DərsVəsaiti IT

SHAHNAZ N.
SHAHBAZOVA
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
(Text book for higher education institution)
1
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF AZERBAIJAN REPUBLIC
AZERBAIJAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
__________________________________________________________
SHAHNAZ N. SHAHBAZOVA
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
(Text book for higher education institution)
At the meeting of the Scientific and Methodological

Council of the Azerbaijan Technical University
on June 9, 2021 (protocol No.6), it was recommended
for publication as a Study book for higher
education institution
BAKU - 2021
2
Reviewers:
1. Corresponding member of ANAS, professor Mammadova M.H., Head of
department No. 15, Institute of Information Technologies of ANAS
2. Associate professor chair of “Computer Technologies and Cyber
security” J.I.Mammadov
Shahnaz N. Shahbazova
“Information Technologies”, Study book, Publishing house “Çaşıoglu”, 2021, 160
pages.
This study book was prepared based on the materials of lecture courses on
the basics of Information technologies, including lectures: human information
activity, information and information processes, the maximum rate of information
transmission on the communication channel is called the bandwidth of the
channel, analog devices, presentation of information in various number systems,
algorithms for converting numbers, storage of information objects of various types
on various digital media, search and transfer of information using a computer,
means of information and communication technologies, telecommunication
technologies, transfer of information.
The textbook fully complies with the requirements of the standard for the
discipline "Information Technologies" for bachelors in the specialties 050655 -
"Information technology" and 050656 - "System engineering".
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CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER1. HUMAN INFORMATION ACTIVITY

1.1. Stages of development of the information society
1.2. The main features of the information society
1.3. Types of professional information human activity using technical
means and information resources.
1.4. Stages of development of technical means and information resources
CHAPTER 2. INFORMATION AND INFORMATION PROCESSES

2.1. Approaches to the concept of information and measurement of
information
2.2. Symbolic or sign information
CHAPTER 3. THE MAXIMUM RATE OF INFORMATION

TRANSMISSION ON THE COMMUNICATION CHANNEL
3.1. Information objects of various types
3.2. The bandwidth of the channel
CHAPTER 4. ANALOG DEVICES
4.1. Analog devices are

4.2. Discrete devices
4.3. Discrete values
CHAPTER 5. REPRESENTATION OF INFORMATION IN VARIOUS

NUMBER
SYSTEMS
5.1. Positional and non-positional number systems.

5.2. Number systems used in computers
5.3. Principles of computer architecture
CHAPTER 6. ALGORITHMS FOR CONVERTING NUMBERS
6.1. Algorithms for converting numbers from one number system to another
6.2. Binary arithmetic
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CHAPTER 7. PRINCIPLES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING BY A
COMPUTER
7.1. Principles of information processing by a computer

7.2. General diagram of the computer
7.3. Arithmetic and logical foundations of a computer
CHAPTER 8. STORAGE OF INFORMATION OBJECTS OF VARIOUS

TYPES ON VARIOUS DIGITAL MEDIA. DETERMINATION OF THE
VOLUME OF VARIOUS MEDIA. ARCHIVE OF INFORMATION.
8.1. Information object

8.2. Electronic information objects
8.3. Determination of the volume of various media
8.4. Information archive
CHAPTER 9. SEARCH AND TRANSFER OF INFORMATION USING A

COMPUTER. SOFTWARE SEARCH SERVICES. WIRED AND WIRELESS
9.1. Search for information: basic concepts, types and forms of organization
9.2. Finding information in windows
9.3. Software search services
9.4. Wired and wireless communication
CHAPTER 10. MEANS OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGIES
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE.
10.1. Personal computer architecture

10.2. Types of computer software
CHAPTER 11. SAFETY, HYGIENE, ERGONOMICS, RESOURCE

SAVING. INFORMATION PROTECTION, ANTI-VIRUS PROTECTION.
11.1. Ergonomics
11.2. Information protection, anti-virus protection
11.3. Encryption method
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CHAPTER 12. TECHNOLOGIES OF CREATION AND
TRANSFORMATION OF INFORMATION OBJECTS
12.1. Desktop publishing capabilities. General terms and concepts.
12.2. Basic functionality of text editors
12.3. Formatting, building tables, graphic images
CHAPTER 13. FEATURES OF DYNAMIC (SPREADSHEET) TABLES.
13.1. Et as an information object: characteristic features, purpose

13.2. Application of et for solving professional problems. Using functions
13.2.1. Applications of spreadsheets:
13.2.2. Main functions built into MS EXCEL. Math functions
13.2.3. Logic functions
13.3.4. Statistical functions
CHAPTER 14. UNDERSTANDING OF THE ORGANIZATION OF

DATABASES AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS.
14.1. The concept of DB, DBMS as an information system

14.2. Structural elements, types of databases
14.3. The main features of the DBMS (for example, MS ACCESS)
CHAPTER 15. PRESENTATION OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND

DRAWING SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENTS, MULTIMEDIA
ENVIRONMENTS.
15.1.Ways of presenting graphic information

15.2 .Professional graphics according to the profile "construction and operation of
buildings and structures"
15.3. The concept of multimedia. Software implementation of multimedia tasks.
Presentation of graphic and multimedia information using computer
presentations (for example POWERPOINT)
CHAPTER 16. TELECOMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
16.1. Transfer of information.

16.2. Local computer networks
16.3. Global computer network internet
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17. Network software capabilities for organizing collective activities in global and
local computer networks.
17.1. Types of global internet services
17.2. Features of the organization of Teleconferences on the internet
REFERENCE
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CHAPTER 1. HUMAN INFORMATION ACTIVITY
1.1. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY
There are four stages in the development of mankind, called information

revolutions, which have made changes in its development.
1. The first stage is connected with the invention of writing. This led to a
giant qualitative and quantitative leap in the development of society. It became
possible to accumulate knowledge and pass it on to subsequent generations, i.e.
means and methods of accumulating information appeared. In some sources, it is
believed that the content of the first information revolution is the dissemination and
introduction of language into human activity and consciousness.
2. The second stage is the invention of book printing. This gave humanity
a new way of storing information, and also made cultural values more accessible.
3. The third stage is the invention of electricity. The telegraph, telephone
and radio appeared, making it possible to quickly transmit and accumulate
information in any volume. Means of information communication appeared.
4. The fourth stage is the invention of microprocessor technology and
personal computers. The impetus for this revolution was the creation of a
computer in the mid-40s. This last revolution gave impetus to human civilization for
the transition from an industrial to an information society - a society in which most
of the workers are engaged in the production, storage, processing and
implementation of information, especially its highest form - knowledge. The
beginning of this was the introduction of modern means of processing and
transmitting information into various spheres of human activity - this process is
called informatization.
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1.2. THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY
Information society is a society in which most of the workers are engaged in

the production, storage, processing and sale of information, especially its highest
form - knowledge.
Some of the characteristics of the information society:
1. The volume of information will increase and a person will attract special
technical means for its processing and storage.
2. The use of computers is inevitable.
3. The driving force of society will be the production of an information
product.
4. The share of mental labor will increase, because knowledge and
intelligence will become the product of production in the information society.
5. There will be a reassessment of values, way of life and cultural leisure will
change.
6. Computer technology, computer networks, information technologies are
developing.
7. People at home get all kinds of electronic devices and computerized
devices.
8. The production of energy and material products will be dealt with by
machines, and humans will mainly be processing information.
9. In the field of education, a system of continuous education will be created.
10. Children and adults will be able to study at home using computer
programs and telecommunications.
11. The information services market appears and develops.
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1.3. TYPES OF PROFESSIONAL INFORMATION HUMAN ACTIVITY
USING TECHNICAL MEANS AND INFORMATION RESOURCES.
Human activities associated with the processes of receiving, transforming,

accumulating and transmitting information are called information activities.
Nowadays computers are used to process not only numbers, but also other
types of information. Thanks to this, computers have firmly entered the life of a
modern person, and are widely used in manufacturing, design and development,
business and many other industries.
But modern technical means of working with information include not only
computers, but also other devices that ensure its transmission, processing and
storage:
• Servers in the global computer network that control work and store a huge amount
of information.
• Special computers for design and construction work.
1.4. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNICAL MEANS AND

INFORMATION RESOURCES
With the development of modern civilization, participation in information

processes required not only individual, but also generalized knowledge and
experience, contributing to the processing of information and making the necessary
decisions. For this, a person needed various devices. The stages of the emergence of
means and methods of information processing that have caused dramatic changes in
society are defined as information revolutions.
The first information revolution is associated with the invention of writing,
which led to a qualitative and quantitative leap in the development of civilization. It
became possible to accumulate knowledge and transfer it to subsequent generations.
From the standpoint of informatics, this can be assessed as the emergence of means
and methods for accumulating information.
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The second information revolution (mid-16th century) is associated with the
invention of printing, which changed human society, culture and organization of
activities in the most radical way. Man not only received new means of
accumulation, systematization, and replication of information. The mass distribution
of printed materials made cultural values available, opened up the possibility of
independent and purposeful development of the individual. From the point of view
of computer science, the significance of this revolution is that it brought forward a
qualitatively new way of storing information.
The third information revolution (the end of the 19th century) is associated
with the invention of electricity, thanks to which the telegraph, telephone, radio
appeared, allowing to quickly transmit and accumulate information in any volume.
This stage is important for informatics, primarily because it marked the emergence
of information communication tools.
The fourth information revolution (70s of the twentieth century) is
associated with the invention of microprocessor technology and the emergence of a
personal computer. The final transition from mechanical and electrical means of
converting information to electronic ones took place, which led to the
miniaturization of all units, devices, machines and the emergence of software-
controlled devices and processes. Computers, computer networks, data transmission
systems (information communications) and so on are created on microprocessors
and integrated circuits.
5. Questions of self-control
1. Describe the main stages in the development of the information society

2. Explain the concept of the information society
3. List the characteristics of the information society
4. What are information resources?
5. What are the characteristics of the national resources of society?
CHAPTER 2. INFORMATION AND INFORMATION PROCESSES
2.1. APPROACHES TO THE CONCEPT OF INFORMATION AND
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MEASUREMENT OF INFORMATION
People got used to the word "information" for a long time. If you ask you
what information is, then, probably, first of all, you will remember newspapers,
radio, television, that is, everything that is called mass media. It is here that such
expressions as "information message" or "operational information" are most often
used. The purpose of such messages is to inform readers or listeners about certain
events. Before receiving the message, we did not know about this event, but as a
result, we became aware.
Everything that we know with you, we once learned from parents, teachers,
from books, from personal practical experience and preserved in our memory. In
turn, everything that is written in books, magazines, newspapers reflects the
knowledge of the authors of these texts, and therefore it is also information.
Information for a person is knowledge that he receives from various
sources.
Studying at university is a purposeful process of acquiring knowledge, which means
obtaining information. The more you learn, the more information your memory
contains.
The term "information" comes from the Latin word "informatio", which
means information, explanation, presentation.
Information is such a general and deep concept that it cannot be explained in
one phrase. This word has different meanings in technology, science and in
everyday situations.
In everyday life, information is any data or information that interests anyone.
For example, a message about any events, about someone's activities, etc. "To
inform" in this sense means "to communicate something previously unknown."
Information is information about objects and phenomena of the
environment, their parameters, properties and state, which are perceived by
information systems (living organisms, control machines, etc.) in the process of
life and work.
One and the same information message (newspaper article, advertisement,
letter, telegram, help, story, drawing, radio broadcast, etc.) may contain a different
amount of information for different people - depending on their previous
knowledge, on the level of understanding of this message and interest in it.
In cases when they talk about automated work with information through any
technical devices, usually they are primarily interested not in the content of the
message, but in how many characters this message contains.
Information (as applied to computer data processing) is a certain
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sequence of symbolic designations (letters, numbers, encoded graphics and
sounds, etc.), which carries a semantic load and is presented in a computer-
understandable form.
Each new character in such a sequence of characters increases the
information volume of the message.
Information can exist in a wide variety of forms:
texts, pictures, light or sound signals radio waves электрических и

drawings, нервных импульсов
photographs
smells and tastes gestures and facial magnetic records chromosomes, etc.
expressions
Objects, processes, phenomena of material or non-material properties,

considered from the point of view of their information properties, are called
information objects.
A person perceives information from the surrounding world with the help of
his senses; there are five of them: sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch.
More than 90% of information comes to us through sight and hearing. But
smells, taste and tactile sensations also carry information. For example, having
smelled a burning smell, you learned that a dinner that you forgot about burned
down in the kitchen. You can easily recognize familiar food by taste, familiar
objects by touch, even in the dark.
2.2. SYMBOLIC OR SIGN INFORMATION
Symbolic or sign information is information perceived by a person in

speech or writing.
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The written text contains letters, punctuation marks, numbers and other
symbols. Oral speech also consists of signs. Only these signs are not written, but
sound - phonemes. From phonemes, words are formed, from words - phrases.
There is a direct connection between written signs and sounds. First, speech
appeared, and then - writing. Writing for this is needed to fix human speech on
paper. Individual letters or letter combinations denote the sounds of speech, and
punctuation marks denote pauses, intonation.
Human speech and writing are closely related to the understanding of
language. Of course, this does not mean the organ of speech, but the form of
communication between people. Each nation has its own national spoken
language. These languages - Russian, English, Chinese, French - are called
natural languages. Natural languages are spoken and written.
In addition to spoken (natural) languages, there are formal languages. As a
rule, these are the languages of some profession or field of knowledge. For
example, mathematical symbolism can be called the formal language of
mathematics; musical notation is the formal language of music.
Language is a sign system for representing information.
Communication in languages is the process of conveying information in a
symbolic form.
You can give examples of different ways of sign information exchange,
replacing speech. For example, deaf people replace speech with gestures. The
conductor's gestures convey information to the musicians. The referee on the
playground uses a certain sign language that the players can understand.
However, smells, gustatory and tactile sensations cannot be conveyed using
signs. Of course, they carry information, since we remember them, we recognize
them. Such information will be called figurative information. The figurative also
includes information perceived by sight and hearing: wind noise, birdsong,
pictures of nature, painting.
1 byte = 8 bits
In this case, it is easy to calculate the amount of information in the text. If

one character of the alphabet carries 1 byte of information, then you just need to
count the number of characters; the resulting value will give the informational
amount of text in bytes.
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Let a small book contain 150 pages; each page contains 40 lines, each line
contains 60 characters. This means that the page contains 40 x 60 = 2400 bytes of
information. The amount of all information in the book:
2400 x 150 = 360,000 bytes.
This example shows that a byte is a "small" unit. Imagine that you need to
measure the information volume of a scientific library. What a huge number in
bytes that would be! In any system of units of measurement, there are basic units
and their derivatives. The latter are needed to measure either very large or very
small quantities.
Byte-derived units are used to measure large amounts of information.
1 kilobyte = 1Kb = 2 10 bytes = 1024 bytes

1 megabyte = 1MB = 2 10 KB = 1024 KB
1 gigabyte = 1GB = 2 10 MB = 1024 MB
Consequently, the volume of the above book is approximately three

hundred and sixty kilobytes. And if you calculate more precisely, you get:
360000 / 1024 = 351.5625 KB

351.5625 / 1024 = 0.34332275 MB
Reception and transmission of information can occur at different speeds.

The amount of information transmitted per unit of time is called the
information transmission rate, or the information flow rate.
This rate is expressed in units such as bits per second (bps), bytes per
second (bytes / s), kilobytes per second (KB / s), and so on.
If the transmitter and receiver of information are technical devices
(teletypes, telefaxes, computers), the speed of information exchange is much higher
than between people. The technical means connecting the transmitter and the
receiver of information in such systems are called communication channels. These
are, for example, telephone lines, cable lines, radio devices.
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CHAPTER 3. THE MAXIMUM INFORMATION TRANSFER RATE OVER
A COMMUNICATION CHANNEL IS CALLED THE CHANNEL
BANDWIDTH.
3.1. INFORMATION OBJECTS OF VARIOUS TYPES.
Information is a key concept of modern science, which is on a par with such as

"matter" and "energy". There are three main interpretations of the concept of
"information".
Scientific interpretation. Information is an initial general scientific
category reflecting the structure of matter and the methods of its cognition,
irreducible to other, simpler concepts.
Abstract interpretation. Information is a certain sequence of symbols that
carry both together and separately some semantic load for the performer.
Specific interpretation. In this plane, specific performers are considered,
taking into account the specifics of their command systems and the semantics of the
language. So, for example, for a machine, information is zeros and ones; for a
person - sounds, images, etc.
There are several concepts (theories) of information.
The first concept (K. Shannon's concept), reflecting the quantitative-
informational approach, defines information as a measure of uncertainty (entropy)
of an event. The amount of information in a particular case depends on the
probability of its receipt: the more probable a message is, the less information it
contains.
The second concept considers information as a property (attribute) of
matter. Its appearance is associated with the development of cybernetics and is
based on the assertion that information contains any messages perceived by a
person or devices. This concept of information is most vividly and figuratively
expressed by Academician V.M. Glushkov.
The third concept is based on a logical-semantic (semantics is the study of
a text from the point of view of meaning) approach, in which information is treated
as knowledge, and not just any knowledge, but that part of it that is used for
orientation, for active action, for management and self-management. In other words,
information is an active, useful, "working" part of knowledge. The representative of
this concept V.G. Afanasyev.
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Currently, the term information has a deep and multifaceted meaning. In
many ways, while remaining intuitive, he receives different semantic content in
different branches of human activity:
• in the everyday aspect, information is understood as information about the
surrounding world and the processes occurring in it, perceived by a person or
special devices;
• in technology, information is understood as messages transmitted in the form
of signs or signals;
• in information theory (according to K. Shannon), not any information is
important, but only those that completely remove or reduce the existing
uncertainty;
• in cybernetics, according to N. Wiener's definition, information is that part of
knowledge that is used for orientation, active action, control, ie. in order to
preserve, improve, develop the system;
• in semantic theory (the meaning of the message) - this is information with
novelty, and so on ...
Such a variety of approaches is not an accident, but a consequence of the
fact that the need for a conscious organization of the processes of movement and
processing of what has a common name - information - has emerged.
According to the way of perception, information is divided into the
following types: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory and tactile.
3.2. THE BANDWIDTH OF THE CHANNEL
A person creates devices that allow him to receive information that is not
available to him in direct sensations. Microscopes, telescopes, thermometers,
speedometers - the list goes on and on. Different sensors correspond to analogs of
human sense organs in technical devices. Receiving information is called input. In
a personal computer, special input devices are responsible for entering
information: keyboard, scanner, digitizer, microphone, mouse, and much more.
A person perceives information using the senses. Perceived information
comes in the form of energy signals (light, sound, heat) and radiation (taste and
smell), and the process of receipt of these signals occurs continuously.
A person needs information not in general, but specifically at the right time
to navigate in the world around him and make decisions about further actions.
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With a qualitative assessment of the information received, one speaks of its
following properties:
Information properties:
credibility fullness accuracy value timeliness
intelligibility availability brevity and etc.
Information is reliable if it reflects the true state of affairs. Inaccurate

information can lead to misunderstandings or incorrect decisions. Over time,
reliable information can become unreliable, since it has the property of
becoming outdated, that is, it ceases to reflect the true state of affairs.
Information is complete if it is sufficient for understanding and making
decisions. Both incomplete and redundant information hinders decision
making or can lead to errors.
The accuracy of information is determined by the degree of its
proximity to the real state of an object, process, phenomenon, etc.
The value of information depends on how important it is for solving a
problem, as well as on how much later it will find application in any kind of
human activity.
Only information received in a timely manner can bring the expected
benefits. Both the premature presentation of information (when it cannot be
absorbed yet) and its delay are equally undesirable. If valuable and timely
information is expressed in an incomprehensible way, it can become useless.
Information becomes understandable if it is expressed in the language
spoken by those to whom the information is intended.
Information should be presented in an accessible (by the level of
perception) form. Therefore, the same questions are presented in different ways in
school textbooks and scientific publications.
QUESTIONS OF SELF-CONTROL
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1. What is the difference between a continuous signal and a discrete one?
2. What is sampling rate and what does it affect?
3. Explain the concept of information
4. List the main forms of information presentation
5. What is the difference between positional and non-positional number systems?
6. What is a number system?
7. What is the radix?
8. What is a non-positional number system?
9. What is a positional number system?
10. What characters are in the decimal and binary alphabet?
11. Why is the binary number system taken as a basis in computing?
CHAPTER 4. THE VERSATILITY OF DISCRETE (DIGITAL)

INFORMATION PRESENTATION
4.1. ANALOG DEVICES
Let's think of information as a signal. We know that the signal is viewed

from the position of the information carrier by technical means of transmission.
To transmit information, or, more correctly, data, a physical process is used,
which can be described by a mathematical formula and is called a signal. It is the
signals that are distinguished by the way they are presented as analog and discrete
(see Fig. 1 and 2).
Fig.1. Analog signal Fig.2. Discrete signal
Analog information is characterized by a smooth change of its parameters.

The basic parameters of the simplest simple sinusoidal analog signals can change
continuously and smoothly.
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The discrete information is based on a series of fixed representations of the
set parameters, taken in certain time intervals. If these levels are many, it is possible
to talk about the digital representation of information, that is, when in certain
discrete moments they assume specific discrete values. Fortunately, analog
information can be easily converted to digital. As carriers of analog information can
use different physical values, taking different values at some interval, for example,
electric current, radio wave, etc. When sampling, that is, when converting
uninterrupted images and sounds into a set of discrete values in the form of codes,
the basis is given some specific meaning, and any other, differentiating.
Analog devices are:
• TV - the beam of the picture tube continuously moves across the screen, the
stronger the beam, the brighter the point at which it hits; the change in the glow of
the points occurs smoothly and continuously;
• turntable - the greater the height of the irregularities on the sound track, the louder
the sound sounds;
• telephone - the louder we speak into the handset, the higher the current flowing
through the wires, the louder the sound that the interlocutor hears.
4.2. DISCRETE DEVICES
Discrete devices include:

• monitor - the brightness of the beam does not change smoothly, but abruptly
(discretely). The ray is either there or not. If there is a ray, then we see a bright
point (white or colored). If there is no ray, we see a black point. Therefore, the
image on the monitor screen is clearer than on the TV screen;
• audio CD player - the sound track is represented by areas with different
reflectivity;
• inkjet printer - the image consists of separate dots of different colors.
A person, thanks to his senses, is used to dealing with analog information,
and in a computer, information is presented in digital form. Conversion of graphic
and sound information from analog to discrete form is carried out by sampling, that
is, dividing a continuous graphic image or audio signal into separate elements.
The sensitive organs of a living organism are mainly discrete in nature.
Visual images are perceived by the cells of the retina, tactile sensations arise in
sensitive neurons, smells are perceived by the olfactory receptors, each of which at
any given time is either in an excited or unexcited state. All sensory perceptions are
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transformed in the body from a discrete form into a continuous one, and the
information is stored not in individual neurons of the brain, but is distributed
throughout it. The continuity of presentation, for example, of visual information
allows a person to confidently perceive the dynamics of the world around him.
Discrete values take not all possible values, but only certain values, and they can be
recalculated.
In technology, continuous information is called analog. Many human-made
devices work with analog information. The beam of the TV picture tube moves
across the screen, causing the dots to glow. The stronger the beam, the brighter the
glow. The glow changes smoothly and continuously. A turntable, mercury
thermometer, and pressure gauge are examples of analog devices. Some home
appliances are available in both analog and digital designs. For example, a
tonometer is a device for measuring blood pressure. A significant difference is that
an analog device can give an absolutely arbitrary value of readings (slightly more or
less than a division), and the set of readings for a digital device is limited by the
number of digits on the indicator. The computer works exclusively with discrete
(digital) information. Computer memory consists of individual bits, which means it
is discrete. The sensors, through which information is perceived, measure mainly
continuous characteristics - temperature, load, voltage, etc. The problem of
converting analog information into discrete form arises.
The idea behind sampling a continuous signal is as follows. Let there be some
continuous signal. It can be assumed that for small intervals of time the value of the
characteristics of this signal is constant and changes instantly at the end of each
interval. "Cutting" the entire time interval into these small pieces and taking the
value of the characteristics on each of them, we get a signal with a finite number of
values. Thus, it will become discrete. A continuous value is often associated with a
graph of a function, and a discrete value is often associated with a table of its
values.
This process is called digitalization of an analog signal, and the conversion of
information is called analog-to-digital conversion. The conversion accuracy
depends on the discreteness value - the sampling frequency: the higher the sampling
frequency, the closer the digital information is to the analogue quality. But the more
calculations a computer has to do and the more information is stored and processed.
4.3. DISCRETE VALUES
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Sampling is the transformation of continuous images and sound into a set of
discrete values in the form of codes.
When transmitting discrete data over communication channels, two main
types of physical coding are used - based on a sinusoidal carrier signal and based on
a sequence of rectangular pulses. The first method is often referred to as modulation
or analog modulation, emphasizing the fact that coding is performed by changing
the parameters of an analog signal. The second method is commonly referred to as
digital coding. These methods differ in the width of the spectrum of the resulting
signal and the complexity of the equipment required for their implementation.
Nowadays, more and more data, initially having an analog form (speech,
television image), are transmitted via communication channels in a discrete form,
that is, in the form of a sequence of ones and zeros. The process of representing
analog information in discrete form is called discrete modulation. Analog
modulation is used to transmit discrete data over narrow bandwidth channels,
typical of which is a voice frequency channel (telephone network).
In simple computers, such as digital electromechanical or analog computers,
reconfiguration for various tasks was carried out by changing the system of
connections between elements on a special patch panel. In modern universal
computers, such changes are made by storing in a special device that accumulates
information, one or another program of its work.
Unlike analog machines operating on continuous information, modern
computers deal with discrete information, at the input and output of which any
sequence of decimal digits, letters, punctuation marks and other symbols can act as
such information. Within the system, this information is encoded as a sequence of
signals that take on only two different values.
While the capabilities of analog machines are limited to converting strictly
limited types of signals, modern computers have the property of versatility, in other
words, a computer can convert any alphanumeric data thanks to a program compiled
to perform a particular task. This ability of a computer is achieved due to the
universality of its command system, that is, elementary information
transformations.
The property of the versatility of a computer is not limited to the ability to operate
with alphanumeric information alone. Any discrete information can be represented
(encoded) in this form, as well as - with any given degree of accuracy - arbitrary
continuous information. Thus, computers can be considered as universal converters
of information. The versatility of modern computers makes it possible to use them
22
to simulate any other information converters, including any thought processes.
Technologies for digital processing of acoustic signals and images are
increasingly being used in various fields, in particular for user identification or for
building multi-level protection systems. At the same time, in the list of the main
requirements for the corresponding systems, the first place is given to the
versatility, speed and efficiency of various processing procedures based on the use
of standard inexpensive technical means included in the set of traditional office
equipment and computer telephony: PC, scanner, printer, sound card , modem. To
implement such systems, approaches are needed that allow processing acoustic
signals and speech.
A person receives almost 80% of information through sight, which means the
dominance of visual receptors in human life. All information in a person's thinking
apparatus is stored in the form of images, and in this image the information received
by all human receptors is concentrated. It can be concluded that information in
human memory is stored in the form of graphic objects. Developing the hypothesis
that any information received by a person from the outside goes through the stage of
transformation into images with their subsequent purposeful processing, it is
possible to derive a sequence of procedures suitable for implementation in
automated data processing systems of various kinds, including speech:
• preprocessing, when, regardless of the type of information received, it is
converted to the general form of primary descriptions in the form of two-
dimensional data matrices with non-negative values, which can be considered as
images, images;
• processing assumes that on the basis of some general principles, methods and
algorithms, transformations of the received primary data are carried out in order
to achieve the set goals (compression, “noise reduction”, comparison,
recognition, etc.);
• obtaining new knowledge and making decisions are based on the conclusion
from the nature and type of information received from the outside world, as
well as the results of its processing to perform specific actions in accordance
with the general strategy of human behavior.
The practical significance of this hypothesis is that the intellectual capabilities
of a person in the analysis and processing of visual information, as well as the
accumulated scientific potential in the field of restoration, recognition and
processing of images can be extended today to existing technologies for processing
information of a different kind, including acoustic signals and speech.
People perceive space as “depth”, and the images formed by the mind's eye
23
appear to them three-dimensional. However, in the exact disciplines, processing of
three-dimensional images is rarely used, which is explained by the obvious
technical difficulties of working with them, as well as a lack of understanding of the
nature of the process of perception of images. In most practical applications,
researchers deal with quasi-three-dimensional images, when a two-dimensional
matrix is constructed using two known parameters, for example, frequency and
time, the values of which are determined by the values of the third known
parameter, for example, the power and amplitude of the calculated instantaneous
spectrum.

CHAPTER 5. REPRESENTATION OF INFORMATION

IN VARIOUS NUMBER SYSTEMS
5.1. POSITIONAL AND NON-POSITIONAL NUMBER SYSTEMS.
24
The concept of number is fundamental to both mathematics and computer
science. There is another important concept associated with numbers - the number
system.
A number system is a way of representing numbers and the corresponding
rules for actions on numbers.
The various number systems that existed before and which are used in our
time can be divided into nano-positional and positional.
In ancient times, when people began to count, there was a need to write
numbers. Initially, the number of objects was displayed with an equal number of
some icons: notches, dashes, dots.
A study by archaeologists of Paleolithic notes on bone, stone, wood showed
that people tried to group marks by 3, 5, 7, 10 pieces. This grouping made it easier
to count. People learned to count not only by ones, but also by threes, fives, etc.
Since the first computing instrument of a person was the fingers, therefore, the
count was most often carried out in groups of 5 or 10 objects.
In the future, tens of tens (one hundred), tens of hundreds (one thousand) and
so on received their name. For convenience of writing, such nodal numbers began to
be designated with special symbols - numbers. If, when counting objects, there were
2 hundred, 5 tens and 4 more objects, then when recording this value, they repeated
the sign of a hundred twice, five times the sign of tens and four times the sign of
one.
In such number systems, the value that it denotes does not depend on the position
of the sign in the number record; therefore, they are called non-positional
number systems.
Non-positional systems were used by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans
and some other peoples of antiquity.
In Russia, up to the 18th century, a non-positional system of Slavic numbers
was used. The letters of the Cyrillic (Slavic alphabet) had a numerical meaning if a
%
special sign ~ titlo was placed above them. For example Ã — 1, Д — 4, Р%— 100.
Non-positional number systems were more or less suitable for performing addition
and subtraction, but not at all convenient for multiplication and division.
The idea of a positional number system first appeared in ancient Babylon.
In positional number systems, the value denoted by a digit in a number
recording depends on its position.
The number of digits used is called the base of the positional number
system.
25
The number system used in modern mathematics is the positional
decimal system. Its base is ten, since any numbers are written using ten digits:
0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Although the decimal system is usually called Arabic, it originated in India,

in the 5th century. In Europe, they learned about this system in the XII century from
Arabic scientific treatises, which were translated into Latin. This explains the name
"Arabic numerals". However, the decimal positional system became widespread in
science and in everyday life only in the 16th century. This system allows you to
easily perform any arithmetic calculations, write numbers of any size. The spread of
the Arab system gave a powerful impetus to the development of mathematics.
You have been familiar with the positional decimal number system since
early childhood, but perhaps you did not know that it was called that.
The positional type of this system is easy to understand using the example of
any multi-digit number. For example, in the number 333, the first three means three
hundred, the second three tens, and the third three ones. The same number,
depending on the position in the number record, denotes different values.
333 = 3x100 + 3 x 1 0 + 3.
Another example:
32478 = 3 х 10000 + 2 х 1000 + 4 х 100 + 7 х 10 + 8 =

= 3 х 104 + 2 х 103 + 4 х 102 + 7 х 101 + 8 х 100.
This shows that any decimal number can be represented as the sum of the
products of its constituent digits by the corresponding powers of tens. The same is
true for decimal fractions.
26,387 = 2 х 101 + 6 х 100+ 3 х 10-1 + 8 х 10-2 + 7 х 10-3
26
5.2. NUMBER SYSTEMS USED IN COMPUTERS
Obviously, the number "ten" is not the only possible basis for a positional
system. The well-known Russian mathematician NN Luzin put it this way: “The
advantages of the decimal system are not mathematical, but zoological. If we had
not ten fingers on our hands, but eight, then humanity would use the octal system. "
Any natural number greater than 1 can be taken as the base of the positional
number system. The above-mentioned Babylonian system had a base of 60. Traces
of this system have survived to this day in the order of time units (1 hour = 60
minutes, 1 minute = 60 s).
To write numbers in a positional system with base n, you need to have an
alphabet of n digits. Usually for this, for n <10, the first n Arabic digits are used,
and for n> 10, letters are added to the ten Arabic numerals.
Here are examples of alphabets from several systems:
Base System Alphabet
n=2 binary 01
n=3 ternary 01 2
n=8 octal 01234567
n=16 hexadecimal 0123456789ABCDEF
The base of the system to which a number belongs is indicated by a subscript

to that number.
1011012, 36718, 3B8F16.

.
5.3. PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
The principles of computer architecture were formulated by John von

Neumann in 1946. They were followed for many years by computer designers.
Many of these principles persist in the architecture of modern computers.
One of these Neumann principles:
The computer performs arithmetic calculations in the binary number
system.
27
Computers use the binary system because it has several advantages over other
systems:
• for its implementation, technical devices with two stable states are needed (there is
current - no current, magnetized - not magnetized, etc.), and not, for example, with
ten, as in decimal;
• presentation of information by means of only two states is reliable and noise-
resistant;
• it is possible to use the apparatus of Boolean algebra to perform logical
transformations of information;
• binary arithmetic is much simpler than decimal.
The disadvantage of the binary system is the rapid increase in the number of
digits required to write numbers.
It is much easier to design a processor that operates in binary rather than decimal.
A binary system, convenient for computers, is inconvenient for humans because of
its cumbersomeness and unusual recording.
Converting numbers from decimal to binary and vice versa is done by the
machine. However, in order to use a computer professionally, you must learn to
understand the word machine. For this, the octal and hexadecimal systems have
been developed.
Numbers in these systems are read almost as easily as decimal ones, they
require three (octal) and four (hexadecimal) times less digits, respectively, than in
the binary system (after all, the numbers 8 and 16 are, respectively, the third and
fourth powers of 2) ...
The conversion of octal and hexadecimal numbers to the binary system is
very simple: it is enough to replace each digit with an equivalent binary triad (three
digits) or a tetrad (four digits).
For instance:
To convert a number from binary to octal or hexadecimal, it must be split to the left
and right of the comma into triads (for octal) or tetrads (for hexadecimal) and
replace each such group with the corresponding octal (hexadecimal) digit.
28
For instance,
The hexadecimal number system is used to compactly represent (on paper or on a

screen) binary information stored in the computer's memory.

29
CHAPTER 6. ALGORITHMS FOR CONVERTING NUMBERS
6.1. ALGORITHMS FOR CONVERTING NUMBERS FROM ONE

NUMBER SYSTEM TO ANOTHER
Algorithms for converting numbers from one number system to another.

We are so accustomed to decimal counting that the number in any other system tells
us little about the corresponding quantity. For example, what is 1123? To understand
"a lot or a little", you need to translate it into the decimal system. This is quite easy
to do.
The number 1123 contains 2 ones, 1 three and 1 nine. As in the decimal
system, a number can be represented as the sum of the products of its constituent
digits by the corresponding degrees of the base of the system (in our example,
three).
1123 =1х32 + 1х31 + 2х3°= 9 + 3 + 2 = 1410
Therefore, 1123 = 1410

Convert binary number 1011012 to decimal notation. The principle is the same.
Now you need to substitute powers of two into the sum:
1011012= 1 х 25 + 0 х 24+ 1 х 23 + 1 х 22 + 0 х 21 + 1x2°= 32+ 8 + 4 + 1 = 4510.
And one more example - with a hexadecimal number:
15FC16 = 1 х 163 + 5 х 162+ 15 х 161 + 12 = 4096 + 1280 + 240 + 12 = 5628
Fractional numbers are translated similarly.
101,112 = 1 х 22 + 0 х 21 + 1 х 2° + 1 х 2-1 + 1 х 2-2 =

= 4 + 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 = 5 + 0,5 + 0,25 = 5,7510.
And how to convert back from decimal to non-decimal (n ≠ 10)? To do this,

you need to be able to decompose the decimal number into terms containing powers
of n. For example, for n = 2 (binary):
1510 = 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 1х23 + 1х22+ 1x21 + 1 = 11112
30
This task is already more difficult than converting to the decimal system. For
example, try to convert the number 157 to the binary system in this way. Of course,
it is possible, but difficult!
However, there is a procedure that makes this translation easy. It consists in
the fact that the given decimal number is divided with the remainder on the basis of
the system. The resulting remainder is the least significant digit of the desired
number, and the resulting quotient is again divided with the remainder, which is
equal to the second digit on the right, etc. This continues until the quotient becomes
less than the divisor (base of the system). This quotient is the most significant digit
of the required number.
Let's demonstrate this method using the example of converting 3710to the
binary system. Here, symbols are used to denote numbers in a number record:
а5а4а3а2а1а0.
Отс Hence: 310 - 1001012
The translation of a correct decimal fraction into another number system is

made by successive multiplications on the basis of the system, highlighting the
whole part of the products. However, we will focus only on the whole numbers.
6.2. BINARY ARITHMETIC.
You are familiar with the rules for performing arithmetic operations with
multidigit decimal numbers. In elementary school, you learned to add, subtract,
multiply, and divide with a corner. Ultimately, you need to know how to add and
multiply single-digit numbers to perform calculations. Many first-graders memorize
the multiplication table for decimal numbers for a long time and with great
difficulty. But if at school they studied not decimal, but binary arithmetic, no one
would have any problems and all students would be excellent students! Now you
will see that binary arithmetic is really very simple.
31
You are already familiar with the binary number system. There are only two
numbers in it: 0 and 1. Here are all the variants of their addition:
0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 1 = 10.
It should already be clear to you that 102 = 210 (recall that the subscript
denotes the base of the number system and is always written in decimal). It is easy
to write a series of binary natural numbers, getting each next number by adding one
to the previous one.
Table 1. Decimal numbers from 1 to 16 and their equal binary numbers
«10» «2» «10» «2» «10» «2» «10» «2»

1 1 5 101 9 1001 13 1101
2 10 6 110 10 1010 14 1110
3 11 7 111 11 1011 15 1111
4 100 8 1000 12 1100 16 10000
Table 1 shows how quickly the number of digits in binary numbers grows. But this
shortcoming of the binary system is compensated by the simplicity of arithmetic.
Here is an example of adding two multi-digit binary numbers in a column:
101101110 1
+
111010110
10010110011
Binary multiplication table:

0 x 0 = 0, 1 x 0 = 0, 1 x 1 = 1.
Example:
111
х
11__
111
+
111___
10101
32

33
CHAPTER 7. PRINCIPLES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING BY A
COMPUTER
7.1. PRINCIPLES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING BY A COMPUTER
Computer or computer (electronic computing machine) is a universal

technical means for automatic information processing.
Hardware of a computer is all the devices that make up its composition and
ensure its correct operation.
Despite the variety of computers in the modern world, they are all built
according to a single principle scheme based on the foundation of the idea of
program management by Charles Babbage (mid-19th century). This idea was
implemented when the first ENIAC computer was created in 1946 by a team of
scientists and engineers led by the famous American mathematician John von
Neumann, who formulated the concept of a computer with programs and numbers
entered into memory - the program principle. The main elements of the concept are:
binary coding of information; software control; stored program principle; the
principle of parallel organization of calculations, according to which operations on a
number are carried out in all its digits simultaneously.
Since then, the structure (architecture) of modern computers is often called
Neumann's.
7.2. GENERAL DIAGRAM OF THE COMPUTER
A personal computer (PC) in its minimum required composition according to

this scheme includes:
• main input devices: keyboard and mouse;
• main output device: monitor; the central part is located in the system unit;
• external memory is located on media - disks and is powered by special drives
- floppy drives;
• in a single configuration, all parts of the PC are connected using interface
devices.
The PC structure is based on two important principles: the trunk-modular
principle and the principle of open architecture.
34
According to the first, all parts and devices are manufactured in the form of
separate blocks, information between which is transmitted through a set of
connections, combined into a trunk. In this case, the general scheme of the PC can
be represented as follows:
CPU RAM
Data bus (8,16,32,64 byte
Bus address (16,20,24, 32, 36 bytes)

Main
Control bus
Control Long term Output Network

Input memory device device
The second principle of building a PC - open architecture - implies the

possibility of assembling a computer from independently manufactured parts,
available to everyone (like a children's designer).
7.3. ARITHMETIC AND LOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF A COMPUTER
Logic as a science has been developing since the 4th century. BC e. starting
with the writings of Aristotle. It was he who analyzed human thinking, such forms
as concept, judgment, inference.
Logic - (from the Greek. "Logos", meaning "word" and "meaning") - the
science of the laws, forms and operations of correct thinking. Its main task is to find
and organize the correct ways of reasoning.
Form of thinking
35
Concept
general and singular; theoretical
and empirical; concrete and
abstract; the formation of con-
automation
Inference
Based on several judgments, a certain conclusion is made deductive
(from society to particular); inductive (from particular to general); by
analogy (based on similarities between objects); analysis, synthesis,
comparison
Judgment
affirmation or denial of
something; true or false;
finding connections and
relationships
Figure: 1. The main forms of abstract thinking
A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the essential features of a

separate object or a class of similar objects. Every concept has content and scope.
For example, the concept "Black Sea" - reflects a single subject, "Siamese cat" -
reflects the class of Siamese cats.
Expression (judgment) - some sentence that can be true (true) or false. For
example, Abakan is the capital of Khakassia. Assertion - a judgment that needs to
be proved or refuted. Reasoning is a chain of statements or statements that are
related to each other in a certain way.
Inference is a logical operation as a result of which a new judgment is
obtained (deduced) from one or more given judgments. Inferences are: Deductive
(from general to specific) - All students go to school. Vasya is a student. Vasya goes
to school. Inductive (private to general) - Banana and peach are sweet. So all fruits
taste sweet. Analogy - Our cows eat grass and give milk. There are fields in
Australia, cows eat this grass. Therefore, Australian cows also provide milk.
In algebra of logic, statements are denoted by the names of logical variables (A, B,
C). True, false are logical constants.
A logical expression is a record or an oral statement, which, along with
constants, necessarily includes variable quantities (objects). Depending on the
values of these variables, the logical expression can take one of two possible values:
TRUE (logical 1) or FALSE (logical 0).
A complex logical expression is a logical expression composed of one or
more simple (or complex) logical expressions associated with logical operations.
Logic operations and truth tables.
36
1) Logical multiplication or conjunction:
A conjunction is a complex logical expression that is considered true if and
only if both simple expressions are true, in all other cases this complex expression is
false.
Designation: F = A & B.
Truth table for conjunction
A B F
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
2) Logical addition or disjunction:

Disjunction is a complex logical expression that is true if at least one of the
simple logical expressions is true and false if and only if both simple logical
expressions are false.
Designation: F = A + B.
Truth table for disjunction
A B F
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
3) Logical negation or inversion:

Inversion is a complex Boolean expression, if the original Boolean expression is
true, then the negative result will be false, and vice versa, if the original Boolean
expression is false, then the negation result will be true. In other simple words, this
operation means that the particle NOT or the words WRONG WHAT is added to
the original logical expression.
Truth table for inversion
A Not А
1 0
0 1
37
4) Logical follow-up or implication:
Implication is a complex logical expression that is true in all cases, except
from the truth follows false. That is, this logical operation connects two simple
logical expressions, of which the first is a condition (A), and the second (B) is a
consequence.
Truth table for implication
A B F
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
5) Logical equivalence or equivalence:

Equivalence is a complex logical expression that is true if and only if both
simple logical expressions have the same truth.
Truth table for equivalence
A B F
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
The order of execution of logical operations in a complex logical expression

1. Inversion;
2. Conjunction;
3. Disjunction;
4. Implication;
5. Equivalence.
Brackets are used to change the specified order of execution of logical operations.
Questions of self-control
1. Explain the composition of the PC?

2. What is Inversion?
3. What is What is Implication?
38
4. What is Disjunction?
5. Describe the main forms of thinking
39
CHAPTER 8. STORAGE OF INFORMATION OBJECTS OF VARIOUS
TYPES ON VARIOUS DIGITAL MEDIA. DETERMINATION OF THE
VOLUME OF VARIOUS MEDIA. ARCHIVE OF INFORMATION.
8. 1. INFORMATION OBJECT
An information object is a collection of logically related information. An

information object, "alienated" from the original object, can be stored on various
material carriers. The simplest material medium of information is paper. There are
also magnetic, electronic, laser and other information carriers.
With information objects fixed on a material medium, you can perform the
same actions as with information when working on a computer: enter them, store
them, process them, transfer them.
When working with information objects, the computer plays an important
role. Using the capabilities that office technologies provide to the user, it is possible
to create a variety of professional computer documents that will be types of
information objects.
Everything that is created in computer environments will be an
information object.
Literary work, newspaper article, order - examples of text information
objects. Pictures, drawings, diagrams are graphical information objects. Various
documents in tabular form are examples of tabular information objects. Video
and music are audiovisual information objects.
Quite often we are dealing with compound documents, in which information
is presented in different forms. Such documents can contain text, pictures, tables,
formulas, and much more. School textbooks, magazines, newspapers are well-
known examples of compound documents that are information objects of a complex
structure. To create compound documents, software environments are used, which
provide for the possibility of presenting information in different forms. Other
examples of complex information objects are computer-generated presentations and
hypertext documents.
40
8.2. ELECTRONIC INFORMATION OBJECTS
Removable digital media are used to store and transfer electronic information
objects. These include:
 removable hard disk - information storage device based on the principle of
magnetic recording, information is recorded on hard (aluminum or glass) plates
covered with a layer of fibroma genetic material,
 floppy disk - a portable information carrier used for multiple recording and
storage of data, which is a flexible magnetic disk placed in a protective plastic
case, covered with a ferromagnetic layer,
 compact disc - an optical information carrier in the form of a plastic disc with a
hole in the center, the process of writing and reading information of which is
carried out using a laser (CD-ROM and DVD-disc - intended for reading only;
CD-RW and DVD-RW information can recorded multiple times),
 memory card or flash card - compact electronic storage device used to store
digital information (they are widely used in electronic devices, including digital
cameras, cell phones, laptops, MP3 players and game consoles),
 USB flash drive (slang. Flash drive) - a storage device that uses a flash
memory as a carrier and is connected to a computer or other reader via the USB
interface.
8.3. DETERMINATION OF THE VOLUME OF VARIOUS MEDIA
An information carrier is any material object used to fix and store

information on it.
Modern storage media
In modern society, three main types of information carriers can be
distinguished:
1) paper;
2) magnetic;
3) optical.
Modern memory microcircuits allow storing up to 1010 bits of information in 1
cm3, but this is 100 billion times less than in DNA. We can say that modern
technologies are still significantly behind biological evolution.
41
However, if we compare the information capacity of traditional media (books) and
modern computer media, then the progress is obvious:
• A4 sheet with text (typed on a computer in 12 point font with single spacing) -
about 3500 characters
• Tutorial page - 2000 characters
• Flexible magnetic disk - 1.44 MB
• Optical disc CD-R (W) - 700 MB
• Optical disc DVD - 4.2 GB
• Flash drive - several GB
• Removable hard disk or Hard magnetic disk - hundreds of GB
Thus, a floppy disk can store 2-3 books, and a hard magnetic disk or DVD - a
whole library, including tens of thousands of books.
Advantages and disadvantages of storing information in internal and external
memory. (The advantage of internal memory is the speed of reproducing
information, and the disadvantage is that over time, some of the information is
forgotten. and choose the right material).
8.4. INFORMATION ARCHIVE
One of the most widespread types of service programs are programs designed
for archiving, packing files by compressing the information stored in them.
Compression of information is the process of converting information stored
in a file into a form in which redundancy in its representation is reduced and,
accordingly, less memory is required for storage.
Compression of information in files is performed by eliminating
redundancy in various ways, for example, by simplifying codes, eliminating
constant bits from them, or representing repeating symbols or a repeating sequence
of symbols in the form of a repetition factor and corresponding symbols. Various
algorithms for such information compression are used.
One or several files can be compressed, which are placed in a compressed
form in a so-called archive file or archive.
An archive file is a specially organized file containing one or several files in
compressed or uncompressed form and service information about the file names,
date and time of their creation or modification, sizes, etc.
42
The purpose of packing files is usually to provide a more compact placement
of information on a disk, to reduce the time and, accordingly, the cost of
transmitting information through communication channels in computer networks. In
addition, packing a group of files into one archive file greatly simplifies their
transfer from one computer to another, reduces the time for copying files to disks,
helps protect information from unauthorized access, and helps protect against
infection by computer viruses.
The amount of compression depends on the program used, the compression
method and the type of source file. The files of graphic images, text files and data
files for which the compression ratio can reach 5 - 40% are compressed the best,
files of executable programs and load modules are compressed less - 60 - 90%.
Archive files are hardly compressed. Programs for archiving differ in the
compression methods used, which accordingly affects the compression ratio.
Archiving (packing) - placing (loading) source files into an archive file in
compressed or uncompressed form. Unpacking (unpacking) is the process of
restoring files from the archive exactly as they were before loading into the archive.
When unpacking, the files are extracted from the archive and placed on disk or in
RAM;
The programs that pack and unpack files are called archiving programs.
Archive files that are large in size can be located on multiple disks (volumes). Such
archives are called multivolume. A volume is an integral part of a multivolume
archive. By creating an archive of several parts, you can write parts of it to multiple
floppy disks.
The main characteristics of archiving programs are:

 speed of work;
 service (set of archiver functions);
 compression ratio - the ratio of the size of the original file to the size of the
compressed file.
The main functions of archivers are:

• creating archive files from individual (or all) files of the current directory and its
subdirectories, loading up to 32,000 files into one archive;
• adding files to the archive;
• extraction and removal of files from the archive;
• viewing the contents of the archive;
• viewing the contents of archived files and searching for strings in archived files;
43
• adding comments to files in the archive;
• creation of multivolume archives;
• creation of self-extracting archives, both in one volume, and in the form of several
volumes;
• ensuring the protection of information in the archive and access to files placed in
the archive, protection of each of the files placed in the archive with a cyclic
code;
• testing the archive, checking the safety of information in it;
• recovering files (partially or completely) from damaged archives;
• support for types of archives created by other archivers, etc.
Archive types
Various algorithms are used for compression, which can be divided into reversible
and lossy compression methods. The latter are more effective, but are used for those
files for which partial loss of information does not lead to a significant decrease in
consumer properties. Typical lossy compression formats are:
.jpg - for graphic data;
.mpg - for video data;
.mp3 - for audio data.
Typical lossless compression formats:

.tif, .pcx and others - for graphic files;
.avi - for video clips;
.zip, .arj, .rar, .lzh, .cab, etc. - for any file types.
The main types of archiving programs

Currently, several dozen archiving programs are used, which differ in the list of
functions and operating parameters, but the best of them have approximately the
same characteristics. Among the most popular programs are: ARJ, RKRAK, LHA,
ICE, HYPER, ZIP, RAC, ZOO, EXPAND, developed abroad, as well as AIN and
RAR. Usually, packing and unpacking files is performed by the same program, but
in some cases it is done by different programs, for example, PKZIP packs files, and
PKUNZIP unpacks files. Currently the most popular archivers are: WinZip;
WinRar; WinArj. These programs provide the ability to use other archivers,
therefore, if the specified programs are missing on the computer where the files
compressed in them are transferred, the archives can be unpacked using another
archiver.
44
Archiving programs also allow creating such archives, for extracting the
files from which they do not require any programs, since the archive files
themselves may contain an unpacking program. These archive files are called self-
extracting files.
A self-extracting archive file is a bootable, executable module that is
capable of self-extracting the files contained in it without using an archiver
program.
The self-extracting archive is called SFX-archive (SelF-eXtracting).
Archives of this type in MS DOS are usually created in the form of an .EXE file.
Many archiving programs unpack files by unloading them to disk, but there are also
those that are designed to create a packed executable module (program). As a result
of such packaging, a program file with the same name and extension is created,
which, when loaded into RAM, is self-extracting and immediately launched. At the
same time, the reverse conversion of the program file into the unpacked format is
also possible. These archivers include PKLITE, LZEXE, UNP programs.
The EXPAND program, which is part of the utilities of the MS DOS
operating system and the Windows shell, is used to unpack files for software
products supplied by Microsoft.
RAR and AIN archiving programs, in addition to the usual compression
mode, have a solid mode, in which archives with a high compression ratio and a
special organization structure are created. In such archives, all files are compressed
as one data stream, i.e. the search area for repeated sequences of characters is the
entire collection of files loaded into the archive, and therefore unpacking each file,
if it is not the first, is associated with processing others. Archives of such
Self-control issues
1. Give examples of information objects.

2. What electronic information objects do you know?
3. List modern media.
4. What is archiving?
5. What functions of archivers do you know?
6. List the main types of archiving programs.
45
46
CHAPTER 9. SEARCH AND TRANSFER OF INFORMATION USING A
COMPUTER. SOFTWARE SEARCH SERVICES. WIRED
AND WIRELESS
9.1. SEARCH FOR INFORMATION: BASIC CONCEPTS, TYPES AND

FORMS OF ORGANIZATION
Information retrieval or information retrieval is one of the main information

processes. Since ancient times, mankind has been engaged in it. The goals,
possibilities and nature of the search have always depended on the availability,
information, its importance and accessibility, as well as the means of organizing the
search.
The end of the XX - the beginning of the XXI century is characterized by
huge arrays of constantly growing diverse information available and of interest to
the widest layers of society. Moreover, Internet technologies and software and
hardware tools, which are also available to most people, allow this process to be
carried out at any time, almost anywhere, for any request.
Search is a process during which, in one sequence or another, the searched
for is correlated with each object stored in the array. The purpose of any search is
the need, need or desire to find various types of information that contribute to the
retrieval person getting the information he needs, knowledge, etc. to improve their
own professional, cultural and any other level; creating new information and
generating new knowledge; making management decisions, etc.
There are various interpretations of the term "information retrieval" or
"information retrieval".
The term "information search" was introduced by the American
mathematician K. Mooers. He noted that the motive for such a search is the
information need expressed in the form of an information request. K. Muers
classified documents, information about their presence and (or) location, factual
information as objects of information search.
The representatives of libraries were the first to solve the problems of factual
search. They have developed information retrieval tools called "reference and
retrieval apparatus" (catalogs, bibliographic indexes, etc.). In the professional
Russian press, this term has been used since the 1970s. Librarians define
47
"information search" as finding documents in an information array that
correspond to a user's information request.
From the point of view of using computer technology, "information
search"is a set of logical and technical operations with the ultimate goal of finding
documents, information about them, facts, data relevant to the consumer's request.
"Relevance" is the correspondence of the content of a document to an
information request or a search image of a document to a search prescription,
established during an information search.
9.2. FINDING INFORMATION IN WINDOWS
The Windows operating system indexes the information that is located on the
hard drives of the computer, which can significantly speed up the search for files
and folders.
The Explorer program has an integrated tool for finding various information.
Each window has a search bar located in the upper right corner of the window. It is
enough to enter the search criteria (most often this is the file name), and Explorer
will display the objects that were found in the list of files.
If the search did not return any results, or if there are enough results, you can
add criteria for a more precise search. To do this, left-click in the search field and
select one of the links in the window that appears. For different files, these can be
criteria such as Size, Modified Date, View and Type.
You can search in a specific folder or on a specific drive on your computer.
To do this, under the results shown, click the Other button and in the window that
opens, select one of the computer disks for search.
To exclude any disk from this list, simply left-click on it. Click OK to start
searching.
There are standard templates for searching for files. They use special
characters: "?" (replaces any single character) and "*" (replaces any combination of
characters).
Examples of templates for searching for files in the current folder are the
following:
*.* - all files;
* .docx - all files with the .docx extension (Word documents);
o *. * - all files whose names begin with "o".
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9.3. SOFTWARE SEARCH SERVICES
Search system is a software and hardware complex with a web interface that
provides the ability to search for information on the Internet. A search engine
usually means a site that hosts an interface (front-end) of the system. The software
part of the search engine is the search engine (search engine) - a set of programs
that provide the functionality of the search engine and is usually a trade secret of the
search engine developer.
How does a search system?
The main components of a search engine:

search robot, indexer, search engine
Systems usually work in stages. First, the crawler receives the content, then
the indexer generates a searchable index, and finally, the search engine provides the
functionality to search the indexed data. To update the search engine, this indexing
cycle is repeated.
When a user enters a query into a search engine (usually using keywords), the
system checks their index and returns a list of the most suitable web pages (sorted
by some criterion), usually with a short annotation containing the title of the
document and sometimes parts of the text.
The usefulness of a search engine depends on the relevance of the pages it
finds. Although millions of web pages may include a word or phrase, some may be
more relevant, popular, or authoritative than others.
Most search engines use ranking techniques to bring the “best” results to the
top of the list. Most search engines are commercial enterprises that profit from
advertising, in some search engines you can buy the first places in the SERP for the
49
given keywords for a fee. Search engines that do not charge money for the order in
which results are displayed earn from contextual advertising, while advertising
messages correspond to the user's request. Such advertisements are displayed on a
page with a list of search results, and search engines earn every time a user clicks on
advertisements.
Types of search systems

There are four types of search engines: crawler, human-driven, hybrid and meta-
crawler systems, crawler systems
Market Search systems

Google is the most popular search engine in the world with a market share of
68.69%. Baidu ranks second with 17.17% share.
The most popular search engines in the world:
Search system Market share in July 2014 Market share in October 2014
Google 68,69 % 58.01 %
Baidu 17,17 % 29.06 %
Bing 6.22 % 8.01 %
Yahoo! 6.74 % 4.01 %
AOL 0,13 % 0.21 %
Excite 0.22 % 0,00 %
Ask 0,13 % 0,10 %
9.4. WIRED AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
The transfer of information between computers has existed since the

inception of computers. It allows you to organize the joint work of individual
computers, solve the same problem using multiple computers, share resources and
solve many other problems.
A computer network is understood as a set of hardware and software tools
intended for the exchange of information and user access to common network
resources.
50
The main purpose of computer networks is to provide users with shared
access to information (databases, documents, etc.) and resources (hard disks,
printers, CD-ROM drives, modems, access to the global network, etc.).
Network subscribers are objects that generate or consume information.
Network subscribers can be individual computers, industrial robots, CNC machines
(numerically controlled machines), etc. Any subscriber of the network is connected
to the station.
Station - equipment that performs functions related to the transmission and
reception of information.
To organize the interaction of subscribers and the station, a physical transmission
medium is required.
Physical transmission medium - communication lines or space in which
electrical signals propagate and data transmission equipment.
One of the main characteristics of communication lines or channels is the data
transfer rate (bandwidth).
Data transfer rate is the number of bits of information transmitted per unit
of time.
Typically, data rates are measured in bits per second (bps) and multiples of Kbps
and Mbps.
Relationships between units:
1 kbps = 1024 bps;

1 Mbps = 1024 Kbps;
1 Gbps = 1024 Mbps.
A communication network is built on the basis of the physical transmission

medium.
Thus, a computer network is a collection of subscriber systems and a
communication network.
To connect users to a single local network, it is necessary to decide what
equipment should be used. Today there are two alternative technologies - wired and
wireless. What technology should you choose for your local network?
Wired technology provides a fixed physical connection between users. This
can be a coaxial cable, twisted pair cable, or an optical fiber connection. The
connection is highly reliable and at the same time somewhat cumbersome. When
designing such networks, they must design and install cable channels, calculate how
the communication line will pass in the room. The presence of a large number of
51
users in the room leads to the need to install false panels on the floor and lay cables
under the floor. This solution has some degree of stability and is suitable for a long
service life of the premises. It should be noted that such a solution can lie within a
single office network, which is quite expensive.
Wireless technologies make it possible to create local networks, independent
of the location of the switched devices inside the same room. A wireless LAN, like
a wired LAN, is connected to an external network by an ethernet switch. This
stationary device connects to wireless access points.
A router with a WiFi access function or the access point itself helps to
organize a wireless access point. This technology can be used for mobile LAN
deployment. The difference between an access point and a Wi-Fi router is the same
as between a router and a switch: an access point is an analogue of a regular
network hub (switch, switch), that it simply combines wireless computers into one
network segment, while a Wi-Fi router is an access point that includes some kind of
hardware and software solution that allows you to connect the above network
segment to the Internet, configure static and dynamic routes for different subnet
segments, organize traffic filtering and control user (or users) actions. In reality, an
access point is usually made on several independent channels, so a cheap access
point is usually 1.3 - 1.5 times more expensive than a cheap Wi-Fi router.
1. What is Relevance?
2.What is a Search Engine?
3. What is the difference between wired and wireless technology?
4. How does a search engine work?
5. The most popular search engines in the world?
52
CHAPTER 10. MEANS OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE.
10.1. PERSONAL COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
The basic arrangement of the parts of a computer and the relationship

between them is called architecture. When describing the architecture of a
computer, the composition of its components, the principles of their interaction, as
well as their functions and characteristics are determined.
Almost all mainframes reflect the classic Neumann architecture, represented

in the diagram. This scheme is in many respects’ characteristic of both
microcomputers and minicomputers and general-purpose computers.
Let's consider the devices in more detail
The main part of the motherboard is a microprocessor (MP) or CPU
(Central Processing Unit), it controls the operation of all PC nodes and a program
that describes the algorithm of the problem being solved. MP has a complex
structure in the form of electronic logic circuits. Its components include:
53
A). ALU - arithmetic logic unit designed to perform arithmetic and logical
operations on data and memory addresses;
B). Registers or microprocessor memory - super-operative memory operating at the
speed of the processor, ALU works with them;
B). CD - control device - control of the operation of all MP nodes by generating and
transmitting to its other components control pulses coming from a quartz clock
generator, which, when the PC is turned on, begins to vibrate at a constant
frequency (100 MHz, 200-400 MHz). These fluctuations set the pace for the
entire motherboard;
D). IS - interrupt system - a special register describing the state of the MP, which
allows interrupting the operation of the MP at any time for immediate
processing of some incoming request, or placing it in a queue; after processing
the request, the SPR ensures the restoration of the interrupted process;
D). Common bus control device - interface system.
To expand the capabilities of the PC and improve the functional characteristics
of the microprocessor, an additional mathematical coprocessor can be supplied,
which serves to expand the set of MP commands. For example, the math
coprocessor of IBM-compatible PCs expands the capabilities of the MT for
floating point computing; a coprocessor in local networks (LAN-processor)
expands the functions of the MT in local networks.
Processor specifications:
 speed (performance, clock frequency) - the number of operations performed per
second.
 bit depth - the maximum number of bits of a binary number, over which a
machine operation can be performed simultaneously.
The interface system is:
- control bus (CB) - designed to transmit control pulses and synchronize signals to
all PC devices;
 address bus (AB) - designed to transmit the code of the memory cell address or
the input / output port of an external device;
 data bus (DB) - designed for parallel transmission of all bits of the numeric code;
 power bus - to connect all PC units to the power supply system.
The interface system provides three directions of information transfer:
 between MP and RAM;
 between MP and ports of input / output of external devices;
 between the RAM and the input / output ports of external devices. Information
exchange between devices and the system bus takes place using ASCII codes.
54
Memory is a device for storing information in the form of data and programs.
Memory is primarily divided into internal (located on the motherboard) and external
(located on a variety of external storage media).
Internal memory, in turn, is subdivided into:
 ROM (read only memory) or ROM (read only memory), which contains -
permanent information stored even when the power is off, which is used to test
the memory and hardware of the computer, boot the PC at startup. Recording on a
special ROM cassette takes place at the factory of the PC manufacturer and
carries the features of its individuality. The ROM size is relatively small - from
64 to 256 KB.
 RAM (random access memory) or RAM (random access memory), is used for
online storage of programs and data stored only for the period of PC operation. It
is volatile, information is lost when the power is turned off. The RAM stands out
for its special functions and access specifics:
(1) the RAM stores not only data, but also the executable program;
(2) MP has the ability to directly access the RAM, bypassing the input / output
system.
The logical organization of memory is addressing, the location of data is
determined by the software installed on the PC, namely the OS.
Cache memory - has a short access time, serves for temporary storage of
intermediate results and contents of the most frequently used memory cells and MP
registers.
The amount of cache memory depends on the PC model and is usually 256
KB.
External memory. External memory devices are very diverse. The proposed
classification takes into account the type of media, i.e. a material object capable of
storing information.
The controllers are used to provide direct communication with the OP,
bypassing the MP, they are used for devices for fast data exchange with OP - floppy
disk drive, HDD, display, etc., to ensure operation in a group or network mode. The
keyboard, display, mouse are slow devices, so they are connected to the
motherboard by controllers and have their own memory areas in the memory.
Ports are input and output, universal (input - output), they serve to ensure the
exchange of information between the PC and external, not very fast devices. The
information coming through the port is sent to the MT, and then to the OP. There
are two types of ports:
55
 serial - provides bit-by-bit information exchange, usually a modem is connected
to this port;
 parallel - provides a byte-by-byte exchange of information, a printer is connected
to this port. Modern PCs are usually equipped with 1 parallel and 2 serial ports.
Video monitors are devices designed to display information from a PC to a user.
Monitors are monochrome (green or amber image, high resolution) and color.
Highest quality RGB monitors, have high resolution for graphics and color. It uses
the same principle of a cathode ray tube as a television. Portable PCs use
electroluminescent or liquid crystal panels. Monitors can work in text and
graphic modes. In text mode, the image consists of familiarity - special characters
stored in the video memory of the display, and in the graphic image it consists of
dots of a certain brightness and color. The main characteristics of video monitors
are resolution (from 600x350 to 1024x768 pixels), the number of colors (for color) -
from 16 to 256, the frame rate is fixed at 60 Hz.
Printers are computer output devices that convert information ASCII codes into
their corresponding graphic symbols and fix these symbols on paper. Printers are
the most developed group of external devices, there are more than 1000
modifications.
Printers are black and white or color according to the printing method, they are
divided into:
 dot matrix - in these printers, the image is formed from dots in an impact manner,
the needle print head moves in the horizontal direction, each needle is controlled
by an electromagnet and hits the paper through the ink ribbon. The number of
needles determines the print quality (from 9 to 24), the print speed is 100-300
characters / sec, the resolution is 5 dots per mm;
 inkjet - in the print head instead of needles there are thin tubes - nozzles through
which the smallest droplets of ink are thrown onto the paper (12 - 64 nozzles),
print speed up to 500 characters / sec, resolution - 20 dots per mm;
 thermographic - matrix printers equipped with a thermal matrix instead of a
needle print head, special thermal paper is used for printing;
 laser - an electrographic method of image formation is used, the laser is used to
create an ultra-thin light beam that traces the contours of an invisible point
electronic image on the surface of the photosensitive drum. After the development
of the image with a powder of dye (toner) adhering to the discharged areas,
printing is performed - transferring the toner onto the paper and fixing the image
on the paper using a high temperature. The resolution of such printers is up to 50
dots / mm, the print speed is 1000 characters / sec.
56
Scanners are devices for entering information into a computer directly from a paper
document. You can enter texts, diagrams, pictures, graphics, photographs and other
information. The file created by the scanner in the computer memory is called a
bitmap.
Manipulators - computer devices controlled by the operator's hands:
 mouse - a device for determining the relative coordinates (displacement relative to
the previous position or direction) of the operator's hand movement. Relative
coordinates are transmitted to the computer and, using a special program, can
cause the cursor to move on the screen. Various types of sensors are used to track
the movement of the mouse. The most common is mechanical (a ball touched by
several rollers), there is also an optical sensor that provides a higher accuracy of
reading coordinates;
 joystick - lever pointer - a device for entering the direction of movement of the
operator's hand, they are more often used for games on a computer;
 digitizer or digitizing tablet - a device for accurate input of graphic information
(drawings, graphs, maps) into a computer. It consists of a flat panel (tablet) and an
associated hand-held device - a pen. The operator draws a pen along the graph,
while the absolute coordinates are sent to the computer.
Keyboard is a device for entering information into the computer's memory. There
is a microcircuit inside, the keyboard is connected to the motherboard, pressing any
key produces a signal (the character code in the ASCII system is a hexadecimal
serial number of the character in the table), in the computer memory a special
program by code restores the appearance of the pressed character and transfers its
image to the monitor .
A specific set of components included in a given computer is called its
configuration. The minimum PC configuration required for its operation includes
a system unit (there are MP, RAM, ROM, HDD, floppy disk drive), a keyboard (as
an input device) and a monitor (as an output device).
10. 2. TYPES OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software (software, software) is a set of special programs that allow

organizing information processing using a PC.
Since the functioning of a PC is in principle impossible without software, it is an
integral part of any PC and is supplied with its hardware.
57
Program - a complete and accurate description of the sequence of actions
(instructions) of a computer for processing information, written in a language that
the computer can understand.
Software (SW) - a set of special programs that facilitate the process of
preparing tasks for execution on a computer and organizing their passage through
the machine, as well as procedures, descriptions, instructions and rules, along with
all documentation associated with these components used in the operation of a
computer system.
Purpose of software:
 ensuring the performance of the computer;
 facilitating user interaction with the computer;
 shortening the cycle from setting a task to obtaining a result;
 improving the efficiency of using computer resources.
The software allows:
 to improve the organization of the computing system in order to maximize
the use of its capabilities;
 to increase the productivity and quality of the user's work;
 to adapt user programs to the resources of a specific computing system;
expand the software of the computing system.
Software classification:
58
Self-control issues
1. List the main negative consequences of working in front of the monitor

2. Explain the purpose of ergonomics
3. What are strong sources of electromagnetic radiation?
List the main methods used to protect information from hardware failures.
4. What is "Worm"?
5. What methods are used to protect against viruses?
59
CHAPTER 11. SAFETY, HYGIENE, ERGONOMICS, RESOURCE
SAVING. INFORMATION PROTECTION, ANTI-VIRUS
PROTECTION.
11.1. ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is the science of how people, with their different physical

characteristics and habits of life, interact with the equipment and machines they use.
The goal of ergonomics is to provide comfort, efficiency and safety when using
computers already at the stage of developing keyboards, computer boards, work
furniture, etc. to eliminate physical discomfort and health problems in the
workplace.
As more and more people spend a lot of time in front of computer monitors,
scientists in many fields, including anatomy, psychology, and environmental
protection, are getting involved in the study of ergonomically correct working
conditions.
The so-called ergonomic diseases are a rapidly growing type of occupational
disease. If the organization of the workplace of the PC operator admits the
discrepancy between the parameters of the furniture and the anthropometric
characteristics of a person, then this necessitates maintaining a forced working
posture and can lead to disorders in the musculoskeletal and peripheral nervous
system. Long-term discomfort in conditions of insufficient physical activity can
cause the development of general fatigue, decreased performance, pain in the neck,
back, and lower back. Operators are often diagnosed with diseases of the
musculoskeletal system and the peripheral nervous system: neuritis, radiculitis,
osteochondrosis, etc.
Correct fit is a major part of ergonomic preventive measures.
The negative consequences of working in front of the monitor arise due
to the fact that:
a) our eye is designed to perceive reflected light, and not emitted, as is the case with
a monitor (TV),
b) the user has to peer at the lines and letters on the screen, which leads to increased
tension in the eye muscles.
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For normal operation, you need to place the monitor so that the user's eyes are
located at a distance equal to one and a half diagonals of the visible part of the
monitor:
 not less than 50-60 cm for a 15 "monitor;
 not less than 80-100 cm for a 21 "monitor.
If your vision does not allow you to maintain this distance, then reduce the
image resolution and increase the fonts.
The optimal screen diagonal for working with text documents is 15 "-17"
with a resolution of 1024x768. For graphic work, a 19 "-21" monitor is required
with a resolution of 1280x1024 and higher. For games, 17 "-19" is recommended. It
is not recommended to purchase monitors with large diagonals, because from
working at too large monitors, according to users, "the eyes become square."
It is necessary to sit further from a large monitor than from a small one. As a
result, the angular area of the monitor remains the same. But it becomes more
difficult to focus the eye on a small image located 1-1.5 meters from the eye, which
leads to overstrain of the visual apparatus. The larger the object on the monitor
screen, the less fatigue. Therefore, computer games with their drawn figures are less
tiring than numbers and letters.
The monitor screen must be absolutely clean. Wipe it periodically and if
necessary, with special napkins. The fatigue from working with the monitor is less,
the lower the screen brightness and the larger the objects on the screen. Set the
brightness as low as possible without stress to distinguish characters on the screen.
Please note that it is better to enlarge the font or image than move closer to the
screen or increase the brightness. Modern operating systems have special tools for
this. The fonts on the screen can be scaled, set the minimum size of the elements of
pictures, and so on.
11.2. INFORMATION PROTECTION, ANTI-VIRUS PROTECTION
Humans tend to make mistakes. Any technical device is also susceptible to

failures, breakdowns, and interference. An error can occur during the
implementation of any information process. There is a high probability of errors
when coding information, processing and transmitting it. An error can result in the
loss of necessary data, an erroneous decision, or an emergency.
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A huge amount of information is stored, transmitted and processed in society,
and this is partly why the modern world is very fragile, interconnected and
interdependent. Information circulating in control and communication systems is
capable of causing large-scale accidents, military conflicts, disorganization of the
activities of scientific centers and laboratories, bankruptcy of banks and commercial
organizations. Therefore, information must be able to protect against distortion,
loss, leakage, and illegal use.
Example. In 1983, there was a flood in the southwestern United States. The
reason was a computer that was entered incorrect weather data, as a result of which
it gave an erroneous signal to the gateways that block the Colorado River.
Example. In 1971, 352 carriages disappeared on the New York Railroad. The
criminal used the information of the computer center that controls the operation of
the railway and changed the destination addresses of the cars. The damage was over
a million dollars.
The development of industrial production brought a huge amount of new
knowledge, and at the same time there was a desire to keep some of this knowledge
from competitors, to protect it. Information has long been a product and a
commodity that can be bought, sold, exchanged for something else. Like any
product, it requires the use of special methods to ensure safety.
In informatics, the main types of information protection when working on a
computer and in telecommunication networks are considered to the greatest extent.
Computers are technical devices for fast and accurate (error-free) processing
of large amounts of information of various types. But, despite the constant increase
in the reliability of their work, they can fail, break down, like any other human-
made devices. Software is also made by people who can be wrong.
Hardware and software designers and developers work hard to ensure that
information is protected:
- from equipment failures;
- from accidental loss or distortion of information stored in the computer;
- from deliberate distortion, produced, for example, by computer viruses;
- from unauthorized (illegal) access to information (its use, modification,
distribution).
To the numerous, far from harmless errors of computers, computer crime has
also been added, which threatens to develop into a problem, the economic, political
and military consequences of which can be catastrophic.
When protecting information from equipment failures, the following basic
methods are used:
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 periodic archiving of programs and data. Moreover, the word "archiving"
means both the creation of a simple backup copy and the creation of a copy
with preliminary compression (compression) of information. In the latter case,
special archiving programs are used (Arj, Rar, Zip, etc.);
 automatic backup of files. If the user must take care of archiving, then when
using automatic backup programs, the command to save any file is
automatically duplicated and the file is saved on two offline media (for
example, on two hard drives). Failure of one of them does not lead to loss of
information. File backup is widely used, in particular in banking.
Protection against accidental loss or distortion of information stored in a
computer comes down to the following methods:
 an automatic confirmation request for a command that changes the content of a
file. If you want to delete a file or place a new file under the name of an existing
one, a dialog box will appear on the display screen asking you to confirm the
command or cancel it;
 setting special attributes of documents. For example, many editor programs
allow you to make a document read-only or hide a file by making its name
unavailable in file programs;
 the ability to undo recent actions. If you are editing a document, you can use the
undo function of the last action or group of actions available in all modern
editors. If you mistakenly deleted the required file, then special programs allow
you to restore it, however, only if you did not manage to write anything over the
deleted file;
 differentiation of user access to the resources of the file system, strict separation
of the system and user modes of operation of the computing system.
Protecting information from intentional corruption is often also called
protection against vandalism.
The problem of vandalism is the appearance of such disasters as computer viruses
and computer worms. Both of these terms are coined more to draw public attention
to the problem, and not to denote some of the techniques of vandalism.
A computer virus is a specially written small piece of a program that can be
attached to other programs (files) on a computer system. For example, a virus can
insert itself at the beginning of a program, so that each time that program is
executed, the virus will be activated first. During execution, the virus can produce
deliberate corruption, which immediately becomes visible, or simply look for other
programs to which it can attach copies of itself. If an "infected" program is
transferred to another computer via a network or a floppy disk, the virus will begin
63
infecting programs on the new machine as soon as the transferred program is
launched. In this way, the virus passes from machine to machine. In some cases,
viruses slowly spread to other programs and do not manifest themselves until a
certain event occurs, for example, a given date comes, from which they will
“destroy” everything around. There are many types of computer viruses. Among
them there are both invisible and self-modifying.
The term "worm" usually refers to a stand-alone program that replicates itself
across the network, residing on different machines. Like viruses, these programs
can be designed to replicate and sabotage.
To protect against viruses, you can use:
 general methods of protecting information, which are also useful as insurance
against physical damage to disks, malfunctioning programs or erroneous user
actions;
 preventive measures to reduce the likelihood of contracting the virus;
 specialized anti-virus programs.
11.3. ENCRYPTION METHOD
Many methods of protecting information from unauthorized (illegal) access

have arisen long before the advent of computers.
One such method is encryption.
The problem of protecting information by transforming it, excluding its
reading by an unauthorized person, worried the human mind for a long time. The
history of cryptology (kryptos - secret, logos - science) is the same age as the
history of human language. Moreover, writing itself was at first a cryptographic
system, since in ancient societies only a select few owned it. The sacred books of
Ancient Egypt, Ancient India are examples of this. Cryptology is divided into two
areas - cryptography and cryptanalysis. The goals of these directions are directly
opposite. Cryptography deals with the search and research of information
encryption methods. It makes it possible to transform information in such a way that
its reading (recovery) is possible only with knowledge of the key. The sphere of
interest of cryptanalysis is the study of the possibilities of decrypting information
without knowing the keys.
The key is the information needed to encrypt and decrypt text without
hindrance. The first cryptographic systems are found already at the beginning of our
era. So, Caesar in his correspondence already used the cipher that received his
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name. Cryptographic systems were rapidly developed during the First and Second
World Wars. The advent of computing has accelerated the development and
improvement of cryptographic techniques.
The main areas of using these methods are the transmission of confidential
information through communication channels (for example, by e-mail), the
authentication of transmitted messages, the storage of information (documents,
databases) on media in encrypted form.
The problem of using cryptographic methods in modern information systems
is now becoming especially relevant. On the one hand, the use of
telecommunication networks has expanded, through which large volumes of
information of a state, commercial, military and private nature are transmitted,
which does not allow access to it by unauthorized persons. On the other hand, the
emergence of new powerful hardware and software, effective decryption
technologies has reduced the reliability cryptographic systems, which until recently
were considered practically undisclosed.
Another possible method of protecting information from unauthorized access
is the use of passwords.
Passwords allow you to control access both to computers and to individual
programs or files. Unfortunately, sometimes it is possible to guess the password,
especially since many users use their names, names of relatives, dates of birth as
passwords.
There are software tools for "breaking" passwords. To counter password
guessing attempts, operating systems can be designed to keep track of when
someone repeatedly uses inappropriate passwords (the first sign of someone else's
password guessing). In addition, the operating system can tell each user at the
beginning of his Session when his account was last used. This method allows the
user to detect cases where someone has worked on the system under his name. A
more sophisticated defense (called a trap) is to create the illusion of successful
access to information for the time when the attacker is being analyzed where the
attacker came from.
SELF-CONTROL ISSUES
1. List the main negative consequences of working in front of the monitor

2. Explain the purpose of ergonomics
3. What are strong sources of electromagnetic radiation?
List the main methods used to protect information from hardware failures.
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4. What is "Worm"?
5. What methods are used to protect against viruses?
CHAPTER 12. TECHNOLOGIES OF CREATION AND

TRANSFORMATION OF INFORMATION OBJECTS
12.1. DESKTOP PUBLISHING CAPABILITIES
GENERAL TERMS AND CONCEPTS
The term information system (IS) is used in both broad and narrow sense.
In a broad sense, an information system is a set of information contained in
databases and information technologies and technical means ensuring its
processing.
In a narrow sense, an IS is a subset of IS components in a broad sense, including
databases, DBMS and specialized applications.
Distinguish:
• desktop (local) IS, in which all components (DB, DBMS, client applications) are
located on one computer;
• distributed IS, in which the components are distributed over several computers.
Desktop publishing systems are used for professional publishing. They
allow for electronic layout of a wide range of basic types of documents such as
newsletter, color brochure, catalog, reference book. They allow you to solve
problems:
1. compose (typeset) the text;
2. use all kinds of fonts and carry out printing images;
3. carry out text editing at the level of the best word processors;
4. process graphic images;
5. output documents of printing quality;
6. work in networks on different platforms.
Examples of such packages are: Corel Ventura, Page Maker, MS Publisher.
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12.2. BASIC FUNCTIONALITY OF TEXT EDITORS
Text editor is a program for creating, editing, formatting, saving and

organizing printing of text documents.
More advanced text editors that have, in addition to the listed capabilities,
text and document formatting tools are called Word processors, and powerful
software packages designed for typesetting complex publications are called desktop
publishing systems.
Key features of word processors:
• text input;
• text editing;
• text output for printing;
• text formatting;
• saving a text file;
• search and replacement of symbols.
An example of a word processor is MS Office Word.
When creating text, you want to achieve the best possible result, to make it
literate, effective, age-, taste-, and preparation-oriented for the reader. Word
processors allow you not only to determine the way the text is typed, but also to
change the text you have typed.
The main function of a word processor is editing - adding, deleting,
moving, or correcting text or graphics.
Editing and entering text is usually not a big problem. As soon as you press any
key, the corresponding letter will appear in the place marked by the text cursor.
The cursor is a flashing vertical bar that marks the next character entry
point.
To finish entering text of one paragraph and go to the next paragraph, press
the [Enter] key. As you enter characters from the keyboard, the cursor automatically
moves to the next line, and you do not need to take any special action to move to the
next line.
To switch the keyboard layout for entering Russian or Latin characters,
most often press the key combination | Alt] + [Shift] or [Ctrl) + [Shift]. To switch
the keyboard layout with the mouse, use the En / Ru switch on the taskbar.
The [Shift] key is used to enter uppercase letters, and the [CapsLock] key is used to
lock the uppercase letters.
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To add a piece of text in Word, you need to place the cursor in the place for
entering an additional piece and enter it. To delete the character located to the right
of the cursor, press the [Delete] key. The character to the left of the cursor is deleted
using the [Backspace] key.
Ways to create documents.
In text editors, the following are used to create documents:
• wizard (produced by entering the necessary data in the sequentially appearing
dialog boxes);
• templates (empty blanks of documents for a certain purpose).
However, in most cases, to create documents, an empty New Document
template is used, which the user fills in with the content of his choice.
Selecting page parameters.
Any document consists of pages, therefore, at the beginning of work on a
document, it is necessary to set the page parameters: format, orientation and
margins.
The format of the document pages determines their size.
Orientation allows you to choose the position of the page on the monitor
screen. There are two possible page orientations - portrait and landscape. For
regular texts, the most common orientation is portrait, and for tables with a large
number of columns, landscape orientation.
On the page, you can set the required margins (top and bottom, right and
left), which determine the distance from the edges of the page to the borders of the
text.
Headers and footers and page numbers.
It is convenient to use a header or footer to display the same text on each
page of the document (for example, the author's name, document title, etc.). You
can change the distance from the page edges to the header and footer.
It is recommended to number the pages of the document, and the numbers
can be placed at the top or bottom of the page in the center, on the right or on the
left.
Insert symbols and special characters.
Symbols and special characters that are not on the keyboard (for example £, ≤, ≥, ≠,
etc.) can be inserted using the Symbol dialog (Insert / Symbol).
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Hard page separator.
There are several ways to start a new page. Convenient to use hard page
separator insert. This can be done using the Insert / Break ...
Copying and moving text.
To copy or move the text, you must select a piece of text and perform one
of the following actions.
To move the object, click the Cut button on the Standard toolbar.
To copy an object, click the Copy button on the Standard toolbar.
To move or copy an object to another document, navigate to the desired
document, click the place to paste the object, and on the Standard toolbar, click
Paste .
To define the format of the inserted elements, select the command by
clicking the Insert button, which is displayed under the inserted element.
To copy the text, you can use the commands Edit / Copy and Edit / Paste.
Restoring a fragment of the text.
We all change our intentions sometimes. If it becomes necessary to restore
a fragment of text that was previously deleted, then you can use one of two ways:
• select the Edit / Undo command;
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• click on the Cancel button .
12.3. FORMATTING, BUILDING TABLES, GRAPHIC IMAGES
The data presented in tabular form are clear. Tables have always been an
essential feature of printed documentation.
A table is an object made up of rows and columns. The main structural
element of a table is a cell, which is formed at the intersection of a column and a
row. Table cells can contain various data: text, numbers, graphics, etc. It is
convenient to format documents using tables.
Creating a table. There are two ways to create tables: creating an empty
table and then filling it in, and converting the existing text into a table.
In this case, a special button is used on the Insert – Table.
Editing a table. Editing tables means changing the width (height) of rows
(columns), merging and splitting table cells, adding or removing rows and columns.
To perform these operations, you must first select the required area of the table, and
then use the appropriate commands of the context menu or buttons on the toolbars.
When you select a table, additional Design toolbars are added to the screen.
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Inserting graphic images.
There are two types of graphics that you can use in Word documents:
pictures and pictures. These objects can be defined as follows:
Drawings are objects of vector nature. The simplest tools for creating
them are in the word processor itself. Images are bitmap objects. The word
processor does not have the means to create them, so they are inserted as external
objects. Pictures are always embedded in the document - they can be edited directly
in place. Images are inserted into a document by linking or embedding. Editing
them using a word processor is possible, but only to a limited extent.
Creation and editing of drawings. To work with vector drawings, use the
auto shape toolbar. Here are the blanks for creating lines, geometric shapes, curly
arrows and more. When creating and editing vector objects, it is possible to change
their size, line color and thickness, fill method, as well as set rotation. To create text
elements attached to autoshapes or pictures, use the special Caption tool from the
Insert section. The label creation is applied to the ready-made autoshapes. The
required text is entered in the inscription field, after which the inscription can be
edited.
It is resized to fit 23 of the text it contains by dragging the handles. Having
created the inscription object, it can be grouped with the picture, and then they will
represent a whole composition. For autoshapes there is a special tool for creating
text design - text can be placed in the autoshape field. This operation is performed
by the command. Add text to the autoshape context menu. Working with cliparts.
Creating complex compositions with autoshapes can be very time consuming. In
such cases, ready-made collections of drawings (clipart’s) are used. Working with
images.
To add images to the document, the method of inserting from an external
source is used. This uses the Picture button on the Insert toolbar. Interaction of
images with text. The main part of the tools for setting the properties of images in a
text document is located on the Format toolbar. Typically, when you select a picture
in the text of the document, this panel opens automatically. By the way they interact
with the text, two main types of images are distinguished: embedded in a line
(inline) and free (floating).
Images of the first type can be conventionally considered as separate
symbols: when the text moves during editing, the image moves with it and remains
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in the place of the text where it was placed. The position of the free image on the
page is not related to the input position. The image interacts with the text by
wrapping.
CONTROL QUESTIONS
1. Give a definition to the concepts of "Editing" and "Formatting". What is the

difference between them?
2. List the basic techniques for formatting text.
3. Give a definition of style. What options does the paragraph style determine?
4. What options are set when formatting a paragraph?
5. What parameters are set when dividing text into columns?
6. What types of graphic objects can be used in a word processor?
7. What techniques and tools are used when creating and editing vector objects in a
word processor?
8. Give the definition of clip art. Describe how to edit the clip art?
9. What are the main methods of inserting images? 10. What image adjustment
operations do you know?
CHAPTER 13. FEATURES OF SPREADSHEET TABLES (ST)
13.1. ST AS AN INFORMATION OBJECT: CHARACTERISTIC

FEATURES, PURPOSE
Excel is a spreadsheet processor. A spreadsheet is an application program

that is designed to create spreadsheets and automate the processing of tabular data.
A spreadsheet is a spreadsheet divided into rows and columns, at the
intersection of which cells with unique names are formed. Cells are the main
element of a spreadsheet where data can be entered and referenced by cell names.
Data includes numbers, dates, time of day, text or character data, and formulas.
Data processing includes:
• carrying out various calculations using formulas and functions built into the
editor;
• building diagrams;
• data processing in lists (Sorting, Autofilter, Advanced filter, Form, Totals,
Pivot table);
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• solving optimization problems (parameter selection, solution search, "what - if"
scenarios and other tasks);
• statistical data processing, analysis and forecasting (analysis tools from the
"Analysis Package" add-in).
Thus, Excel is not only a means of automating calculations, but also a means
of modeling various situations.
Scope of Excel: planning - financial and accounting calculations, material assets
accounting, decision support systems (DSS) and other areas of application.
Create a new workbook in Excel
Excel training should begin by exploring the Excel application window. When you
start Excel, an application window opens, displaying a new workbook - Book 1.
The Excel application window has five main areas:
• menu bar;
• toolbars;
•status bar;
• input line;
• the workbook window area.
The main data processing in Excel is carried out using commands from the
menu bar. The Standard and Formatting toolbars are built-in MS Excel toolbars that
are located below the menu bar and contain specific sets of icons (buttons). Most of
the icons are for executing the most commonly used commands from the menu bar.
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The Excel Formula Bar is used to enter and edit values, formulas in cells or
charts. The name field is the window to the left of the formula bar that displays the
name of the active cell. Icons: X, V, fx located to the left of the formula bar are
buttons for canceling, entering and inserting a function, respectively.
The status bar of the Excel application window is located at the bottom of
the screen. The left side of the status bar indicates information about the status of
the spreadsheet work area (Done, Enter, Edit, Specify). In addition, the results of
the executed command are briefly described on the left side of the status bar. The
right side of the status bar displays the results of calculations (when performing
automatic calculations using the status bar context menu) and displays the pressed
keys Ins, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Scroll Lock.
Basic spreadsheet concepts: Column Header, Row Header, Cell, Cell
Name, Selection Marker, Fill Marker, Active Cell, Formula Bar, Name Field,
Active Sheet Area.
The working area of a spreadsheet consists of rows and columns that have
their own names.
The names of the lines are their numbers. Line numbering starts at 1 and ends
with the maximum number set for this program. Column names are letters of the
Latin alphabet, first from A to Z, then from AA to AZ, BA to BZ, etc.
The maximum number of rows and columns in a spreadsheet is determined by
the features of the program used and the amount of computer memory, for example,
in an Excel spreadsheet processor there are 256 columns and more than 16 thousand
rows. The table uses columns (256) and rows (16384).
The intersection of a row and a column forms a cell in a spreadsheet with a
unique address. References are used to indicate cell addresses in formulas (for
example, A6 or D8).
A cell is an area defined by the intersection of a column and a row in a
spreadsheet and has its own unique address.
The cell address is determined by the name (number) of the column and the
name (number) of the row at the intersection of which the cell is located, for
example, A10. Link - specifying the cell address.
The active cell is the selected cell whose name appears in the name field. A
selection marker is a bold box around a selected cell. The fill handle is the black
square in the lower right corner of the selected cell.
The active area of the worksheet is the area that contains the entered data.
The address of a block of cells is specified by indicating the links of its first
and last cells, between which a separating character is placed - a colon. If the block
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has the form of a rectangle, then its address is set by the addresses of the upper left
and lower right cells included in the block.
The block of used cells can be specified in two ways: either by specifying the
start and end addresses of the block cells from the keyboard, or by selecting the
corresponding part of the table using the left mouse button.
An example of setting cell and block addresses in a spreadsheet:
 the address of the cell located at the intersection of column F and row 9 is
expressed by reference F9;
 the address of the block formed as part of line 1 - B1: E1;
 the address of the block formed as a column C - C1: C21;
 block address, formed in the form of a rectangle - A3: G10
Formulas are an expression that starts with an equal sign and consists of numeric
values, cell addresses, functions, names, which are connected by signs of arithmetic
operations. The signs of arithmetic operations that are used in Excel include:
addition; subtraction; multiplication; division; exponentiation.
Some operations in the formula have a higher priority and are performed in the
following sequence:
• exponentiation and expressions in brackets;
• multiplication and division;
• addition and subtraction.
13.2. APPLICATION OF ET FOR SOLVING PROFESSIONAL

PROBLEMS. USING FUNCTIONS
13.2.1. APPLICATIONS OF SPREADSHEETS:
 accounting and banking;

 planning resource allocation;
 design and estimate works;
 engineering and technical calculations;
 processing of large amounts of information;
 research of dynamic processes.
Key features of ET:
 analysis and modeling based on the performance of calculations and data
processing;
 preparation of tables, reports;
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 formatting the data contained in the table;
 building diagrams of the required type;
 creation and maintenance of databases with the ability to select records by a
specified criterion and sort by any parameter;
 transfer (insertion) into the table of information from documents created in
other applications running in the Windows environment;
 printing the final document in whole or in part.
13.2.2. MAIN FUNCTIONS BUILT INTO MS EXCEL

Math functions
ABS (number) - returns the modulus of a number;

SIN (number), COS (number), TAN (number) - direct trigonometric functions of a
number;
ASIN (number), ACOS (number), ATAN (number) - inverse trigonometric
functions of a number;
EXP (number), LN (number), LOG10 (number) - exponent, natural logarithm,
decimal logarithm of a number;
FACTR (number) - returns the value of the factorial of a number;
LOG (number; base) - the logarithm of the number to the base;
ROOT - calculates the square root;
ROUND (number; num digits) - rounds the number to the specified number of
digits;
PI () - gives the value of a number π ;
SUM (cell range) - calculates the sum of values from a range of cells;
PRODUCT (cell_range) - calculates the product of values from a range of cells;
DEGREE (number; degree) - returns the result of raising a number to a power;
RANDBETWEEN (lower_boundary; upper_boundary) - gives a random number
between the lower border and the upper border (changes during recalculation);
RAND () - returns a random number from 0 to 1 (varies with recalculation);
SUMIF (range; criterion; sum_range) - sums the values located in the summation
range if the corresponding cells of the range meet the specified criterion; criteria:
“> 10”, “= 100”, “= Amount”;
MOPRED (range) - returns the determinant of a matrix located in a range of cells
(the range must be a square matrix);
MOBR (range) - Returns the inverse of a matrix specified in a range (range must be
a square matrix); to display the result, select a range of cells equal to the original
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range starting from the cell where the MINVERSE function is located, then press
F2, then press the combination CTRL + SHIFT + ENTER (working with data
arrays);
MULTIPLE (range1; range2) - returns the matrix obtained as a result of multiplying
matrices specified in range1 and range2 (working with arrays, the selected ranges
must meet the requirements of matrix multiplication).
13.2.3. LOGIC FUNCTIONS
İF (boolean_expression; value_if_true; value_if_false) - checks whether the logical

expression is executed, if yes, then outputs the value if true, no - value if false;
AND (logical_value1; logical _value2; ...) - returns TRUE if all logical values are
true, otherwise it returns FALSE;
OR (logical _value1; logical _value2; ...) - returns TRUE if at least one logical
value is true, otherwise it returns FALSE.
12.3.4. STATISTICAL FUNCTIONS
MIN (range), MAX (range) - return the minimum and maximum values from the
range;
AVERAGE (range) - calculates the arithmetic mean of the selected range of
values;
SRGEOM (range) - calculates the geometric mean from the selected range of
values;
COUNT (range) - counts the number of numbers in the specified range of values;
COUNT (range) - counts the number of nonblank cells in the specified data range;
COUNTIF (range; criterion) - counts the number of nonblank cells in the range
that meet the specified criterion;
FREQUENCY (data_range; interval_range) - calculates the distribution of values
from a data range over intervals of an interval range and returns a vertical array
(working with arrays); intervals are defined as follows: the first - all values up to the
first number of the range of intervals, the second - from the first value of the range
of +1 to the second value of the range of intervals ..., the last - from the last value of
the range of +1 and more.
TEST QUESTIONS
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1. What is a spreadsheet?
2. What is called a cell?
3. What is called a cell address?
4. What is called a link?
5. What function in the formula calculates the arithmetic mean of the selected
range?
CHAPTER 14. UNDERSTANDING OF THE ORGANIZATION OF

DATABASES AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS.
14.1. THE CONCEPT OF DB, DBMS AS AN INFORMATION SYSTEM
A database is a set of independent materials (articles, calculations,

regulations, court decisions and other similar materials) presented in an objective
form, systematized in such a way that these materials can be found and processed
using an electronic computer.
There are many other definitions of the concept of "database", one way or
another reduced to the concept of "a set of stored data". However, most of these
definitions do not allow distinguishing a database from objects that are certainly not
a database, for example, from document archives, card files, libraries, etc. Thus, a
database is not just a collection of stored data (records, documents, facts, etc.), but
such a collection that has at least three important properties (features):
1. The database is stored and processed in the computing system. Thus, any
non-computer storage of information (archives, libraries, etc.) is not a database.
2. Data in the database is well structured (systematized). In this case,
structuredness is understood as an explicit selection of constituent parts (elements),
links between them, as well as typification of elements and links, in which a certain
semantics and permissible operations are related to each type of element or link.
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3. The structure of the database ensures efficient search and data processing.
Efficiency here is mainly determined by how flexibility and power of capabilities
(search and processing) compare with the cost of effort and resources.
The database management system (DBMS) is a specialized program (often
a set of programs) designed to organize and maintain a database. To create and
manage an information system, a DBMS is needed to the same extent as a translator
is needed to develop a program in an algorithmic language.
14.2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS, TYPES OF DATABASES
The concept of a database is closely related to such concepts of structural

elements as a field, record, file (table).
Field is an elementary unit of logical organization of data, which corresponds
to an indivisible unit of information - an attribute. The following characteristics are
used to describe the field:
 name, for example. Surname, Name, Patronymic, Date of birth;
 type, for example, character, numeric, calendar;
 length, for example, 15 bytes, and the maximum possible number of
symbols;
 precision for numeric data, for example two decimal places for
display the fractional part of a number.
Record is a collection of logically related fields. Record instance
-a separate implementation of a record containing specific values of its fields.
File (table) - a set of instances of records of one structure. The file record
structure contains fields whose values are primary keys (PC) that identify the record
instance, and secondary (VK), which perform the role of search or grouping signs
(several records can be found by the value of the secondary key).
There are a huge number of types of databases that differ in various criteria (for
example, in the "Encyclopedia of Database Technologies" by MR Kogalovsky,
more than 50 types of databases are defined).
We indicate only the main classifications:

By data model:
• Hierarchical
• Network
• Relational
• Multidimensional
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• Object
• Object oriented
• Object-relational
By storage technology:
• DB in secondary memory (traditional)
• DB in RAM (in-memory databases)
• DB in tertiary memory (tertiary databases)
By content:
• Geographic
• Historical
• Scientific
• Multimedia, etc.
By the degree of distribution:

• Centralized (concentrated)
• Distributed
14.3. THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE DBMS

(FOR EXAMPLE, MS ACCESS)
Access - translated from English means "access". MS Access is a functionally

complete relational database management system. Besides, MS Access is one of the
most powerful, flexible and easy-to-use DBMS. In it, you can create most
applications without writing a single line of program, but if you need to create
something very complex, then MS Access provides a powerful programming
language for this case - Visual Basic Application.
The popularity of Microsoft Access DBMS is due to the following reasons:
• Access is one of the most easily accessible and understandable systems for
both professionals and novice users, allowing you to quickly master the basic
principles of working with databases;
• the system has a fully Russified version;
• full integration with Microsoft Office packages: Word, Excel, Power Point,
Mail;
• Windows ideology allows you to present information colorfully and clearly;
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• the ability to use OLE technology, which allows you to establish a connection
with objects of another application or embed any objects in the Access
database;
• WYSIWIG technology allows the user to constantly see all the results of their
actions;
• the help system is widely and clearly presented;
• There is a set of “wizards” for object design to facilitate the creation of tables,
forms and reports.
The main objects of Access are tables, queries, forms, reports, macros, and
modules.
A table is an object that is defined and used to store data. Each table contains
information about a specific type of object. As you already know, a table contains
fields (columns) and records (rows). You can work with a table in two main modes:
in design mode and in table mode.
A query is an object that allows a user to retrieve the desired data from one or
more tables. You can create queries to select, update, delete, or add data. Using
queries, you can create new tables using data from one or more existing tables.
Basically, a query is a question that a user asks Access about information stored in a
database. You can work with queries in two main modes: in design mode and in
table mode.
It should be remembered here that answers to queries are obtained by
“cutting” and “gluing” tables in rows and columns, and that the answers will also be
in the form of tables. In design mode, a question to the database is generated.
A form is an object mainly for easy input and display of data. It should be
noted that, unlike tables, forms do not contain database information (as it might
seem at first glance). A form is just a format (form) for displaying data on a
computer screen. Forms can only be built based on tables or queries. Query-based
form building allows you to present information from multiple tables.
Pictures, diagrams, audio (sound) and video (image) can be embedded in the
form.
A report is an object designed to create a document that can later be printed or
included in a document in another application. Reports, like forms, can be generated
from queries and tables, but do not allow data entry.
Basic data types:
Data type Description Memory size
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Up to 255
Text Plain text string
bytes
MEMO Up to 65,535
Multi-line text
field bytes
both integers and real both integers 1 to 8 bytes
Numeric x
and real
Date / Time
Date and / or Time 8 bytes
Monetary
Monetary amounts 8 bytes
Unique integer indicating the

Counter sequence number of the entry in the 4 bytes
table
Boolean
Boolean value (True / False) 1 bit
OLE Object Other Windows Application

Up to 1 GB
Field Objects (1 Object)
Link to a file (on this PC, on the Up to 2048
Hyperlink
Internet or LAN) bytes
Objects of other Windows
Attachment Up to 2 GB
applications (multiple objects)
TEST QUESTIONS
1. What is DB and DBMS?
2. List the main classifications of the database?
3. List the main functions of the database?
4. What are the main database examples?
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CHAPTER 15. PRESENTATION OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND
DRAWING SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENTS, MULTIMEDIA
ENVIRONMENTS.
15.1. Ways of presenting graphic information
Computer graphics is a branch of computer science, the subject of which is

working on a computer with graphic images (drawings, drawings, photographs,
video frames, etc.). A
Graphic editor is an application program designed to create, edit and view graphic
images on a computer.
Types of computer graphics:
1. Raster
2. Vector
3. Fractal
They differ in the principles of image formation when displayed on a monitor
screen or when printing on paper.
Raster graphics
It is used in the development of electronic (multimedia) and printing

publications. To do this, illustrations, photographs are scanned, images from digital
cameras are entered.
A raster image is a kind of mosaic, only instead of pieces of a mosaic, there
are dots.
The main element of a raster image screen image is a point called a pixel.
To see these points, you need to magnify the image many times.
Raster (from the English raster) is the representation of an image in the form
of a two-dimensional array of points (pixels) arranged in rows and columns
One or more memory cells are allocated for each point of the image. The
larger the bitmap, the more memory it takes up.
Properties of raster graphics:
1. Large amounts of data to be stored and processed.
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2. The inability to enlarge the image to view the details. This effect is called
pixilation.
An important characteristic of the screen image is resolution.

Resolution is the number of pixels per image. It is measured in pixels per
inch (dots per inch) - dpi. The higher the resolution, the better the image, but the
larger its file. 72 pixels per inch (screen resolution) is taken as the norm. The screen
and the printer have their own resolutions.
Files with raster type formats: have extensions: *.bmp, *.pcx, *.gif, *.msp,
*.img.
15. 2. PROFESSIONAL GRAPHICS ACCORDING TO THE PROFILE

"CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF BUILDINGS AND
STRUCTURES"
This profession requires a large amount of knowledge in design standards, in

modern construction technology, knowledge of a variety of building materials, as
well as possession of special software packages such as AutoCAD, ArchiCAD,
Compass, Adobe Photoshop, 3D Studio MAX and others, which are constantly
being improved in our rapidly developing age.
Programs like Adobe Photoshop, Illustrator, etc., are used in this profession
to create high-quality photo-like images and improve 2D graphics, they are used to
create master plans, plans, facades and to obtain electronic drawings. Photoshop is
widely used by modern artists and photographers, people whose profession is
directly related to working on digital images, while Illustrator is used in web design
and logo design, where vector graphics have an advantage. AutoCAD, ArchiCAD,
Compass and 3D Studio MAX software - for drawing drawings and creating 3-
dimensional models. 3D Studio MAX is more used for creating three-dimensional
graphics and animation by artists and specialists in the field of multimedia, so this
software is applied to our specialty as a means of visualizing space. AutoCAD,
ArchiCAD and Compass are multifunctional graphic editors that belong to
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automated systems that implement information technology for performing design
functions - CAD - computer-aided design systems.
The main goal of CAD creation is to increase the efficiency of engineers'
work, including: reducing the complexity of design and planning; reducing design
time; reducing the cost of design and manufacturing, reducing operating costs;
improving the quality and technical and economic level of design results; reducing
the cost of field modeling and testing.
The most important program in the professional activity of an architect is
ArchiCAD. It is at the top of the list of similar programs, ArchiCAD is easy to use,
learn and work with.
ArchiCAD is a single object-oriented three-dimensional computer-aided
design system. It is designed to solve architectural and construction tasks. The
principle of its operation is based on the concept of a "virtual building" - a model
consisting of three-dimensional architectural and construction elements. Due to the
fact that the ArchiCAD user works with images of real objects (walls, windows,
doors, beams, furniture elements and building structures), he can create a model of a
projected or already existing building in as much detail as possible.
“Compass” is a family of computer-aided design systems with the
capabilities of design and design documentation. These standards are mainly used
in the manufacturer's homeland, and are absolutely not common outside the state.
AutoCAD is a two- and three-dimensional computer-aided design and
drafting system developed by Autodesk. Software data presents the user with the
creation of accurate and accurate drawings, basically, these types are used in
engineering, and other professions, where a 3-dimensional image is used as a visual
viewing of the result, while ArchiCAD allows at any stage of work on a project to
see it in three-dimensional form, in a section, in perspective, to select the most
suitable materials and calculate their consumption. It is even possible to create an
animated video depicting the designed building in its relation to the terrain, guide
the customer through the building, looking at each floor and into each room, as well
as walk around or fly around the building. Thus, the project will become more
visual and understandable to the customer.
15.3.THE CONCEPT OF MULTIMEDIA. SOFTWARE

IMPLEMENTATION OF MULTIMEDIA TASKS. PRESENTATION OF
GRAPHIC AND MULTIMEDIA INFORMATION USING COMPUTER
PRESENTATIONS (FOR EXAMPLE POWERPOINT)
The term "multimedia" is a Latinism that has penetrated from English-

language sources into various languages almost in the original transcription. It
comes from the combination of the Latin words "multum" (many) and "media,
medium" (focus, means, method). Thus, literally "multimedia" means "many
environments".
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The concept of "multimedia" is used in various fields of human activity. In
the computer sphere, this is website development, hypertext systems, computer
graphics, computer animation, etc.; in the media – journalism, including Internet
journalism, speech and social communications, etc.; in art - network art, computer
animation, computer video editing, sound directing, film, etc.
In the Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius, multimedia is defined as an
electronic media containing several types of information: text, image, animation,
etc.
In the dictionary "Basic Concepts and Definitions of Applied Cybernetics",
multimedia refers to the interaction of visual and audio effects under the control of
interactive software. Usually this means a combination of text, sound and graphics
in one electronic resource, and lately more and more often – animation and video.
Software environments for creating multimedia products are very diverse
by nature and depend on the field of development, whether it is sound creation,
video processing, presentation or interactive animation creation, photo processing,
etc. Let's take a closer look at the product from Adobe Flash. Adobe Flash
(formerly Macromedia Flash), or simply Flash, is Adobe's multimedia platform for
creating web applications or multimedia presentations. It is widely used to create
advertising banners, animations, games, as well as playback of video and audio
recordings on web pages. The platform includes a number of development tools,
primarily Adobe Flash Professional and Adobe Flash Builder (formerly Adobe Flex
Builder); as well as a program for playing flash content - Adobe Flash Player.
Adobe Flash allows you to work with vector, raster and limited to three-
dimensional graphics, and also supports bidirectional streaming of audio and video.
The standard extension for compiled flash files (animations, games and interactive
applications) is .SWF. Videos in Flash format are files with the FLV extension (in
this case, Flash is used only as a container for video recording). The FLA extension
corresponds to the format of working files in the development environment. Flash
Player is a virtual machine on which the flash program code downloaded from the
Internet is executed. The animation in Flash is based on vector morphing, that is,
the smooth "flow" of one keyframe into another. This allows you to make complex
cartoon scenes by setting only a few key frames. The main drawback of flash
applications is the excessive load on the CPU associated with the inefficiency of the
Flash Player virtual machine.
PowerPoint
Many people use presentations both for visual demonstration of some data at
work, and for entertainment purposes, for example, to congratulate a loved one on
his birthday. It can be created in different forms – slideshow, video and any other
animation. It can go either soundlessly or with musical or voice accompaniment.
So, the scope for the creative flight of the creator's imagination is almost unlimited
here. Well, the most popular program for creating them remains PowerPoint from
the standard Microsoft Office suite of any version. In general, it's not difficult to
figure out how to create a PowerPoint presentation – you just need to get a few tips.
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First of all, run the program, then click on the label "File" and select
"New...". A small window will appear in which you can choose how many slides
your work will consist of. If you want to simplify the process, you can choose one
of the suggested templates – there are quite a lot of them. If none of them suits you,
you can design your own, unique template.
Now use the Insert menu to add suitable images or music. If you want to add
text, you need to use a special menu. In the properties of all slides, write down how
long it should stay on the screen. You can set the time automatically, or you can
simply link the frame change to a mouse click. In some cases, to create a
PowerPoint presentation, the second option is most convenient.
To add text, go to the Format menu. Here you can choose not only the font
style and color, but also numerous effects, thanks to which your brainchild will
become more attractive and interesting for the audience.
If during the work you wanted to see the result – how successfully and
correctly the process is progressing, you can always click on the F5 key. The
finished slides will be shown immediately. When the display is finished, click the
Esc button to close the black screen that appears. You can also use this button to
interrupt the presentation at any time. This way you will easily understand how to
create a PowerPoint presentation and be able to make it quite complex and colorful.
When the work is completed, you need to enter the "File" menu and select
"Save". Give a suitable name to the file and save it in the most convenient folder for
you.
Security questions
1. What is computer graphics?

2. What types of graphics do you know?
3. What types of graphics are used in your professional activity?
15.1. TRANSFER OF INFORMATION. LOCAL COMPUTER NETWORKS.

GLOBAL COMPUTER NETWORK INTERNET
15.1.1. Hardware and software Internet technologies
Internet technologies - technologies for creating and maintaining various

information resources on the Internet computer network: sites, blogs, forums, chat
rooms, electronic libraries and encyclopedias.
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The Internet and Internet technologies are based on hypertext and sites placed
on the global Internet or in local computer networks.
Hypertext are texts with hyperlinks to other hypertext located on the Internet
or a local computer network.
Hypertext is written using the HTML hypertext markup language, which is
understood by all browsers on all personal computers.
HTML is an international standard, so all hypertext is perceived in a uniform
way and displayed in a uniform way on all personal computers around the world.
To prepare hypertext, visual hypertext editors are usually used, in which one
can immediately see how the hypertext will look on a computer, and it is possible to
insert hyperlinks to sites on the Internet.
The creation of computer networks is caused by the practical need of users of
computers remote from each other for the same information. Networks provide
users with the opportunity not only to quickly exchange information, but also to
collaborate on printers and other peripheral devices, and even to process documents
at the same time.
Computer network - is a system of distributed information processing, consisting
of at least two computers interacting with each other using special means of
communication.
In other words, a network is a collection of interconnected PCs and other computing
devices, such as printers, fax machines, and modems. The network enables
individuals in an organization to interact with each other and access shared
resources; allows them to access data stored on personal computers in remote
offices and communicate with suppliers.
The computers on the network perform the following functions:
• Organization of network access
• Information transfer control
• Provision of computing resources and services to network subscribers.
Any computer network is characterized by: topology, protocols, interfaces,
network hardware and software.
The topology of a computer network reflects the structure of connections between
its main functional elements.
Network hardware is a variety of devices that integrate computers into a single
computer network.
Network software - controls the operation of a computer network and provides an
appropriate interface with users.
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16.2. LOCAL COMPUTER NETWORKS
A local network unites computers installed in one room (for example, a

school computer class, consisting of 8-12 computers) or in one building.
In small local networks, all computers are usually equal, that is, users independently
decide which resources of their computer (disks, directories, files) to make public
over the network. Such networks are called peer-to-peer.
If more than ten computers are connected to the local network, then the peer-
to-peer network may be insufficiently productive. To increase performance, as well
as to provide greater reliability when storing information on the network, some
computers are specially allocated for storing files or application programs. These
computers are called servers, and the LAN is called a server-based network.
Each computer connected to the local network must have a special card
(network adapter). Computers (network adapters) are connected to each other using
cables.
Regional computer networks

Local networks do not allow to provide shared access to information for users
located, for example, in different parts of the city. Regional networks that unite
computers within the same region (city, country, continent) come to the rescue.
Corporate computer networks

Many organizations interested in protecting information from unauthorized access
(for example, military, banking, etc.) create their own, so-called corporate networks.
A corporate network can unite thousands and tens of thousands of computers
located in different countries and cities (for example, the Microsoft Corporation
network, MSN).
16.3. GLOBAL COMPUTER NETWORK INTERNET
Wide Area Networks (WANs), also called territorial computer networks,

serve to provide their services to a large number of end users scattered over a large
area - within an area, region, country, continent or the entire globe. Due to the large
length of communication channels, the construction of a global network requires
very large costs, which include the cost of cables and work on their laying, the cost
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of switching equipment and intermediate amplifying equipment that provides the
necessary channel bandwidth, as well as the operating costs of constantly
maintaining the scattered over a large area of network equipment.
The Internet is a global computer network that unites many local, regional
and corporate networks and includes tens of millions of computers.
Every local or corporate network usually has at least one computer that has a
persistent connection to the Internet using a high-bandwidth communication line
(Internet server). The reliability of the global network is provided by redundancy of
communication lines: as a rule, servers have more than two communication lines
connecting them to the Internet.
The Internet is based on more than one hundred million servers, constantly
connected to the network, of which there are more than three hundred thousand in
Russia (at the beginning of 2001).
Hundreds of millions of network users can connect to Internet servers using
local area networks or dial-up telephone lines.
The Internet owes its origins to the US Department of Defense and its secret
research conducted in 1969 to test methods for allowing computer networks
to survive warfare through dynamic message rerouting. The first such
network was ARPAnet, which connected three networks in California with a
network in Utah using a set of rules called the Internet Protocol (IP).
In 1972, access was opened to universities and research organizations, with
the result that the network began to unite 50 universities and research organizations
that had contracts with the US Department of Defense.
In 1973, the network expanded to an international scale, uniting networks
located in England and Norway. A decade later, IP has been extended with a suite
of communication protocols that support both local and wide area networks. This is
how TCP / IP was born. Shortly thereafter, the National Science Foundation (NSF)
opened NSFnet with the goal of linking 5 supercomputer centers. Concurrent with
the introduction of TCP / IP, the new network soon replaced ARPAnet as the
backbone of the Internet.
Well, how did the Internet become so popular and developed, and the impetus
for this, as well as for its transformation into an environment for doing business,
was given by the appearance of the World Wide Web (World Wide Web, WWW,
3W, ve-ve-ve, three double) - systems hypertext, which made surfing the Internet
fast and intuitive.
The idea of linking documents through hypertext was first proposed and
promoted by Ted Nelson in the 1960s, but the level of computer technology at that
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time did not allow it to be implemented, although who knows how it would have
ended if this idea found application ?!
The foundations of what we mean by the WWW today were laid in the 1980s
by Tim Berners-Lee in the process of creating a hypertext system at the European
Laboratary for Particle Physics, European Center for Nuclear Research).
As a result of these works, in 1990 the scientific community was presented
with the first text browser (browser), which allows viewing text files linked by
hyperlinks on-line. This browser was made available to the general public in 1991,
but its adoption outside academia has been slow.
A new historical stage in the development of the Internet is due to the release
of the first Unix version of the Mosaic graphical browser in 1993, developed in
1992 by Marc Andreessen, an internship student at the National Center for
Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), USA.
Since 1994, after the release of the Mosaic browser versions for Windows
and Macintosh operating systems, and soon after that - the Netscape Navigator and
Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers, the explosive spread of the popularity of the
WWW began, and as a result of the Internet, among the general public, first in the
United States and then and around the world.
In 1995, the NSF transferred responsibility for the Internet to the private
sector, and since then the Internet has existed as we know it today.
SELF-CONTROL ISSUES:
1. What is a computer network?
2. What functions do the computers connected to the network have?
3. What is internet technology?
4. Where are corporate computer networks used?
5. What networks
17. NETWORK SOFTWARE CAPABILITIES FOR ORGANIZING
COLLECTIVE ACTIVITIES IN GLOBAL AND LOCAL COMPUTER
NETWORKS.
17.1. TYPES OF GLOBAL INTERNET SERVICES
Let's consider the types of services offered by the global network, as well as
the main methods of searching for the necessary information using the Internet.
Internet service services are types of services that are provided by servers of
the global network. Throughout the short history of the Internet, there have been
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different types of services, some of which are currently no longer in use, others are
gradually losing their popularity, and others are experiencing the dawn.
Let's list those of the services that have not lost their relevance at the moment:
* World Wide Web - the World Wide Web is a service for searching and
viewing hypertext documents, including graphics, sound and video.
* E-mail – e-mail is an electronic message transmission service.
* Usenet, News - teleconferences, newsgroups – a kind of online newspaper or
bulletin board.
* FTP is a file transfer service.
* ICQ is a service for real-time communication using the keyboard.
* Telnet - remote access service to computers.
Consider the three most popular services:
* World Wide Web – the World Wide Web
• E-mail – e-mail
* Usenet, News - teleconferences, newsgroups
1 service - World Wide Web - the World Wide Web

WWW (World Wide Web, Eng. The World Wide Web) is a service for
searching and viewing hypertext documents. These documents are called Web
pages, and a set of Web pages that are similar in meaning or subject matter and
stored together is called a Web site.
Web pages can include text, drawings, animation, sound, video, as well as active
elements – small programs that animate the page, making it interactive.
The idea of hypertext is simple: hypertext is a text containing a link to another
document, which may be a similar Web page.
Hypertext is presented in the form of hyperlinks, usually highlighted on the
page with an underscore, in color, on which it is enough to click the mouse, and a
transition to another Web page will be made or the desired file will be downloaded.
Precisely because the pages are intertwined with hyperlinks, this service is called
the "web".
In order to read or view Web pages, you need a special program. Such
programs are called Web viewers or simply browsers or a Web browser. Today
there are many browser programs created by various companies. The most
widespread and recognized browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera, Mozilla
Using hypertext links, you can travel endlessly in the information space of
the Network, moving from one Web page to another, but if you consider that many
millions of Web pages have been created in the world, then it is unlikely to be
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possible to find the necessary information on them in this way. Special search
systems come to the rescue (they are also called search engine). The most common
and frequently used search engines are Google, Yahoo, Yandex, Rambler, Meta
(Ukrainian).
WWW is one of the Internet services that offers an easy-to-use interface and
allows users, even those who do not know the computer very well, to access web
resources in any part of the Internet. This service occupies a leading place on the
Internet.
2 service - E-mail – e-mail

Email appeared about 30 years ago. To date, it is the most popular means of
information exchange on the Internet. The ability to receive and send e-mail can be
useful not only for communicating with friends from other cities and countries, but
also in a business career. For example, when applying for a job, you can quickly
send your resume by e-mail to various companies. In addition, on many sites where
you need to register, you often need to specify your e-mail. In a word, e-mail is a
very useful and convenient thing.
With the help of e-mail, you can send messages, receive them in your e-mail,
respond to correspondents' letters, send copies of letters to several recipients at
once, forward the received letter to another address, include various sound and
image files in letters.
When using e-mail, each subscriber is assigned a unique postal address, the
format of which has the form:
<user name> @ <mail server name>
Advantages of E-mail in comparison with regular mail:
* Efficiency
* Reliability
* Cheapness
Disadvantages of E-mail in comparison with regular mail:
* Receiving unclaimed email (spam).
* Risk of virus infection.
3 service - Usenet, News - teleconferences, newsgroups

The Usenet teleconference service organizes collective discussions on various
topics, called teleconferences.
News is one of the oldest means of communication in the history of the
Internet between groups of people interested in one particular issue. Usenet news
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was invented by three American students in 1979. Usenet served at that time for the
dissemination of information and news on programming. The data was sorted into
fifteen headings, which later became known as "newsgroups", "conferences" or
"teleconferences".
The news service (USENET) is built on the principle of an open conference -
a meeting of people to discuss certain topics. Moreover, the user can simultaneously
participate in countless electronic conferences without fear of missing anything.
All the information stored in USENET is organized on a thematic basis, that
is, the news service is a kind of thematic catalog containing people's opinions on a
particular topic. Messages, also referred to as articles, united by a common theme,
are placed in thematic groups called newsgroups. Newsgroups, in turn, can be
contained within other groups, forming thematic hierarchies.
Access to newsgroups is carried out through the subscription procedure,
which consists in specifying the coordinates of the news server and selecting the
newsgroups of interest to the user.
Today, Usenet has more than ten thousand discussion groups (Newsgroups)
or teleconferences, each of which is dedicated to a specific topic and is a means of
exchanging opinions.
Teleconferences are divided into several groups:
* news - issues related to the teleconferencing system;
* comp - computers and software;
* rec - entertainment, hobbies and arts;
* sci - research activities and applications;
* soc - social issues;
* talk - debates on various controversial issues;
* misc — everything else.
17.2. FEATURES OF THE ORGANIZATION OF

TELECONFERENCES ON THE INTERNET
Teleconferences play a key role in distance learning, bringing online learning

closer to traditional face-to-face learning. The improvement of software,
communication channels and telecommunication equipment has led to the fact that
participants in the distance learning process can not only exchange e-mail messages,
as it was recently, but can see and hear each other, communicating in real time.
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Currently, teleconferences are a large group of various Internet services and
services designed for user communication. The following types of teleconferences
are distinguished:
* asynchronous teleconferences - conferences in which information is
exchanged in a delayed mode (by e-mail);
* synchronous teleconferences - conferences in real time, providing the
opportunity to exchange both text and visual and voice information.
Asynchronous teleconferences are one of the oldest services provided to
Internet users. Their main advantage is that they do not require the presence of all
conference participants at the same time, which is very convenient if the conference
participants are in different time zones or cannot be at the computer at the same
time at the time set for the conference. Also, these conferences are convenient for
those users who need more time to think about their speeches, who want to work on
an answer, a problem raised during the conference, or if the language of
communication at the conference is not the native language of the participant (as a
rule, in these cases it takes much longer to prepare an answer or a replica).
The most common forms of asynchronous teleconferences are Mailing lists
(discussion lists)
They make it possible to send an electronic message simultaneously to several
(many) recipients according to a pre-compiled address list. Mailing lists are
convenient for organizing the work of a relatively small group of users (a study
group, a small group, two or three co-authors of an article being created, etc.). Such
mailing lists can be created both using traditional office programs (for example, in
MS Outlook 2000) and using special programs such as Listserve, Majordomo,
Listproc. As a rule, such mailing lists are maintained (moderated) by the
administrator (course teacher, coordinator) of the server on which they are created,
which protects the information circulating in them from unauthorized access.
Synchronous teleconferences are increasingly gaining popularity in the field of
distance learning. The following types of synchronous conferences differ:
* Chats - interactive communication in real time using special email programs
(such as IRC, ICQ, etc.). Intensive communication, which presents certain
difficulties for those users who do not have a good command of the keyboard. Chats
are effective for small groups of participants - from two to five people. If necessary,
if more than five people are to participate in the chat, it is necessary to clearly
specify in advance the sequence of speeches, the course of the discussion and the
rules of communication of participants with each other.
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* Audio conferences - teleconferences that appeared due to the development of
Internet telephony. They are promising when organizing group work, as well as for
broadcasting lectures and seminars conducted by experts in a specific subject area.
* Video conferencing - combines sound and image, being the closest to a real
form of remote communication.
Self-control issues
1. What are services?

2. List the main Internet services.
3. Which service occupies a leading position on the Internet?
4. What are the main services provided by the WWW service to users?
5. What is hypertext?
6. What is a website?
7. What is e-mail for?
8. What does the postal address consist of?
9. Name the advantages and disadvantages of email.
10. What services does the teleconferencing service provide?
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98
Şahnaz Nadir qızı Şahbazova
Texnika eklməri doktoru, professor
İNFORMASİYA TEXNOLOGİYALARI
Nəşriyyatın direktoru
Tipoqrafiyanın direktoru
Texniki redaktor
“Çaşıoglu” nəşriyyatı
Bakı şəhəri, M.Müşfiq küçəsi 2a
2021
99

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SHAHNAZ N.

At the meeting of the Scientific and Methodological

CHAPTER1. HUMAN INFORMATION ACTIVITY

CHAPTER 2. INFORMATION AND INFORMATION PROCESSES

CHAPTER 3. THE MAXIMUM RATE OF INFORMATION

CHAPTER 4. ANALOG DEVICES

4.1. Analog devices are

CHAPTER 5. REPRESENTATION OF INFORMATION IN VARIOUS

5.1. Positional and non-positional number systems.

CHAPTER 6. ALGORITHMS FOR CONVERTING NUMBERS

7.1. Principles of information processing by a computer

CHAPTER 8. STORAGE OF INFORMATION OBJECTS OF VARIOUS

8.1. Information object

CHAPTER 9. SEARCH AND TRANSFER OF INFORMATION USING A

CHAPTER 10. MEANS OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

10.1. Personal computer architecture

CHAPTER 11. SAFETY, HYGIENE, ERGONOMICS, RESOURCE

CHAPTER 13. FEATURES OF DYNAMIC (SPREADSHEET) TABLES.

13.1. Et as an information object: characteristic features, purpose

CHAPTER 14. UNDERSTANDING OF THE ORGANIZATION OF

14.1. The concept of DB, DBMS as an information system

CHAPTER 15. PRESENTATION OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND

15.1.Ways of presenting graphic information

CHAPTER 16. TELECOMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

16.1. Transfer of information.

1.1. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY

There are four stages in the development of mankind, called information

Information society is a society in which most of the workers are engaged in

Human activities associated with the processes of receiving, transforming,

1.4. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNICAL MEANS AND

With the development of modern civilization, participation in information

1. Describe the main stages in the development of the information society

CHAPTER 2. INFORMATION AND INFORMATION PROCESSES

2.1. APPROACHES TO THE CONCEPT OF INFORMATION AND

texts, pictures, light or sound signals radio waves электрических и

Objects, processes, phenomena of material or non-material properties,

2.2. SYMBOLIC OR SIGN INFORMATION

Symbolic or sign information is information perceived by a person in

In this case, it is easy to calculate the amount of information in the text. If

2400 x 150 = 360,000 bytes.

1 kilobyte = 1Kb = 2 10 bytes = 1024 bytes

Consequently, the volume of the above book is approximately three

360000 / 1024 = 351.5625 KB

Reception and transmission of information can occur at different speeds.

3.1. INFORMATION OBJECTS OF VARIOUS TYPES.

Information is a key concept of modern science, which is on a par with such as

3.2. THE BANDWIDTH OF THE CHANNEL

credibility fullness accuracy value timeliness

intelligibility availability brevity and etc.

Information is reliable if it reflects the true state of affairs. Inaccurate

CHAPTER 4. THE VERSATILITY OF DISCRETE (DIGITAL)

4.1. ANALOG DEVICES

Let's think of information as a signal. We know that the signal is viewed

Fig.1. Analog signal Fig.2. Discrete signal

Analog information is characterized by a smooth change of its parameters.

4.2. DISCRETE DEVICES

Discrete devices include:

4.3. DISCRETE VALUES

1. What is the difference between a continuous signal and a discrete one?

CHAPTER 5. REPRESENTATION OF INFORMATION

5.1. POSITIONAL AND NON-POSITIONAL NUMBER SYSTEMS.

Although the decimal system is usually called Arabic, it originated in India,

32478 = 3 х 10000 + 2 х 1000 + 4 х 100 + 7 х 10 + 8 =