REVIEW OF

R E S PI R ATO RY
SYSTEM
GROUP 1
 lo s , R a y m u n d Ian
Aba a
Albino, Annaliz e
u r o , M e li s s a J oyc
Alb
isse
Balbin, Ma. Dan J o y
a , M a u re e n
Barramed
Binuya, Sheila GROUP 1
i c a n o , A n n a M ae
C h
u s , Y sm a e l Ge rard
De Jes
 Overview
● The structures and functions of
the upper and lower respiratory
tracts.
● Ventilation, diffusion, perfusion,
and ventilation–perfusion
imbalances.
● Gerontologic Considerations
INTRODUCTION
The Respiratory System the network of
organs and tissues that help you breathe. This
system helps your body absorb oxygen from the
air so your organs can work.

Upper Respiratory Tract

Lower Respiratory Tracts:

Ventilation - movement of air in and out of

the airways.

This system depends on the cardiovascular

system for perfusion, or blood flow through
the pulmonary system
 Table of Contents
01
Anatomy
of the 02
Function
Respiratory
System of the 03
Respiratory Gas Exchange
System
 01
Anatomy of
Respiratory System
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

- Upper airway structures consist of the nose;paranasal sinuses;pharynx,tonsils

and adenoids;larynx;trachea.
UPPER RESPIRATORY
NOSE

- Its serves as passageway for air to pass to and

from the lungs. It filters impurities and
humidifies and warms the air as it is inhaled.

2 portion of nose;

1. External portion
-protrudes from the face and is supported by
the nasal bones and cartilage.
-the anterior nares(nostrils) are the external
openings of the nasal cavities.
2. Internal portion
=hollow cavity separated LEFT and RIGHT nasal
cavities.
=the turbinate bones called CONCHAE
= air entering the nostrils is deflected upward to the roof of the nose, and it follows a circuitous
route before it reaches the nasopharynx.
=mucus secreted continuously by goblet cells, covers the surface of the nasal mucosa and is
moved back to the nasopharynx by the action of the cilia.

PARANASAL SINUSES
- Include four pairs of bony cavities that are lined with nasal mucosa and ciliated
pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
THE SINUSES NAMED BY THEIR LOCATION:
1.frontal
2.ethmoid
3.sphenoid
4.maxillary
PHARYNX, TONSILS, AND
ADENOIDS

- The pharynx, or throat, is

tubelike structure that starts
behind the nose goes down
the neck.
DIVIDED ON THREE:
1.nasopharynx
2.oropharynx
3.laryngopharynx

- The adenoids or pharyngeal

tonsil are located in the roof
nasopharynx, encircle the
throat.
- The pharynx functions as a
passageway for the
respiratory and digestive
tracts.
 The larynx
The larynx or voice organ, is a
cartilaginous epithelium lined structure
that connects the pharynx and the
trachea.
The major functions of the larynx is vocalization, it also protects the lower
airway from foreign substances and facilitates coughing. The voice box
includes the following:
-Epiglottis: a cartilage that covers the opening of larynx during swallowing.
-glottis: the opening between the vocal cords in the larynx
-thyroid cartilage: the largest of the cartilage structures, a part of adam`s apple
-cricoid cartilage: the only complete cartilaginous ring in the larynx.
-arytenoid cartilages: used n vocal cords movement with the thyroid cartilage.
-vocal cords: ligaments controlled by muscular movements that produce sounds;
Trachea
The trachea or wind pipe, is
composed of smooth muscles
with C shaped rings of
cartilage at regular intervals.
The cartilaginous rings are
incomplete on the posterior
surface and give firmness to
the wall of the trachea,
preventing it from collapsing.
The trachea serves as the
passage between the larynx
and the bronchi.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
- Consists of the lungs, which contain the bronchial and alveolar structures
needed for gas exchange.

The lungs
The lungs are paired elastic structures
enclosed in the thoracic cage, it is an airtight
chamber with distensible walls.
Ventilation requires movement of the walls
of the thoracic cage and of its floors, the
diaphragm. These movements increase and
decrease the capacity of the chest..
 PLEURA
is a thin membrane that covers each of our
lungs and surrounding pulmonary cavity,
and it can be subdivided into two layers

- the visceral pleura which intimately

adheres to the lungs, and

- the parietal pleura which lines the rest

of the pulmonary cavity.

Between these two pleural layers there’s

the

- pleural cavity, which is normally filled

with a thin film of fluid in order to
lubricate the pleural surfaces and allow
them to slide smoothly over each other
during each breath.
MEDIASTINUM
Is an area found in the midline of the thoracic
cavity, that is surrounded by the left and right
pleural sac.
- The mediastinum can be thought of as
having two regions, the top, and bottom.
The bottom (inferior) half is divided into
three main regions.
- Anterior: The anterior mediastinum is present
only on the left side and contains some small
arteries as well as lymph nodes.
- Middle:The middle mediastinum is the largest
portion, and contains the heart, blood vessels
including those that travel from the lungs to
the heart, and lymph nodes.
- Posterior: The posterior mediastinum contains
the esophagus, many blood vessels and nerves,
and mediastinal lymph nodes.
 BRONCHI

Are the large tubes that connect to your

trachea (windpipe) and direct the air you
breathe to your right and left lungs. They
are in your chest. Bronchi is the plural form
of bronchus. The left bronchus carries air
to your left lung. The right bronchus carries
air to your right lung. Your bronchi are an
essential part of your respiratory system.
As you breathe and your lungs expand, your
bronchi distribute the air within your lung.
The bronchi are made up of cartilage,
smooth muscle, and mucous membranes.
Together, the trachea and the structures of
the bronchi are known as the
tracheobronchial tree, or simply the
bronchial tree.
 BRONCHIOLES
Are part of the lower respiratory system. As they
branch off from the bronchi, they become smaller and
smaller, traversing the interior of each lung before
ending at clusters of alveoli. Bronchioles are air
passages inside the lungs that branch off like tree limbs
from the bronchi—the two main air passages into which
air flows from the trachea (windpipe) after being
inhaled through the nose or mouth. The bronchioles
deliver air to tiny sacs called alveoli where oxygen and
carbon dioxide are exchanged.

There are three types, categorized by size:

· Lobular bronchioles (larger passages that first

enter the lobes of the lungs)

· Respiratory bronchioles (two or more branches

from each terminal bronchiole that, in turn, lead to two
to 10 alveolar ducts)

· Terminal bronchioles (50 to 80 smaller passages in

each lung)
ALVEOLI

- The lungs made up of about 300 million alveoli, constituting a total surface
area between 50 and 100m square.
3 types of alveolar cells:
1. Type 1
- 95% of the alveolar surface area
- Serve as barrier between the air and the alveolar surface
2. Type 2
-5% of this area
-responsible for producing type 1cells and surfactant.
3. Alveolar macrophages
-are phagocytic cells that ingest foreign matter and, as a result, provide an
important mechanism
 02
Function of
Respiratory System
Oxygen Ventilation Respiration
Transport
Refers to the Refers to the patient’s The whole process of gas
patient’s ability to ability to take in oxygen exchange between the
take in oxygen from and remove carbon atmospheric air and the
the lungs and dioxide blood and between the
distribute it to the blood and cells of the
tissues and organs of body is called respiration.
the body.
 AIR PRESSURE VARIANCES

Air flows from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure. During
inspiration, movements of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles enlarge the
thoracic cavity and thereby lower the pressure inside the thorax to a level below
that of atmospheric pressure. As a result, air is drawn through the trachea and
the bronchi into the alveoli. During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes and the lungs
recoil, resulting in a decrease in the size of the thoracic cavity. The alveolar
pressure then exceeds atmospheric pressure, and air flows from the lungs into the
atmosphere.
 Airway Resistance
Resistance is determined by the radius, or size
of the airway through which the air is flowing,
as well as by lung volumes and airflow velocity.
Any process that changes the bronchial
diameter or width affects airway resistance and
alters the rate of airflow for a given pressure
gradient during respiration.
 Compliance
Compliance is the elasticity and expandability of the
lungs and thoracic structures. Compliance allows the
lung volume to increase when the difference in
pressure between the atmosphere and the thoracic
cavity (pressure gradient) causes air to flow in.
Factors that determine lung compliance are the
surface tension of the alveoli, the connective tissue
and water content of the lungs, and the compliance
of the thoracic cavity.
Lung Volumes and Capacities
Lung function, which reflects the mechanics of
ventilation, is viewed in terms of lung volumes
and lung capacities. Lung volumes are
categorized as tidal volume, inspiratory reserve
volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual
volume. Lung capacity is evaluated in terms of
vital capacity, inspiratory capacity, functional
residual capacity, and total lung capacity.
 PULMONARY DIFFUSION
The process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchange
from areas of low concentration at the air- blood interface.

PULMONARY PERFUSION
The actual blood flow through pulmonary vasculature.
The blood is pumped into the lung by the right ventricle to
the pulmonary artery.
VENTILATION AND PERFUSION BALANCE
AND IMBALANCE
Adequate gas exchange depends on an adequate ventilation perfusion ratio. In
different area of the lung s the ratio varies.
Ventilation imbalance occurs as a result of inadequate ventilation and
perfusion or both.

Four possible state in the lung

Normal ratio
Low ratio
High ratio
Absence of ventilation and perfusion.
 03
Gas Exchange
Abalos, Raymund Ian
Barrameda, Maureen Joy

Process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide

move between the bloodstream and the
lungs. This is the primary function of the
respiratory system and is essential for
ensuring a constant supply of oxygen to
tissues, as well as removing carbon dioxide
to prevent its accumulation.
 Partial Pressure of Gases
● Water vapor exerts a
● The air we breathe is a pressure of 47 mm Hg
gaseous mixture consisting ● Nitrogen and oxygen are
mainly of nitrogen and responsible for almost all of
oxygen, with traces of carbon the remaining 713 mm Hg.
dioxide, water vapor, helium ● The water vapor continues to
and argon. exert a pressure of 47 mm
● The partial pressure of in Hg.
atmosphere at sea level is ● The gas dissolves in the liquid
78.6 % of 760, or 597 mm Hg; until equilibrium is reached.
that of oxygen is 20.8% of 760, ● In the lung, venous blood and
or 158; mm Hg alveolar oxygen are seperated
by a very thin alveolar
membrane.
 Effects of pressure on oxygen transport
● Oxygen and carbon dioxide are
transported simultaneously,
either dissolved in blood or
combined with hemoglobin in
red blood cells.
● The volume of oxygen
physically dissolved in the
plasma is measured by the
partial pressure of oxygen in
the arteries.
Effects of pressure on oxygen
transport
● The volume of oxygen
physically dissolved in
the plasma is
measured by the
partial pressure of
oxygen in the arteries.
 Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve
Vital tool for comprehending how blood
transports and releases oxygen
Relationship between the partial pressure
of oxygen (PaO2) and the percentage of
saturation of oxygen (SaO2)

The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is

marked to show three oxygen levels:
1. Normal levels—PaO2 >70 mm Hg
2. Relatively safe levels—PaO2 45–70 mm Hg
3. Dangerous levels—PaO2 <40 mm Hg
 Carbon Dioxide Transport
Oxygen diffuses from the blood into the tissues,
carbon dioxide diffuses from tissue cells to
blood and is transported to the lungs for
excretion.

Amount of carbon dioxide in transit is one of

the major determinants of the acid–base
balance of the body.

Many processes involved in respiratory gas

transport seem to occur in intermittent stages,
the changes are rapid, simultaneous, and
continuous.
 Neurologic Control of Ventilation
Resting respiration is the Medulla oblongata and
result of cyclic excitation of pons control the rate
the respiratory muscles by and depth of ventilation
the phrenic nerve. to meet the body’s
metabolic demands.
Rhythm of breathing is
controlled by
respiratory centers in
the brain
 Neurologic Control of Ventilation
Pneumotaxic center in the upper
pons is thought to control the
pattern of respiration.

Apneustic center in the lower pons

stimulates the inspiratory
medullary center to promote deep,
prolonged inspirations.
 Groups of receptor sites assist in the brain’s control of
Respiratory Function.
- Central Chemoreceptors
- Peripheral Chemoreceptors
- Mechanoreceptors
- Proprioceptors
- Baroreceptors

SATURNO
 RECEPTORS CONTROL THE RESPIRATORY FUNCTION
Central Chemoreceptors- respond to chemical changes in the cerebrospinal fluid,
which result from chemical changes in the blood. Respond to an increase or decrease
in the pH and convey a message to the lungs to change the depth and then the rate of
ventilation to correct the imbalance.
Peripheral Chemoreceptors- located in the aortic arch and the carotid arteries and
respond first to changes in PaO2, then to partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) and
pH.
Mechanoreceptors-In the lungs include stretch, irritant, and juxtacapillary receptors,
and respond to changes in resistance by altering breathing patterns to support optimal
lung function.
Proprioceptors- In the muscles and chest wall respond to body movements, causing an
increase in ventilation.
Baroreceptors- Located also in the aortic and carotid bodies, respond to an increase or
decrease in arterial blood pressure and cause reflex hypoventilation or
hyperventilation.
 Gerontologic Considerations
● Gradual decline in respiratory function.
● Vital capacity of the lungs and the strength of the
respiratory muscles decrease thereafter.
● Changes occur in the alveoli that reduce the surface area
available for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
● Alveoli begin to lose elasticity approximately at 50 yrs.old
● Decrease in vital capacity occurs with the loss of chest
wall mobility, which restricts the tidal flow of air.
● Amount of respiratory dead space increases,result in a
decreased diffusion capacity for oxygen, producing lower
oxygen levels in the arterial circulation.
● Decreased ability to rapidly move air in and out of the
lungs.
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