1.

Discuss the different levels of organization’s in the body

The main levels of organization in the body, from the simplest to the most complex, are: atoms, molecul
es, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and the human organism.Both living and non-living t
hings consist of one or more unique substances called elements, the smallest of which is the atom (e.g. 
oxygen (O) made up of O atoms, carbon (C) made up of C atoms, and hydrogen (H) is composed of H
atoms). As atoms join, molecules are the building blocks for all structures in the human body. We got
the next organizational step, the cells then. The cells consist of numerous molecules. The cells are the
smallest single living entity in the human body. The body is made up of various cell types, each having a
certain function. The level of organelles consists of different cells, which are also referred to as small
organs. An organelle is a sub-cell structure that has a particular role to play in the cell, much like an
organ in the body. The most important cell organelles include the nuclei that store genetic information;
mitochondria, which contain chemical energy. Tissue-level tissue cells in the human body are organised.
A tissue is a group of cells that function together to achieve a specific goal. There are four main forms of
tissue in people (muscular, epithelial, nervous and
connective).Two or more tissues operate together for a particular role in the organ level of organization. 
although an organ system is a community of organs working together for a particular purpose (for exam
ple, the stomach, small and large intestines are all organs of the digestive system, that work together to 
digest foodstuff, move nutrients into the blood and get rid of waste). The human body consists of a grea
t number of organ systems that work together to perform an individual person's activities, the most com
plex level of organisation.

2.Explain the modern cell theory

The idea of modern cell theory is a teaching articulated as a cornerstone of contemporary biology in 183
9 by Schleiden & Schwann. This theory notes that cells are both single and multicellular organisms' fund
amental structural, functional and organizational units. Inherited information and energy flows within ce
lls are separated by cells and transmitted. The cell theory consists of three parts: all organisms are made 
of cells, cells are the most essential unit of life and cells are from other cells. This is a historical, widely re
cognized science theory.

3.Differentiate the function of outer from inner mitochondrial membrane.

The external mitochondrial membrane is smooth, with a much smaller surface area. It is freely permeabl
e and consists of 50 percent proteins and 50 percent lipids, unlike most biological membranes. It has hig
h cholesterol and no cardiolipin in its lipids. Innere mitochondrial membrane, on the other hand, is unfol
ded into cristae, with a large surface region. It is semipermeable, like most biological membranes. It con
sists of 80% proteins and 20% lipids; it contains cardiolipin and virtually no lipid cholesterol. Its proteins 
are enzymerich and contain permeases that actively transfer desired molecules across the internal mem
brane.It has an electron transportation mechanism and is in contact with the matrix. Outer mitochondri
al membrane contains proteins containing porins that form canals for the free movement of molecules a
cross the external membrane. There are not many enzymes and there is a lack of electron transportatio
n and cytoplasm contact.
4.Differentiate the rough from smooth endoplasmic reticulum based on their function

The most basic difference between RER and SER is the presence of ribosomes. When ribosomes attach o
n the surface of an ER, they give a distinctive rough appearance. Also known as the Rough ER, there are 
no ribosomes on the smooth ER surface. There are membraneassociated ribosomes in a Rugged Endopla
smic Reticulum. It consists of tubules and cisternae. It participates in the synthesis of enzymes and prote
ins and assists in lysosome formation. RER provides protein and lipids for Golgi devices. It is connected t
o the nuclear envelope internally.
There are ribophorins present and they help bind the ribosomes to ER. The Smooth EN (SER) has no ribo
somes on its membrane. The bubbles and vesicles are composed. It includes the synthesis of glycogen, li
pids and steroids, provides cisface vesicles for the golgi system and spherosome and plasmarelated sphe
rosomes/oloosomes.

5.Discuss the components of cytoskeleton.

Microtubules, actin filaments and intermediate filaments are composed of a cytoskeleton of cellsThese s
tructures shape the cell and assist the organization of the cell components. They also provide the basis f
or cell division and movement. The cytoskeleton filaments are so small that their appearance has only b
een discovered as a result of the greater solvency of the electron microscope. Actin filaments exist in a c
ell in the form of parallelfibre meshworks or bundles. They help to build the structure of the cell and to c
onnect it to the substratum too. The ever-
changing arrays of actin filaments, such as cell cleavage, help to transfer the cell and mediate complex a
ctivities within. Microtubules assemble and decompose continuously longer filaments, and during mitosi
s the daughter chromosomes have a crucial part to play in transferring the newly formed daughter cells. 
And the cilia and flagella found in protozoa and in several cells of multicellular animals form bundles of 
microtubules. In addition to actin filaments and microtubules, intermediate filaments of other very stabl
e structures forming the true skeleton of the cell. They attach and place the core inside the cell and prov
ide the cell with its proper elasticity

6.Discuss the types of membrane proteins

The membrane protein can be divided into two categories: integral (intrinsic) and peripheral, based on 
membrane protein interactions (extrinsic). In most biomembranes both types of membrane proteins are 
found. Integral membrane proteins have one or more segments which are often called intrinsic protein 
which are incorporated into phospholipid bilayers. Some integral proteins contain residues of hydropho
bic lateral chains interacting with the fatty acyl groups of membrane phospholipids and thus bind the pr
otein to the membrane. Most integral proteins are covered in the whole phospholipid bilayer.
The phospholipid bilayers hydrophobic core does not interact with the peripheral membrane proteins or 
extrinsic proteins. Instead, they are typically indirectly bound to the membrane through interactions wit
h integrated membranes or directly through interactions with lipid polar head groups. The cyoskeletal pr
oteins spectrin and actin are found on the cytoskeletonic face of the plasma membrane and enzyme pro
tein kinase C. This enzyme transmits between the cytosol and the cytosolic face of the plasma membran
e and plays a significant role in the transduction of signal. Some peripheral proteins are found in the plas
ma membrane's outside (exo), such as some extracellular matrix proteins.
7.Expalin the synthesis of cholesterol

In physiological research. Cholesterol, which can be synthesized by a complex, 37step process, is import
ant for any animal's existence. It begins with the mevalonate or HMG
oA reductase pathway, the target of the statin drug which comprises the first 18 stages. The biosynthesi
s of cholesterol typcally occurs in the endoplasmic hepatic cell and begins with acetylCoA, which comes 
mainly from a mitochonde oxidation reaction. However, the cytoplasmic oxidation of ethanol by acetyl-
coa synthesis can also be obtained from acetyl-coA. The synthase HMG-CoA is converted to 3-hydroxy-3-
methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA).
People can synthesize cholesterol from novo and also obtain it from their diet. De Novo synthesis takes 
place in the liver and intestines, whereby each organ accounts for about 10% of the total body cholester
ol.

8.Explain the synthesis of bile acid

Bile acid is a liver acid that interacts with bile to break down the fats. Bile acid is an acid. Bile acids are ch
olesterolderived carboxylic acids more scientifically. The key bile acids are chocolate and chenodeoxych
olic acids. They are conjugated with glycine or taurine before they are secreted into the bile. For digestio
n and absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins, bile acids are essential in the small intestine. Many wa
ste products, like bilirubin, are bile secreted and feces removed from the body.

9.Whatvare the different ketone bodies?

10.Describe the activity of colipase

11. Discuss the different subclasses of sphingolipids

12. Explain the mechanism of protein misfolding

If a protein follows the wrong pathway, or energyreducing funnel, it results in misfolded proteins, which 
may spontaneously occur. The cell usually consists only of the native conformation. But as millions and 
millions of copies of each protein are made during our lifetimes a random event occurs and one of these 
molecules takes the wrong direction and becomes a toxic configuration. This type of conformational cha
nge is the most probable occurrence in proteins that have repeated amino acid motives, such as polyglu
tamine.
Strangely, the toxic structure can also interact and catalyze its transformation into a toxic condition with 
other native copies of the same protein. Because of this capacity, they are called contagious conformati
ons. The newly generated toxic proteins repeat the cycle through a self
supporting loop that enhances toxicity and thus contributes to a catastrophic effect which eventually de
stroys your cell. Prion proteins are a prime example of proteins that catalyze the conformation into a tox
ic shape of their own.
13.What component is responsible for transporting oxygen in blood

14. Discuss the different immunoglobulins in the body

15. Explain how enzyme works on your body.

Enzymes cause chemical reactions in the body. They basically speed up a chemical reaction in order to h
elp sustain life. The enzymes in your body can be very critical. This involves muscle building, eliminating 
contaminants, and disintegrating food particles during digestion. In the proper functioning of the digesti
ve system, for example, enzymes are essential. Digestive enzymes are mainly produced in the pancreas, 
stomach and small intestine.
But you still produce digestive enzymes with your salivary gland, though you also chew to break up food 
molecules. If you have some stomach disorders, you can even take enzymes in pill form. There are three 
important forms of digestive enzymes. Based on the reactions they help catalyze, they are classified: am
ylase breaks down starches and carbohydrates into sugars, protease breaks down proteins into amino ac
ids and lipase breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids, which are oils.and oils.
1.Explain the role of steroids in tissues

- Steroids work by decreasing inflammation and reducing the activity of the immune system. This might
cause inflammation to work against the body's tissues and cause damage. Steroids reduce the
production of chemicals that cause inflammation. This helps keep tissue damage as low as possible.
Steroids also reduce the activity of the immune system by affecting the way white blood cells work. -
Steroids have an important role in growth, development, sexual differentiation and reproduction.
Wherein, steroid hormones carry messages between tissues. In which, Steroids are oxidized derivatives
of sterols; they have the sterol nucleus but lack the alkyl chain attached to ring D of cholesterol, and
they are more polar than cholesterol. Steroid hormones move through the bloodstream (on protein
carriers) from their site of production to target tissues, where they enter cells, bind to highly specific
receptor proteins in the nucleus, and trigger changes in gene expression and metabolism.

2.Discuss the metabolic control for HMG CoA reductase synthesis and activity

- HMG CoA reductase, the rate limiting enzyme, is the major control point for cholesterol biosynthesis,
and is subject to different kinds of metabolic control. The rate-limiting and regulated step in cholesterol
synthesis is catalyzed by the SER—membrane protein, hydroxymethylglutaryl (HMG) CoA reductase,
which produces mevalonate from HMG CoA. The enzyme is regulated by a number of mechanisms: 1)
Expression of the gene for HMG CoA reductase is activated when cholesterol levels are low, via the
transcription factor, SREBP-2, bound to a sterol response element (SRE), resulting in increased enzyme
and, therefore, more cholesterol synthesis; 2) HMG CoA reductase activity is controlled by adenosine
monophosphate (AMP)–activated protein kinase (AMPK, which phosphorylates and inactivates HMG
CoA reductase) and an insulin-activated protein phosphatase (which activates HMG CoA reductase); 3)
Expression of the gene for the reductase is upregulated by insulin and down regulated by glucagon.
Statins are competitive inhibitors of HMG CoA reductase. These drugs are used to decrease plasma
cholesterol in patients with hypercholesterolemia. The ring structure of cholesterol cannot be degraded
in humans.

3. Discuss the degradation of sphingolipids

- Degradation of sphingolipids showing the lysosomal enzymes affected in related genetic diseases, the
sphingolipidoses. All of the diseases are autosomal recessive except Fabry disease, which is X-linked, and
all can be fatal in early life. (Cer = ceramide). Sphingolipids degradation occurs through a series of
specific hydrolases in the lysosome, after the compounds have been transported via the endosomal
pathway. Hydrolase defects result in accumulation and lysosomal storage of substrates, leading to cell
pathology.

4.Describe the importance of lipids to your organs.

- Lipids are very essential key components needed by our body to perform some activity that plays
essential role in our body. Lipids can be serve as an energy reserve, regulate hormone, transmit nerve
impulses, cushion vital organs and transport fat-soluble nutrients that is essential to form some activity
needed by our body.Energy storage is one of the major functions that lipids do. Lipids help store energy
in the form of fat molecules in the body to be used later if a person consumes excessive amounts of
food. In every cell of the human body, lipids are present and are the main part of the cellular
membrane. By surrounding them in the right way, it stops the cells from being leaky. As they are a part
of many hormones, lipids are also essential for the human body. They play a major role in controlling
your development and how your body operates on a daily basis. The hormones that are an essential part
of lipids include Ovaries are responsible for developing female sexual characteristics such as physique
and menstrual cycle. These are produced by the ovaries. About Testosterone, It is produced by the
testes and is responsible for the development of male properties, such as the production of sperm.
Lipids also play a significant role in food digestion. It is used to produce stomach bile acids that are
essential for dissolving fat from the food you eat. This is essential for the process of normal food
digestion and the absorption of vitamins that are soluble in fat. They are also essential in the body for
the transport of fatty acids. To protect and insulate your body, lipids are required. There is a layer of fat
just under the skin that is made of lipids to maintain your internal body temperature regularly. Likewise,
around your vital organs, there is also a layer of fats that keeps them safe from injury. In your body,
lipids are the building blocks of cells. Therefore, to keep it working perfectly, it is essential to ensure that
your body has the right amount of them.

5. Describe the manner of lipids degradation

- Lipid metabolism is the production and degradation of lipids in cells, encompassing the breakdown or
storage of fats for energy and the synthesis of morphological and chemical lipids, such as those involved
in the construction of cell membranes. Lipid metabolism starts in the intestine where absorbed
triglycerides are split into smaller chain fatty acids and subsequently into monoglyceride molecules by
pancreatic lipases, enzymes that break down fats after they are emulsified by bile salts.