, desires
to an object and idea.
(i) The sun smiled at us.
(ii) The stars danced playfully in the sky.
(iii) Good opportunities are knocking at the door.
(d) Hyperbole. It is expressed to exaggerate and overstate the statement.
(i) The river of flood flooded in the battle field.
(ii) You are brighter than the shiniest star.
(iii) Her brain is the size of pea.
(e) Apostrophe. It is expressed to exclaim an absent or nonexistent person or

things to address as it is present and capable of understanding.
(i) Life! I cannot understand you.
(ii) Why don’t you ever work, you stupid computer!
(iii) Blow wind, blow!

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(f) Oxymoron. It seems to contradict each other.
(i) It is an open secret.
(ii) All the politicians agreed to disagree that.
(iii) He is clearly confused in his decision.
(g) Onomatopoeia. A word which intimates the natural sounds of the thing.
(i) The buzzing bee flew away.
(ii) The large said, ’bow, bow’.
` (iii) The snake slithered and hissed.
`
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22. COMPREHENSION
1. Definition. It refers to the ability to understand something, or actual understanding of
something. The fact of inclusiveness is:
(a) The act of grasping with the mind.
(b) Understanding of knowledge that results from this.
(c) The capacity for understanding ideas, facts etc.
1. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end:
Once Napoleon was camping in North of France near the English Channel. He was
planning an invasion of England. There were in his camp a large number of prisoners. One
morning a guard brought a young English Prisoner to Napoleon and said that the young mind
had run away in the night from the camp and was preparing to cross the sea. Napoleon was
stunned, but he wanted to know the reasons behind the prisoner’s attempt before punishing
him.
. When asked, the prisoner told him that although he knew that it was difficult to
deceive the guards, he would be punished with death if caught; still he escaped from the
camp because he had an old mother, who was all alone the world. He was afraid; she would
die of grief if she did not see him soon. Napoleon was so much moved that he left him go
unpunished. He set the prisoner free.
Questions
(a) Where was Napoleon camping?
(b) What was he planning?
(c) Give the opposite of the following words:
(i) Grief (ii) More
(d) What had the young man done in the night?
(e) What did Napoleon want to know?
(f) Why did the prisoner try to escape from the camp?
(g) How did Napoleon treat the young man?
(h) Give a suitable title to the passage.
Answer
(a) Napoleon was camping in North of France near the English Channel.
(b) He was planning an invasion of England.
(c) (i) joy (ii) less
(d) The young man had run away in the night from the camp.
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(e) Napoleon wanted to know the reason behind the prisoner’s attempt to run
away.
(f) The prisoner tried to escape from the camp because he had an old mother who
would die of grief if she did not see him soon.
(g) Napoleon left the prisoner unpunished.
(h) Love melts iron hearts.
In a small village at the foot of the beautiful Catskill Mountains in America, there live
a simple, good natured fellow called Rip Van Winkle. He was a kind neighbour and obedient
husband, favourite with everyone. The children shouted with joy when they saw him, because
he always joined in the games, made toys for them and told them long stories about fairies,
witches and Red Indian Chiefs.
But Rip Van Winkle had one great failure; he could never be bothered to work hard
for profit. He did not mind hard work at all, He would sit on a wet rock and fish all day
without a grumble even though he did not catch a single fish. He would carry a gun on his
shoulder for hours together, walking through wet fields and woods, up fields and down
valleys, in order to shoot a few rabbits or small birds. He never refused to help a neighbour to
plough his field or build a new fence, and he was always willing to help his neighbours,
wives to do those small jobs which their husbands never had time for. In short, Rip was
ready to attend to and body’s business except his won, but he found it impossible to look after
his own family or keep his own farm in order. His children were always untidy and poorly
dressed.
Question
(a) Where did Rip Van Winkle live?
(b) Why did the children shout with joy when they saw Rip Van Winkle?
(c) What was the great failure of Rip Van Winkle?
(d) How did Rio Van Winkle help his neighbours?
(e) How were Rip Van Winkle’s fence condition?
(f) What was the condition of Rip Van Winkle’s children?
(g) Choose the correct answer:
(i) Rip was ready to attend anybody’s business as well as his won.
(b) Rip was not ready to attend anybody’s business except his own.
(c) Rip was ready to attend anybody’s business except his own.
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Parents and teachers must learn to respect the children No Japanese ever strike a
Child. Yet Japanese children are models of reasonableness. The Japanese maintain a
commendable attitude towards their children. They treat children as their equal and always
address them as such. They never criticise them harshly. The use of rod is absolutely
unknown in Japanese homes. Japanese code of life is very strict in certain respects. It exerts
strict obedience and enforces strict respect Japanese soldiers have earned a name of their high
sense of duty and readiness from self sacrifice There come out of a traditional love for their
country and its sovereign, rather than from fear of any penalties in childhood.
Question
(a) How should parents and teachers treat children?
(b) How do Japanese parents treat their children?
(c) What type of attitude they keep with their children?
(d) What have Japanese soldiers earned a name for?
(e) What type of life Japanese lead?
(f) What quality they gain from their childhood?
(g) Give suitable heading to the passage.
There seems to be a general opinion in this country that Sardar Patel was slightly of a
harsh and rough temperament. Men call him the ‘Iron Man of India.’ He was no doubt an
iron man in the sense that one could rely on him for strict and efficient administration. But as
man, to those who had the good fortune of coming into close contact with him, he was kind
and considerate. At a time he even became emotional where his personal friend and followers
were concerned. However, it goes without saying that the Sardar had a great skill for
organising affairs. He knew the way of picking people and putting them in their proper
places. Once he judged a man and found him correct, he trusted him fully and put him to do
anything he wanted.
Question
(a) What was the general opinion about Sardar Patel in this country?
(b) What kind of man was Sardar Patel?
(c) Why was she called ‘the iron man of India’?
(d) What qualities did Sardar Patel have?
(e) What are the two opposite aspects of his nature?

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(f) What was the great skill?
(g) Give a suitable heading to the passage.
5. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions given below:
The great advantage of early rising is the good start it gives us in our day’s work. The
early riser has done a large amount of hard work before other men have gone out of bed. In
the early mor4ning the mind is fresh and there are few sounds or other distraction, so that
work done at that time is generally well done. In many cases, the early riser also finds time
to take some exercise in the fresh morning air and these exercise suppliers him with a fund of
energy that will last until the evening. By beginning so early he knows that he has plenty of
time to do thoroughly all the works, be can be expected to do and is not tempted to hurry over
any part of it. All his work being finished in good times. He has a long interval of rest in the
evening before midnight, at the time when sleep is most refreshing and after a sound night’s
rest riser early next morning in good health and spirits for the labours of a new day.
Questions:
(a) What advantages does an early riser have over others?
(b) How does a man feel in the morning?
(c) Why should one take exercise in the morning and begin one’s work sol early?
(d) What are the uses of going to sleep long before midnight?
(e) Suggest a suitable title for the passage.
(f) Make sentences by using the following words:
(i) advantages (ii) fresh (iii) refreshing (iv) thoroughly

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23. COMPOSITION
1. Definition . It is the way of writer assembles words and sentences to create a coherent
and meaningful work. Composition can also mean the activity of writing, the nature of the
subject of a piece of writing itself. There are many types of composition in English
Language. Observe some of them in the succeeding paragraphs.
A. NOTICE WRITING
1. Definition. It is written to give information to a larger number of people together by

putting up the information It is usually mean to display information about an event or
programme. In other words we would say that a notice is written or printed news
announcement or information. A notice may contain news/information about something that
has happened or is likely to happen. It may be a formal announcement of public importance
or an advance warning meant for compliance and information. A notice can be about a
meeting, an event, an excursion, a historical trip, a picnic, lost and found, change of name,
address, uniform, timings, venue, etc.
Format of Notice
Name of the School

Notice
Date
Subject
----- Body -----
Signature
Designation
1. Write a notice for the School Notice Board inviting students to help the flood victims
of Bihar. You are Vijay Sharma , the Head boy of Central School No 1 , Kanpur.
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Solved Example
Central School No 1, Kanpur
NOTICE
09 Aug xx
H
HELP THE FLOOD VICTIM
The students of our school are requested to donate generously in

cash or thing to help the flood victims of Bihar. It is very noble cause.
Contribute voluntarily food, clothes, medicines, blankets, monkey etc.,
Deposit the articles in the school office by 27 Aug xx.
Vijay Sharma
Head boy
Exercise
1. Write a notice on behalf of your school authorities informing students to immediately

report to the principal’s office any deserted baggage or object within the school premises.
2. Karna is a student of Class VIII A at Springdale Public School, South Delhi. During
the lunch break, he found that his purse with identity card and some money was missing. On
the advice of his class teacher, he wrote a notice and put it upon the school Notice board.
3. The Social Science Club of your school has decided to take the VIII class to visit the
National Museum. Write a notice informing the students about the visit.
4. Your school is organising a cultural evening to show case hidden talents. Write
notice asking students to give auditions for the programme. Necessary inputs are self
explanatory.
5. The Bangalore Traffic Police is creating awareness among the students about traffic
rules. You are the monitor of your class. Put up a notice asking students to attend the lecture
on ‘Obey Traffic Rules’ on Saturday, 15th Apr 20xx in the school auditorium at 9.30 a.m.
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B. MESSAGE WRITING
1. Definition. Message is a short piece of information that you give to a person when
you cannot speak to him directly. Example- when your mother leaves a message for you to
read in her absence after you come back from school .Observe the correct format of message
writing:
Format
Message
Date Time
Salutation
----Body----
Signature
Solved Example
1. You are Preeti’s sister Vanshika , You received the following telephonic call from her
tutor. Leave a message for your sister Preeti as you going out for shopping.
Tutor : May speak to Preeti please.
Vanshika : Sir, I amVanshika , Preeti’s elder sister speaking. I am afraid Preeti is not at
home .Could I take a message please.
Tuotor : Yah, Vanshika , please tell Preeti that I have some urgent work and I have to
go out of station for a couple of days. There will be no tuition today and
tomorrow.
Vanshika : Ok sir, I will tell her so. Anything else sir?
Tutor: Notting more, thank you.
Vanshika: Mentioned not sir.

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Message
20 June xx 4.30 p.m.
Dear Preeti,
Your Tuition teacher called to inform there would be not

tuition class today and tomorrow as he is going out of station for
two days for some urgent work.
Vanshika
2. You are Anuj/Anuja. You stay as a paying guest in Pune with your friend
Mayank/Ankita. You receive information from home that your sister’s marriage is scheduled
for this week end. Draft a message telling your room mate of your sudden departure and
request her/him to return your library books left on the study table.
3. Your are Manish / Meena. You are down with severe cold and cough and won’t be
able to attend school next day. It is the last day of submitting the Science Project. Write a
message to your friend asking him to come to your place to collect your project while going
to school.
4. You are Bose / Bimla living in a hostel. You are going to watch a movie with your i
roommate is not in room so you are leaving the keys of the room with the warden. Write a
message informing your roommate about this.
5. You are Dr. Akhil and your patient, Mrs Nivedita is due for root canal sitting on
Monday. But you have to leave for Bhopal immediately. You try to contact Mrs Nivedita
but her telephone is out of coverage area. Send a written message in not more than fifty
words telling her not to come on Monday as you are leaving town and will be back by
Wednesday. Ask her to contact you on telephone on Friday for a fresh appointment.
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C. PARAGRAPH WRITING
1. Definition. Paragraph writing is a brief piece of writing that is around seven to ten
sentences long. It has a topic sentence and supporting sentences that all relate closely to the
topic sentence. The paragraph form refers to its overall structure, which is a group of
sentences focusing on a single topic.
There are three main parts of a paragraph:
(a) Topic Sentence. It has the main idea.
(b) Supporting sentence. Details that relate to and support the topic sentence.
(c) Concluding sentence. A brief collection or statement about the main idea.
Solved Example.
If I were invisible
If by some magic, I were to become invisible, I would be extremely happy and make
all my dreams come true. Being invisible would give me the liberty to go anywhere and see
everything without i. I would walk unnoticed with the great men of my country and visit
some famous places of the world. I would be able to travel across the world without
spending a rupee. But I wish to use this rare ability to serve my country. I would kill my
enemies, go quietly into the enemy camps and destroy their arm and ammunition. Then I
would disclose my identity and be honoured by my nation.
1. Write a paragraph about the following topics:
(a) Noise Pollution in cities
(b) If you were a petty vendor
(c) My nation
(d) When I was caught sleeping in the class
(e) My favourite teacher
(f) Bicycles the eco friendly transport.
(g) An unwelcome guest.

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D. DIARY WRITING
1. Definition. A diary entry is a section of writing that has been organised by date. The
entries within your diary are how you organise the thoughts, feelings and op0-inijons you are
pouring into it. They break up your diary into smaller pieces. Think of them like chapters of
a book. They can be as short or as long as you want.
2. Features of the Diary Writing.
(a) Begin with date and time at the beginning at the top left corner.
(b) Informal style is to be used.
(c) It should be brief and lucid.
(d) It must end with your nick name.
(e) Begin with Dear Diary.
Solved Example.
1. Your maid has four children. Three daughters and a son. All her daughters work as
maids like their mother to earn money, while the son goes to school and gets everything he
desires. You feel pity for the girls and sad the way our society treats Girls. Write a diary
entry in 50 - 60 Words.
Wednesday, 14 June, 10 p.m.
Dear Diary,
I just came to knee that our maid has three daughters and a son. All of
her daughters are deprived of education. They work as maid like their
mother to earn money while the son goes to school and gets everything he
desires. Such is the plight of women in our country! I feel so sorry for
them.
It pains me to live in a country where women’s education is considered
unnecessary. I wonder whether this mindset will ever change . I can only
hope for the best.
i
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Exercise
2. You have come to know that you have been selected for inter-school debate
competition. Write a diary entry expressing your views about the same.
3. Imagine that today the student sitting behind you in the examination hall wanted you
to allow him/her to copy from your answer sheet. You agreed to help him/her. The
invigilator noticed it and made you both leave the examination hall. Write down your
feelings about the incident in your diary.
4. You discovered that i, your elder sister i been back-biting about you. Record your
feeling in your diary.
5. A distant cousin of yours came to stay with your family for a week in your summer
vacation. You hardly knew him before and found him to be a very annoying person with
irritating habits. But he is a guest in your house. Make a diary entry expressing your
thoughts and feeling about your cousin and his stay.
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E. EMAIL WRITING
i is fast and efficient method to exchange of messages between two or more persons. E-Mail
can be defined as the exchange of messages through as computer net work. The message to
be sent through an E-Mail is typed on the computer and it transmitted on the internet address
of the receiver. It is a lettered device to send and receive written message anywhere in the
world with the help of internet.
There are three different types of e mail and each has its pros, cons
(a) Formal Email
(b) Semi formal Email
(c) Informal Email
Format of Email
The email writing format is the same for each of the categories. Though the choice of
words and language differ depending upon the type of email. One can use friendly and causal
language in informal email. The language used in formal emails should be professional and
formal. Observe the format:
From Sender’s email lD

To Recipients email ID
Cc. Copy to other persons
Subject Title or reason writing email
Salutation Words like dear, my dear, Hey, respected, etc.
Main body The main content of the email
1. Introduction
2. Matter in detail
3. Conclusion
Attachment Attached files with email

Signature Sender’s name, signature and other details of contact.
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Example
1. Your paternal uncle is coming from New York and he wishes to bring you a present
of your choice. Write an email to him telling him what you want.
From swamyr931@gmail.com
To Sankalp456@gmail.com
Cc.
Subject Present of my choice`
Salutation Dear Uncle
Main Body It was so nice to ask me about the present. I would like you to bring for
me a laptop. All my friends have their own laptop and I would also like to
have one.
I shall feel happy if you could bring one for me. I shall keep it with great
care
We are all eagerly waiting for your arrival.
See you soon.
Attachment
Signature RM Swamy, Kanti Deep, PTC Ground Road, Gopal Ganj, Sagar (MP)
7583013243
2. You went to Christmas carnival yesterday and saw children going round on the Giant
wheel. Write an email to your friend describing the experience.
3. You are Kanwar Singh, Dy Manager, Joy and Joy manufacturing company. I wish to
resign your job due to various reasons. Write an email submitting your resignation to the
General Manager.
4. Send an email message of Get well soon to your friend who is lying in hospital
5. You are Mohit Choubey. Write an email to your maternal uncle to meet your ailing
mother,
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F. REPORT WRITING
Definition. A report is the description of an event or a situation meant for a particular person
or a group of persons. Reports about events, accidents, burglaries, matches etc. are often
published in newspapers. But that is not all. Reports may be written or read about many
other things like:
 A newspaper report
 A function held in your school or college
 A report about an accident happening that you have witnessed.
 A report about an enquiry or survey.
Points to be kept in mind while writing reports.
(a) A report should be factual i.e. it does not include personal feelings or
opinions.
(b) It should be clear and as brief as possible.
(c) It should have a title or heading.
(d) It usually includes the name of the writer.
(e) It should be written in reported speech. Preferably in the passive voice and in
the past tense.
(f) The language should be neutral not try to influence the reader’s opinion.
(g) Nature of the event/occasion
(h) Back ground information
(i) Date/time/venue
(j) Chief guest/Guest of honour
(k) Description of the event
(k) Conclusion
Solved Example
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Agra shivers on the coldest day in 70 years
Correspondent/Special Correspondent/staff reporter/Name
Agra, 14 Jan, Agra experienced its coldest day in over 70 years on Sunday as
chilly winds from the North west swept the city throughout the day, forcing
the administration to order closure of primary schools including private
institutions till Jan 31st
The sudden dip in temperature to 0.2 degree Celsius early in the morning and
cold wave conditions during the day forced people to stay indoors.
The minimum temperature remained at 0.2 degree Celsius between 5.30 a.m.
and 6.00 a.m. at Kheria. Prior to this Agra had recorded minimum
temperature of -0.2 degree Celsius on Jan 10, 1970.
2. Your school recently celebrated International Yoga Day. Write a brief reports for your
school magazine.
3. Your school organised a health check up camp last week. The check up revealed
startling facts. More than 45% students were found to be anaemic, 90% students suffered
from weak eyesight and were underweight. Doctors said that it was due to food habits and
lack of nutritious food. Write a report about the camp for the school magazine.
4. You are a newspaper reporter sent to cover the report of an incident. On the basis of
notes write a report.
Shocking act of child abuse – six years old girl – slashed on the neck, throat – attack
in the school bus, girl alone- waiting for other students to board - no major wounds – out of
danger after operation- attacker managed to run away.
5. You were at a shopping mall when you saw armed robbers who fired at the manager
and ran away with a bag full of money. As a staff reporter of a leading newspaper write a
detailed report for your newspaper.
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G. FACTUAL DESCRIPTION
Definition. A factual description is a writing task that describes a person, place, thing or
explains a process in a matter of fact way. It is systematic and logical. The description
should be clear, concise and logical. Factual description must have a suitable title. Some
valuable points for writing a factual description of a process are given below :
(a) Suitable title is to be given.
(b) Corrector sequence of steeps are to be involved in it .
(c) The description is almost to be written in the passive mode.
(d) It should be written in the passive voice in a matter of fact way.
Solved Examples
1. Write a Factual Description for opening a bank account in any nationalized bank.
Opening a Bank Account
Opening a bank account is one of the safest options to save money. Otherwise, one can
keep only a limited amount of money at home. So having a bank account is a wise decision.
First of all, you will have to go to the bank personally and find out the relevant form. Fill in
the form carefully and give all details like your full name, complete address, occupation, age,
income, etc.
You will have to paste two passport size photographs in the space especially left for this
purpose. Remember, you should give complete and true information because these details
are verified and then kept as a record. You will need to submit copies of documents relating
to proof of identity and proof of residence to the bank. You also need an existing account
holder of the bank to introduce you.
You will have to put three specimen signatures on a signature card. The next step is to go
to the deposit counter. Deposit your money. Remember that you will have to maintain a
minimum deposit in the bank. Now collect your passbook and cheque book. Now you can
transact money forever.
2. Write a factual description of a person whom you like the most in your family in 150
words.
3. Write a factual description of an electrical device which is an indispensable

requirement in the household things in not less than 150 words.
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3. Write a factual description of the newly inaugurated library in your school in about
150 words.
4. You are one of volunteers who dented blood at the blood donation camp organised by the
red Cross Society in your School. Write a description about your experience and feelings
while donating blood in about 150- words.
5. You as the group leader will speak on ‘Planting a Sapling’ to the volunteers of
Vanmahotsav. Write the complete process involved in planting of sapling in about 150
words.
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H. BIO SKETCH
Definition. A bio sketch is a short, one or two paragraph summary of any person. It has a
complete biography includes all aspect of a person’s character, life, education and
achievement. A biographical sketch is much shorter and more specific. A bio sketch should
inform the reader about the person, and give them and overall sense of the person’s character.
The sketch will view the reader information about the person and can be used a career
development tool.
It is always written by a person other than the one who is being described. The aim, of a
bio-sketch is large to present a positive picture of the person concerned. It is advisable to
present all the information in chronological order while writing a bio sketch so that the reader
can trace the life of the subject from the beginning to the end.
The main points that need to be incorporated while writing a bio sketch are given below:
(a) Full name, date of birth/age, place of birth.
(b) Major personality traits.
(c) Education details highlighting any major achievements or awards.
(d) His/her contribution to the society.
(e) Any special interest.
(e) Why is he/she famous or known for?
Solved Example.
1. Write a biographical sketch of Vishwanathan Anand –Grandmaster, a world Chess

Champion in your own words in not more than 120 words. Necessary inputs have been given.
Name - Vishwanathan Anand
Born - December 11,1969, in Tamil Nadu
Nationality - Indian
Hobbies - Listening to music, swimming and reading
Instructor -Vishy or the ‘Tiger of Madras’
Marital Status - Married
Children - A son
Achievements - -1. Learnt chess from mother at the age of 6.
2. Undisputed Title of World Chess Champion from 2007 to 2013

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3. First Asian at 17 to win the world chess title oat the FIDE Junior
Championship 1987.
4. Published his collection of games under the title Vishy

Anand: My Best Games of Chess’.
5. Parma Shri at the age of 18.
6. Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna.
7. Padma Vibhushan.
8. Arjuna Award
9. Chess Oscar.
VISHWANATHAN ANAND
Vishwanathan Anand was born on December 11, 1969, in Tamil Nadu. He is an

Indian Chess player who won the undisputed title of World Chess Champion from
2007 – 2013. He learnt to play chess from his mother at the age of 6. He became the
first Asian at the age of 17 to win the world chess title at the FIDE World Junior
Championship in the year 1987. He has published his collection of games under the
title ‘Vishy Anand: My Best Games of Chess’.
Anand is fond of listening to music, swimming and reading. He is fondly referred

to as Vishy, or the ‘Tiger of Madras’ and was awarded the Padma Shri at a young age
of 18 years. Besides that, he has also bagged the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna, Padma
Vibhushan, Arjuna award and Chess Oscar.
2. Write a biographical sketch of Kailash Satyarthi, a Nobel Peace Prize Honorary, in

your own words in not more than 120 words. Clues have been given.
Born 11Jan 54, Vidisha, NMP, India – academic qualification – Electrical Engineer- family –
married, Two children – a daughter and a son. Prize motivation – his struggle against the
suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education-
awards –Nobel Peace Prize, 2014 (shared with Malala Yousafazai)- Defenders of Democracy
awards (US), 2009, Alfonso Omin International Award (Spain), 2008- The Robert Kennedy
Human Rights Award, 1995- popular Child Rights Activist- started a journal ‘The Struggle
Shall Continue’; in 1980(create awareness about child labour)- founder – Bachpan Andolan
(BBA), a movement dedicated towards eradication of human trafficking and bonded child
labour.
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3. Write the biographical sketch of Raghuram Rajan, former Governor of RBI, in your
own words in not more than 120 words. Clues have been given.
Former Governor RBI, 23- born Feb 03, 1963 Bhopal, MP - in Tamil Family- father
was senior bureaucrat-graduate from IIT Delhi in 1985 management degree from IIM
Ahmedabad in 1987 – doctoral degree in 1991 from MIT –HKUST(Hongkong University of
Science and Technology) – vegetarian- loves swimming, squash, tennis, running – married to
Radhika Puri – she is a lecturer of law at Chicago Law School – he served as the Chief
Central Bank economic Advisor to Finance Ministry – was the youngest Chief Economist- at
IMF in 2003- prestigious awards – Fischer Black Prize-Best Governor Award – deutsche
Bank Prize for financial economics.
4. Write biography sketch of Nelson Mandela, the first Black President, in your own
words in not more than 125 words. Clues have been given.
Full Name - Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela
Born - 18 Jul 1918, Royal family of South Africa, got an English Name,
Nelson from his teacher.
Education - Local Mission School Methodist College at Beaufort University of

Witwatersrand
Law from African National Congress
Achievements - 1. 1944 let peaceful protest and armed resistance
2. Protected rights of blacks.
3. Convicted of overthrowing the government.
4. Imprisoned for 27 years.
5. Elected first black President 1994.
Founder 6. Retired from politics in 1999.
7. Continued working for world peace
Founder - The Nelson Mandela foundation, Air Awareness
Died - 95 years age in 2013
Award - Bharat Ratan in 1990
Nobel Peace Prize in 1993
5. Write the biographical sketch of Narendra Modi Prime Minister of India in your own
words in not more than 120 words. Clues have been given.
Name - Narendra Damodardas Modi

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Born - 17 Sep 1950
Place of Birth - Vadnagar, Mehsana (Guj)
Zodiac Sign - Virgo
Nationality - Indian
Father’s Name - Damordas Mulchand Modi
Mother’s Name - Hiraben Damodardas Modi
Siblings - Soma Modi, Amrut Modi, Pankaj Modi, Prahlad Modi, Vasantiben,
Hasmukhlal Modi
Spouse - Smt Jashodaben Modi
Education - SSC 1967 from SSC board
BA 1978 from Delhi University
PG MA 1983 Gujarat University
Political Party - BJP
Profession - Politician
PM - Since 26 May 2014
Preceded by - Manmohan Singh
Favourite Leaders - Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda.

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I. LETTER WRITING
Definition. Letter writing is an important skill to develop. Written communication in both

the formal and informal matter is crucial and so it is necessity to develop a skill for letter
writing. Here we will focus on how to effectively write both formal and informal letters.
A letter is such a written message that we sent to persons who are far away from us
and we want to convey our message to them in a clear and forceful manner. Usually we write
letter to our friends and relatives and sometimes we write letters to government and non
government officials and business purpose too. There are mainly two types of letter writing.
They are given as under:
(a) Formal letter. It is written for official, purposes. The tone of the letter is
formal and structured. It may be written to institutions, government
departments and business establishments.
(b) Informal letter. It is also referred to as a friendly letter. It is written to friends

and relatives. It is written in personal fashion. You can write it to anyone with
whom you have a non professional relationship.
A. Format of Formal letter
Sender’s Address
Date
Receiver’s address
Subject
Salutation
Body Text
Signatory Block
Solved Example :
1. You are Amit /Amita the resident of H/12, cut road, Varni Colony, Sagar (MP)
470001. Write a letter to the Police Commissioner, complaining about the late arrival, of the
police when a theft was committed in your neighbourhood.
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H/123, Cut Road

Varni Colony
Sagar (MP) 470001
10Jun 2020
The Police Commissioner

Sagar Police HQ
Civil Line Sagar (MP) 470002
POOR SERVICE OF POLICE
Sir,
I am the resident of Varni Colony, Sagar which is an approved colony. I wish to draw
your kind attention to the fact that the colony where I live has become the centre of theft.
Last night, in the early hours of the morning, a theft was committed in our colony. The
watch man on duty saw two masked men coming out of the house. He was brave enough to
confront them but when he raised an alarm they took to their heels. The thieves were nowhere
to be seen when all the neighbours gathered. The guard had immediately rung up the nearest
police post which is a two minute walk from our locality.
However, the police took their own sweet time to come. It was almost one hour later,
when they arrived. By that time the thieves were seen getting into a Maruti car which seemed
to be part of their escape plan. It did not have number plate so no one was able to give any
other information.
Such negligence on the part of the police is intolerable. Had they attended their duty
honourably the culprits would have been caught.
You are therefore requested to look into the matter personally and take necessary action
against such unworthy officials.
Thanking you.
Yours sincerely/faithfully
Anuj/Anuja
2. You are Anish/Anima. You are in class and you have developed severe headache.
You are finding it difficult to attend the class anymore. You stay nearby and wish to go
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home. Write an application to your principal seeking permission to go home. Mention your
class, section and reason for going home.
3. Write an application Write a letter to your District Collector for imposing restriction
on the use of loudspeaker. You name is Arjun Yadav/ Arohi Desai, living at 18, Civil Line,
Agra (UP).
4. Write a letter to Post Master of your area complaining against the postman who does
not carry out his duties properly and regularly. Your name and address will be self
explanatory.
5. Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper expressing your views on corporal

punishments in schools.
B. Format of Informal letter
Sender’s address
Date
Salutation
Body Text
Signatory Block
Example:
1. Write a letter to your intimate friend, Rishap Pandey / Riya Verma, requesting him to
spend summer vacation with you in your city. You are Srichand Badonia/ Sonali Thapa of 15,
2. Write a letter to your younger sister Sranjanika who has sent you Rakhi by post. All
necessary inputs are self explanatory.
3. Write a letter to your friend Vimal Dubey congratulating him on the brilliant success
in the final examination. You are Akshy Kumar/Aarchi Jain, Namak Mandi, Anwar Colony,
Hyderabad.
4. You are Bhaskar/Bhavana living at 65 Subhash Colony, Vaishali Nagar, Jaipur. Your
friend Deepak Arora has invited you to his elder sister’s marriage at Kota. Write a letter to
him expressing your inability to attend the marriage because of your father’s illness.
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5. Write a letter to your Paternal Uncle Mr Gopal Swamy giving your thankful to him
for a valuable gift on your birthday. Your name and address will be self explanatory.
J. STORY WRITING
Definition. A story is telling of an event, either true or fiction in such a way that the listener
experiences or learns something just by the fact that he heard the story. A story is a means of
transferring information, experience, attitude or point of view. Every story has a teller and
listener.
Story writing is a part of the writing skills. It is a topic that involves creative writing.
Here we can see the format of a story writing and the steps to write a short story for children
and students.
As story writing involves creative writing skills, follow the below mentioned points to
write a good story:
(a) The narrative should be in I, II and III person.
(b) Time, location, context and atmosphere should be described to create imagery.
(c) Meaningful dialogue to be used.
(d) Characterisation: Identify 2 or 3w main characters and a few side characters in

the story.
(e) Plot of the story should be interesting like what happens, action, flashback,
climax, conflict, solving conflict, mystery, empowerment, surprise, empathy,
crisis, resolution, closing image.
Example:
1. Write a story in 150 words with the following beginning and givbe a suitable title to
it.
Raju was alone at home. Suddenly the phone rang..................

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Raju’s Presence of Mind
Raju was alone at home. Suddenly the phone rang. He hesitated for a moment but then
picked up the receiver. Though he said ‘Hello’, there was no response from the other end. He
repeated ‘Hello’,’Hello’...but still no one replied from the other end. The phone rang again
but his time somebody asked if his father was at home. When Raju asked who was calling,
the caller refused to tell about him and kept on asking his parents’ whereabouts. When Raju
refused to answer, the line was disconnected.
After some time, the doorbell rang. As Raju peeped through the keyhole, he found a tall
man with a beard, outside the door. Raju got scared and quickly ran towards the phone and
called up his father’s friend who lived in their colony and told him about the incident. His
uncle asked him not to worry as he would reach soon. He quickly collected some other men
from the neighbourhood with his pet dog reached Raju’s home. The tall man was looking for
a way to get into the house when the dog of Raju’s uncle held his leg with its teeth the man
panicked and tried to run away but was overpowered by all the men of the colony.
Soon, the police reached Raju’s home and his parents also returned and thanked the
neighbours. Everyone praised Raju’s presence of mind which saved his life.
2. Write a story in 150 words with the following beginning and give a suitable title to it.
It had been over two hours waiting for the train. Ruchi was getting restless.....
Suddenly she .................
3. Write a story in 150 words with the help of the clues given below. Give suitable title
to the story.
Tortoise and hare ......good friends..........tortoise.........known for his slow

speed..............hare has fast speed..........makes fun of tortoise........challenges
him.....referee selected............race starts..........hare overconfident.........takes a
nap..........tortoise wins.....
4. Read the given line and complete the story in 150 words. Give suitable title to the
story.
Last Sunday evening, I was watching TV. Suddenly I heard people shouting and
running outside......................
5. Write a story in 120- 150 words out of your head.

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K. EASSY WRITING
Definition. An essay is a short academic composition. In composition essay it is a piece of

nonfiction writing that talks or discusses a specific topic. Presently essay is part of every
examination of students.
Everyday subject has specific requirements for the essays to be written. Some subjects
need longer essays, while others need shorter ones, such as a five paragraph essay. Based on
the requirements, there are seventeen types of essays in English Language. You need not
learn all types of essays by now. You may be taught all types of essays gradually when you
go to higher classes.
Format of General Essay
Name of the essay
First Para - Introduction of the topic
Second Para – Body paragraph (Merit)
Third Para - Body paragraph (Demerit)
Fourth Para – Body paragraph (Suggestion)
Fifth Para/ – Conclusion

Last Para
Solved Example
1. Write an essay about Sports and Games in about 250 words.

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Sports and Games
Human life is a series of problems and tensions. People are surrounded by a variety of
concerns. Games and Sports make us free from these troubles, tensions and concerns. Games
and Sports are necessary parts of life who believe in life are able to face the problems.
Playing Games and Sports are healthy for us. These are helpful in proper operation of
the various organs of the body. Sports bring the freshness in our body and mind. We feel
energetic by playding sporots. They make the good shape of our muscles. They change the
laziness of our body into freshness. They give us something probably which anything cannot
give.
In school and in other higher instigations games are also considered as essential part
as education. There are different kinds of sport competitions are held in schools. In school,
one period is daily given for games. A teacher teaches how to play different games to
students.
There is a good bond between childhood of students and games. Students learn new
things from game. Sports develop courage and self confidence. They become agile and swift.
Victory fills them with new enthusiasm and motivation.
All know the importance of games in the world. So, now Olympics held in different
countries. These Olympic Games are the biggest competition which held every fourth year.
Every fourth year, the Asian games are the biggest event of the continent of Asia. People
seem to take more ihterest in sports.
In India, cricket , hockey, football, ,polo, chess, table tennis , lawn tennis, badminton,
etc....are played. Cricket is the most popular among them. Cricket attracts the people of
youth generation. People are happy to see the live broadcast of cricket and other sports.
Everyone wants to see their country’s team wins. Such games are very helpful in increasing
the sense of national unity. When a player does well in sports increases the pride of the
country.
Games increased the physical and mental ability. Fresh air enters into our lungs.
Nowadays a lot of good players received honours. They get proper respect in society.
Games and sports are getting valuable for all peoples Government and sports organisations
are trying to promote sports.
2. Write an Essay on the following topics each in 250 words.
(a) Noise Pollution
(b) Patriotism
(c)_ Corruption
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(d) Women Empowerment
(e) Time and Tide Wait for None
(f) Internet
(g) Human race
(h) Nelson Mandela
(h) Advantage and disadvantage of Mobile Phone
(i) Necessity of discipline in public life.

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24. ANTONYMS
Antonyms are words that have contrasting, or opposite, meanings. Since the English
is so complex, people may disagree about which words truly have opposite meanings. With
the examples of anonyms listed below, we try to clear that up and offer some tactic for
choosing the most appropriate word every time. There are different kinds of antonyms. Let us
take a look at each one:
(a) Complementary Antonyms. Complementary antonyms have no middle

ground. Example:
Boy - girl Off - on
Night - day Entrance - exist
Exterior - interior True - false
Dead - alive Push - pull
Pass - fail
(b) Relational Antonyms. These are similar to complementary antonyms, except that
both must exist for them to be antonyms of each other. Example:
Above - below Doctor patient
Husband - wife Servant - master
Borrow - lend give - receive
Buy - sell Instructor - cadet/pupil
(c) Graded Antonyms. These antonyms deal with levels of comparisons and they
can be two words on a scale. Many are relative terms, which can be
interoperated differently by different people. Example:
Young - elderly Hard - easy
Happy - wistful Wise - foolish
Fat - slim Warm - cool
Early - late Fast - slow
Dark - pale
(d) Adding prefix: ‘dis’
Agree - disagree Appear - disappear
Belief - disbelief Honest - dishonest

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Approve - disapprove Comfort - discomfort
Allow - disallow Like - dislike
Grace - disgrace Obedient - disobedient
Advantage - disadvantage Close - Disclose
Connect - disconnect Prove - disprove
Please - displease Satisfaction - dissatisfaction
Continue - discontinue Order - disorder
Qualified - disqualified Satisfied - dissatisfied
(e) Adding prefix ‘in’ :
Tolerant - intolerant Decent - indecent
Discreet - indiscreet Excusable - in excusable
Active - inactive Complete - incomplete
Formal - informal Convenient - inconvenient
Human - inhuman Sincere - insincere
Visible - invisible Dependent - independent
Action - inaction Equality - inequality
Correct - incorrect Curable - incurable
Direct - indirect Sufficient - insufficient
Valuable - invaluable Accurate - inaccurate
Credible - incredible Effective - ineffective
Efficient - inefficient Rational - irrational
Recoverable - irrecoverable Regular - irregular
Reparable - irreparable Replaceable - irreplaceable
(f) Adding prefix ‘mis’:
Behave - misbehave Interpret - misinterpret
Lead - mislead Trust - mistrust

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Deed - misdeed Guide - misguide
Spell - misspell Place - misplace
Conduct - misconduct Print - misprint
Understand - misunderstand
(g) Adding prefix ‘un’ :
Likely - unlikely Able - unable
Fortunate - unfortunate Forgiving - unforgiving
Interesting - uninteresting Natural - unnatural
Fair - unfair Educated - uneducated
Important - unimportant Pleasant - unpleasant
True - untrue Necessary - unnecessary
Aware - unaware Bearable - unbearable
Lucky - unlucky Equal - unequal
Common - uncommon Happy - unhappy
Real - unreal Comfortable - uncomfortable
Kind - unkind Attend - un attend
Authorise - un authorise Available - unavailable
Avoidable - unavoidable Conscious = unconscious
Foreseen - unforeseen Forgivable - unforgivable
(h) Adding Prefix ‘non’
Entity - nonentity Conformist - nonconformist
Payment - non-payment Sense - nonsense
Violent - non violent Cooperate - non cooperate
(i) Adding prefix ‘im’:
Pure - impure Personal - impersonal
Partial - impartial Possible - impossible
Probable - improbable Mortal - immortal

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Perfect - imperfect Patient - impatient
Balance - imbalance Mature - immature
Measurable - immeasurable Mobile - immobile
Moral - immoral Moveable - immoveable
Polite - impolite Probable - improbable
(j) Adding prefix ‘ir’ :
Relevant - irrelevant Regular - irregular
Religious - irreligious Responsible - irresponsible
(k) Adding prefix ‘il’ :
Legal - illegal Legible - illegible
Literate - illiterate Logical - illogical
(l) Common Antonyms
Above - below Absent - present
Achieve - fail Add - subtract
Afraid - confident After - before
Beautiful - ugly Blunt - sharp
Brave - cowardly Cautious - careless
Cheap - expensive Clean - dirty
Cold - hot Complex - simple
Cool - warm Crazy - sane
Crooked - straight Deep - shallow
Divide - unite Easy - difficult
Expand - contract Fat - skinny
Follow - lead Gentle - rough
Give - receive Hard - soft
Huge - tiny Idle - active
Able - unable Above - below

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Accept - decline/refuse Absent - present
Admit - deny Against - for
Alive - dead Alone - together
Always - never Ancient - modern
Answer - question Small - big
Soft - hard Arrive - leave
Ascend - descend Attack - defend
Awake - asleep Bad - good
Begin - end Behind - in front of
Best - worst Big - little
Birth - death Bitter - sweet
Black - white Interesting - boring
Start - finish External - internal
Fall - rise Fat - thin
Fat - skinny Few - many
First - last Forgive - blame
Forward - backward Funny - sad
Giant - tiny Healthy - sick
Heaven - hell Win - lose
Lazy - diligent Long - short
Loud - quiet Tough - easy

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25. HOMOPHONES
Homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in
meaning and spelling. Observe the following homophones:
Allowed - aloud
Altar - alter ant - ant
Aisle - isle air - heir
Advice - advise arc - ark
Already - all ready ball - bawl
Be - bee beach - beech
Bean - been billed - build
Blue - blew bored - board
Break - brake bye - buy
Basis - bases born - borne
Bold - bowled Bite - bight\
Bury - berry beer -= bier
Bale - bail bear - bear
Berth - birth but - butt
Ceiling - sealing Cell - sell
Cast - caste cent - scent
Creak - creek chews - choose
Cheap - cheep capital - capitol
Cellar - seller census - sense
Cereal - serial cite - site
Coarse - course council - counsel
Desert - dessert dear - deer
Die - dye discreet - discrete
Doe - dough dual - duel

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Dense - dents defused - diffused
Days - daze eke - eek
Eight - ate faun - fawn
Fax - facts fate - fete
Father - farther fir - fur
Flaw - floor flea - flee
Flew - flue flour - flower
For - four foreword - forward
Foul - fowl fir - fare
Gel - jell gate - gait
Genes - jeans great - grate
Groan - grown him - hymn
Hoard - horde Hail - hale
Heard - herd hall - haul
Hair - hare hear - here
Heel - heal high - hi
Hole - whole hour - our
I - eye idle - idol
Knave - nave knap - nap
Know - no leak - leek
Lessen - lesson loan - lone
Loose - lose medal - meddle
Main - mane merry - marry
Maize - maze maid - made
Mail - male mask - masque
Meet - meat muscle mussel
Need - knead new - knew

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Night - knight not - knot
Oar - ore oral - aural
Pore - pour pair - pear
Pray - prey practise - practice
Principal - prophet peal - peel
Pea - pee pair - pear
Piece - peace peak - peek
Plane - plain read - red
Right - write right - rite
Root - rout sail - sale
Sight - site scene - seen
Story - storey seam - seem
Stationery - stationary stile - style
Soot - suite sauce - source
See - sea sore - soar
Sole - soul some - sum
Sort - sought sari - stair
Steal - steel sun - son
Taught - taut team - teem
There - their threw - through
Told - tolled throne - thrown
Tail - tale too - two
Vain - vane week - weak
Weather - whether where - wear
Witch - which won - one?
Wade - weighed your - you’re
Yoke - yolk
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26. HOMONYMS
Homonyms are two words that are spelled the same and sound the same but have
different meanings. The word homonym comes from the pretext homo, which means the
same, and the suffix nym which means name. Therefore, a homonym is a word that has the
same name as another word, meaning that the two words look and sound exactly alike. Some
important homonyms are given below:
Address - to speak
Address - location
Air - oxygen
Air - a lilting tune
Arn - body part
Arm - division of a company in military
Band - a musical group
Band - a ring
Bark - a tree’s out layer
Bark - the sound of a dog
Bat - an implement used to hit ball
Bat - a nocturnal flying mammal
Bear - a kind of wild animal
Bear - to withstand or hold up
Book - something to read
Book - the act of making reservation/registration
Bright - very smart or intelligent
Bright - filled with light
Can - a metal container
Can - able to
Circular - taking the form of a circle
Circular - a store advertisement

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Current - up to date
Current - flow of water
Die - to cease living
Die - a cube marked with numbers one through six
Express - something done fast
Express - to show your thoughts by using words
Fair - equitable
Fair - beautiful
Jag - a sharp, jutted object
Jag - a crying spree
Kind - type
Kind - caring
Lie - to recline
Lie - to tell falsehood
Match - to pair like items
Match - a stick for making a flame
Mean - average
Mean - not nice
Pen - writing tool
Pen - keeping/holding area of animals
Pole - a person from Poland
Pole - a piece of metal that holds a flag
Pound - unit of weight
Pound - to beat
Quarry - a site for mining stone
Quarry - - to extractor obtain slowly
Ream - a pile of paper

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Ream - to juice a citrus fruit
Ring - a band on a finger
Ring - something circular in shape
Rock - a genre of music
Rock - a stone
Rose - to have gotten up
Rose - a kind of flower
Spring - a season
Spring - coiled metal
Stalk - a part of plant
Stalk - to follow or harass someone
Tender - gentle
Tender - offering money
Tear - to make two pieces
Tear - water droplets coming out of eye
Tire - to grow fatigued
Tire - a part of a wheel
Well - in good health
Well - a source of water in the ground

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27. PROVERBS
A Proverb is s brief, simple, and popular saying, or a phrase that gives advice and
effectively embodies a commonplace truth based on practical experience or common sense.
A proverb may have an allegorical message behind its odd appearance. The reason of
popularity is due to its usage in spoken language as well as folk literature. Observe the
following proverbs with their meaning:
(a) A friend in need is a friend indeed. You may have many friends, but a true
friend is someone who helps you at a difficult time or when you really need
help.
(b) Actions speak louder than words. What you do is more important than what
you say. If you say one thing and do something else, there is no meaning in
what you have said.
(c) A little learning is a dangerous thing. The proverb conveys the idea that if a
person shares their views and opinions without much knowledge on a
particular subject, it could lead to dangerous situations. It is a warning to us
that we should do extensive research on topic before we think we are an expert
on it.
(d) A stitch in time saves nine. It is better to deal with a problem early and in
time because if we keep postponing, it could get worse and take longer to deal
with.
(e) All that glitters is not gold. Gold is a precious and rare metal, but there are
other metals that look like gold. The proverb tells us that not everything that
looks good on the outside is valuable. It also tells us that we should not judge
a person by their looks because they may look i9nnocvent but be completely
different.
(f) All work and no play make Jack a dull boy. We should make time for
relaxation and not work all the time. Focusing all our time on work could
make us dull and is also unhealthy.
(g) Good apple is often rotten at the core. Appearance is deceptive .Never judge
a book by a cover. We should not underestimate person by their appearance.
(h) A bird in the hand is worthy two in the bush. We should not risk losing
something we have to get something that we think is better. If you do, it may
result in nothing.
(i) Bad news travel fast. Unpleasant facts rapidly become known widely.
(j) A stitch in time saves nine. Taking immediate action at the right time saves a
lot of work later.
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(k) The pen is mightier than the sword. Trying to convince people with ideas
and words is more effective than trying to force people to do what you want.
(l) The squeaky wheel gets the grease. You can get better service if you
complain about something. If you wait patiently, no one is going to help you.
(m) No man is an island. You cannot live completely independently. Everyone

needs help from other people.
(n) Fortune favours the bold. People who bravely go after what they want, are
more successful than people who try to live safely.
(o) People who live in glass houses should not throw stones. Don’t criticize
other people if you are not perfect yourself.
(p) Hope for the best, but prepare for the worst. This seems pretty clear.
(q) Keep your friends close and your enemies closer. If you have an enemy,
pretend to be friends with them instead of openly fighting with them. That way
you can watch them carefully and figure out.
(r) You cannot make an omelette without breaking a few eggs. When you try
to do something great, you will probably make a few people annoyed or angry.
Don’t worry about those people. Just focus on the good results.
(s) Cleanliness is next to godliness. Be clean, you can reach to God’s place.
(t) Beggars can’t be choosers. If you are asking for a favour from someone else,
you have to take whatever they give you.
(u) Practice makes perfect. You have to practice a skill a lot to become good at
it.
(v) Easy come, easy go. When you get money quickly, like by winning it, it is
easy to spend it or lose it quickly as well.
(w) Don’t bite the hand that feeds you. If someone is paying you or helping you
out, you have to be careful not to make them angry or say bad things about
them.
(x) One man’s trash is another man’s treasure. Different people have different
ideas about what is valuable.
(y) There is no time like the present. If you need to do something don’t wait
until, later. Do it now.
(z) Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Different people have different ideas
about what is beautiful
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(aa) Necessity is the mother of invention. When you are really in need, you think
of creative solutions to your problems.
(ab) The grass is always greener on the other side of the hill. People tend to
want whatever they don’t have.
(ac) Honesty is the best policy. Don’t lie at any cost.
(ad) You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink. If you try to
help someone but they don’t take your advice or offers, give up. You can’t
force some to accept your help.
(ae) Don’t count your chickens before they hatch. Your plans might not work
out, so don’t start thinking about what you will do after you succeed. Wait
until you have already succeeded. And then you can think about what to do
next.
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28. IDIOMS
Idioms are a type of figurative language, which means they are not always meant to
be taken literally. Idioms express a particular sentiment, but they do not literally mean what
the individual words themselves mean. An idiom is a saying that is specific to a language. For
example, an idiom in English does not translate to other language. Some important idioms
that are commonly used in vogue, are given as under:
(a) A hot potato. Something that is difficult or dangerous to deal with.
e.g. Covid 19 is a social hot potato in the world.
(b) Ball is in your court. It is up to you to take the next step.
e.g. The government made its decision in teaching, now the ball is
in teachers ‘court.
(c) Beat around the bush. Avoid answering a question; not speaking directly
about the issue.
e.g. Tell me what the problem is, stop beating around the bush.
(d) Burn the midnight oil. To say up working, especially studying late night.
e.g. He has been burning the midnight oil for the last few months; his hard
work will definitely pay off in the coming examination.
(e) Cry over spilled milk. To be unhappy about something that cannot be
undone.
e.g. It can’t be helped, don’t cry over spilled milk.
(f) Curiosity killed the cat. Being too curious can get you into trouble.
e.g. Don’t ask about his result- curiosity killed the cat.
(g) Cut corners. To take shortcuts.
e.g. In mathematics examination , we won’t cut corners just to save time.
(h) Cut the mustard. Perform satisfactorily; to succeed.
e.g. We need a better tutor for physics, the present one doesn’t cut the
mustard.
(i) Hit the nail on the head. To do or say exactly the right thing.
e.g. you have spotted the flow, Roshan . You have hit the nail on the head.
(j) Kill two birds with one stone. Solve two problems with a single action.
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e.g John practised his words while peeling the potatoes . He was killing
two birds with one stones.
(k) Let the cat out of the bag. To reveal a secret
e.g. It is our secret. Don’t let the cat out of the bag.
(l) Miss the boat. To miss out on something
e.g. Pay attention Joseph, or you will miss the boat and never learn
algebra.,
(m) Once in a blue moon. Very rarely.
e.g. Jill has a rocky relationship with her father .So She speaks to him once
in a blue moon .
(n) In black and white. In writing.
e.g The teacher asked Rohit who was frequently late comer to give him
reasons in black and white.
(o) An apple of one’s eye. Extremely precious.
e.g. The Principal appreciated Mohan who stood first in the Speech
competition and marked as his an apple of his eye.
(p) Day in and day out. Every day.
e.g. My grandfather goes to morning walk day in and day out.
(q) Night and day. All the time
e.g. Prema works hard night and day for her civil service exam.
(r) Role up one’s sleeves. Get ready for hard work.
e.g My brother said he would roll up his sleeves and do whatever it takes
to support the family.
(s) See eye to eye. To be in agreement with.
e.g. She was glad her roommate saw eye to eye on the choice of flat.
(t) Shot in the dark. A complete guessing
e.g. He didn’t know too much about programming , so answering the

interviewer’s question was merely a shot in the dark.
(u) Stand in a good stead. To be use to someone.

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e.g. Be fluent in English will stand you in a good stead when applying for
an MNC company.
(v) Strike while iron is hot. To act at the correct and right time.
e.g. The price of gold is at a 10 year low, strike while the iron is hot and
invest in it right way.
(w) Take a back seat. Choose to be less important in a role.
e.g. He finally decided to take a back seat and let his son ruin the family
business.
(x) Water under the bridge. Something bad that happened in the past, but no
longer is important.
e.g. The couple had a serious fight in the past but the water is under the
bridge now.
(y) Wolf in Sheep’s clothing. Dangerous person pretending to be harmless.
e.g. I thought she was a good person, but realised that she was a wolf in
sheep’s clothing when she backstabbed me during the selection process.
(z) Zero in on something. Focus all attention onto one thing.
e.g. They teacher immediately zeroed in on the weaker students of the

class.
(aa) One and all . In the same difficult situation as someone else
(ab) One and all. Everyone
(ac) To vanish into the air. To disappear.
(ad) All at once. Suddenly
(ae) A bed of roses. A time of comfort.
(af) Bag and baggage. Portable belongings.
(ah) Behind the closed doors. Secretly
(ai) Hanky – panky. Fraud, something wrong with somebody else.
(aj) Hold your tongue. To keep silent even one wants to speak.
(ak) Leave no stone unturned. To try everything to achieve.
(al) To add fuel to the fire. To make a bad situation worse.
(am) Hold your horses. To slow down.

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29. Phrasal Verbs
Definition. Phrasal verb is combination of a verb and one or two particles. These particles
are either prepositions or adverbs or both. A Phrasal verb has a meaning that is different from
the meaning of its original verb
A Phrasal verb has a verb and words such as “on, up, in, over, off, with, down, away,
about, after’. A phrasal verb may consist of two words or three words. E.g. give up, bring up,
look after, turn down, pass away, call off, set off, break into, get up, sort out, looking forward
to, put up with, look down upon etc. Observe them in the following sentences:
(a) He was brought up by his aunt - (bring up – top raise a child)
(b) The old man passed away - (pass away - to die)
(c) We set off for London. - (set off -to start journey)
(d) She is trying to give up smoking -(give up - to quit)
(e) Never look down upon poor people- -(look down upon- to consider inferior)
There are four types of Phrasal Verb in English Language. Read the illustration asunder:
(a) Transitive Phrasal Verb. Phrasal Verb which requires an object in sentence,
is called transitive Phrasal Verb. Without an object, a sentence having a
phrasal verb cannot make a complete sense. Observe them in the following
sentences:
(i) She looks after the child.
(ii) They carried on their work.
(iii)` The flood brought about a huge disaster.
(iv) They have called off the meeting.
(v) Please switch on the light.
(vi) He is trying to give up consuming liquor
(vii) She turned down his proposal.
(b) Intransitive Phrasal Verb. Phrasal verb which does not require an object in
the sentence is calked Intransitive phrasal verb. Without an object a sentence
having phrasal can make a complete sense. Observe them in the following
sentences:
(i) The old man passed away.
(ii) When do you get up?

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(iii) The thief ran away.
(iv) The kid is growing up.
(v) The car broke down.
(c) Separable Phrasal Verb. These are the Phrasal Verbs whose words can be
separated for using in different places in a sentence. Its verb and preposition
can be separated. Such phrasal verbs can be used as in joined form as well as
in separated form. Observe them in the following sentences:
(i) Please turn on the light.
(ii) Please turn the light on.
(iii) I will pick up you from the bus stop.
(iv) I will pick you up from the bus stop.
(v) The people requested to cut down the prices.
(vi) The people requested to cut the prices down.
(Note- Some of the transitive verbs are separable and some of them are inseparable)
(d) Non Separable Phrasal Verb. These are the phrasal verbs whose words
cannot be separated for using it in different place in sentence. Its verb and preposition
cannot be separated. They remain together. Observe them in the following sentences:
(i) She looks after her children.
(ii) The patient passed away.
(iii) The flood brought about a huge disaster.
(iv) You should stay away from bad friends.
(v) The thief ran away.
(vi) He is trying to give up smoking
(vii) They carried on their work.
Phrasal Verb is an important part of learning the English language. Most phrasal
verbs consist of two words i.e. verb + adverb or Verb + preposition) but a few consist of three
words. Study them as you come across them, rather than trying to memorise many at once.
Some of the Common Phrasal Verbs with meaning are given below for practice:
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Phrasal Verb Meaning
Act on To take action

Act up Behave badly
Add on Include into
Add up To make total
Agree with Negative effect
Aim at To target
Allow for Include in a plan
Allow of Make possible
Angle for Get something
Answer for Guarantee
Answer back Reply rudely
Argue down Beat in debate
Argue out Argue to find out solution
Ask about Ask how someone is doing
Ask after Enquire about someone’s health
Ask around Ask number of people for information/help
Ask in Invite somebody to your house
Ask out Invite someone for a date
Ask over Invite
Ask round Invite someone
Auction off Sell something in an auction
Back away Retreat or go backwards
Back down Retract or withdraw your position or proposal in an argument
Back into Enter into a parking area in reverse gear
Back off Retreat
Back out Fail to keep an arrangement or promise
Back out of Fail to keep an agreement, or arrangement
Back up Make a copy of computer data
Bag out Criticise
Ball up Confuse or make things complicated
Bargain down Persuade someone to drop the price of something they are selling
Bash out Mistreat physically
Bash in Break, damage or injure by hitting
Base out Write something quickly without much preparation
Be after Try to find or get
Be along Arrive
Be away Be elsewhere especially on holiday
Be cut out for Be suitable having necessary qualities
Be cut up Be upset
Be down Be depressed
Be fed up Be bored upset or sick of something
Be taken with Like something
Be up Be out of bed
Bear down on Move towards
Bear on Influence or affect
Bear out Confirm that something is correct
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Bear up under Cope with something difficult or stressful

Bear with Be patient
Beat down Strong sunshine
Beat out Narrowly win in competition
Beat up Attack violently
Belong with Be in the correct or appropriate location with other items
Bed down Lower the top half of your body
Big up Exaggerate the importance
Bitch up Spoil or ruin something
Black out Fall unconscious
Blast off Leave the ground spaceship or rocket
Block in Park a car and obstruct another car
Block off Obstruct an exist to prevent people from leaving
Blow away Impress greatly
Blow down When the wind forces something to fall
Blow in Arrive, sometimes suddenly or unexpectedly
Blow off Not keep an appointment
Blow up Explode
Boil up Feel a negative emotion strongly
Bone up on Study hard for a goal or reason
Book in Check in at a hotel
Break down Stop functioning
Break into Force one’s way into a building etc.
Break out Appear or happen suddenly
Break off Stop speaking
Break through Make way through
Break up Disperse
Break with Quarrel with
Bring about Cause to happen
Bring round Persuade someone to change his opinion
Bring up Rear, educate
Call up on Appeal to
Call out Summon somebody especially in an emergency
Call on Pay a visit
Call off Cancel
Call in Ask to come
Call up Telephone
Calm down Stop being angry or emotionally excited
Cancel out Taking things back to the beginning
Cap off Finish or complete
Care for Like
Carried away Get so emotional that you lose control
Carry forward Make something progress
Carry off Sin, succeed
Carry on Continue
Carry on with Continue
Carry out Perform
Come about Happen
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Come across Find, meet by chance

Come apart Fall to pieces
Come off Take place
Come out Appear, become, visible
Come up Be mentioned
Come up to Equal to
Cut away Remove by cutting
Cut down Cause to fall , reduce
Cut in Interrupt a conversation
Cut off Die, remove , break a telephone connection etc.
Cut out for Specially fitted to be
Cut up Cause mental suffering
Decide upon Choose, select
Die away Become quieter or inaudible of a sound
Die back When the parts of a plant above ground die, but the roots remain alive
Die down Decrease or become quieter
Die for Want something a lot
Die off Become extinct
Die out Become extinct or disappear
Dig in Start eating greedily
Dig into Reach inside to get something
Do away with Get rid of, abolish
Do out Sweep or clean out
Do over redecorate
Do without Manage without
Done up exhausted
Fawn over Praise someone in an excessive way to get their favour
Fall away disappear
Fall back on Turn to for support
Fall in Collapse
Fall off Become fewer or less
Fall out Quarrel
Fall through Fail, come to nothing
Feed off Eat a food as part of an animal’s diet
Feed on Give someone a particular food
Feed up Give someone a lot of food to restore their health.
Feel up Touch sexually grope
Feel up to Feel capable of doing something
Get ahead Progress
Get ahead of Move in front of
Get along Leave
Get at Reach
Get away Escape
Get in Arrive
Get through Pass, reach somebody
Give away Distribute
Give in Surrender
Give out Announce, make known
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Give over Hand over

Go about Move from
Go against Oppose
Go ahead Continue or proceed
Go down Diminish, decrease
Go for Attack
Go in for Enter for a competition
Go into Investigate
Go off Explode, go bad
Go through Examine
Give up Stop doing something that has been a habit
Hit on Have an idea
Hold off Stop someone from attacking or beating you
Hold on Wait
Hook up Meet someone
Hunt out Search until you find something
Jack up Increase sharply
Jam on Apply or operate something forcefully
Jaw away Talk just for the point of talking rather than having anything to say
Jazz up Make something more interesting or attractive
Keep around Keep something near you
Keep at Continue with something difficult
Keep away Don’t allow someone near something
Keep back Maintain a safe distance
Keep down Control
Keep off Stay away
Keep on Continue
Keep out Stop from entering
Key to Plan things to fit or suit people or situations
Keep up Make someone excited or nervous
Kick about Discuss
Kick in When a drug starts to take effect
Kick out Expel
Knock off Finish work for the day
Lash down Secure something with ropes or cords
Lash into Criticise someone strongly
Lay on Organise, supply
Lay out Spend money
Let in Allow someone to enter
Let off Not punish
Line up Arrange events for someone
Link up Connect, join
Live by Stop being embarrassed about something
Live with Accept something unpleasant-
Lay aside Put away
Lay by Reserve
Lay down Surrender
Lay into Criticize
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Lay on Impose
Lay out Prepare
Live down Stop being embarrassed about something
Live with Accept something unpleasant
Log in Enter into a restricted area on a computer system
Log into Enter into a restricted area on a computer system
Log off Exit a computer system
Log on Enter a computer system
Log out Exit a computer system
Look up Consult a reference work
Look after Take care of
Look down upon Despise
Look for Search for
Look forward to Expect with pleasure
Look into investigate
Look up on Regard, consider
Look out for Be on the watch
Look out on Be facing
Look up Search for and find
Look up to Respect
Make away with Murder secretly
Magic away Make something disappear quickly
Make after Chase
Make away Steal
Make it Arrive or get a result
Make it up to Try to compensate for doing something wrong
Make of Understand or have an opinion
Make off Leave somewhere in hurry
Make off with Carry away
Make out Discover the meaning, understand
Make over Hand over
Make up End a quarrel, compensate for, arrange, apply
Mash up Mix sources together
Melt down Heat something solid especially metal
Mess out Not use something properly, not be serious
Mix up Confuse
Move into Start living in a place
Move up Move to make space
Nail, down Succeed in getting, achiever
Name after Give someone a name to remember another person
Narrow down Remove less important options to make it easier to choose
Nerd out Play safe and avoid taking a risk
Opt for Choose
Opt in Choose to be part or a member of something
Opt into Choose to be a member or part of something
Opt out Choose not to be part of something
Out come Result
Over come Success
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Pack in Send someone away

Pack out Fill a venue
Pack up Stop doing something
Pad down Sleep somewhere for the night
Pad out Make a text longer by including extra content
Pal around Be friendly and spend time with someone
Pal up Become friends
Pass away Die
Pass back Return
Pass by Go past without stopping
Pass for Regarded as
Pass off Happen
Pass out Faint, pass on examination
Patch up Fix or make things better
Pay back Repay money borrowed
Pay off Produce profitable or successful result
Peel away Leave a group by moving in a different direction
Peg out Put washing outside to dry
Phase in Introduced gradually
Phase out Remove gradually
Pick at Eat unwillingly
Pick up Collect
Pig out Eat a lot
Pile up Accumulate
Pin down Discover exact details about something
Pin on Fid something to a wall, or other vertical surface with a pin
Pine away Suffer physically because of grief, stress, worry, etc
Pipe Be quiet
Pipe up To speak, raise your voice
Play along Pretend to agree or accept something in order to keep someone happy
Play around Be silly
Play up Behave badly
Plug in Connect machines to the electricity supply
Plump down Put something in a place without taking care.
Plump for Choose
Point out Make someone aware of something
Poke about Move things around or search in a casual way to find something
Poke around Move thins around or search in a casual way to try to find something
Polish off Improve something quickly
Pop in Visit for a short time
Pop off Talk loudly, complain
Power up Turn a computer or electronic device on so that it is ready to use
Price up Charge more for something
Pull ahead Overtake, move in front
Pull lout Move into traffic
Put down Note down
Put forward Offer in advance
Put off Postpone
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Put on Switch on , wear cloth with

Put out Extinguish
Put up Accommodate
Run down Ill in poor health
Run into Incurred
Run out Have nothing left after consuming all, come to an end
Run over Drive over, overflow, recapitulate
Run up Increase, raise
Set about Start
Set aside Annul
Set in Start
Set off Start a journey, race, etc
Stand by Support
Stand for Represent, be a candidate for
Stand up for Defend
Take back Withdraw
Take down Write down ,humiliate
Take in Deceive
Take off Leave the ground , remove
Take over Take charge of an office
Turn against Become hostile to
Turn down Reject
Turn on/off Switch on/off, light on/off
Turn out Produce
Turn up Appear
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30. One Word Substitutes
Definition. On word substitution is one of the integral parts of vocabulary. It simply means
that a sentence has to be replaced with a single word. This area requires a good vocabulary to
solve the questions well. People use one word to replace a wordy phrase, to make the
sentence structure more clear. This also makes work more succinct, instead of convoluted.
A list of one word substitution that is commonly used in English, is enumerated below
for your practice.
One word Phrase

Agnostic One who is not sure about God’s existence
Alumnus A former student of school or college
Arsonist A person who deliberately sets fire to a building
Amateur One who does things for pleasure and not as a profession
Ambidextrous One who can use either hand with ease.
Auditor One who makes an official examination of accounts
Anarchist A person who believes in or tries to bring about a state of
lawlessness
Anecdote A short interesting or amusing story
Anthology A collection of poems or writings
Apostate A person who has changed his faith
Apprentice Person who works under someone to learn that person’s skill
Atheist One who does not believe in the existence of God
Arbitrator A person appointed by two parties to solve a dispute
Ascetic One who leads an austere life
Astrology The art of understanding the influenced of heavenly bodies
Astronomy Scientific study of heavenly bodies
Avaricious One who is greedy for money
Astronomy Science of heavenly bodies
Anthropology Science of develop0ment of human beings
Arsenal A place where weapon and ammunition are held
Ambidextrous Person who can use both hands equally well
agnostic One who doubts the existing of god
Anarchy Absence
Audible Which can be heard
Autobiography Story of a person’s life written by himself
Anthropology A study of man
Anonymous A book written by unknown author
Autocracy A government by one
Ambiguous A sentence whose meaning is unclear
Aristocracy A Government by the nobles
Amphibian A land animal that breed in water
Altruist A person who loves everybody
Archaeology A study of ancient things
Atheist One who does not believe in god
Backlog An accumulation of arrears
Barbarian An uncivilised person
269
Blue blood The quality of being a noble person

Bohemian An unconventional style of living
Bookworm One who is too fond of reading and study
Biography Life story of a person
Biology Science of living beings
Bibliography A list of writings on a subject
Bureaucracy A government by the officials
Bourgeois A member of middle class
Bilingual A person who talks two language
Bibliophile One who loves books
Bigamy System of two marriages
Cacographer One who is bad in spelling
Cannibal One who feeds on human flesh
Calligraphy The art of beautiful writing by hand
Chauvinist A person blindly devoted to an idea
Connoisseur A critical judge or any art and graft
Contemporaries Person living at the same time
Convalescent One who is recovering heath after prolonged illness
Coquette A girl/woman who flirts with man
Cosmopolitan A person who regards the whole world as his country
Cynosure One who is a centre of attraction
Cynic One who sneers at the belief of others
Centenarian A person who is above hundred years
Carnivorous A flesh eating animal
Catalogue A list of books
Cannibal Person who eats human flesh
Colleagues People who work together
Convalescent One who is recovering from illness
Cosmology Science of origin of universe
Contemporaries People living at the same time
Credulous A person who readily believes whatever is told
Demagogue A leader or orator espoused the cause of the common people
Debonair A person having a sophisticated charm
Dilettante A dabbler (not serio0us) in art, science and literature
Democracy Government of the people of the people for the people
Democracy A government by the people
Epidemic A contagious diseases which spreads over a huge area
Egotist A person who always thinks of himself
Extempore Speech delivered without previous preparation
Edible A thing which is fit to be eaten
Equilibrium A state of perfect balance
Egoist One who thinks only of himself
Eagle- eyed Looking with keen attention and noticing small details
Etymology A study of derivation of words
Eccentric One who has strange habits
Entomology Study of insects
Fanatic Man who has too much zeal for his own religion
Fatalist One who believes in fate
270
Feminist One who thinks only of welfare of women

Foolscap A large size of paper especially writing
Foreman A skilled and experienced worker in charge of other workers
Fortnight A period of two weeks
Gregarious Animals living in flocks
Gastronomy The art and science of cooking and eating good food
Glutton One who eats so much
Gullible One who is easily deceived
Herbivorous A grass eating animal
Honorary A position for which no salary is paid
Hypocrite One who0 pretends to be what he is not
Humanitarian One who feels sympathetic towards human beings
Homicide Murder of human being
Hooligan A noisy and rough person who cause trouble to others
Illiterate A person who cannot read and write
Infallible One who does not make mistakes
Immigrant One who lives in foreign country
Infanticide Murder of an infant
Incomprehensible le A statement which cannot be understood
Insolvent One who is unable to settle his debts
Idiosyncrasy A person who has peculiar habit
Matinee A cinema show which is held in the afternoon
Monarchy A government by a king or queen
Misogamist A person who does not believe in the institution of marriage
Misogynist A person who hates women
Medieval Belonging to the middle ages
Misanthropist Hater of mankind
Manuscript Handwritten copy
Monogamy Person who has one wife/husband
Matricide Murder of mother
Mercenary One who can do anything for money
Modus operandi Method of doing something typical of someone
Notorious A person with an evil reputation
Neophyte One who is a newcomer
Namesake Person having same name of others
Omniscient A person who knows everything
Ornithology A study of birds
Omnivorous An animal or human being that eats all kinds of food
Omnipresent One who is present everywhere
Omnipotent One who is a powerful
Optimist One who looks on the bright side of things
Petrology Scientific study of rocks
Posthumous Book published after the death of its author
Palaeography The study of ancient writing
Pessimist One who looks on the dark side of the things
Phonetic The study of speech` sounds
Platonic A friendly, not sexual relationship between a man and
woman
271
Postscript A short message added on to the end of a letter after

signature
Polyandry One who has several husband
Polygamy Having sever wives
Polyglot One who knows many language
Plutocracy A government by the rich
Philanthropist One who loves mankind
Pedestrian One who goes on foot
Pauper One who has no money
Psephology Systematic study of election trends
Philistine One who does not care for art and literature
Regicide Murder of the king
Reticent One who speaks less
Soporific A drug that induces sleep
Smuggler A person who imports or exports goods secretly
Theist One who believes in god
Vandal Person who damages public property
Zoology A study of animals
272
31. Spelling rules
Words in English are not always spelled as they are pronounced. Spelling in English
follows some basic rules and the majority of English words follow these rules. You can learn
the rules but there are always exceptions to the rules that need to be learned too
The main basic spelling rules of English relate to prefixes and suffixes, spelling and
plurals, doubling letters, dropping and adding letters, verb forms. This section focuses on
British English but also covers some basic differences in spelling between British and
American English. Observe the following rules carefully:
Rule No 1. When there is a prefix, we do not normally add or take away more letters:
(a) dis+ obey = disobey
(b) mis+ spell = misspell
(c) in + sane = insane
(d) inter+ national = international
(e) mis + rule = misrule
Rule No 2. When the first letter of a word is ‘I, m, p, r’, we commonly change the prefix into
‘il, im, ir’.
(a) il + legal = illegal
(b) il+ literate = illiterate
(c) il + logical = illogical
(d) im+ moral = immoral
(e) im + mature = immature
(f) im+ possible = impossible
(g) ir + relevant = irrelevant
(h) ir + responsible = irresponsible
Rule No 3. Words of one syllable having one vowel and ending in a single consonant-
double the consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel.
9a) run + er = runner
(b) hit + ing = hitting
(c) knit +ed = knitted

273
(d) Keep + ing = keeping (because keep has two vowels)
(e) Help + ed = helped (because help two consonant after vowel)
(f) love + ed = loved (because it ends in a vowel)
Rule No 4 . Two or three syllable words ending in single consonant following a single
vowel, double the final consonants when the stress falls on the syllable.
(a) begin+ er = beginner
(b) admit+ ed = admitted
(c) forbid+ ing = forbidding
(d) murmur + ed = murmuring ( above rule is not applicable)
(e) answer+ er = answerer ( -do-)
(f) enter+ ing = entering ( -do-)
Rule No 5 . Words ending in ‘I’ following a single vowel usually double the I before a suffix
beginning with a vowel.
(a) quarrel + ing = quarrelling
(b) travel + ing = travelling
(c) signal + ed = signalled
(d) acquit + ed = acquitted
Rule No 6 . Words ending in e following a consonant drop the e before a suffix beginning
with a vowel.
(a) love+ ing = loving
(b) write+ ing = writing
(c) believe + ing =believing
(d) encourage + ing = encouraging
(e) leave + ing = leaving
Rule No 7. A final e is retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant.
(a) hope +ful = hopeful
(b) engage+ ment = engagement
(c) excite+ ment = excitement

274
(d) retire + ment = retirement
(e) amuse +ment = amusement
Exception
(f) true+ ly = truly
(g) argue + ment = argument
(h) due + ly = duly
(i) judge+ ment = judgment or Judgement
Rule No 8. Words ending in ee , do not drop an e before a suffix.
(a) foresee + ing = foreseeing
(b) agree + ble = agreeable
(c) agree + ment = agreement
Rule No 9 . Words ending in ce, ge retain the e before a suffix beginning with a , o, u.
9a) courage + ous = courageous
(b) manage + able = manageable
9c) outrage+ ous = outrageous
9d) change + able = changeable
(e) trace+ able = traceable
(f) replace + able = replaceable
Rule No 10. Words ending in ce change the e or i before ous .
(a) vice +ous = vicious
(b) malice+ ous = malacious
(c) grace+ ous = gracious
(d) space + ous = spacious
(e) cause +ous = cautious
Rule No 11. When full is added to a word, the second L is dropped :
(a) beauty+ full = beautiful
(b) useful+ full = useful

275
(c) hand + full = handful
(d) wonder +f-ul = wonderful
(e) mercy+ full = merciful
Rule No 12. If the word to which the suffix is added ends in ll the second l is dropped here :
(a) skill + full = skilful
(b) full+ fill = fulfil
Rule No 13 . Words ending in y following a consonant change the y to i before any suffix
except ing :
(a) carry + ed = carried
(b) sunny + er = sunnier
(c) happy + ly = happily
(d) marry + ed = married
But (e) carry+ ing = carrying
(f) marry+ ing = marrying
Rule No 14. Y following a vowel does not change.
(a) obey+ ed = obeyed
(b) play+ er = player
General rule . Here are the first spelling rules that students should know:
(a) Every word has at least one vowel.
(b) Every syllable has one vowel
(c) The letter ’G’ can say ‘g’ or ‘j’. The letter ‘G’ may say ‘j’ before an e, i, y
Gem, giant, gym – Letter is G but sound is also G
Garden, glad, gold – Letter is G but sound is J.
(d) The letter C can say k or s .
Cent, city, cycle -Letter is C but sound is S.
Cat, clip, cricket -Letter is C but sound is K.
(e) The letter Q is always followed by a U.

276
Queen, quiet, quite, quarrel, quit, etc.
(f) Double the consonants f, l, and s at the end of a one-syllable word that has just
one vowel.
Stiff, spell, pass, cliff, etc.
(g) To spell the sound of ‘K’ at the end of a word, we use ck, or k . Use ck after a
short vowel. After everything else, use single k.
Sick, pick, kick, lick, dick, etc - after a short vowel
Milk , bulk, chalk, talk, walk, - other than short vowel
British and American English Spelling.
Here are some common differences between British and American English spelling.
A good learner should always focus on both countries spelling while writing.
British English American English

Analyse Analyze
Ageing Aging
Aeroplane Airplane
Apologise Apologize
Behaviour Behavior
Calibre Caliber
Centre Center
Cheque (bank) Check
Colour Color
Colonise Colonize
Counselling Counselling
Civilise Civilize
Criticise Criticize
Defence Defense
Drought Draft
Emphasise Emphasize
Endeavour Endeavor
Equalling Equaling
Flavour Flavor
Favourite Fvorite
Fibber fiber
Glamour Glamor
Grey Gray
Honour Honor
Humour Humor
Judgement Judgment
Labour Labor
Litre liter
Manoeuvre Maneuvre
277
Meagre Meager
Memorise Memorize
Minimise Minimize
Metre meter
Modelling Modeling
Mould Mold
Neighbour Neighbor
Odour Odor
Organise Organize
Paralyse Paralyze
Patronise Patronize
Plaugh Plow
Programme Programe
Prise Prize
Quarrelling Quarreling
Realise Reallize
Recognise Recognize
Rumour Rumor
Savour Savor
Signalling Signaling
Socialise Socialize
Splendour Splendor
Specialise Specialize
Sulphur Sulfur
Theatre Theater
Tyre Tire
Travelled Traveled
Vigour Vigor
Whisky Whiskey
\
.
278
32. WORD FORMATION
Definition. Word building is a very sensitive work and not merely a matter of mechanics. It
means the enlargement of the resource of language when a limited vocabulary is to be
stretched to give maximum services.
(a) Formation of noun from verbs
Verb Noun Verb Noun

Attract Attraction Astonish Astonishment
Associate Association Arrive Arrival
Approve Approval Apply Applied
Apply Applied Apologise Apologised
Alter Alteration Agree Agreement
Admit Admission/admittance Act Action
Achieve Achievement Accommodate Accommodation
Add Addition Advise Advice
Allow Allowance Amaze Amazement
Appear Appearance Appoint Appointment
Arrange Arrangement Assist Assistance
Assure Assurance Attend Attendance
Bless Bliss/blessing Bury Burial
Begin Beginning `break Breach/breakage
Calculate Calculation Carry Carriage
Choose Choice Civilize Civilization
Compare Comparison Complain Complaint
Confer Conference Conquer Conquest
Converse Conversation Cooperate Cooperation
Create Creation Celebrate Celebration
Circulate Circulation Collect Collection
Compete Competition Complete Completion
Congratulate Congratulation Consider Consideration
Convert Conversion Correct Correction
Cultivate Cultivation Decide Decision
Declare Declaration Deceive Deception/deceit
Depend Dependence Decorate Decoration
Depart Departure Describe Description
Dictate Dictation Differ Difference
Dine Dinner Discover Discovery
Discuss Discussion Divide Division
Do Deed Educate Education
Elect Election Employ Employment
Enjoy Enjoyment Entertain Entertainment
Establish Establishment Examine Examination
Exclaim Exclamation Exceed Excess
Excel Excellence Explain Explanation
Express Expression Exist Existence
Expect Expectation Except Exception
Fly Flight Free Freedom
279
Feed Food Give Gift

Go Gait Govern Government
Grieve Grief Grow Growth
Guide Guidance Hate Hatred
Heal Health Instruct Instruction
Insure Insurance Instruct Instruction
Intend Intention Irrigate Irrigation
Invent Invention Invite Invitation
Invest Investment Investigate Investigation
Inquire Inquiry Inspect Inspection
Join Joint Judge Judgement
Know Knowledge Laugh Laughter
Lend Loan Live Life
Lose Loss Marry Marriage
Matriculate Matriculation Mean Meaning
Move Movement Narrate Narration
Obey Obedience Object Objection
Occupy Occupation Offend Offence
Oppose Opposition Pay Payment
Perform Performance Permit Permission
Please Pleasure Possess Possession
Prevent Prevention Proceed Proceeding
Propose Proposal Prosper Prosperity
Protect Protection Prove Proof
Punish Punishment Qualify Qualification
Receive Reception/receipt Recover Recovery
Refer Reference Repent Repentance
Resign Resignation Refuse Refusal
Relate Relation Repeat repetition
Resemble Resemblance Revise Revision
Relieve Relief Refresh Refreshment
Reform Reformation Run Race
Resolute Resolution Read Reading
Satisfy Satisfaction Select Selection
Serve Service Settle Settlement
See Sight Secure Security
Shake Shock Speak Speech
Spell Spelling Succeed Success
Suspect Suspicion Tell Tale
Translate Translation Treat Treatment
Try Trial Thieve Thief
Think Thought Use Usage
Vacate Vacancy Wake Watch
Weigh Weight Wed Wedding
(b). Formation of Verb from Noun

280
Noun Verb Noun Verb

Advice Advise Apology Apologize
Authority Authorize Bath Bathe
Beauty Beautify Bed Embed/imbed
Belief Believe Black Blacken
Blood Bleed Body Embody
Breath Breathe Bomb Bombard
Cage Encage Circle Encircle
Character Characterize Class Classify
Cloth Clothe Cloud Becloud
Company Accompany Courage Encourage
Crime Incriminate Creation Create
Custom Accustom Danger Endanger
Drama Dramatise Economy Economise
Electricity Electrify Example Exemplify
Famine Famish Friend Befriend
Glass Glaze Glory Glorify
Gold Gild Grief Grieve
Grass Graze Haste Hasten
Hand Handle Half Halve
Habit Habituate Heir Inherit
Idol Idolize Joy Enjoy
Justice Justify Knee Kneel
Knot Knit Knowledge Acknowledge
Life Live Length Lengthen
List Enlist Light Lighten
Lion Lionize Mass Amass
Memory Memorize Nation Nationalize
Nature Naturalize Office Officiate
Origin Originate Part Depart
Peace Pacify Person Personate
Power Empower Practice Practise
Price Prize Prison Imprison
Sale Sell Service Serve
Shelf Shelve Slave Enslave
Snare Ensnare Speech Speak
Spark Sparkle Sympathy Sympathize
Success Succeed Table Tabulate
Tale Tell Terror Terrify
Title Entitle Thief Thieve
Threat Threaten Throne Enthrone
Utility Utilize Vacancy Vacate
281
(c). Formation of Nouns from adjectives
Adjective Noun Adjective Noun

Able Ability Absent Absence
Active Activity Accurate Accuracy
Bitter Bitterness Brave Bravery
Blind Blindness Bad Badness
Brilliant Brilliance Brief Brevity
Broad Breadth Calm Calmness
Certain Certainty Clean Cleanliness
Clever Cleverness Deep Depth
Dependent Dependence Different Difference
Difficult Difficulty Diligent Diligence
Equal Equality False Falsehood
Free Freedom Frequent Frequency
Fond Fondness Generous Generosity
Grand Grandeur Great Greatness
Good Goodness Hard Hardness/hardship
Happy Happiness High Height
Holy Holiness Hot Heat
Human Humanity Humble Humility
Idle Idleness Ignorant Ignorance
Inferior Inferiority Innocent Innocence
Intense Intensity Just Justice
Keen Keenness Kind Kindness
Local Locality Lazy Laziness
Long Length Loyal Loyalty
Merry Mirth/merriment Mean Meanness
Moral Morality Mortal Mortality
Near Nearness Necessary Necessity
Noble Nobility Obedient Obedience
One Oneness /unity Open Opening
Perfect Perfection Possible Possibility
Poor Poverty Popular Popularity
Private Privacy Proud Pride
Present Presence Prosperous Prosperity
Punctual Punctuality Pure Purity
Rapid Rapidity Real Reality
Sacred Sacredness Safe Safety
Scarce Scarcity Secure Security
Secret Secrecy Selfish Selfishness
Special Speciality Splendid Splendour
Strong Strength Stupid Stupidity
Timid Timidity True Truth
Ugly Ugliness Urgent Urgency
Uniform Uniformity Vacant Vacancy
Vain Vanity Vigilant Vigilance
Waste Wastage Weak Weakness
282
Wicked Wickedness Wide Width

Wise Wisdom Wild Wildness
White Whiteness Young Youth
(d) Formation of Adjectives from Noun
Noun Adjective Noun Adjective

Absence Absent Abuse Abusive
Action Active Accident Accidental
Advice Advisable Addition Additional
Affection Affectionate Air Airy
Ambition Ambitious Angel Angelic
Anger Angry Attendance Attentive
Attraction Attractive Breeze Breezy
Brother Brotherly Bush Bushy
Beauty Beautiful Blood Bloody
Book Bookish Boy Boyish
Care Careful/careless Centre Central
Charity Charitable Charm Charming
Cheer Cheerful/cheery Child Childish/childlike
Cloud Cloudy Cost Costly
Crime Criminal Comfort Comfortable
Coward Cowardly Condition Conditional
Comedy Comic Competition Competitive
Courage Courageous Danger Dangerous
Day Daily Defect Defective
Decoration Decorative Delight Delightful
Difference Different Diligence Diligent
Dirt Dirty Distance Distant
Discipline Disciplinary Drama Dramatic
Dust Dusty Earth Earthen/earthly
Ease Easy Eat Eatable
Education Educational/educative Efficiency Efficient
Electricity Electrical Excellence Excellent
Faith Faithful/faithless Favour Favourable
Fame Famous Father Fatherly
Fault Faulty Fashion Fashionable
Fate Fateful Fear Fearful/fearless
Frost Frosty Fun Funny
Girl Girlish Glass glassy
Glory Glorious God Godly/godlike
Gold Golden Grammar Grammatical
Grass Grassy Greed Greedy
Guilt Guilty Heat Hot
Heaven Heavenly Hill Hilly
History Historical/historic Hope Hopeless/hopeful
Honour Honourary/honourable Home Homely
Hunger Hungry Harm Harmful/harmless
283
Haste Hasty Health Healthy

Heart Hearty Hero Heroic
Ice Icy Ignorance Ignorant
India Indian Industry Industrious/industrial
Influence Influential Innocence Innocent
Intelligence Intelligent Jealousy Jealous
Joy Joyful Love Lovely
Luck Lucky Magic Magical
Man Manly Might Mighty
Milk Milky Mind Mental
Miser Miserly Mother Motherable
Misery Miserable Mist Misty
Month Monthly Mood Moody
Marriage Marriageable Medicine Medicinal
Memory Memorable Mercy Merciful/merciless
Nature Natural Nation National
Navy Naval Need Needful/needy
Neighbour Neighbourly Nerve Nervous
Noise Noisy North Northern
Obedience Obedient Objection Objectionable
Office Official/officious Oil Oily
Origin Original Person Personal
Picture Pictorial Population Populous
Power Powerful Practice Practible/practical
Price Priceless Pride Proud
Prince Princely Profit Profitable
Prosperity Prosperous Pain Painful
Peace Peaceful Quarrel Quarrelsome
Rain Rainy Reason Reasonable
Relation Relative Religion Religious
Residence Residential Respect Respectable/respectful
Risk Risky Rose Rosy
Rust Rustry Sand Sandy
Sanitation Sanitary Science Scientific
Shame Shameful/shameless Silence Silent
Silk Silken/silky Silver Silvery
Sleep Sleepy Smoke Smoky
Snow Snowy Sorrow Sorry/sorrowful
Society Social Storm Stormy
Study Studious Station Stationary
Success Successful Sun Sunny
Sympathy Sympathetic Scene Scenic
Scholar Scholarly Season Seasonal
Sense Sensible Shade Shady
Talk Talkative Taste Tasty/tasteful
Terror Terrible Telegraph Telegraphic
Telephone Telephonic Truth Truthful
Trouble Troublesome Thirst Thirstily
284
Thorn Thorny Time Timely

Use Useless/useful Value Valuable
Virtue Virtuous Victory Victorious
Water Watery Week Weekly
Wind Windy Winter Wintry
Wonder Wonderful Woman Womanly/womanish
Wood Wooden Wool Woollen
Worth Worthless/worth Year Yearly
Youth Youthful
(e) Formation Verbs from Adjectives.
Adjective Verb Adjective Verb

Able Enable Abundant Abound
Bitter Embitter Broad Broaden
Certain Ascertain Civil Civilize
Clean Cleanse Clear Clarify
Dark Darken Dear Endear
Deep Deepen Double Duplicate
Different Differentiate Equal Equalise
False Falsify Fat Fatten
Flat Flatten Fertile Fertilize
Fresh Refresh Fine Refine
Firm Confirm Fond Fondle
Glad Gladden Hale Heal
Hard Harden Just Justify
Large Enlarge Little Belittle
Light Lighten Long Lengthen
Loose Loosen Low Lower
Mad Madden Mean Demean
New Renew Noble Ennoble
Popular Popularize Public Publicise
Pure Purify Proper Appropriate
Quick Quicken Red Redden
Real Realize Rich Enrich
Right Rectify Safe Save
Sharp Sharpen Short Shorten
Sick Sicken Soft Soften
Special Specialise Stable Stabilize
Strange Estrange Sure Ensure
Sweet Sweeten Thick Thicken
Tight Tighten Very Verify
White Whiten Wide Widen
285
(f) Formation of Adverbs from Adjective
Adjective Adverb Adjective Adverb

Able Ably Easy Easily
Certain Certainly Just Justly
Honest Honestly Real Really
Proper Properly Punctual Punctually
Secret Secretly Special Specially
Possible Possibly Happy Happily
Merry Merrily Slow Slowly
Strong Strongly Brave Bravely
Nice Nicely Kind Kindly
Foolish Foolishly Quick quickly
Exercise
1. Fill in the blanks with proper forms of words given in brackets.
(a) .................is better than cure. (Prevent)
(b) Maths is a ..................subject (use)
(c) There is great strength in ...................(unite)
(d) The book is ......................from other books. (differ)
(e) This .................was liked by all. (speak)
(f) The child has......................... (rose)
(g) ................to animals is not good (cruel)
(h) I have ............come to see you (special)
2. Fill in the blanks with proper forms of words given below:
Oil, food, disturb, high, quick, strong, honest,. Friend, force, air
(a) My father is known for his ....................
(b) The leader delivered a very ........................
(c) The mother will ...........the child
(d) We should not underestimate the ...............of our rival team.
(e) You should not touch me with your ...................hands
9f) There was much ..................in the classroom .
(g) You should do your work .................

286
(h) All our bedrooms are ..............well lighted.
(i) What is the .................of this building?
(j) The two teams played a.............match.
3. Make Nouns from the following verbs :
(a) apologize ............................
(b) bury ..........................
(c) begin ............................
(d) break ............................
(e) choose ............................
(f) conquer ..............................
(g) deceive ..............................
(h) exceed ................................
(i) free .............................
(j) hate ............................
4. Make Nouns from the following Adjective:
(a) absent --------------------
(b) advisable --------------------
(c) daily ---------------------
(d) angry .........................
(e) diligent ...........................
(f) conditional ...........................
(g) moody ...........................
(h) ignorant ..............................
(i) grassy .............................
(j) mental ......................
5. Make Verbs from the following Nouns:
(a) origin ................................

287
(b) life ..................................
(c) food ..................................
(d) office ..................................
(e) light .................................
(f) knowledge ..............................
(g) fright ....................................
(h) list ...................................
(i) force ..........................
(j) part ...........................

Class VIII Grammar

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1

ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION

PARAS VIDYA VIHAR

TILI WARD SAGAR - 470002

2. Subject and Predicate - 8

9 Agreement of verb with subject - 124

10. Modal - 135

11. Tenses - 145

12. Conditional sentence - 148

13. Active and Passive Voice - 152

14. Phrase - 162

15. Clause - 165

16. Proposition - 172

17. Conjunction - 183

18. Interjection - 189

19. Punctuation - 194

20. Direct and Indirect Speech (Narration) - 199

21. Figure of speech - 211

22. Comprehension - 213

23. Composition - 217

(a) Notice - 217

(b) Message - 219

(c) Paragraph - 221

(d) Diary Entry - 222

(e) Email writing - 224

(d) Report writing - 226

(e) Factual description - 228

(e) Biographical sketch - 230

(f) Letter writing - 234

(i) Formal Letter

(ii) Informal Letter

(g) Story writing - 238

(h) Essay Writing - 240

24. Antonyms - 243

25. Homophones - 248

26. Homonyms - 251

27. Proverbs - 254

28. Idioms - 257

29. Phrasal Verbs - 260

30. One word substitutes - 269

31. Spelling rules - 273

32.. Word Formation - 279

(a) Noun from Verbs

(b) Verb from Noun

(c) Noun from Adjective

(d) Adjective from Noun

(e) Verb from Adjective

(f) Adverb from Adjective .

Mary had a little lamb.

Disha looks beautiful.

What do you do?

Teachers teach students.

We must obey elders.

Exercise : Which of the following groups of words are sentences?

(a) Rahul my cousin?

(b) I must understand others feeling.

(c) Beyond the window.

(d) My father and my mother are teachers.

(e) Better than strength in wisdom.

(f) There is no happiness without health.

(g) air fly birds in the.

(h) Ashok is a boy trusted by all.

(i) Ashes burnt the we to house saw.