Fundamentals of Durability: Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All Rights Reserved. Siemens PLM Software

Fundamentals of Durability
Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

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Troubleshooting interventions
Development support from concept to final
validation
Sharing know-how and best practices
Extensive trainings
From troubleshooting to “Design-Right-First-Time”

Durability Agenda
Durability Basics Load Determination Loads and Damage

Fatigue, Stress, Strain Measurements, Multi-Body S-N Curve, Cycle Counting
Simulation
Fatigue Life Accelerated Testing &

Load Characterization
Predictions Analysis
Establishing Durability Targets: Infinite Life, Stress Life, Strain RP-Filter, Mission Synthesis
Superposition, Extrapolation Life

Durability Engineering in Product Development
Troubleshoot
Validate
Cost of Change
Engineer
Concept Detail Prototype Production Field

Drawing Failure

Durability – Why is it important?
Warranty Costs
• High rate of return is large liability
• Example: Heavy truck
Competitive Advantage
• Reputation for reliability
• Example: Longest lasting appliance, safest aircraft
Performance
• Over-engineering reduces performance
• Example: Fuel economy on heavy car

The Durability Process
Acquisition Analysis Simulation Shaker testing Sign-off

Energy
Wind turbine – blade failure / structural failure
“There is a general trend upward in accident numbers

over the past 10 years.”
Blade failure – 24 accidents in 2009
Structural failure – 15 accidents in 2009

Civil construction
2007 Minneapolis' I-35 Bridge Collapse (2007)
Kenneth Russell, professor MIT, suspects metal

fatigue could be a contributing factor “The bridge
was very near to the fatigue limit and had gone
through many cycles," he says.

Turbine Blade Failure

Wall

Helicopter

Tacoma Narrow Bridge

What is fatigue ?
Versailles rail crash (1842)

What is fatigue ?
Woehler (1870) railroad axles
Cyclic stress range

Can be more important
than peak stress

Famous People In Fatigue
Hooke’s Goodman’s Miner’s

Law of Rule in Rule in
Elasticity 1899 1945
Goodman MA Miner
Sir Robert Hooke
British
in 1660 English English
(1869 - 1942) (1915 - 1978)
(1635-1703)
Wohler Theory of Rainflow

curves in
Plasticity Counting
1867
Richard Von Mise 1913 Tatsuo Endo in 1968
August Wohler Austrian Japan
German (1883 - 1953) (1925 - 1989)
(1819-1914)
Restricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved. Smarter decisions, better products.
Durability Agenda
Durability Basics Load Determination Loads and Damage

Fatigue, Stress, Strain Measurements, Multi-Body S-N Curve, Cycle Counting
Simulation
Fatigue Life Accelerated Testing &

Load Characterization
Predictions Analysis
Establishing Durability Targets: Infinite Life, Stress Life, Strain RP-Filter, Mission Synthesis
Superposition, Extrapolation Life

Dynamic versus Static Failures
Cyclic Fatigue refers to gradual The Static Strength is the load which
degradation and eventual failure that causes failure in one application.
occurs under loads which vary with time,
and which are lower than the static
strength of the metallic specimen,
component or structure concerned.

Static Strength
Aircraft Wing
Bending Test
Bend till Break

Dynamic (Cyclic) Loading
Dynamic Loads
below Static
Strength vary
with time

Definitions
Durability is the ability of something to perform its function long-

lasting and repeatedly.
Failure is Industry specific. For example: Crack growth versus

crack initiation

Crack Growth
Fatigue Failures in Real Life
Aloha airlines flight #243
April 28th, 1988
Maui, HI
Fatigue failure occurred due to repeated pressurization of the cabin causing a small crack to rupture in
the fuselage, killing a stewardess.

22 Unrestricted
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Siemens AG 2014 - 2010 Siemens PLM
Software
Definitions
Durability is the ability of something to perform its function long-

lasting and repeatedly.
Failure is Industry specific. For example: Crack growth versus

crack initiation
Fatigue is the progressive and localized structural damage that

occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. Stress and
strain are used to calculate fatigue damage.
Damage – Measure of fatigue. When = 1 by Miner’s Rule, failure

occurs.
Fatigue Life – Inverse of damage (Example: 0.5 damage, is

fatigue life of 2)

Stress
σ = Fn/A
Fn
How to reduce Stress?

A
Either:
• Increase Area
• Reduce Force
* Normal Stress

Stress
σ = Fn/A
Fn
How to reduce Stress?

A
Either:
• Increase Area
• Reduce Force
* Normal Stress

Stress
σ = Fn/A
Fn
A
Either:
• Increase Area
Effective
• Reduce Force Cross-
sectional
area
Reduced cross-
sectional area
causes stress
concentration
* Normal Stress

What about Simulation?
Finite Element Models are used Fn
• When Fn=1: referred to as a

“Static Unit Load Case”
• Stress is calculated at each

element – as opposed to a
predetermined location
• because real geometry is

more complex than this . . .
* Normal Stress
Strain
lo = original length

Strain
Strain:
ε = dl / lo
dl = change in
length

Stress and Strain: Hooke’s Law – Young’s Modulus
σ=Eε
Fn
E = Young’s Modulus
Stress
E is slope
Strain

Famous People In Fatigue
Hooke’s Goodman’s Miner’s

Law of Rule in Rule in
Elasticity 1899 1945
Goodman MA Miner
Sir Robert Hooke
British
in 1660 English English
(1869 - 1942) (1915 - 1978)
(1635-1703)
Wohler Theory of Rainflow

curves in
Plasticity Counting
1867
Richard Von Mise 1913 Tatsuo Endo in 1968
August Wohler Austrian Japan
French (1883 - 1953) (1925 - 1989)
(1819-1914)
Restricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved. Smarter decisions, better products.
Stress and Strain: Hooke’s Law – Young’s Modulus
σ=Eε
E = Young’s Modulus
Ultimate
Strength
Yield Strength
Stress
Rupture
E is slope
Time Lapsed Video

Strain

Static Stress and Strain Relationship
A - Red – Fixed Area

(Engineering Stress)
B - Blue – Changing Area
(True Stress)
1. Necking occurs, applied load

decreases
2. Plastic Deformation Begins
3. Fracture Occurs
4. Strain hardening region
5. Necking
1 – Ultimate Strength
2 – Yield Strength
3 – Fracture Strength
Materials Terms
Creep: is a time-dependent deformation of a material while under an applied load
that is below its yield strength
•Hardness: is the resistance of a material to localized deformation
•Toughness: the ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in
the process before fracture
•Yield strength or yield point: of a material is defined in engineering and
materials science as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically.
•Ductility: is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress
• The following list ranks metals from the greatest ductility to least: gold, silver,
platinum, iron, nickel, copper, aluminum, zinc, tin, and lead
• The ductility of steel varies depending on the alloying constituents. Increasing
levels of carbon decreases ductility
•Brittle: A material when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant
deformation (strain)
•Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or
ultimate strength, is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while
being stretched or pulled before necking. Point at which load on specimen
decreases
Graphical Representation of Material Terms

Some Material Properties and Failure Modes

Definition of the Stress Ratio R
σ σlower
stress ratio R= σ
upper
σu= 2 σl
R = 0.5
σ l= 0
σm= 0 R=0
0 R = -1 σu= 0
R = -∞
σl = 2 σu
R=2

Stress Ratio R Plotted On the Haigh
Diagram

Dynamic Stress/Strain Test

Dynamic Fatigue: Crack initiation and crack growth

What influences fatigue?
Geometry Material Loads
Fatigue
Fatigue Life

What influences fatigue?
Material : Loads
Geometry: •Load level
•Load Configuration •Surface Finish
•Uni-axial/multi-axial
•Notch Severity •Residual Stresses
•Constant/variable
•Local Stress State •Basic Properties amplitude
Fatigue
Fatigue Life

Applied loading vs. structural strength
Optimal Design – Minimal Overlap – Affordable Cost
probability Material + Geometry

density (structural strength)
LOADS
less
more scatter scatter
strength criterion
failure: loading > strength

Sources of Fatigue Scattering
typical load ratios of

load
10% / 90% probability
strength manufacturing
usage geometry 1.02
material
failure - controlled 1.15
probability: 10% 50% 90%
- different welds 1.45
life loads (car) 2.00
Today, customer usage is the most

important source of fatigue scattering.

When were your durability test schedules established ?
Wider - Over-Design - More expensive
probability
density
Material + Geometry
(structural strength)
LOADS less
strength criterion

When were your durability test schedules established ?
NOT SO GREAT DESIGN
probability
density LOADS ! Material + Geometry
(structural strength)
less
strength criterion


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Fundamentals of Durability

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

System simulation 3D simulation Test-based

Engineering services - Deployment services

From troubleshooting to “Design-Right-First-Time”

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Durability Basics Load Determination Loads and Damage

Fatigue Life Accelerated Testing &

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Concept Detail Prototype Production Field

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Acquisition Analysis Simulation Shaker testing Sign-off

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

“There is a general trend upward in accident numbers

Blade failure – 24 accidents in 2009

Structural failure – 15 accidents in 2009

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Kenneth Russell, professor MIT, suspects metal

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Cyclic stress range

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Hooke’s Goodman’s Miner’s

Wohler Theory of Rainflow

Durability Basics Load Determination Loads and Damage

Fatigue Life Accelerated Testing &

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Bend till Break

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Durability is the ability of something to perform its function long-

Failure is Industry specific. For example: Crack growth versus

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Durability is the ability of something to perform its function long-

Failure is Industry specific. For example: Crack growth versus

Fatigue is the progressive and localized structural damage that

Damage – Measure of fatigue. When = 1 by Miner’s Rule, failure

Fatigue Life – Inverse of damage (Example: 0.5 damage, is

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

How to reduce Stress?

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

How to reduce Stress?

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Finite Element Models are used Fn

• When Fn=1: referred to as a

• Stress is calculated at each

• because real geometry is

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

Hooke’s Goodman’s Miner’s

Wohler Theory of Rainflow

Time Lapsed Video

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2013 All rights reserved.

A - Red – Fixed Area