Problems of Management in The 21st Century, Vol. 9, No. 3, 2014

Vol. 9, No.
3, 2014
ISSN 2029-6932
PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT IN
THE 21ST CENTURY
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Prof. Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, University of Šiauliai & Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia
Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Prof., Dr. Constantin Bratianu, Academy of Economic Studies, Romania

Dr. Luca Bussotti, International Studies Center of ISCTE, Portugal
Dr. Camille Carbonnaux, University of Lille Nord de France, France
Assoc. Prof., Dr. Tsai-Hsin Chu, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Iwona Gorzeń-Mitka, Czestochowa University of Technology, Poland
Assoc. Prof., Dr. Dana Egerova, University of West Bohemia, Czech Republic
Dr. Grzegorz Michalski, Wroclaw University of Economics, Poland
Dr. Jorge Lima de Magalhães, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation/FIOCRUZ, Brazil
Prof., Dr. Ivars Muzis, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Stephen Nzuve, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Asst. Prof., Dr. Ivona Orzea, Academy of Economic Studies, Romania
Prof., Dr. Sonia Teresinha de Sousa Penin, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof., Dr. Chris Rensleigh, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Asst. Prof., Dr. Nikhil Chandra Shil, American International University, Bangladesh
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Contents
Editorial
THE RISKS OF CURRENT POLITICAL RISK MANAGEMENT

Luca Bussotti ...........................................................................................................170
Articles
THE IMPACT OF CORPORATE CULTURE ON PRODUCTIVITY OF FIRMS IN GHANA:

A CASE OF VODAFONE GHANA
Godson Ahiabor ........................................................................................................173
GENDER ASPECTS OF INHERITANCE MANAGEMENT IN GEORGIA CULTURAL

PRACTICES VS LAW REGULATIONS
Maia Araviashvili ...................................................................................................... 183
FUNCTIONAL HEALTH ASSESSMENT AS THE DETERMINANT OF SOCIAL

CARE MANAGEMENT
Agnieszka Bem, Paulina Ucieklak-Jeż ............................................................................. 197
ATTITUDES OF SHOP FLOOR EMPLOYEES TOWARD WOMEN MANAGERS IN

FUEL DEPOTS: A CASE OF THE FUEL DEPOTS IN LUBUMBASHI,
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
Stephen N. M. Nzuve, Solomon Chepsongol Kelwon ............................................................206
MODEL OF SUCCESSFUL STRATEGY EXECUTION: REVISING THE CONCEPT

Joanna Radomska ...................................................................................................... 213
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ..............................................................................223
PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY ............................................... 225
Quality Issues and Insights IN THE 21st CENTURY ......................................... 226
JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION ............................................................ 227
1st INTERNATIONAL BALTIC SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION (BalticSTE2015) ..................................................................................228
NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION .............................................................................231

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170
THE RISKS OF CURRENT POLITICAL RISK
MANAGEMENT
Luca Bussotti
International Studies Center of ISCTE, Portugal
E-mail: Lbiau@iscte.pt
Political risk is a concept traditionally related, on the one hand, to the rational calculation
of risk in economic activities and, on the other, to a particular historical moment in which it has
taken on the characteristics of an autonomous research field. Risk calculation and the manage-
ment of lucrative activities have illustrious precedents. At the beginning of the 20th century,
Max Weber pointed out the necessity to forecast all the possible risks that come from non-
economic factors (such as bureaucracy, uncertainty of law and administrative procedures, and
so on) before carrying out an economic investment leading to profit (Weber, 1968). However,
the actual starting point of a science, related to the management of political risk, dates back to
the 1960s (Sottilotta, 2013). The historical context in which this shift occurred can be found in
the Cold War and the decolonization era.
This epoch used to read political risk as the strategic choice of new Asian and African
independent states, which could completely reverse the previous decisions on economic policy,
introducing nationalization programmes, which were considered very harmful (see the experi-
ence of Chile under Allende, or of many African countries, such as all the former Lusophone
colonies, Egypt, Ethiopia and others).
Western approach and ideology showed a strong opposition to the interference of gov-
ernment in economic matters (Ady, 1972; Allen, 1973), classifying many measures as socialist
and, therefore, high risk. In the 1980s, when the process of aligning the majority of “developing
countries” to the liberal or capitalist systems occurred with the intervention of the IMF in the
“structural adjustment” policies, political risk expressed a more general concern for the “unsta-
ble” environment (rather than an isolated factor) as the pivotal reason for affecting the profit of
multinational companies (MNCs) (Robock, 1971; Hofer & Aller, 1980). More recently, a new,
global risk has emerged, related to Islamic terrorism.
It is quite clear that the science of political risk assessment and management has been
created and developed in accordance with a single view: to calculate and reduce the risk for
external investments carried out by MNCs, completely ignoring the perspective and interests
of local people.
It is my opinion, that a radical transformation of this concept is necessary. Some data will
help to show why and how.
Today, a “developing country” is ranked as “high risk” if it does not accept all the re-
quests, that comes from MNCs, for instance, requests of a fiscal, legal and environmental type.
It means that the government of a certain developing country should cede a part of its sover-
eignty to MNCs, which use their investments to sign lucrative contracts with the host states.
A classic book highlights this philosophy and connected practices. Eiteman, Moffett and
Stonheill think that the best plan is to anticipate potentially discriminatory or wealth depriving
government regulations, relating to MNCs (Eiteman, Moffett, Stonheill, 2011). They illustrate
all the actions MNCs have to carry out to dispute power with local governments, indicating the
ways to manage these difficult relations.
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From this point of view, when is the country considered reliable? When it is “politically 171
stable”? It means that changes to government majorities must be avoided, as this is classified by
international analysts as a “harmful” event; dissent is interpreted as “dangerous” and silenced;
economic policy should be “correct”. It is as if to say that governments will have to favour for-
eign direct investments (FDI), as the IMF has explicitly indicated since the 1980s, foreseeing
fiscal benefits for MNCs’ investments. Today, 52% of FDI inflows goes to developing countries
(UNCTAD, 2013). The reproduction of these dependent economies is nourished by the way
MNCs conceives and manage political risk.
As a result, most developing countries continue to be ranked as democratically deficient
and partially or totally not free. Let us consider the case of Africa. Here, in 2014, only 6 coun-
tries have been classified as “completely free”; all the others have been ranked as partially free
or not free (Freedom House, 2014). But FDI has been increasing constantly, in the last years, in
Africa. “Africa’s share of global FDI flows has been improving year on year. In 2013, Africa’s
share of global FDI projects reached 5.7% — it’s the highest level in a decade” (EY, 2014: 6).
However, agriculture remains, according to potential investors, marginal behind mining and
metal (Idem: 54).
What can we conclude from this short description?
First of all, Africa, the least democratic continent, in which human rights are systemati-
cally violated and freedom of expression is seriously limited, represents one of the most impor-
tant goals for foreign investments. Secondly, the sectors favoured by FDI are the ones, which
typically serve the interests of an economy of exportation, systematically ignoring the most
important activity for the local population, agriculture. Finally, since MCNs are very relevant
actors in this continent, it is hard to imagine that they do not have any influence over the ways
of managing democracy and the economy adopted by African governments, their privileged
partners.
The science of political risk management is not, of course, the reason that has determined
this concerning situation; nevertheless, it represents a central paradigm in which the actual in-
terests of local populations are systematically marginalized in favour of MNCs’ business, which
African governments use to pander.
So, the question that arises spontaneously is the following: is it possible to conceive a
different paradigm of “political risk management”? The answer is affirmative, but with a warn-
ing: it is necessary to completely invert its perspective. Instead of thinking of it as a series of
measures, conditions and indices focused on protecting MCNs activities and profits, the new
point of view should favour local populations. And the new questions will be: how does local
government manage power? Or, using operative indicators, how does it deal with the “menac-
es” of different electoral results? Is it open to accepting criticisms from civil society and protest
movements, instead of repressing them with various types of measures, whether it is violent or
based on mechanisms of indirect dissuasion? Is it open to changing its economic policies, gen-
erally oriented in favour of FDI, leaving the majority of population in conditions of poverty?
Governments that manage power in this manner are certainly “dangerous” for local peo-
ple. Nigeria, Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, the Republic of Central Africa, Zimbabwe, in
part Mozambique, and even (in part) South Africa, just to mention a few, have forged an alli-
ance with MNCs, in which the space for discussion is very limited and poverty has become a
normal condition for the majority of the population. This situation represents the best guarantee
for MNCs.
A new approach to the management of political risk is possible. If governors are per-
ceived as “dangerous” by the governed, it means they are high risk: consequently, a science of
political risk management directed towards the interests of MNCs and the local ruling class is a
risk for the majority of people living in the developing countries.
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172 References
Ady, P. (1972). Private foreign investment and the developing world. New York, Praeger.
Allen, A. M. (1973). Guide for investment in developing countries. London, Brown, Knight and Truscott
Ltd.
Eiteman, M., Moffett, A., Stonheill, D. (2011). Fundamentals of international finance. Edinburgh, Pren-
tice Hall.
EY (2014). EY’s attractiveness survey. Africa 2014. Executing Growth. Retrieved from http://www.
ey.com/attractiveness (Accessed 29/11/2014).
Freedom House (2014). Freedom House in the World 2014. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/
report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2014#.VHoJODfFLIW (Accessed 29/11/2014).
Hofer C. W., Aller, T. P. G. (1980). A way to better international risk assessment. Journal of Business
Strategy, 1 (2), 41-45.
Robock, S. H. (1971). Political risk: Identification and assessment. Columbia Journal of World Business,
6 (4), 6-20.
Sottilotta, C. E. (2013). Political risk: Concepts, definitions, challenges. Working Paper Series, Roma,
LUISS.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2013). World Investment Report
2013, New York and Geneva.
Weber, M. (1968). Economy and society. New York, Bedminster Press Incorporated.
Received: November 12, 2014 Accepted: December 15, 2014
Luca Bussotti PhD., Marie-Curie Fellow Research of African Studies at the International Studies
Center of ISCTE, Lisbon, and Visiting Professor at the University of Eduardo
Mondlane, Mozambique.
E-mail: Lbiau@iscte.pt
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THE IMPACT OF CORPORATE CULTURE 173
ON PRODUCTIVITY OF FIRMS IN GHANA:

A CASE OF VODAFONE GHANA
Godson Ahiabor
Central University College, Accra, Ghana
E-mail: gkahiabor@yahoo.com
Abstract
It is believed that many of the problems confronting leaders can be traced to their inability to analyze
and evaluate organizational cultures. Thus, many leaders, when trying to implement new strategies or a
strategic plan leading to a new vision, will discover that their strategies will fail if they are inconsistent
with the organization’s culture. Organizational culture does not only affect the manner in which managers
manage and consequently shape employee behavior, but also the total output and the way it provides
services to its customers. Corporate culture or organizational culture is the behavior of humans within an
organization and the meaning that people attach to those behaviors. Culture includes the organization’s
vision, values, norms, systems, symbols, language, assumptions, beliefs, and habits.
In addition, different individuals bring to the workplace their own uniqueness, knowledge, and ethnic
culture. Corporate culture covers moral, social, and behavioral norms of one’s organization based on the
values, beliefs, attitudes, and priorities of its members.
The researcher can say that corporate culture does have a positive impact on the productivity of any
organisation, and with Vodafone, it does increase its productivity.
Key words: corporate culture, impact, firms, telecommunication and productivity.
Introduction
Organisations want to obtain the commitment of their employees. Management would

like its employees to identify with the values, norms and artifacts of the organisation, hence the
need for organisational culture. Management needs to explain what the organisation represents;
this will enable the employee to get familiar with the organisational system. During this process
of explanation, the employee learns about the organisational culture and decides whether he
can cope with it or not. This means that each organisation is a learning environment. Organi-
sational culture and productivity are closely related. Every organisation focuses on increasing
their productivity. This productivity can be achieved by building a strong culture that supports
teamwork, innovation, commitment and loyalty in order to realise the goal of the organisa-
tion. Ignoring strong culture leads to low organisational performance, ethnocentrism, informal
grouping and conflict within organisation.
Productivity is an average measure of the efficiency of production. It can be expressed as
the ratio of output to inputs used in the production process, i.e. output per unit of input. When
all outputs and inputs are included in the productivity measure it is called total productivity
According to most researchers there is a positive relationship between motivation and
productivity. That is to say, when motivation increases, we should expect productivity to rise as
a result. This is the reflection of the belief that an increase in motivation level causes an increase
in productivity - a direct cause and effect relationship. Management trainers accept the belief
as an article of faith.
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174 One of the key points of Productivity is a result of motivation, and motivation thrives
in a good climate. If management is to transform this fragile good climate into a long-lasting
culture for success, decision-making structure, organisational integration, human resource de-
velopment and especially the relationship of management style to culture. Academic interest
in corporate culture is evidenced by the level of attention it has received over the last few
decades. The relationship between corporate culture and productivity has been the subject of
abundant research in several fields, including strategic management, organisational behavior,
and industrial organisations. Despite the overabundance of studies on corporate culture in the
last few decades, there is no widely accepted causal relationship between corporate culture and
productivity or performance within an organisation.
The question of whether corporate culture improves or worsens employee’s productiv-
ity or performance is still worthy of further research, such as the one being undertaken in this
study, and despite the existence of these studies, very little attention has been given to the tele-
communication industry in the country. Therefore, this study sought to determine the impact of
corporate culture on the productivity of firms in Ghana. This means that the impact of corporate
culture on employees’ productivity or performance in the telecommunication industry has not
received adequate research attention in Ghana.
Literature Review
This gives an overview of the field of inquiry: what has already been said on the topic
and the critical findings, which various researchers have researched and the varied views and
opinions based on the specific perspectives and angle that the work is bisected into. Histori-
cally, Corporate culture began years back, but was made more popular with the work of writers
such as Allen and Kraft (1982), Deal and Kennedy (1982), and above all Peters and Waterman
(1982). Nevertheless, Allaire and Firsirotu (1984) showed that, more than twenty years before
the work of Peters and Waterman, there was already substantial academic writing on corporate
culture. There was an argument between Blake and Mouton (1969) that there was a link be-
tween culture and excellence in the late 1960s. Turner (1990) traced the “culture trend” of the
1980s to the decline of standards in manufacturing quality in the USA and the challenge to its
economic pre-eminence by Japan. Turner comments that the concept of culture holds out a new
way of understanding organisations, and has been offered by many writers as an explanation
for the spectacular success of Japanese companies. Among others, Bowles (1989), observed
that there was an absence of a cohesive culture in advanced economies in the West, and that the
potential for creating systems of beliefs and myth within organisations provides the opportunity
for promoting both social and organisational cohesion.
In the case of culture, it was summed up by Deal and Kennedy (1983), who indicated
that culture rather than structure, strategy or politics were the prime movers in organisations.
The culture of a group can be defined as “A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group
learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked
well enough to be considered valid and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct
way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems” (Schein, 1990). The contemporary
definition of organisational culture includes what is valued; the leadership style, the language
and symbols, the procedures and routines and the definitions of success that characterise an or-
ganisation. It is a specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in
an organisation and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders out-
side the organisation.“The culture of an organisation affects the type of people employed, their
career aspirations, their educational backgrounds and their status in society” (BOLA, 2001).
“The only trustworthy predictor of on-the-job success is how closely an individual work
habits match the organisational culture (Giles, 2000). Corporate Culture creates policies and
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assignments to increase profitability and respond to market demands. Having a firm grasp of 175
a company’s culture and its degrees gives an executive the advantage. “Understanding and
assessing your organisation’s culture can mean the difference between success and failure in
today’s fast changing business environment” (Hagberg & Heifetz, 2000, It also acts as a fa-
cilitator of change- “The power of cultural change is strong, strong enough to turn an aging
dinosaur into a state-of-the-art profit-maker. Because people working in different cultures act
and perform differently, changing the culture can allow everyone to perform more effectively
and constructively” (Taylor, 1991, It helps in Facilitating mergers, joint ventures and acquisi-
tions. Being able to merge and reinvent corporate cultures plays a critical role in national and
international takeovers, joint ventures and mergers. If the cultures cannot be merged or rein-
vented, then the business will fail (Haaland, 2002). Decisions to form joint ventures are made
on economic grounds. Their failure to succeed relates to the key non-economic factors, the
corporate cultures involved.
It helps in understanding, shaping, nurturing, and proclaiming cultural aspects which
increase corporate profitability and growth. “Companies that display specific faces of corpo-
rate culture grow 10 times faster than companies that don’t. The average net sales growth for
so-called high-culture companies is 141%, compared with 9% growth at “low-culture” compa-
nies” (O’Reilly, 2001).
Corporate culture can be identified and analyzed, and there are several consulting firms
in North America making significant profits doing just that. Many focus on identifying work-
force attitudes, behavioral preferences and the work environment including structure, physical
artifacts and communication channels. All agree that attention must be paid to the intangible
(unconscious) as well as the tangible (conscious) aspects including the deeply rooted basic
assumptions that are often taken for granted by those inside the organisation. Another key in-
dicator is the true reward structure: not what the reward and recognition programs advertise,
but how and why people are really rewarded. This is often quite different than the values it
verbalises or the ideals it strives for” (Hagber & Heifetz, 2000). Vodafone is the only total
communications solutions provider - mobile, fixed lines, internet, voice and data - and is cur-
rently unmatched in providing fixed line and internet services - the leader and the first choice
for Ghanaians. Vodafone is the second ranked operator in mobile with a huge potential to take
over the market. As a corporate body, it values its customers and constantly builds key relation-
ships with the private sector and government. Its goal is to be the communications leader in an
increasingly connected world.
According to Hellriegel and Slocum (1996), organisational culture can enhance per-
formance on a large scale if it can be understood, that is what sustains a culture. According to
these authors the culture of an organisation allows the employees to be acquainted with both
the firm’s history as well as current methods of operation and this specific detection endows the
employees with guidance about expected and acceptable future organisational behaviors and
norms.
Kotter and Heskett (1992), conducted a study and finds that organisational performance
increasing culture or strong culture raised the income of the organisations up 765% between
1977 and 1988, and only 1% increase in the same period of time firms without performance
enhancing culture (Gallagher, 2008).
Mohammad, Uddin, Huq and Saad (2013) did a study on the impact of organisational
culture on employee performance and productivity; the results of these studies mostly show
positive association between strong culture and performance improvement. On the basis of this
study, they concluded that organisational culture has a positive impact on the employee’s job
performance. Schein (1990) also stated that organisation’s norms and values have a strong ef-
fect on all of those who are attached with the organisation. It is considered by him that norms
are invisible, but if the organisations want to improve the performance of the employees and
profitability, norms are the first places to look at.
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176 Methodology of Research
This outlines the procedure in which the data needed for this project to be effective was
obtained. In order for this to go through, the researcher constructed a series of questions in the
form of questionnaires and interviews and delivered them to two offices of Vodafone Ghana.
The target population of the study comprised of 100 staff and clients of Vodafone Ghana in the
Accra Metropolitan Area, Airport City and The Accra Mall to be precise. The company was
chosen because, prior to its privatisation, it used to be the only state-owned majority sharehold-
er. This facilitated the researcher in achieving his objectives in determining how the corporate
culture changed and especially how it affected productivity.
Research Design
To ensure that an adequate number of responses would be received, the researchers used
simple random sampling to collect data. This sampling technique was chosen relative to the
others because it is easily understood. The sample results may be projected to the target popula-
tion and there was no (human) interference in the selection of the sample.
Population
Target population was selected from two branches of the company, the Headquarters
and the Accra Mall branch. Here, the emphasis was on staff and customers of Vodafone. These
targets helped reveal the relevance of corporate culture and the impact it creates on the firm as
a whole and the customers.
Sample Size
A sample size of one hundred (100) respondents of both genders was selected. This was
limited to the head office only. These were made up of thirty-six (36) staff and sixty-four (64)
customers of Vodafone Ghana.
Data Collection Procedure
Primary Data
The primary source of data collection consisted of direct face-to-face interviews with
people who have had contacts with Vodafone directly and indirectly. These included staff of
Ghana Telecom/ Vodafone at various positions and day-to-day customers. Appointments were
fixed with interviewees and confidentiality was assured before the interviews were conducted
in a focused and conversational manner. The framework for the interviews was guided by semi
set of questions listed in Appendix B. Questionnaires were also used as primary data collection.
These were developed based on the stated objectives and hypothesis. Both open-ended and
close-ended questions were used, where the close-ended questions were on a 5-point Likert
scale. The scores were coded 5 for strongly agree or very good or very frequent or very im-
pressed; 4 for agree or good or frequent or impressed; 3 for undecided or barely acceptable or
rarely or moderately impressed; 2 for disagree or poor or very rarely or not impressed; and 1 for
strongly disagree or very poor or never or strongly not impressed. Dichotomous questions like
yes or no, before or after, and low, medium and high were also used, where no, before and low
will be coded 1, medium will be coded 3 and yes, after and high will be coded 5. Observation
was another source of primary data used in collecting information.
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As the researchers spent time in the organization with both staff and customers, they 177
observed how Vodafone Ghana runs its business; the kind of jargon used; the dress code of
employees; the gadgets used in making work efficient; the interrelationship among co-workers;
whether working hours were followed accordingly; and if any kind of melodious interlude was
played in the background and the kind of genre was played, if played. Observation was also on
how the customers reacted to Vodafone’s environment and culture, and how satisfied they were
if facial expression showed.
Instrument
Sets of questionnaires and interviews were presented and granted by the management
and staff of Vodafone Ghana. Both open-ended and close-ended questions were used as well
as 5-Likert point and dichotomous questions in analysing data. In addition, direct face-to-face
interviews were held with some of the Vodafone’s staff and customers.
Upon completion of questionnaires and interview questions, a pilot survey was made
to people not related to Vodafone in any way, and feedback was received in whether questions
were ambiguous or difficult. The feedback was that the questions were easy to understand and
answer, and few changes were made based on received input.
Data Analysis
The questionnaires were designed such that it was easy to see if respondents were con-
sistent in their responses and if they understood the questions.
To interpret the data from the Likert Scale, the researchers used the weighted mean to
compute the data from the scale and tabulate it. After the tabulation, they gave a graphical
presentation before stating the weighted mean of the answers. Percentages of respondents that
chose a particular answer-option to a question were then calculated for each question.
Results of Research
This chapter presents the findings from the distribution of the questionnaires and inter-
views made to the staff and customers of Vodafone Ghana. The level of living and running the
company’s brand values.
The level of living and running the company’s brand values was categorised under the
following distribution:
Table 1. Level of running and living the company’s brand values.
Opinions (X) Frequency (Y) XY Percentage %
Strongly Not Impressed (1) 3 3 4.84

Not Impressed (2) 6 12 9.68
Moderately Impressed (3) 20 60 32.26
Impressed (4) 29 116 46.77
Strongly Impressed (5) 4 20 6.45
Total (∑) 62 211

Source: Field data, 2014
to find the mean, = ∑xy/∑y, Therefore = 211/62=3.40=3= moderately Impressed
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178 There is satisfaction with the values and norms to the Stakeholders
Various opinions were brought out by respondents. These opinions have been catego-
rized into the following:
From the calculation of the average mean above, it was found that the average responses
resulted to undecided. The graphical representation in Figure 1 showed that 41% of respondents
agreed that stakeholders are satisfied with the values and norms of Vodafone. A 65% strongly
agreed with the above statement, 14% disagreed, and 2% strongly disagreed.
Table 2. Distribution of satisfaction with the values and norms to stakeholders.

Strongly Disagree (1) 2 2 2.15
Disagree (2) 7 14 7.53
Undecided (3) 28 84 30.11
Agree (4) 38 152 40.86
Strongly Agree (5) 13 65 13.98
Total (∑) 93 317
Impression of customers on customer service and culture
This survey was made to find out if customers were fascinated with Vodafone’s customer
service and customer care, and of course, with their values and beliefs.
Table 3. Distribution on impression of customers on customer service and cul-

ture.
Strongly Not Impressed (1) 3 3 4.84
Not Impressed (2) 6 12 9.68
Moderately Impressed (3) 20 60 32.26
Impressed (4) 29 116 46.77
Strongly Impressed (5) 4 20 6.45
Total (∑) 62 211

to find the mean, = ∑xy/∑y Therefore = 211/62= 3.40= 3 = moderately Impressed
From the mean calculated above, the students were able to deduce that respondents were
moderately impressed with the customer service and culture of Vodafone.
With this information and the one from the Satisfaction with Values and Norms to Stake-
holders (4.8), the researchers accumulated that the ‘Vodafone Way’ would be preferred in other
organizations. They believed that if Vodafone was able to improve in such a fast pace, then
other firms can improve too if they adapt to a similar culture.
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Distribution on impression of customers on customer service and culture 179

Figure 2. The researchers realised that 47% of the respondents were impressed with the
services and culture of Vodafone. This was followed by moderately impressed with 32%. Ten
respondents, that is, 10% of respondents were not impressed with Vodafone’s way of running
their business. 6% were strongly impressed and 5% were strongly not impressed. With this
information the researchers generated that Vodafone’s customers were satisfied with the ‘Voda-
fone Way’ and therefore kept on patronising the company, leading its productivity to increase.
Opinion on Reliability and Transparency
This survey was conducted by asking Yes or No questions. Below is a tabulation of the
various answers and their graphical representation.
Table 4. Distribution on reliability and transparency of Vodafone.
Reliability and Transparency (X) Frequency (Y) XY Percentage %
No (1) 8 8 12.90
Yes (3) 54 162 87.10
Total (∑) 62 170

The mean for this finding is= ∑xy/∑y= 170/62 = 2.74= 3 = Yes Customers (87%) thought
that Vodafone was reliable and transparent to deal with.
Discussion
It is with no doubt that Vodafone Ghana is one of the leading telecommunication compa-
nies in Ghana now. Privatisation has been good for the company and the economy as well.
Though workers were laid off, Vodafone Ghana is still noted for its efficiency, effective-
ness, reliability, responsiveness and trust in providing its services. Organisational culture plays
an important role in the company, and it is highly practiced in every sense of its operations.
Its brand name is driven by what they say and what they do. By paraphrasing most customers’
comments on the privatisation of Ghana’s only State-owned telecommunication company, it
was said that Vodafone Ghana has affected the improvement in services and introduction of new
products. The Group has pushed up the whole Ghana Telecom to an international standard.
During Ghana Telecom’s era, productivity was low as there were too many technical
problems, laziness, and high redundancy.
GT was never able to meet the goals set at the beginning of the year. This meant that
there was no productive output when calculating the level of productivity. Since Vodafone
took charge, productivity has been increasing massively and customer complaints have reduced
drastically. According to Joy FM (10th November, 2011), Vodafone Ghana had recorded 32.5%
growth in half year service revenue, ending September, 2011. This was contained in the Voda-
fone Group’s half year financial report dated November 8, 2011 posted on the group’s website.
Vodafone Ghana posted some 27.1% growth in service revenue in the first quarter of the group’s
financial year ending June, 2011, so the half year results indicated an impressive improvement
of 11.4 percentage points. The report attributed Vodafone Ghana’s performance to increase in
subscriber base and the improved services on the back of the launch of 3.5G services in June,
2011.
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180 The third quarter subscriber base report from the National Communication Authority
(NCA) indicated Vodafone was fast closing in on the second biggest operator in Ghana, Airtel.
Vodafone had come from 13% market share in 2009, when it entered the Ghanaian market,
to 19.1%, ending September, 2011, which was just 0.5% away from the second place, Aitel’s
19.6%. Vodafone Ghana has gained lots of customers on the back of Mobile Number Portabil-
ity (MNP). Vodafone Ghana makes sure that employees work in serenity and in return the staff
does their job with accuracy and flexibility. The lower and middle level employees are not
allowed to partake in decision making. That is absolutely management’s duty. Nonetheless, at
every quarter of the year a meeting is held, and at this gathering each team is represented, and
suggestions or ideas from all employees are displayed, then if they are good enough, they are
taken into consideration by top management.
According to the interviewees, the ideas are implemented more than often. Another rea-
son for Vodafone to be one of the preferred networks in the country is because it contributes
to the development of Ghana’s agenda through the Vodafone Foundation. It gives out scholar-
ships; assists NGOs; and provides career opportunities for whoever looks for employment with
them. Certainly, Vodafone’s environment is truly conducive.
Investigation of the research reveals that the output has increased and the market share
has also risen. Furthermore about 87% of respondents said Vodafone was reliable. The study
confirms that corporate culture had a positive impact on productivity. This confirms other stud-
ies by Hellriegel and Slocum (1996) (Gallagher, 2008). Schein (1990) and Mohammad, Uddin,
Huq and Saad (2013).
The view on the impact of corporate culture on productivity is relevant for expansion of
output; therefore it adds insights on the topic. The hypothesis that corporate culture does have
a positive impact on the level of productivity of firms is proven to be right. This work gives an
empirical starting point on the subject matter, and it can serve as a base for further research. The
results suggest a link between productivity and organizational culture, and how the impact of
the latter affects a corporation or a brand. However, the mainly investigated is the head office
but it will be interesting to look at the other regions as well. Moreover, a comparative study can
be looked at for further research.
Conclusions
Culture is not static. As the external and internal factors that influence culture change, so
culture will change. However, culture change will be slow, unless there is some major shock to
the organisation (Burnes, 1991). This in itself may not be a problem, if other factors also change
slowly. In addition, like Handy (1986), Allaire and Firsirotu (1984) argued that, to operate ef-
fectively and efficiently, an organisation’s culture needs to match or be appropriate to its struc-
ture. Changing the way everyone within a business work not only reduces costs, but improves
productivity and speed to market. It also helps an organisation attract, and get the most out of
the new, technologically literate, Generation Y. But adopting a new way of working is not easy,
it demands buy-in from all layers of an organisation.
Now, Vodafone Ghana won six (6) out of seventeen (17) competitive awards at the Sec-
ond Mobile World Ghana Telecom Awards held on Friday 20th April, 2012 at the Holiday Inn
Hotel’s premises. Some of the awards included the prestigious Telecom Chief Executive of
the year. Vodafone took home the Telecom Brand of the Year award, which was also won the
previous year, the Customer Service of the Year and Marketing Campaign of the Year awards,
beating strong rivals MTN and Airtel. Other awards taken were the Best Business/ Enterprise
Service of the Year, which went to Vodafone Business Solutions and also the Best Female
Technologist Award. In conclusion, the researcher can say that corporate culture does have a
positive impact on the productivity of any organisation, and with Vodafone, it does increase its
productivity.
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Received: September 11, 2014 Accepted: December 18, 2014
Godson Ahiabor Lecturer, Central University College, P.O. Box Ds 2310, Dansoman, Accra,
Ghana.
E-mail: gkahiabor@yahoo.com
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GENDER ASPECTS OF INHERITANCE 183
MANAGEMENT IN GEORGIA
CULTURAL PRACTICES VS
LAW REGULATIONS
Maia Araviashvili
Ilia State University, Georgia
E-mail: m_araviashvili@yahoo.com
Abstract
After gaining independence in 1991 Georgia adopted the new constitution, received liberal laws and
joined international conventions, which formally guarantee gender equality. However, law regulations
do not come in accordance with cultural values, and are not shared by society. Consequently, the prob-
lems of gender inequality are still vital issues in Georgian society.
Traditionally, informal practice of dowry giving protected women and gave them independence in a new
family. Nowadays, in Georgia a daughter and a son formally have equal access to their parent’s inheri-
tance, but there are very rare cases when a woman demands her part of it. This is not justified by society
to contend for the inheritance with a brother. Formal institutions are not strong to prevent this economic
form of domestic violence.
The methodology of the research is complex: expert interviews were recorded and analyzed, to study data
about the inheritance registration and court records pertaining to inheritance litigations, the method of
content analysis was used; apart from this, ethnographic resources and surveys were examined. The find-
ings of the proposed research article provide a complex picture of this really vital problem still affecting
the post-soviet Georgian society.
Key words: culture, gender, inheritance, law, and management.
Introduction
Gender equality remains a vital issue in both scientific research and everyday life, espe-
cially in so-called ‘developing countries’. However, some forms of family and domestic vio-
lence often do not appear in discussions and research about gender equality. In Georgia, for
example, only physical, psychological, and/or sexual forms of violence against women can be
treated as gender discrimination, while some other forms of domestic violence are difficult to
even discuss publicly. The economic form of violence, in particular, is one of the important but
less studied themes of injustice and discrimination against women. Within Georgian society,
economic violence is mainly discussed in the context of employment and not in the context of
inheritance distribution, though the latter is the significant component of economic and struc-
tural forms of violence. Even though liberal legislation in Georgia gives women equal access
on parents’ property, cultural norms and traditions are so strong that in most cases women stay
without inheritance. Some women consciously reject to use their rights on parents inheritance
and others just are not informed about their rights at all.
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184 Women’s inheritance rights in Georgia underwent striking changes throughout the cen-
turies. In the medieval period, for example, a woman’s belongings were separated from the
property of her husband’s family and remained under her control (Machabeli, 1978, p. 58).
Generally, a woman’s property consisted of a dowry allocated by her parents, and presents
or money that future husband gave to the bride’s family. The amount of a woman’s dowry or
property holdings was regulated mainly by traditions and customs. Dowry traditions varied in
different regions of Georgia, but a dowry giving was a widespread practice to transfer parents’
property to their daughters. As mentioned above, this inherited property exclusively belonged
to the woman in her new family; she had the right to manage it and use it according to her will;
and, in the case of divorce, the woman still owned that property (Machabeli, 1978, p. 56).
The nineteenth century was a hard time for many members of the Georgian nobility as
they lost power and wealth following the weakening of feudalism. Therefore, due mostly to
economic reasons, it became more difficult to follow the dowry-giving traditions. However, this
custom still played an important role in Georgian culture, and the dowry remained an important
prerequisite for women to get married and have significant economic rights in their new fami-
lies. Generally, women had no right to choose their partner. Only parents had authority to plan
their daughter’s marriage and make financial arrangements with their future son-in-law. At that
time, it became even more important for men from aristocratic, but economically downtrodden
families to marry rich women whose dowry would improve their families’ financial situation
(Machabeli, 1978, p. 57).
In the wake of Capitalism economic and social differentiation based on property became
more evident also within peasantry of the nineteenth century. Some peasants became promoted
merchants and the part of the new bourgeoisie class. On the one hand, that class tried to estab-
lish a connection with noble families and gain more high-status position, on the other hand, no-
bility tried to prevent poverty and get property by marring “well dowered” women (Machabeli,
1978, pp. 32-35). New socio-economical conditions stipulated new rules of marriage norms at
that time. Even though, dowry giving somehow lost its meaning, it had been remained as a tra-
dition. Pierre Bourdieu notes that the norms people follow are ‘ongoingly’ reproduced. Perhaps
dowries kept their importance and meaning in the modern era, because families were united by
paths that continuously were kept from generation to generation, “about which nothing is said,
as with everything which can be taken for granted because it has always been as it is” (Berger
& Luckmann, 1967, p. 24).
In Soviet times, the practice of giving dowries was not as strong as before, but it re-
mained an important tradition. It was not obligatory for parents to give a dowry to a daughter,
but in some social groups leaving a bride without dowry could become a subject of criticism.
Generally, a bride’s family was expected to bring furniture with bedclothes to the house of the
future husband. A man, in his turn, mostly was supposed to have a house. Thus, while dowries
may have become a sort of unspoken tradition, they were far from meaningless.
In 1921 the family law was amended in order to “destroy the elements of women’s
exploitation,” or, in other words, to reject economic, religious, class, and national barriers in
regards to marriage, and to eliminate parental involvement in the creation of new families. Only
mutual personal consent was declared as a precondition for marriage. The Soviet Georgia’s eth-
nographic data clearly reflect this shift (Beqaia, 1981, pp. 60-61). The former customs became
old fashioned and women’s property now mostly consisted of her work salary, rather than her
inheritance or dowry.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Georgia joined various international conventions
and approved laws for the protection of human rights. However, it seems that all these steps
were made to meet international standards, since the country still does not have mechanisms
to make law regulations function in reality. It is not surprising that in what is still a patriarchal
society, cultural norms override the law, especially in regard to women’s rights.
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The Constitution of Georgia (August 24th, 1995) guarantees equality for all citizens in 185
Article 14: “Everyone is born free and is equal before the law, regardless of race, skin color,
language, sex, religion, political and other beliefs, national, ethnic and social origin, property
and title status or place of residence.” Besides that, Georgia’s inheritance law gives equal ac-
cess to property inheritance and does not differentiate based on gender. The Law of Inheritance,
Article 1307, defines persons in the event of hereditary succession, who may inherit a property,
as descendants of the deceased, as of the moment of his death, as well as any descendants born
after the parent’s death.
The country also approved the Law on Gender Equality in 2010. Some articles of this
law address the main subject of this paper. The Gender Equality Law additionally supports
gender equality in terms of equal opportunities and treatment. Also, it frames parents’ rights
and responsibilities towards their children. This law also stresses the importance of maintaining
statistics on gender inequality (Gender Equality Law of Georgia, 2010).
In order to establish a strong democratic rule of law, citizens’ actions should reflect deep
ethical and moral convictions on what is just or unjust, as citizens must be willing to share the
responsibility to create and sustain institutions and laws. “Perhaps the most important responsi-
bilities of citizens are to make appropriate use of their liberty and to respect the rights of others”
(Galston, 1997, p. 7).
But in most cases, some types of gender discrimination are not admitted as violence at
all and are considered justified, making it especially difficult to combat. In most cases, ordinary
citizens do not accept new laws regarding gender equality. Moreover, “even though the law
guarantees gender equality, traditional views and women’s acknowledgment of their rights give
privileges to men” (Sabedashvili, 2007, p. 37).
To examine how these laws are represented and reflected in everyday life, we should
consider data from previous studies. For example, Nani Bendeliani’s article ‘Assessing Gender
Equality in Georgia on the Basis of International Indices and Ratings’ (Bendeliani, 2012) is a
comprehensive evaluation of gender equality problems in Georgia from various perspectives
and methodologies. This work is based on records of different international agencies and also
deals with the issues of gender discrimination in terms of inheritance distribution. The author
discusses two reports that evaluated gender equality in Georgia in 2009 and 2012 (Bendeliani,
2012). The data reveal, that gender inequality problems with regard to inheritance rights actu-
ally worsened between 2009 and 2012. For instance, on the scale used in the study, 0 means that
social institutions do not influence the majority of women, and 1 means that social institutions
do have influence on the majority of women. According to this scale, Georgia was evaluated
with 0 in 2009 and 0.5 in 2012 in respect of unequal access to the inheritance. The author ex-
plains this paradox: “[The] 2009 report falls short to reflect the effect of institutions over gender
equality in Georgia - it measures formal, legislative indicators, not so relevant to the reality
existing in Georgia. In the 2012 report, the indicators measuring the informal institutions were
included in the index” (Bendeliani, 2012, pp. 18-19). It is remarkable that on the formal and
legal levels we are evaluated with excellent results, but problems arise as soon as the reality and
significance of informal institutions are discussed.
Another source that could be useful to analyze is the data from research conducted in
2013 by the UNDP (United Nations in Georgia, 2013, p. 201). The research results were gained
by using both quantitative (survey) and qualitative (focus groups) methods. One of the research
topics was the women’s rights on property and inheritance. According to the survey, a high
number of respondents believed that a major part of a parent’s property, or even all of it, should
be given to a son, making it quite evident that men have a privileged position within society in
terms of inheritance rights (United Nations in Georgia, 2013, p. 201).
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186 Problem of Research
In Georgia new values are not formed and traditions still play an important role in shap-
ing social practices. The law does not come in accordance with cultural values, which tradition-
ally rule “accepted” acts. In this way, equality of rights mentioned in Georgian Constitution and
law, is not shared by society. The unequal distribution and management of inheritance is not
seen as unfair. In most cases, neither men nor women evaluate it as unjust. Georgian women
cannot protect their rights conceded by the law, that’s when the privileged division of inheri-
tance has led to the development of unequal positions for men and women in regard to power
and social status not only in the family but also in the society.
Research Focus
This research focuses on gender inequality in the context of inheritance management,

which in my opinion appears to be one of the main forms of economic violence in Georgian
society. Although the Georgian Constitution guarantees gender equality, and Georgia’s prop-
erty law gives sons and daughters the same legal rights to inheritance, the legal system often
comes in conflict with cultural practices that favor men in terms of inheritance rights. The
study will analyze the factors of Georgia accepted liberal law regulation that should protect
women’s rights and will also describe the difficulties of implementation process. The research
will analyze how inheritance managements affect gender roles in Georgian families, and how
inheritance management can become a form of economic violence and source of other forms
of violence.
Research Methodology
To study the issue combined methodology was needed, that could give the full picture.
Within this research following methods were used: the expert interviews, the content analyses
of data retrieved from the National Agency of Public Registry and Public court, also content
analyses of the dowry books.
As qualitative research gives opportunity to get in depth information to find the reasons
and factors of the problem, expert interviews were recorded with scholars in gender studies
and lawyers specializing in inheritance laws and human rights. A group of experts that were
interviewed are: Mzia Tsereteli, professor of psychology at Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University who works on gender issues. She is an author of a book Gender – A Cultural and
Social Construct; Lela Khomeriki, professor of psychology at Ilia State University, studies and
teaches gender related problems. She issued a book entitled as Gender and Politics; Nino Ja-
vakhishvili, professor of social psychology at Ilia State University, investigates various aspects
of gender issues reflected in her publications; Tamar Gurchiani, a lawyer and public activist
specializes in gender equality, human rights, transparency, free and democratic elections; Lela
Taliuri, a lawyer at Georgian Young Lawyers Association; Nino Chikladze, a lawyer at Geor-
gian Young Lawyers Association works on various gender projects; Teimuraz Koridze a lawyer
and advocate in civic law; Vakhtang Mosiashvili a lawyer and advocate in civic law. The expert
interviews were recorded during March-April, 2014. The research instrument was the discus-
sion guide. After gaining records the transcripts were prepared and the data was analyzed.
Apart from this, the method of content analysis was used to study data about the in-
heritance registration at the National Agency of Public Registry and inheritance litigation cases
at the court. The three major cities were chosen, one from eastern and another from western
part, and also the capital of Georgia to request the public information (mainly the statistics).
On the one hand, the identical letters were sent to the National Agency of Public Registry in
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three Georgian cities: Tbilisi, Telavi, and Kutaisi. The requested public information should 187
contain the registered inheritance data for 2011-2012, 2012-2013 and 2013-2014 years and
gender aspect, the quantity of the registered inheritance for men and women. On the other hand,
the matching letters were sent to the Tbilisi City Court, Kutaisi City Court and Telavi District
Court, that were also asked for court records, pertaining to inheritance litigations for the last
three years. The information should have covered quantity of inheritance litigation and gender
aspects: between whom the process was. Field work of this method proceeded February-March,
2014.
Law Regulations and Cultural Practices
As mentioned above, the Constitution of Georgia guarantees equality for all citizens and
the Law on Gender Equality supports equal opportunities and treatment, at the same time it
stresses the significance of maintaining statistics on gender equality. In this part, the accordance
between law regulations and everyday practices will be discussed.
To turn to the content analyses of the data that was retrieved from the Tbilisi and Kutaisi
city courts, the Telavi District court, and the National Agency of Public Registry. It is important
to note that even though the Gender Equality Law instructs public institutions to gather, sort,
and maintain statistics in the sphere of gender equality, two important institutions, such as the
court and the National Agency of Public Registry, do not do so. When the National Agency of
the Public Registry was asked for information regarding the gender of registered inheritance
beneficiaries from 2011 to 2013, only general statistical information was given and the agency
responded that they do not possess information on the gender of beneficiaries. Although it is
legally considered public information, when the names of beneficiaries were requested in order
to create statistics according to gender, the agency responded that the information would only
be supplied for a fee of ten GEL per name. Consequently, this data, which is supposedly free
to the public, would be incredibly expensive to acquire, given that in only one year these three
cities have approximately six thousand and five hundred inheritance claimers. Furthermore,
an application for this data was rejected due to the amount of time and difficulty required to
compile the information. When Tbilisi City Court was asked for information, it released on the
number of inheritance litigations that took place. The Only Telavi District Court was able to
provide the requested statistical information about inheritance litigations between sisters and
brothers for the years covered in this report.
These cases reveal that sometimes key public organizations are not involved in imple-
menting gender equality law, and do not systematize related data as they should. It is very
important to maintain gender varied statistical data in order to plan future policies related to
gender. As Lela Khomeriki notes, statistics can play a significant role in raising awareness
about gender inequality in society (L. Khomeriki, interview by author, Expert Interview, Tbili-
si, Georgia, March 2014). To support this claim, she recalled examples from her teaching ex-
perience at Ilia State University in Tbilisi, particularly from her class about gender issues in
Georgia. Often, students did not admit that gender inequality exists in Georgia, until they were
shown supporting statistical data. When they encountered real facts, they began to reflect on
them and acknowledge injustice or discrimination toward women.
For Tamar Gurchiani, it is clear that there are no gender sensitive institutions in Georgia
that could survey and compile statistics on gender issues; for example how many women refuse
to receive their parents’ inheritance and why. Another problem she mentions is, that Georgia
does not have proactive law regulations that could decrease the number of women who do not
claim or have to refuse their share of inheritance (T. Gurchiani, expert interview by author,
Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
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188 The survey, conducted by UNDP shows, that most of the parents’ property is given to a
son and not to a daughter. (United Nations in Georgia, 2013, p. 201). But still the significant part
of the respondents supported equal rights in terms of inheritance distribution, but it is unclear
what this idea of “equal rights” pertains: Does it mean a fully equal and just experience, or
only a subjective vision of what is considered “fair”? Furthermore, it is unclear whether these
respondents would themselves distribute their property evenly to their children, or whether they
had a fair experience when receiving their own inheritance. As the survey shows, the number of
people who believe that a major part of parents’ property should be given to a daughter is very
small (United Nations in Georgia, 2013, p. 201).
Table 1. Division of inheritance (%).
Question - How should parents’ property be divided between son and daughter?
Property type
Answers Parents’ Cash, car and other
Land Jewellery
house mobile property
Should be given completely to a son 42 31 7 14
Major part should be given to a son 14 16 12 16

Should be divided equally 44 50 67 66
Major part should be given to a daughter 0 1 11 3
Should be given completely to a daughter 0 1 3 1
Don’t know/refuse to answer 1 1 1 2
The data from the table division of inheritance shows that respondents more easily give
women access to movable property than to unmovable property. Georgians predominantly pre-
fer men to inherit a house and land (United Nations in Georgia, 2013, p. 201).
Qualitative research data of the same project support the quantitative research results.
Respondents explain giving preference to a son, and compensate a woman with a dowry as
reflected in the Georgian tradition. When getting married, a woman is believed to become the
‘owner’ of her spouse’s property, including his inheritance from his parents. However, here
‘ownership’ means just a right to use the property (to live in a house, to use belongings). Here
are some comments from female respondents:
I think that the son should be given more; everything my father left belongs to his
son. I would not take what my father left for him. I do not want my brother’s property to be
shared with me (Samegrelo, urban, 20-35, higher education) (United Nations in Georgia,
2013, p. 201).
We sold our house in Gali, I have a sister-in-law and we symbolically...My husband

symbolically gave her $300. She had no complaints. I would be very offended if she had
and I as well do not want anything from my brother’s house, even if they sell it, I do not
want even one Tetri. (Samegrelo, urban, 36-50, higher education) (United Nations in Geor-
gia, 2013, p. 201).
I have a house in a village and a flat in a city and it happened somehow that I have it
in my daughter’s name. It does not matter whose name it is in, but my son asked me several
times why it is in Salome’s name. Therefore, he thinks that he has a house in a village, and
that both belong to him. Now, I have never said at home that it all belongs to a son, but I
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guess he still thinks that it still belongs to him (Samegrelo, urban, 36-50, higher education) 189
(United Nations in Georgia, 2013, p. 201).
Dividing property, unfortunately, it is that in Georgia that when a daughter is mar-

ried and leaves for her new home, that is where her property is. Whether it is bedroom
furniture, a dowry, or others - whatever was sent to her, but now as I notice...everything was
given to a son: house, land or whatever it was. (Kakheti, urban, 20-35, higher education)
(United Nations in Georgia, 2013, p. 201).
It is clear, that even though democratic countries should share universal values about
human rights, there is still a huge gap between the existing situation and the desired reality in
Georgia. Women are victims of cultural norms, invisible repression, and violence. The laws and
regulations promoting gender equality are either ignored or posited as unnatural in order to jus-
tify the legitimacy of Georgia’s existing inequality. As Iris Marion Young declares, “… social
justice requires explicitly acknowledging and attending to those group differences in order to
undermine oppression” (Young, 2011, p. 3). She argues that when some groups are privileged
in a society while others are oppressed, in order to achieve social justice, the oppression must
be explicitly acknowledged and addressed. Tamar Gurchiani expressed the opinion of Geor-
gian liberal circles when she mentioned that the Georgian Orthodox Church, as an institution,
propagates conservative, patriarchal values, and supports gender discrimination and women’s
dependence on men. Given the fact that 96% of Georgians report that they trust the Patriarch
(NDI, public poll in Georgia, March-April 2014), it would not be easy to change these deeply
rooted discriminatory attitudes against women.
One of the biggest roadblocks for gender equality in Georgia lies in the lack of consensus
about the definition and parameters of human rights, especially in regards to women’s rights. In
public discussions, issues involving gender equality are often mentioned with a touch of irony
(Matynia, 2010, p. 201), even by liberal intellectuals who have significant influence on public
opinion. Elzbieta Matynia discusses similar problems in Poland when “in those first years of
transformation, there was enormous socio-cultural and political pressure coming from both
men and women to disregard the issue and even to ridicule those involved in discussions of it”
(Matynia, 2010, p. 206).
In most cases, even though gender inequality is apparent, it is not seen as injustice. Some
forms of violence are seen as justified, as they are part of widespread social norms that condone
such behavior. That’s why gender inequality and violence against women needs adequate at-
tention and research to reveal this oppression and injustice. A lawyer, Vakhtang Mosiashvili,
notes that when parents distribute inheritance to their children and give priority to the sons they
unconsciously put daughters in unequal positions. However, they do not treat this action as
discriminatory against their daughters. If they were aware of the future consequences of their
actions, they may not make these choices. “No parent hates his/her children. So, to destroy their
future life and give no chance to live normally- it happens just unconsciously” (V. Mosiashvili,
expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
Mzia Tsereteli notes that even women themselves do not admit that their rights are vio-
lated, since discrimination is perceived as a fact of life:
When you say, “Women you also can claim your share of inheritance!” they are
surprised. Thus, they themselves are potential violators. If a woman understands that the
inheritance belonged to her, too, and her parents treated her unjustly, it will be a progress,
as she will not do the same to her children. Usually, daughters do not even express their
anger, but emotionally they are full of displeasure. This tradition unconsciously passes
from generation to generation, and women do the same to their children as parents treated
them. They think this is the norm. Sometimes, women do not realize what they lost, for
example, their chances of development and self-realization (M. Tsereteli, expert interview
by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014)
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190 Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann argue, “As long as the routines of everyday life
continue without interruption they are apprehended as unproblematic” (Bourdieu, 2005, p. 66).
They seem to be ‘typificatory schemes’ in everyday life and these schemes continuously affect
interactions (Bourdieu, 2005, p. 66). In terms of sister-brother relationships we can see the ‘typ-
ificatory scheme’ of good brother and sister relationships based on the presumption that males
are the only rightful inheritors. But these harmonious interactions only last until sisters ask for
their share of their inheritance and acknowledge themselves as equal heirs of their parents’
property. In that case, the “typificatory scheme” is ruined.
Mzia Tsereteli states that instead of inheritance, a woman gains the status of being mar-
ried, which she finds more suitable. The ‘modern’ type of women irritates her, because that
conflicts with the typification scheme of a ‘good Georgian women’:
As compensation a woman gets… a kind of status, a “pseudo” status… “the real

Georgian woman,” “a good housewife”… and she likes this kind of status and role (M.
Tsereteli, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
Even though, in many cases, common law is stronger than legislation, we cannot say
that legislation is useless. According to Tamar Gurchiani, the inheritance law approved in 1997
protects women because in order to divide or sell the inheritance property, a claimant must stay
within the framework of the law:
Even if an ancestor decided to distribute inheritance just among men and exclude
women by the means of a testament and leave her without inheritance, the law supports
her as a legal heiress. The law protects her, because the law does not make any difference
based on gender (T. Gurchiani, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014)
However, Gurchiani thinks that even though the law does not vary based on gender,
structural discrimination is so strong that it disables women from accessing their legal rights:
If we say that cultural norms are so strong that they dictate women to reject their
rights on inheritance for the benefit of men, then we can suppose that these kinds of cases
are frequent... When a woman is an heiress, but she is a victim of discrimination, this in-
justice should not be discussed in just law regulation context. We face broader, structural
discrimination that is sharply framed, supported by cultural norms. Structural discrimina-
tion is as important a problem as legal discrimination (T. Gurchiani, expert interview by
author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014)
Another lawyer, Teimuraz Koridze, claims that sister-brother litigation cases on inheri-
tance occur very rarely as they do not want to address the court and bring the issue into public
view. In many cases even though sisters are not satisfied with their conditions, they do not go to
the court to claim their inheritance rights:
Legal litigations between sister and brother are rare and in most cases these hap-
pen as consultations. Sisters are interested in: do they have an inheritance? Do they have
right on a parent’s property? These cases do not come to the court as usual. But they have
a feeling of protest towards the unequal inheritance distribution practice, while the law has
different regulations. The reason they do not go to court is because they do not want people
to discuss it. If women address the court then everybody, all relatives will know about it
and this will be considered an embarrassing case (T. Koridze, expert interview by author,
It can be seen that women, even in very hard situations, refuse to litigate with their broth-
ers and parents. Nino Javakhishvili explains that issue:
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…because it’s not only about her brother, she might ruin relations with a 191
mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, and even with cousins. That means, for us,
the family is the most valuable, we are a ‘clan’ society.
Vakhtang Mosiashvili also discusses the reasons why women do not sue their families:
This is a complex problem; in our society to intervene and take part in other
lives seems normal. Women do not go to the court not because they do not want to,
but because the society will respond in a very negative way. Deeply rooted stereo-
types will come up and everyone will express their displeasure about ‘shameless’
women who dare to ask their brothers for a share of the patrimonial house. The same
could happen if a brother addresses the court, as for Georgians it is not acceptable
that brother and sisters sue over the property, they think that close relatives should
have a more respectful relationship (V. Mosiashvili, expert interview by author,
Sometimes women do not seek legal redress for financial reasons as they are unable to
pay for legal services. Teimuraz Koridze notes:
Women should have enough financial support to begin legal litigation. They
have to pay the lawyer in advance and if they lose the trial/process they will not get
any refund. Apart from this, they should pay a fee for the court hearing and also for
the property value expertise (T. Koridze, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia,
March 2014).
Recently in Georgia, many women have become the breadwinner in their family, but that
has not changed their social condition; they still are not equal with their partners in decision-
making processes. Often, Georgian women are more concerned with supporting their family
than defending their own rights. “Despite the fact, that in many households women have be-
come the primary breadwinners, their better adaptability and survival skills have not facilitated
their transition from the private to the public domain” (Sabedashvili, 2007, p. 36). They cannot
fight against the patriarchal society that commands them to accept this set of norms. One of
the reasons supporting these norms is the strong belief that men function as the continuers of
the patrimonial line. Another factor is that the son often stays living with his parents, while the
daughter moves to live with her husband’s family. Sons are expected to take care of their par-
ents, and this is often used to justify their claims to full inheritance of their parents’ property. If
parents have only male children, according to tradition, the youngest son is the primary heir as
he stays in the parental house and cares for his parents, while elder sons have to move when they
get married. A lack of economic resources is an additional obstacle for women to gain access to
their inheritance. In particular, when parents have only one house they cannot divide it. Even if
finances are of less consequence, parents prefer to give a daughter immovable property. Pierre
Bourdieu notes about the inheritance tradition in Kabylia: ‘The inheritance tradition, which
excludes a woman from their heritage, the mythic world-view which accords her only a limited
existence and never grants her full participation in the symbolic capital of her adoptive lineage”
(Berger & Luckmann, 1967). Something similar could be applied to the Georgian case:
A woman is not supposed to be an inheritor. Instead, a man is the only heir.

Therefore, all property related issues are charged with symbolic meanings and are in ac-
cordance with the structure of society. If a woman also was connected to the continuation
of the patrimonial line there could have been a different situation... Lack of economic re-
sources becomes the reason for unequal distribution of inheritance. I think, if the family
is a millionaire, then it can give not only houses, but everything to a son and a daughter
also...otherwise, people begin to talk about privileges (N. Javakhishvili, expert interview
by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014)
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192 This is a really deeply rooted assumption that the main inheritor should be a man, and a
woman should be satisfied with a dowry consisting of money or immovable property.
A woman would only be dowered with immovable property if a family owned

multiple apartments. If the property consists of land in the village with the family house,
then undoubtedly it will go to a son. It is so unquestionable that even women have no
feeling of protest. If a woman expresses her dissatisfaction, she is seen as a plotter who
does not respect the traditions and does not love her family. Her action is perceived as
unseemly and is criticized by society in the micro ‘socium’ (L. Khomeriki, expert inter-
view by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
The land was everything. A woman got married and moved from her parents’
family. Because it was the norm for a woman to move in [with her] new family after get-
ting married, a man became dominant; he did not have to move anywhere. Everything
was familiar to him as the house belonged to him. He continued not only a generational,
but also a cultural line (V. Mosiashvili, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia,
March 2014).
As mentioned above, it is necessary to acknowledge that the unequal distribution of in-

heritance is an economic form of violence that may cause other forms of violence. Women, in
many cases, suffer from this violence when, often, they are unable to feed or care for themselves
and their children. In many cases, parents do not allow their daughters to come back home, even
when they are victims of domestic violence. Thus, in a certain sense parents appear to be op-
pressors of their daughters. On the other hand, before creating new families, women are already
doomed to be victims, as they are not independent economically. They do not get an equal and
fair part of their inheritance through their dowry. Therefore, initially they are victims of dis-
crimination from their parents. In this sense, we may consider unequal inheritance distribution
as a form of violence against women. Iris Marion Young argues: “If unconscious behavior and
practices reproduce oppression, they must be morally condemnable” (Young, 2011).
A gendered based distribution and management of inheritance perpetuates an unequal
division of positions between sexes, not only in a family, but also in a society. The previously
discussed forms of discrimination coming from a woman’s parents are not treated as violence.
Even in cases of domestic violence in which inheritance could help a woman leave her situa-
tion and start over, Georgian women often do not dare to take legal action against their brothers
in order to claim their inheritance, especially if their brothers are married. The relationships
between blood-related kin are too sacred within Georgian culture to risk violating traditions.
However, women are occasionally willing to sue for inheritance rights from their in-laws:
There was a case of two brothers equally possessing a house. Then one of them died.
Another brother did not want to share his inheritance with his sister-in-law, who was the legal
heiress of her husband. Generally, litigations between sisters-in-law and brothers-in-law hap-
pen quite frequently. Now, they do not care about awkwardness, though that could ruin their
relationship (T. Koridze, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014)
A woman goes to court when living conditions are hard and sometimes she has no
place to stay with her kids. Her childhood house now belongs to her brothers. Her original
family thinks her new family should care of her. But if it became impossible to stay there and
if she does not want to end up in the street, she has to find a solution, that is, to sue her brother-
in-law (L. Khomeriki, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
There were many cases when women stayed in the street with infants and when we
asked them why they did not go back to their parents’ house; all of them had similar re-
sponses: because I have a brother and sister-in-law, they live in that house and the property
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belongs to them. The problem is that they do not know their rights and even do not oppose 193
their parents. As usual, parents themselves decide that any property belongs to their sons.
We had many such cases; we gave shelter to these women and provided them with various
services... Even though we instructed them about their rights they were not ready to discuss
their cases at court... Many of them suffered from extreme domestic violence, but still stayed
at husband’s house, since they could not go anywhere. Their original families did not want
them to return home. Generally they try to persuade daughters to be patient and avoid the
fate of [becoming a] “divorced woman” (N. Chikhladze, expert interview by author, Tbilisi,
Georgia, March 2014).
All experts interviewed for this report emphasized that eliminating the cultural con-
straints that prevent women from receiving their full inheritance would increase their chances
to acquire economic and symbolic capital, independence, status, and power.
Of course, if they (brother and sister – M.A.) divide a property equally than they could
unify their share with their husbands/wives properties. As a result, the amount of property
would not change, but we would witness a lot of changes in terms of dominance and depen-
dence issue. Husband and Wife would begin cohabitation with the same start-up conditions.
This is not acknowledged now (M. Tsereteli, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia,
March 2014).
In the past, women from noble families who inherited their parents’ property, since
in their families there were no male heirs, frequently were in the same dominant positions as
men. We can trace the same practice today. When a financially strong woman marries, she
becomes dominant. The financial situation, changes many things (V. Mosiashvili, expert
interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
It is clear, that in terms of inheritance common law is more effective than inheritance law
regulations. Legislative intervention was not enough to eradicate traditional forms of violence
on women. We cannot say that nothing has changed, but the improvements in this field still fall
short of real change. There are several NGOs working on gender projects, also some signifi-
cant steps were made in terms of scholarly researches and publications. However, this issue is
mainly discussed within certain privileged groups, and has not reached ordinary citizens who
actually face such discrimination:
Time goes on and the situation is the same, but some things have changed drasti-
cally compared to my childhood. This is connected with the right of expression of free will.
To sum up, nowadays, society is freer... (M. Tsereteli, expert interview by author, Tbilisi,
Georgia, March 2014).
I cannot say that there is no progress. There are improvements. Generally, the work
conducted has its results. The situation is not hopeless, but we need to do more. (N. Javakh-
ishvili, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
Of course I am far from the idea that even 1/3 of Georgian society understands that
they should share their inheritance equally... But the tendency is that more and more women
express their claim and more parents acknowledge their mistake when a son gets the main
share of the property.... But the situation is looking up very slowly and if the process is not
accelerated by means of new measures it will take a long period until we have real results
(T. Koridze, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
According to Georgian human rights activist Tamar Gurchiani, Georgia’s participation

in these international conventions is less motivated by a belief in our adherence to the conven-
tions, and more concerned with the prestige and benefits of being part of a “club” of democratic
countries:
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194 Why did we join them? .... Developing countries are happier to sign these conven-
tions than developed ones. For example, the USA has not ratified the CEDAW by UNDP...
developing countries are happy to ratify these international conventions as they feel like
they joined an international club; they need it to get investments, recognition of the state,
to develop tourism and so on. There are plenty of reasons (T. Gurchiani. Expert interview
by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
Joint attempts of the Government and NGOs to elaborate a complex approach could
be seen as initial measures to improve women’s positions in term of collecting inheritance.
Particularly, a proactive law, information campaign, new programs in education, more women
representatives in parliament and the government will play important roles in this process.
Nowadays, female representation in parliament is only 11% and only 38% of citizens evalu-
ate women’s representation as ‘too few.’[Public attitudes in Georgia: Results of a March 2013
survey carried out for NDI by CRRC. This research is funded by the Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)]
There is a lot to be done in order to encourage women to participate actively in social and
political life. The experiences of Poland show us that for several years, it was very difficult for
women to enter into political circles, especially for feminists. As Elzbeita Matynia describes,
“For a long time it was considered political suicide for a woman active in public life to identify
herself with feminism and feminist issues ” (Matynia, 2010). But a few years later, an impres-
sive “cohort of women finally ‘graduated’ in Poland and began to enter the politically relevant
public sphere” (Matynia, 2010). That significantly changed the situation in Poland. The same
way could be helpful for Georgia. Georgian experts provided some general recommendations:
Currently, I am not actively involved in women’s movements and am observing the

situation from outside. I have not noticed in any campaign or on TV how many women are
victims of family violence because their parents did not support them with a place to live,
how many women are oppressed by brothers or sisters and sons-in-law. This data could be
collected. Someone should gather this information and publish it to make people think about
this issue (M. Tsereteli, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
M. Tsereteli discusses why gender related projects are not financed in Georgia. While
NGOs usually suggest issues and projects to donor organizations, in Georgia, the process is
reversed: NGOs seek donors and these donors suggest courses of study or action. Furthermore,
the fields related to the study of gender equality are often filled with unqualified and easily
dismissed scholars:
… NGOs should provide adequate work on this issue. The dosage and techniques
of transferring information are also important, because when someone thinks that an exist-
ing practice is the norm you should not tell her categorically that her rights are abrogated.
She might not get it. Therefore, to explain the issue in the correct way you need to have the
necessary skills. Many have worked improperly. If you have a bad reputation as soon as
you start to speak about gender related problems she would say that she does not want to
listen to you (M. Tsereteli, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
What short and long term goals should NGOs and government focus on in order to
improve this situation? We, who work on gender, say that we need both together: symp-
tomatic treatment that means state [sanctioned] temporary norms and restrictions...And,
secondly, working in-depth to fight stereotypes; that means organizing trainings, programs
at schools and universities; discussions, meetings, film screenings, and all possible ways
to deliver information we should work on with society; We will not have the results today
or tomorrow, but we need both approaches to have the results some time [in the future]...
There is a need for a strong movement. In this case the problem is that this patriarchal men-
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tality permeates the whole society. The government consists of members with patriarchal 195
mentality and most of them are men. It is a closed circle, if among them were women, not
only women but also those without a patriarchal mentality, they could notice problems (N.
Javakhishvili, expert interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
In Iraq, 30% of parliament members are women, while in Georgia we have only
11% of members are women. According to the international standards, at least 30% of
parliament members should be women. When women are not among decision makers in
politics, it is natural, that the political will to protect women is weak (T Gurchiani, expert
interview by author, Tbilisi, Georgia, March 2014).
Not in kindergarten, but at school we should teach people civic education and ex-
plain what male and female equality means. Not only in the legal context, but also in real
life; when people create families and have to share inheritance, they should keep a balance
and not make preferences on the basis of gender (L. Taliuri, expert interview by author,
To summarize the expert interview findings, it can be concluded, that the Republic of
Georgia was highly motivated to participate in international conventions as it gave possibility
to get benefits and prestige on an international level. However, only liberal legislation was not
enough to overcome such widespread form of economic violence as unequal inheritance distri-
bution and management. Georgian women still are not willing to demand equality and defend
their rights in this context, since the blood-related kinship is too sacred within Georgian culture.
Even though in many cases, women become breadwinners, they cannot be decision makers.
They still depend on their husbands when it comes to the management of family issues. Women
rather feel more comfortable to fit into the pseudo status and stereotype of “exemplary” Geor-
gian woman. Moreover, females who are victims of violence cannot rely on support from old
family and return to their childhood home as they lost their share of it. Consequently, women
end up in a situation of suffering from domestic violence. Thus, even though gender inequality
is obvious, often it is not perceived as discrimination. On the contrary, some forms of violence
are justified on the basis of widespread social and cultural norms condoning such behavior.
Conclusions
In conclusion, in most Georgian families men have significant privilege in terms of inher-
itance management. Even though legislation gives men and women equal rights to inheritance,
Georgian families give privilege to men and transfer a significant part of the parents’ property
to men (especially unmovable property). The legislative intervention has not been enough to
eradicate traditional form of violence against women. Commonly, male privilege is explained
with the logic that they are continuers of a patrimonial lineage. For a Georgian woman, it
is more valuable to maintain a good relationship with family than to defend her rights, even
though it gives her more chances for self-realization and security. A woman stays economically
dependent on her husband, unless she starts to work. In some cases, this creates an inescapable
situation of domestic violence as the woman has nowhere to go. Dowries have lost their signifi-
cance and, unlike in medieval Georgia, are no longer a prerequisite for marriage. Nowadays,
with dowries, mostly seen as a symbolic gift, women receive even less property and resources
from their parents. Although women have more independence in choosing their spouses, the
economic violence of unequal inheritance distribution has a great impact on their independence
and individual rights. Unfortunately, despite the myriad negative repercussions of this tradition,
the unequal distribution and management of inheritance is often justified by Georgian society,
and is not acknowledged as violence or discrimination.
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196 The situation, regarding the acknowledgment of gender inequality and injustice has
changed, but to get to the desired results, the Georgian government and NGOs should work on
developing a complex program that will cover both legal empowerment and education. Such
an approach would be productive for short and long-term goals in terms of inheritance manage-
ment to encourage a more equal and just society for women. Educational programs will change
the situation step-by-step in terms of transforming ideas at a personal and cultural level, but to
accelerate the process, it is necessary to apply proactive laws, provide various informational
campaigns, and encourage more women to take part in politics and public activity.
References
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Discussion (pp. 19-20). New London: Connecticut College.
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a Discussion (p. 7). New London: Connecticut College.
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is a Discussion (pp. 2-4). New London: Connecticut College.
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Women’s movements in global era: The power of local feminisms (pp. 193-229). Boulder: West-
view Press.
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Discussion (pp. 36-37). New London: Connecticut College.
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2013 Survey. Retrieved from https://www.ndi.org/print/20254.
National Democratic Institute (NDI). (2014, April). Public attitudes in Georgia: Results of April 2014
survey. Retrieved from https http://www.civil.ge/files/files/2014/NDI-PoliticalRatings-April2014.
pdf
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business. Retrieved from http://www.ungeorgia.ge/eng/publications/agencies_publications?info_
id=77#.VFeGP_mUdiw
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Advised by Emzar Jgerenaia, Ilia State University, Georgia
Maia Araviashvili PhD Student and Lecturer, Ilia State University, M. Aleksidze St #1, Block 3, Apt.
N17., Tbilisi, 0193, Georgia.
E-mail: m_araviashvili@yahoo.com
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FUNCTIONAL HEALTH ASSESSMENT AS 197
THE DETERMINANT OF SOCIAL care

manageMent
Agnieszka Bem
Wroclaw University of Economics, Poland
E-mail: agnieszka.bem@ue.wroc.pl
Paulina Ucieklak-Jeż
Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Poland
E-mail: p.ucieklak-jez@ajd.czest.pl
Abstract
The aim of this study is to assess the functional state of health for elderly residents in Poland. The
analysis has been using the data from the survey “Social Diagnosis” carried out in 2013, in Poland.
The research concentrates on subjective measures, used to assess the population’s state of health, based
both on mortality and disability studies, while disability is defined as reduced ability to carry out daily
activities. The authors have evaluated the health status of the elderly in Poland in 2013, using measures
of health function (ADL) and activity restrictions (IADL). The results show, that functional health of older
people in Poland is significantly correlated with age and sex of respondents. The interpretation and the
conceptualization of desirable directions of changes should lead to active life style’s promoting, adjusted,
accordingly, to health state and age. It also provides important information for social care managers, by
defining needed form of interventions.
Key words: healthy aging, social care management, Life expectancy without self-care activity restric-
tions (ADL), Life expectancy without instrumental activity restrictions (IADL).

Introduction
Demographic ageing of the population, reflected in an increase in the percentage of old

people in society, is one of the social processes that focus the attention of researchers of many
disciplines, including economists. The aging population creates new problems for health care,
social welfare and pension systems. Higher strength of older people increases the demand for
health services and nursing care. Hence, from the point of view of social welfare, it is important
to support the longest possible period of independent existence, especially in the home environ-
ment. The planning of social welfare benefits, however, requires tools enabling evaluation of
ability to carry out daily activities.
The study on older people population health: “Survey of Health Ageing and Retirement
in Europe (SHARE)” is one of the first surveys, the aim of which is to assess population’s health
state. SHARE research questionnaire contains a question concerning health status perception.
The study is carried out in the framework of the EU program – Public Health Program (PHP)
as a part of the project entitled European Health Expectancy Monitoring Unit (EHEMU). The
aim of this project is to improve a construction of population’s health measures, further devel-
opment of their quality, indicating inequalities in health in European countries and supporting
construction of the European health monitoring system.
In the year 2000, in Poland, under the leadership of Prof. J. Czapiński, a project called
“Social Diagnosis” was launched. This project is based on assessment of institutional indica-
tors, using comprehensive data on households, a health status and quality of life. In 2013, on
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198 the basis of “Social Diagnosis” a thematic report entitled “Social Activity of the Elderly in the
Context of the Perception of the Poles” was created. The results of “Social Diagnosis” picture
a state of Polish society. The data, collected within the framework of the project, allow the
calculation of socio-medical measures, in order to evaluate and improve the state of health in
Poland.
The phenomenon of ageing implies the prevalence of chronic diseases and disabilities
and, as a result of above, high dependency needs (Mossakowska, 2012). Disability is usually
defined in terms of limitations of the ability to perform daily living activities or inability to
function in the basic or instrumental sense (WHO, 2003; Chappell, 2010). International Clas-
sification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) (WHO, 2001; Chappell, 2010) defines
disability as “a result of complex relationships between an individual’s health condition and
personal factors, and of the external factors that represent the circumstances in which the indi-
vidual lives”. Disability is conceptualized in terms of negative dimensions of individual – envi-
ronment relation – deficits and activity restrictions. For seniors, disability means limitations re-
lated to daily activities, or those, which allow independent living (Millan-Calenti et all., 2010).
According to this, health can be described as the ability to carry out daily activities at home and,
also, in society (Fange, 2009).
Independence is a key word related to the ageing process. Dependence is an important
problem, because of an impact on the elderly’s quality of life and mortality (Garatachea, 2009).
Many older people wish to live independently, in their own homes, as long as possible (Gitlin,
2003; Dujardin, 2014). Seniors, especially the oldest ones, spend every important part of life
in their own home (in case of very old people even 80%) or its close surroundings. “Aging-in-
place” builds up independence, well-being and social participation of the elderly (Fange, 2009;
Sixsmith, 2014).
Mobility and self-reliance ability are the key factors, that allow senior members of soci-
ety to stay independent even in late old age (Stjernborg, Melin, Ståhl, 2014). However, for the
elderly with disabilities, successful aging in their own home may be jeopardized by physical
barriers in residential environment.
The starting point for constructing socio-medical measures, used for the health assess-
ment was the concept of “limited social skills”, understood as the inability to perform tasks
(activities of daily living) accordingly to the age and gender.
Daily activities are divided into two categories: basic and instrumental ones. The scale
of basic daily living activities’ assessment (Activities of Daily Living – ADL) refers to self-
service-related tasks – personal care – such as ‘eating’, ‘transferring from bed to chair’, ‘doing
personal toilet’, ‘toilet use’, ‘taking a bath or a shower’, ‘walking on a corridor’, ‘ascend and
descend stairs’, ‘dressing’, ‘bowel continence’, ‘urine continence’) etc. Instrumental daily liv-
ing activity assessment (Instrumental Activities of daily Living – IADL) refers to those activi-
ties, that are necessary to stay in the home environment (household management), like: (‘ability
to use telephone’, ‘shopping’, ‘food preparation’, ‘housekeeping’, ‘laundry’, ‘travelling via car
or public transportation’, ‘medication use’, ‘ability to handle finances’(Ramos-Pichardoiinni,
2014), (Roehrig, 2007). Usually, ADL and IADL functions are analyzed separately (Kempen,
Myers, Powell, 1995).
ADL relates to activities essential for an independent life. IADL requires a higher level
of autonomy (making decisions) and, as a result, more intensive interaction with the environ-
ment. That’s why deficits in IADL usually appear earlier (Millan-Calenti et all., 2010). Both
ADL and IADL deficits impact quality of life, but ADL, especially at very high age, influence
negatively on mental well-being (Werngren-Elgstrom, Carlsson, Iwarsson, 2009). Deficit type
is crucial to make decisions concerning a form of social intervention (home care or nursing
home) (Finlayson, Mallinson, Barbosa, 2005).
It is worth nothing, that senior, getting the same scores in ADL or IADL test can repre-
sent quite opposite patterns of disability, and it, generally, depends on the stage of limitations
(Stineman, 2014).
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The aim of this study is to assess the life expectancy without limitations in daily func- 199
tioning, using the ADL and IADL. A comparison of these expectancies with total life expec-
tancy (LE) allows the assessment of needs related to the provision of social services.
The authors have adopted the major research assumption: demographic changes make it
necessary to improve the physical activity of older people. In the course of work, two research
hypotheses have been created:
Hypothesis H1: gender is one of the most important factors, determining the functional
state of health of the elderly;
Hypothesis H2: occurring of health problems, limiting performance of daily activities or
participating in other activities, is significantly correlated with the age of respondents.
The data come from the survey, presented in the thematic report “Social Activity of the
Elderly in the Context of the Perception of the Poles” published in 2014 in Poland.
Methodology of Research
In this study, the social and medical indicators have been used. Those indicators are
based on functional performance criteria and the social activity, so these are measures of the
impact of health and disease on performing social roles. These measures are divided into two
groups – measures of health self-assessment, and measures of function restrictions (Table 1).
Table 1. The measures of health self-assessment and function restrictions.
Life Expectancy
Functional health
Health self-assessment
Life Expectancy without Self-care Activity Restrictions – ADL
Healthy Life Expectancy – HLE
Life Expectancy without Instrumental Activity Restrictions – IADL
Source: own study based on (Robine, Jagger, 2006).
A measure, that allows health self-assessment of the elderly population is Healthy Life
Expectancy – HLE (Ucieklak-Jeż, 2012). While functional performance measures indicate the
degree of disability of the elderly, their independence from the environment to meet basic needs
or depending on other people, and are used to assess the degree of various difficulties, related
to the state of health, which cause physical restrictions of the elderly.
Measures, which specify the functional efficiency are: Life Expectancy without Self –
care Activity Restrictions – ADL and Life Expectancy without Instrumental Activity Restric-
tions – IADL. Assessing functional and activity restrictions in surveys, is difficult. Historically,
many surveys on ageing, attempted to elicit information on activity restriction by the self-report
of an individual’s need for help in performing basic personal care activities (bathing, dressing,
using the toilet), known as Activities of Daily Living (ADLs) (Katz, 1963) or by household
activities (shopping, cooking, doing the laundry), known as Instrumental Activities of Daily
Living (IADLs) (Lawton, 1969).
The main source of data, used to calculate ADL and IADL measures for Polish popula-
tion, are:
- Life tables, compiled by the Central Statistical Office of Poland (GUS, 2014);
- The data from the survey “Social Diagnosis”, carried out in 2013 (Czapiński, 2014).
Construction of life table is based on the probabilities of death:

(1)
where:

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200 ∑D 1x (t )
q1x = t
1 , (2)
∑ ( P (t − 1) − 2 K
x x −1 (t ))

∑D 2x (t )
q2 x = t
1 (3)
∑ ( P (t ) + D
t
x 2x (t ) +
2
K x (t )
Px (t) – the number of persons aged x at the end of year t; D1x (t) – the number of death
in year t at the age of x, amongst people born in year t-x-1; D2x (t) – the number of persons de-
ceased in year t at the age of x amongst people born in year t-x; Kx (t)–correction for the number
of population in year t with regard to migration of persons born in year t-x (GUS, 2014).
Probabilities of death are calculated up to the age of 84 years old (inclusively), applying
the formulas presented above. During the next stage of the calculation, the results are extrapo-
lated for population over 84 years, and compensated at the age from 1 to 84 years. The exact
procedure of life tables estimations is presented in the literature (Ucieklak-Jeż, 2012).
Basing on the average value of further lifespan, using the Sullivan method, the following
measure: Life Expectancy without Self-care Activity Restrictions – ADL and Life Expectancy
without Instrumental Activity Restrictions – IADL, have been estimated.
Results of Research
The results of the estimated average life expectancy without basic restrictions on inde-
pendent self-care of women and men in old age are shown in tables 2 and 3.
Table 2. Estimation of life expectancy without basic restrictions (ADL) for men.
Life expectancy
% ADLM / e x
Proportion of age without self-care
Age Probability of death Life expectancy
group with disability activity restric-
tions
qx S(qx) ex S(ex) πx ADLM ADL, %
x, x+n
60–64 0.09866 0.00059 18.73 0.02 0.147 14.61 78.03
65–69 0.13583 0.00085 15.50 0.02 0.209 11.72 75.59
70–74 0.18703 0.00116 12.53 0.02 0.195 9.29 74.16
75–79 0.26838 0.00142 9.82 0.02 0.258 6.94 70.69
80–84 0.38363 0.00183 7.48 0.02 0.324 5.10 68.15
85–+ 1.00000 0.00000 5.60 0.01 0.324 3.84 68.54
Life expectancy without basic restrictions for men is reduced in subsequent age groups,
which is naturally associated with lowering total life expectancy. It is Important, however, that
in subsequent age groups the relationship of ADL to LE is reduced (Table 2).
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Table 3. Estimation of life expectancy without basic restrictions (ADL) for wom- 201
en.
Proportion Life expectancy

% ADL K / e x
Age Probability of death Life expectancy of age group without self-care %
with disability activity restrictions
x, x+n q2x S(q2x) e2x S(e2x) π2x ADLk
60–64 0.04259 0.00038 23.86 0.02 0.183 15.89 66.61
65–69 0.06213 0.00055 19.80 0.02 0.234 12.42 62.75
70–74 0.09286 0.00073 15.94 0.02 0.331 9.29 58.29
75–79 0.15785 0.00093 12.30 0.01 0.368 6.73 54.68
80–84 0.27472 0.00122 9.10 0.01 0.509 4.53 49.78
85–+ 1.00000 0.00000 6.55 0.01 0.509 3.33 50.78
ADL analysis for women has shown, that life expectancy without basic restrictions
declines faster than for men. Taking into consideration longer women’s life expectancy (LE),
the relationship of ADL to LE is definitely less favourable (Table 3).
The results of estimated average lifespan without instrumental restrictions for women
and men in old age are presented in tables 4 and 5.
Table 4. Estimation of life expectancy without instrumental restrictions (IADL)

for men.
Life expectancy
Proportion of IADL2 M / ex ,%
without self-care
Age Probability of dying Life expectancy age group with
activity restric-
disability
tions
x. x+n qx S(qx) ex S(ex) πx IADLM
60–64 0.09866 0.00059 18.73 0.02 0.207 12.53 66.90
65–69 0.13583 0.00085 15.50 0.02 0.265 9.72 62.71
70–74 0.18703 0.00116 12.53 0.02 0.287 7.28 58.14
75–79 0.26838 0.00142 9.82 0.02 0.307 4.99 50.76
80–84 0.38363 0.00183 7.48 0.02 0.397 2.71 36.27
85–+ 1.00000 0.00000 5.60 0.01 0.397 0.45 8.01
Life expectancy without instrumental restriction (IADL) for men is lower than ADL,
which results in a lower participation of functioning without limitation (IADL), in total life
expectancy (LE). Especially important is the strong reduction of IADL in the oldest age group
(85+) (Table 4).
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202 Table 5. Estimation of life expectancy without instrumental restrictions (IADL)

for women.
Life expectancy
Proportion of IADL2 K / ex ,%
without self-care
Age Probability of dying Life expectancy age group with
activity restric-
disability
tions
x. x+n q2x S(q2x) e2x S(ex) π2x IADL2K
60–64 0.04259 0.00038 23.86 0.02 0.236 15.10 63.29
65–69 0.06213 0.00055 19.80 0.02 0.306 11.87 59.94
70–74 0.09286 0.00073 15.94 0.02 0.392 9.07 56.89
75–79 0.15785 0.00093 12.30 0.01 0.450 9.07 55.30
80–84 0.27472 0.00122 9.10 0.01 0.547 5.07 55.70
85–+ 1.00000 0.00000 6.55 0.01 0.366 4.2 65.57
IADL analysis for women has given very interesting results. IADL value, in relation
to the LE for women does not fall as quickly as for men and for women aged over 75 years is
higher (both in absolute values and in relation to LE) than for men in respective age groups.
This difference is particularly evident in the age group 85+ (Table 5).
The analysis indicates, that there is an important difference in the participation (%) of
the average lifespan without restrictions (independently of the type) in life expectancy (Ex) for
women and men.
The hypothesis H1 assumed, that sex might be one of the most important factors, deter-
mining the functional state of health of the elderly. The analysis, carried out using the Sullivan’s
method, has allowed the estimation of ADL and IADL measures, what has partially confirmed
the hypothesis H1. It has turned out, that women aged 60 years, in 2013, are to live, on average,
almost 16 years without basic restrictions on independent self-care, and males – on average,
15 years. It is important, that ADL for women constitutes 66.61%, and ADL for men – 78.03%
of their life expectancy. Men live shorter, but their functional state of health is better, than the
functional state of elderly women. Men, in every age group, report better state of functional
health.
Women, aged 60, can expect, on average, 15 years of life without instrumental activity
restrictions, and males, on average, 13 years. IADL for women represents 63.29% and men –
66.90% of their life expectancy. That indicates the existence of the pattern, analogous to the
ADL measure.
What’s the most important, the ADL and IADL measures, regardless of gender, decrease
with age and significantly correlate with the age of respondents. That allows the positive veri-
fication of the hypothesis H2.
Discussion
Research on the functional limitations of older people are usually limited to an assess-
ment of the patient’s current state. Those studies usually show a significant association between
age, gender and dependence (Millán-Calenti et all., 2010), (Spector, Katz, Murphy, & Fulton,
1987), (Brown, 2014), especially for the age group 85+ (Wilms, Riedel-Heller, & Angermeyer,
2007), (Finlayson, Mallinson, Barbosa, 2005), resulting in higher needs for care. While studies
on stability across time in the prevalence of ADL show mixed results, only a few studies pro-
ved gender differences – generally women have a higher ADL disability than men (Sjolund,
2014).
However, lack of information concerning life expectancy in the populations, does not
allow for a direct comparison of results. Only a few studies relate directly to the life expectancy
of the ADL and IADL.
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It should be also noticed, that after the analysis of the measures, a clear division into, at 203
least, two groups of older people has occurred – groups of, so-called, III and IV age. The first
group (III age), includes respondents aged 65–79 is characterized by relatively high physical
fitness, self-care abilities and performing of daily activities in the household. In the second
group, aged 80+ (IV age) some reduction in the level of abilities can be observed more often,
the dependence on other people rises, as well as the deteriorating state of health. These persons,
characterized as “very old”, are especially exposed to health problems, which may strongly
limit their functional disability and dependence. Studies suggest, that some social programs,
like preventive home visit or senior meetings, might postpone the loss of independency (Behm
et all., 2014).
Conclusions
According to present study it can be concluded, that health is only one of many factors,
affecting the seniors’ well-being. The sense of general well-being is determined not only by
the physical and mental state of health, but also by living conditions, circumstances and fun-
ctioning in society, what, in practice, defines the ability to live independently, with a sense of
independence from the others.
Estimations of ADL and IADL measures, carried out during this study, have partly
confirmed research hypotheses. According to them, sex and age are the important factors, which
determine the functional state of health of the elderly.
The results show, that the ability to an independent existence deteriorates with age,
however, the pattern of changes is strongly associated with sex. For men the ability to live wi-
thout basic restrictions, measured by ADL, slowly decreases, for women, the development of
instrumental restrictions, measured by IADL, is slower. These differences are most visible in
the oldest group of people (85 +). The existence of differences between sexes indicates the need
for further research of factors, affecting life expectancy without restrictions.
Mixed results of disability studies indicate the necessity for more complex research,
mainly because of the strong influence on the organization of social care for the elderly. The
assessment of the presented measures provides essential information, which allows to plan
social intervention. It it especially important in the context of development of “aging-at-place”
policy.
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dependence of older Swedish adults. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 49, 16–22.
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Advised by Vincentas Lamanauskas, University of Šiauliai, Lithuania 205
Agnieszka Bem Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Wroclaw University of Economics, Komandorska

118/120, 53-345 Wrocław, Poland.
E-mail: agnieszka.bem@ue.wroc.pl
Website: http://www.ue.wroc.pl
Paulina Ucieklak-Jeż Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Waszyngtona
4/8, 42-200 Czestochowa, Poland.
E-mail: p.ucieklak-jez@ajd.czest.pl
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206
ATTITUDES OF SHOP FLOOR EMPLOYEES
TOWARD WOMEN MANAGERS IN FUEL
DEPOTS: A CASE OF THE FUEL DEPOTS
IN LUBUMBASHI, DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
Stephen N. M. Nzuve
University of Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: snmnzuve@uonbi.ac.ke
Solomon Chepsongol Kelwon

Democratic Republic of the Congo
E-mail: scckelwon@yahoo.com

Abstract
The International Labour Organization and all organizations of human rights advocate against any form
of negative attitude in employment based on gender, its terms, promotion and relations. Shop floor em-
ployees play a very important role in the daily advancement and profitability of an organisation. The
purpose of this study was to establish the attitude of shop floor employees toward women managers in
fuel depots in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The study adopted a descriptive survey
design with the population consisting of one hundred and ninety three (193) shop floor employees. A semi
structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data. In total one hundred and twenty one (121)
shop floor employees responded yielding a response rate of sixty three percent (63%). The findings of
this study indicate that a negative attitude toward woman managers is prevalent in the Fuel Depots of
Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo. At the fuel depots, the number of women working was
less than a third of the males. In spite of this, women managers are rated higher in management qualities
and are considered to be more honest, diligent, compassionate, creative and intelligent when compared
to their male counterparts. The study recommends a culture change among employees in fuel depots in
Lubumbashi in order to enable them perceive women as equal partners at the work place.
Key words: attitude, gender, shop floor employees, discrimination, work place safety and fuel depot.
Introduction
Background of the Study
Successful organizations are those which have well developed manpower. Employees
are a critical asset in a company as a company’s future is determined, among other factors,
by the manpower it has and how well the same is managed (Srivastava, 2007). Employers are
expected to recruit staff without any form of discrimination on gender, colour, race, tribe or
religion. Promotions and payment of women managers should be done without any favour.
Employers are supposed to offer equal opportunity employment or discrimination based on sex
or any other consideration (Silverstein & Kaitesayre, 2009).
The numbers of female executives in decision making positions has tremendously im-
proved with more women being highly qualified and employed as Chief Executive Officers and
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pots: A Case of the Fuel Depots in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo
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in other key positions of leadership across all industries. According to Beardwell and Holden 207
(1997), in 1989 only 44 percent of women were in employment. It reached 50 percent in 2000
yet only 11 percent were in general management. Only 1 percent of women were at chief execu-
tive level as reported by Davidson and Cooper (1992).
Graham & Bennett (1995) define attitude as when somebody leans towards a percep-
tion. It is how somebody views and reacts to circumstances. It is closely related to perception
which is defined as an ability to see, hear or become aware (www.oxforddictionaries.com). It
is the way that something is viewed, learned or defined. It is one of the factors in the perceiver
(Nzuve, 2007). An attitude is how somebody views or thinks about something, a place or how
a thing or work should be done.
A fuel depot is where companies store their fuel in bulk. When fuel is imported, it is
received in a fuel depot and stored in big massive tanks which are securely kept before redis-
tribution for sale. The majority of diesel clients are mining companies in Lubumbashi, Katanga
Province. Their consumption is high compared to fuel used for commercial purposes. Other
clients of fuel depots are petrol stations and local clients. Depots are very sensitive fuel instal-
lations where the highest level of safety is maintained.
Shop floor employees are in the lower cadres of employment in an organizational es-
tablishment. They are involved in production of goods and services at the initial stages like
in a factory or machine shop with the duties and expectations being among others to receive
instructions from management, be orderly, pay attention to detail and be conversant with their
duties which they have to do (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/shop). In addition, it is expected that
they are vigilant, safety conscious, and report promptly when exposed to dangerous machines
or other dangers. This is critical in fuel depots where safety is paramount. The attitudes which
shop floor employees have towards women managers is important as negative attitude towards
women managers who have increased in number exponentially will impact negatively to the
company and vice versa.
Statement of the Problem
Graham and Bennett (1995) argue that group attitudes are developed over time and may
be changed. Social groups thus hold attitudes that are appropriate to them as per their standing
in society and circumstances shaping the attitudes. It is possible to influence People’s thinking
and attitudes. Attitude of employees is important at work and this has an impact on the way
they view management or managers. When attitude of employees or even managers is known,
it becomes easier to change them.
Kalii (1997) researched on executives’ perceptions on women managers and established
a predominant belief that the workplace is a man’s domain and women belong to the home and
suggested that further research should be done on the views of employees not in authority. Most
of the studies done are on managers as respondents. This research gap motivated the study on
attitude of shop floor employees toward women managers.
Aim of the Study
To determine the attitude of shop floor employees toward women managers in fuel de-
pots in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
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208 Contributions of the Study
The findings of this study will be of value to various stakeholders:-
a) In changing negative attitude amongst employees toward women managers.

b) In assisting women managers to understand how their employees rate their leader-
ship qualities.
c) It will also help them to adopt better management strategies towards employees.
d) In the long run, it could lead to more women claiming a stake in male dominated
arenas of management.
e) This study apart from enhancing our understanding of attitudes towards women
managers, may add value to knowledge for researchers and academicians who
may use it for reference purposes.
f) It will also help in the knowledge of managing across cultures. Businesses are
nowadays managed globally. Due to an advance in technology, markets are now a
global village. Human resources are assets of companies and managing them well
is beneficial to organizations.
g) The study will help in the growth of fuel companies and other industries.
Methodology of Research
The study adopted a descriptive census survey design over a period of one month with
a population of one ninety three (193) shop floor employees located in a single town, Lubum-
bashi which is the second largest city in Democratic Republic of the Congo. As the population
was not high and sparsely distributed, the study opted for the census survey. As the census
survey included all the shop floor employees it was easy to administer the semi structured ques-
tionnaire through the drop and pick later method.
Respondents Characteristics
One hundred and ninety three (target population) questionnaires were administered to
shop floor employees in eleven (11) fuel depots with a 64% response rate.76% of the respon-
dents were men while 24% were women. Age distribution was 45% of the respondents aged
27 – 34 years, 25% aged between 35 – 44 years, twenty nine percent (22 %) aged over 45 years
and 8% were between 18 – 26 years. 79% of the respondents were married , 20% were single
and 1% widowers or divorced. 37.2% of the respondents had attained university education,
33.1% had been up to college with 28.1% having secondary education as their highest level of
education. 1.7% had basic education (up to primary level). 34% had been employees in their
respective companies for 4 – 5 yrs while 32 % for between 1 and 3 yrs, 20% for more than 5
years and those who had worked in their respective companies for less than one year were 14%.
Cumulatively, the highest percentage (54%) of the shop floor employees had been with their
respective companies for more than four years.
Results of Research
This chapter shows the results of the study using figures and tables for illustration pur-
poses.
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Organizational Gender Composition of Fuel Companies in Lubumbashi 209
The majority of the managers in each of the companies are male with some companies
having no women managers as well as shop floor employees.
Table 1. Organizational gender composition of fuel companies in Lubumbashi.
% of Women
No of Women No of Men
No of Women No of Men Managers Vs
Fuel Depot Shop Floor Shop Floor
Managers Managers Men Managers
Employees Employees
(Managerial)
1 HASS Petroleum 8 29 2 5 40
2 SEP-CONGO 3 30 2 6 33.3
3 Mulycap Petroleum 3 6 1 3 33.3
4 ENGEN Petroleum 1 2 0 2 0
5 ‘AN Company’ 1 18 0 5 0
6 UNITED Petroleum 1 14 1 4 25
7 EXPRESS OIL 2 22 1 5 20
8 MOGAS OIL 2 8 2 4 50
9 CONGO PETROL 3 21 0 6 0
10 SARP OIL 2 7 1 4 25
11 SPC 2 8 1 3 33.3
On average, across all the companies in the survey, there are more men than women
whether as shop floor employees or in management with a range spread of between 0 and 50%
with a near normal distribution.
Shop Floor Employees Attitude toward Women Managers
A five point Likert scale was used to rate the attitude of shop floor employees toward
women managers where 1 = Strongly Agree (SA), 2 = Agree (A), 3 = Neither Agree nor Dis-
agree (N A/D), 4 = Disagree (D), 5 = Strongly Disagree (SD). The highest score on the scale
(5) was for ‘strongly disagree’ which indicates an unfavourable attitude; 3 indicate a neutral or
undecided stand while 1 strongly agree indicates a favourable attitude.
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210 Table 2. Shop floor employees’ attitude toward women managers.
Shop floor employees attitude toward women managers SA A N A/D D SD Mean

Liked 12 20 11 21 36 3.47
Cannot Easily Penetrate into some jobs because men have
11 12 13 37 26 3.64
dominated them
Are not exposed to the same training facilities as men 6 18 9 27 40 2.23
Restricted in employment and cannot easily be promoted
9 27 12 28 24 3.37
further
Get promoted through hard work. 8 14 26 22 31 3.52
Those who are lucky get promotion just by chance 14 15 8 28 35 3.96
Those who are pregnant become ineffective 23 27 12 24 13 3.20
Generally view themselves as not superior as men 13 22 12 29 24 3.29
Attain positions by copying men’s traits like determination,
17 25 24 21 13 2.88
decisiveness, tireless & authoritative
Tend to be naturally poorer than men at reading facial expres-
12 19 24 28 17 3.21
sions for clues to the owner’s state of mind
Been encouraged by society to see their future in terms of
7 17 25 25 26 2.55
caring to their families
Poor in nurturing clients unlike when nurturing their children 24 22 21 22 11 2.76
Erratic, too emotional and cannot make Sound decisions 17 19 13 29 22 2.80
Are exposed to a lot of stress because of family commitments
22 36 17 12 13 2.56
and work responsibilities
Hated by women as their leaders 18 38 20 15 9 2.59
Rated poorly in management qualities such as honesty, intel-
3 5 24 43 25 3.81
ligence, diligence, compassion and creativity
Women Managers should be beautiful. Helps improve levels of
9 12 13 33 33 3.68
cooperation.
Respondents felt that women managers are exposed to the same training with a mean
score of 2.23 implying that irrespective of gender, male and women managers have the same
training since the position of management has specific trainings, thus women managers were
not disadvantaged on their training.
Women cannot easily penetrate into some jobs because men have dominated them,
scored a mean of 3.64 indicating that most the respondents agreed with the statement. The same
percentage of respondents disagreed that women are lucky and get promotion just by chance
and that women are not supportive, sensitive or emphatic. Respondents felt that women in high
positions attain the status not by sheer luck but by hard work. The respondents feel that women
managers are supportive. This can be seen from the results of the study which showed that
women managers are being rated highly on management skills.
However, women are encouraged by society to see their future in terms of caring for
their families and homes and thus they tend to shy away from positions that would require a
lot of input in terms of time and energy. Women are also not restricted in employment and get
promoted based on competence and are generally viewed as equals to men, best in nurturing
clients as they do to their children , tend to be naturally better than men at reading facial expres-
sions for clues to the owner’s state of mind and opinion.
The respondents disagree that women are erratic, too emotional and cannot make sound
decisions but agree that women managers are exposed to a lot of stress because of family com-
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mitments and also work responsibilities and that they attain positions by copying men’s traits 211
like determination, decisiveness, tireless work ethic, and effective use of authority. Neverthe-
less the respondents rated women as rating higher in management qualities like honesty and
intelligence with the weighted mean being 3.81 (agree).
However the respondents agreed that women managers in fuel depots become ineffec-
tive when pregnant and experience additional challenges when dealing with female shop floor
employees.
Conclusions and Implications
The findings of this study indicate that gender discrimination thrives in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo with women being at the receiving end as the number of women work-
ing in the fuel depots is less than a third of the number of men working in the same. Neverthe-
less, women managers are rated higher in management qualities and are considered to be more
honest, diligent, compassionate, creative and intelligent when compared to their male counter-
parts. Both genders agreed on positive attribute of women managers. Another attitude which
both genders agreed on is that women leaders have to pay more attention when dealing with
women shop floor employees.
The study recommends that similar studies be undertaken in other sectors in Democratic
Republic of the Congo and Africa. This would go a long in enhancing our understanding of at-
titude towards women managers.
Recommendation
The findings of the study have shown that both males and female managers can perform
well. Negative attitudes should be discouraged. Fuel Companies should be encouraged that
women need to be employed as managers for it has been confirmed by research that they are
effective in management.
References
Beardwell, I., & Holden, L. (1997). Human resource management: A contemporary perspective, 2nd
edition. London: Pitman Publishing.
Davidson, M., & Cooper, C. (1992). Shattering the glass ceiling: The woman manager. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing.
Graham, H. T., & Bennett, R. (1995). Human resources management: The M+E handbook. London:
Pitman Publishing, Longman Group.
Kalii, F. N. (1997). Factors which bank executives perceive as hindering the career progress of women and
their attitudes towards female managers: The case of commercial banks in Kenya. Unpublished
MBA Research Project, University of Nairobi.
Nzuve, Stephen N. M. (2007). Elements of organizational behaviour. Nairobi: University of Nairobi
Press.
Srivastava, Sh. (2007). Women in workforce: Work and family conflict. Management and Labour Studies,
32 (4), 411-421. Doi:101177/0258042x0703200401.
Advised by Judita Stankutė, SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania
Received: October 12, 2014 Accepted: December 26, 2014
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212
Stephen N. M. Nzuve BSc, MSc, DBA, Associate Professor, Department of Business Administration,
School of Business, University of Nairobi, Kenya.
E-mail: snmnzuve@uonbi.ac.ke
Website: http://profiles.uonbi.ac.ke/snmnzuve
Solomon C. Kelwon BBA, MBA, Operation, Health, Safety and Environment Manager, CongoPetrol,
Democratic Republic of the Congo.
E-mail: scckelwon@yahoo.com
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MODEL of Successful Strategy 213
Execution: revising the concept
Joanna Radomska
Wroclaw University of Economics, Wroclaw, Poland
E-mail: joanna.radomska@ue.wroc.pl
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between the elements of the Eight “S” model
that affect strategic implementation and results achieved by companies. The main research question, to
which the author sought an answer, was whether there was a relationship between individual elements
that affect strategy implementation and the effects it brings in revenue growth. The survey covered 200 of
the best-ranked Polish companies (where revenues constituted one of the ranking criteria) where the level
of strategic implementation was considered satisfactory. Testing of the research hypotheses has shown
that the factors defined as Resources and Shared Values have a minor impact on the strategy implementa-
tion. The research also has shown that there is an additional element that could be incorporated into the
model - the system of informal communication. In addition, the paper describes the interrelations between
elements of the model.
Key words: implementation model, informal communication, strategy execution.
Introduction
The problem of strategy execution is a timely issue and subject to many in-depth stud-
ies (Huber, 2011: 49) mainly due to the fact that there is still little known about the tools and
methods supporting the process (Morgan, Levitt and Malek, 2007). Although many concepts
and theoretical models have been developed, strategic management theory is still looking for
answers regarding their usability and their associated implications (Hitt, Freeman, Harrison,
2006).
One of these models is the Eight “S” model. This model focuses on factors that support
an effective execution of the strategy (Higgins, 2005: 3-13). The aim of this study is to examine
the impact of these factors on implementation of development concept in companies. For this
purpose, it was assumed that one of the criteria indicating the efficiency is the revenue growth
rate and the trends associated with it (decline, growth, stagnation). The revenue growth was
described as an increase of a company’s sales when compared to a previous year’s revenue
performance. These trends can be considered as measures of the actions taken.
Problem of Research
As indicated by the results of many studies, the strategy execution process is much more
difficult than the formulating stage. Surprisingly significant number of managers devote less
attention to strategy implementation than to formulation (Hanley, 2007: 17). This is because the
conceptual stage is often supported by various tools and expert opinions, while the execution
process requires the combination of many, sometimes inconsistent elements and the elimina-
tion of internal and external factors. The strategy development process consists of selecting
appropriate options and ensuring their effectiveness, while the execution process requires that
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214 these options are effectively implemented. Without effective implementation, understood as a
process of putting plans and strategies into action, it is not possible for an organization to evolve
(Kathuria, 2012: 6). In addition, this process requires adequate quality of visibility, leverage
and responsiveness (Veth 2006:31). It is certain that if insufficient time and energy are devoted
to strategy implementation, then this will result in poor company performance and weaken the
competitive position. On the other hand, the rate of change both in the environment and within
the organization, resulting in subsequent adjustments and modifications of the strategy, means
that implementation becomes a critical step in the strategic management process. Powell (2004:
77-80) indicates the existence of the phenomenon known as “execution holes”, i.e. a situation
when the strategy is not effectively implemented despite elimination of all rational barriers. The
reasons seem to be irrational and hence cannot be explained by any economic law or behav-
ioural heuristic. That is why it’s important to search for the correct models and tools as these
may be a source of managerial inspiration. The Eight “S” model is based on the concept intro-
duced by Peters and Waterman (1982). This model was subsequently supplemented by Higgins
(2005: 3-13) by adding an eighth element i.e. Strategic Performance, which draws managers’
attention to the results achieved. According to the author, this element can have many forms,
ranging from the setting of strategic goals to result measurement. The basic assumption for this
model is that the execution of different strategies requires various types of organizational struc-
tures, systems, management styles, staff, resources and shared values. Therefore, the elements
described above should be analysed in detail.
Strategy and Purpose
Many authors draw attention to the content of the strategy and the manner of its formu-
lation as the factors which affect the possibility of its implementation. As mentioned by Frigo
(2003: 8-9), even a well-organized implementation process will lead to poor performance, if
it aims at achieving improper objectives and making wrong decisions. Also, Martin (2010:
53-64) points out that in many cases the cause of company’s problems is not poor execution,
but the strategy itself. Moreover, he substantiates the lack of grounds in separating these two
processes by the fact that it is not possible to determine clearly when implementation begins.
Thus, introducing a distinction between these two stages may result in chaos and confusion.
It seems therefore, reasonable to emphasize the feedback between these two aspects and their
mutual interactions.
Structure
The fact that the structure affects the efficiency of the implementation activities was
confirmed by extensive studies, in which a significant number of respondents indicated this
factor as a key element responsible for the gap between the strategy and its implementation
(Lepsinger, 2006: 56-67; Hrebiniak, 2008: 2). Getz and Lee (2011: 303-305) also indicate the
necessity to create an organizational architecture that is consistent with the strategic architec-
ture. As some authors have said, the larger the company and its organizational structure, the
greater the possible level of employee participation at the strategy execution stage in individual
departments, business units and project groups – therefore the strategy is then more partial
than comprehensive (Ashmos et al., 2002: 189-206). A large and more complex organizational
structure requires a greater involvement of middle and operational level managers. As shown by
research results, this is a prerequisite for effective strategic implementation and achievement of
better results in the competitive struggle (Ogbeide, Harrington, 2011: 733).
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Systems and Processes 215
As emphasized by Coon and Wolf (2005: 29-30), it is important to align processes and
systems to reinforce the desired behaviours and outcomes. In particular, this involves searching
for a link between the implemented strategy and other processes taking place in the organiza-
tion. It is essential especially for strategic control and for monitoring the strategic execution
process (Julian, 2002: 115-139). Formalization of procedures and processes not only brings
order to decision-making, but also introduces a certain rationality, which contributes to the ef-
ficiency and effectiveness of the actions taken (Betz, 2001: 60). It is also worth mentioning the
incentive system, which should be linked with the strategy execution stage, as the determinant
of the implementation progress and a tool for its regular control (Hrebiniak 2005). As shown
by the research results (Radomska, 2013: 80-92), the use of formal tools and systems for mea-
suring the degree of strategic goal realization allows them to be linked with the payroll-based
incentive system. Thus, it is a benefit resulting from formalization of the strategy implementa-
tion, which at the same time enables ongoing monitoring of strategic initiatives.
Style (leadership/management style)
Many authors draw attention to the impact of management style on employee involve-
ment in the strategy execution, as they are responsible for defining the strategic guidelines and
rules that determine the perception of the strategy at all levels of the organization (Boomer,
2007: 24). Thus, managements’ task is to eliminate the gap between the strategy and employees
everyday activities, as well as to take actions aimed at effective communication of the interrela-
tion between operational issues and the pursuit of the strategic direction chosen (Becher, 2005:
11). Results of many studies point out the issues associated with the unregulated decision-mak-
ing process and the improper perception of the sources of unsuccessful strategy implementation
among managers (Mezias and Starbuck, 2003: 3-17; Zajac and Bazerman, 1991: 37-56). This is
also indicated by Haudan (2007: 38-39), who emphasizes that the task of leaders should include
creating an aligned mental model, promoting individual ownership of the whole or cultivating
aligned behaviours. The surveys show that a large majority of the respondents indicate the
existence of an imaginary line dividing employees into creators and executors of the strategy
(How Hierachy, 2010: 74-75). Formulation of a development concept is perceived most often
as a creative task and therefore is assigned to top management (Raffoni, 2003: 1-3), while its
execution does not add enough splendour (G. Cocks, 2010: 260). Foster and Browne (1996)
mention that implementation is an area delegated generally to mid-level managers. Therefore,
the leaders’ task is to take measures aimed at eliminating this informal division in order to as-
sign the status of a common goal to the strategy execution.
Staff
Companies that achieve good implementation results can effectively focus employees
attention on the tasks associated with achieving strategic objectives by giving them decision-
making powers and establishing a clear system for assessing the effects (Henman, 2010-11:
30). This can be done through the participation of a large group of employees at the planning
stage. In that case the link between their actions and the strategic development concept can be
emphasized (Hapst, 2008: 19). It also brings a significant improvement in communication dur-
ing implementation (Viljoen & Dann, 2000). A drop in employee involvement in performing
operational functions is observed especially in the situations where they could not participate
actively in the creative stage (Hubbard et al., 1996). That is because employee resistance is the
aspect responsible for failure when executing any initiatives or changes.
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216 Resources
The results of the studies indicate that resource constraints are often mentioned as an
obstacle to strategy execution (How Hierarchy, 2010). Morgan (2010-11: 16-17) observes that
there is a problem with the allocation of resources and their planned use. Noble (1999: 21) in-
dicates the importance of pooling resources in organizing the implementation effort. It seems
essential to pay attention to proper budget construction, taking resource constraints into ac-
count. The proper usage of available resources is also essential for successful implementation
(Thompson et al., 2006).
Shared Values
Many authors indicate the role of the consistency between the strategic objectives and
the principles and values of the organization as crucial for implementing strategy (Batley, 1998:
309-312; Becker, 1993: 30-34; Bamber et al., 1999: 162-181, Sabourin, 2012: 53-59), espe-
cially in the context of managerial actions (Lepsinger, 2006: 56-57). The focus on a set of core
values is closely associated with an appropriate organizational culture and requires that such ac-
tions are assigned with the status of importance comparable with the focus on the performance
(Ruhmann, 2011: 3). Pateman (2008: 12) defines the phenomenon known as “value gap”, i.e.
defining the necessary changes, based on the organization’s vision, which are essential to pre-
serve the consistency between the actions and the expected results. An important issue worth
emphasizing is that employees should be aligned with the vision, values and strategy, while
through their involvement in the strategy implementation process they should be able to per-
ceive the real consequences of implementing this joint vision of development (Khadem, 2008:
29-30). Fitting these actions competently into the culture of the organization is also significant
(Varon, 2002: 4).
Strategic Performance
Becher (2005: 11) draws attention to the need for measuring the achievements of imple-
mentation in a way that allows for both identification of emerging issues and areas for further
development. The issue of measuring progress in the strategy implementation turns out to be
very important. Many researchers deal with the problems associated with methods of perform-
ing such measurements by considering both financial and non-financial factors. As indicated,
the second type of metrics is more closely associated with strategic initiatives, although it also
allows for focusing on elements which are more difficult to measure. On the other hand, the use
of measurable tools, such as Balanced Scorecard, eliminates some of the communication prob-
lems and improves the strategy implementation process (Frigo, 2002: 8-9). Many authors have
investigated the issues related to performance measurement and management systems, as well
as problems associated with their inadequate use (Schneier et al., 1992: 279-282; Mohrman et
al., 1989). Such studies often focus on measurement of issues that are too narrow or too general,
and may not be always related to the strategy implemented (Schneier et al., 1991: 247-260). Li
et al. (2008: 1-46) writes about different perspectives of such systems, mentioning the process
perspective, action perspective and hybrid perspective. Rho et al. (2001: 89-97) also introduces
the gap perspective and emphasizes the gap variables and the inconsistency between strategy
and execution. Sushil and Srivastava (2013: 554-582) suggest that organizations should not
only implement both financial and non-financial metrics, but also consider structural relations
–the participants and the situation of a particular organization.
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Methodology of Research 217
General Background of Research
The study was aimed at identifying barriers to strategic execution, as well as elements
that support implementation. The surveyed companies, due to their presence in prestigious
rankings, can be considered as representatives of the group of entities that have been rather suc-
cessful in the implementation activities. The results indicate that they have managed to execute
the adopted strategy at an average level of 74%, which can be regarded as satisfactory. So, the
companies participating in the survey do not have significant problems with implementation or
are able to effectively introduce appropriate remedies aimed at eliminating potential barriers.
It is assumed that the best indicator that determines the company’s performance is the revenue
growth rate.
Sample of Research
The group of respondents included managers of 200 companies that have been operating
for at least 5 years and which are listed among the 500 largest Polish companies according to
“Polityka” weekly magazine (101 entities) and in “Forbes Diamonds 2013” ranking (99 com-
panies). The first ranking takes into account sales revenue, total revenue, gross and net profit,
as well as employment level. The “Diamonds” list included the companies with the fastest
increase in value. The group of respondents included 68 small businesses (up to 49 employees),
63 medium-sized companies (50-249 employees) and 69 large enterprises (employing over 250
people).
Instrument and Procedures
The study was conducted using the PAPI (Paper and Pencil Interview) technique – the
survey was carried out with the use of a method based on collecting the data in an open (overt)
and standardized way. The questions in the questionnaire were of nominal nature (the respon-
dents declared the existence of specific obstacles) and of ordinal variable nature (the respon-
dents indicated the strength of their impact in a 5-point scale). The V-Cramer’s coefficient was
determined for nominal variables. It measures the strength of the relationship between them.
Research Results
The following research hypotheses have been proposed:
H1: There is a relationship between the internal inconsistency in the strategy imple-
mented and the results achieved by the company.
H2: There is a relationship between the organizational structure not matched to the strat-
egy implemented and the results achieved by the company.
H3: There is a relationship between the use of formal systems for supporting the strategy
implementation and the results achieved by the company.
H4: There is a relationship between the transfer of the responsibility for implementation
activities to leaders at various levels of the organizational structure and the results achieved by
the company.
H5: There is a relationship between the inclusion of a large group of employees in the
strategy development stage and the results achieved by the company.
H6: There is a relationship between the allocation of insufficient funds for the strategy
execution and the results achieved by the company.
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218 H7: There is a relationship between the identification of employees with the strategy
implemented and the results achieved by the company.
H8: There is a relationship between the use of Balanced Scorecard and the results
achieved by the company.
H9: There is a relationship between the use of informal communication and the results
achieved by the company.
Detailed results are presented in the Table 1.
Table 1. Hypotheses and research results.
Hypothesis V-Cramer p-value
H1 0,294 0.018
H2 0,321 0.006
H3a 0,297 0.016
H3b 0,397 0.000
H4 0,360 0.001
H5 0,414 0.000
H6 0,229 0.174
H7 0,190 0.420
H8 0,397 0.000
H9 0,305 0.011
The results obtained when testing Hypothesis 1 indicate the existence of a weak statisti-
cal relationship (0.294) between the revenue growth rate and the internal inconsistency of the
strategy implemented (inconsistent vision, objectives, schedule or budget). It should be empha-
sized that only 21 entities (10.7%) from the surveyed sample confirmed the existence of this
problem associated with implementation. A small number of them (only 6) declared a decline in
revenues, while the same number – stagnation. The answers obtained verify Hypothesis 1 posi-
tively, and thus confirm the existence of a relationship between the vaguely formulated strategy
and the revenue growth rate. However, a thorough analysis of the answers does not allow for
the generalization of conclusions concerning the direction of this relationship.
An average statistical relationship was obtained for Hypothesis 2, which indicates the
existence of a dependence (0,321) between the organizational structure not matched to the re-
quirements associated with the strategy implemented and the revenue growth rate. 27 entities
(less than 14%) declared that this element had a negative impact on results, which represents a
relatively small percentage.
Hypothesis 3 was divided into two parts – H3a concerns the use of budgeting and task
scheduling as tools supporting the strategy implementation. The result obtained (0.297) proves
that there exists a weak statistical relationship between these elements and the results achieved
by the company. A slightly higher correlation (0.397) was obtained for the Hypothesis H3b by
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examining the association with the use of an incentive system, in which the level of employee 219
remuneration depends on the degree of achievement of strategic objectives. In both cases, the
use of formal systems was declared by 69.7% of the companies, while an increase in revenues
was recorded in 77.9% of the entities that use budgeting and scheduling, as well as in 81.6% of
the companies that use incentive systems designed to support the strategy implementation. Both
results verify this hypothesis positively.
An average statistical relationship (0,36) was obtained also for Hypothesis 4, thus con-
firming the dependence between the transfer of responsibility for implementation activities to
leaders at various levels of the organizational structure and the results achieved by the company.
Moreover, this was confirmed by positive answers received from 139 companies, which consti-
tutes a significant percentage (71%). At the same time, 82.7% of them reported an increase in
revenues and therefore this hypothesis can be verified positively.
The highest value of dependence (0.414) was obtained for Hypothesis 5, which confirms
the existence of a statistical correlation between the inclusion of a large group of employees in
the strategy development stage and results achieved by the company. Interestingly, this solution
was used by less than half of the companies surveyed (47.9%), while 86.1% of them reported an
increase in the revenue growth rate. Nevertheless, this hypothesis should be accepted.
With respect to Hypothesis 8, the existence of an average statistical relationship (0,397)
between the use of Balanced Scorecard and the results achieved by the company was proved.
However, only 36.7% of the entities use this tool, while for 90.27% of these resulted in an in-
crease in the revenue growth rate. Therefore, the hypothesis can be accepted.
Hypotheses 6 and 7 are not statistically significant as the level of correlation is weak
(0,229 and 0,19), so there is no basis for accepting them. Thus, the existence of a relationship
between the allocation of adequate funds for the strategy implementation as well as the identi-
fication of employees with the development concept and the results achieved by the company
was not proved. This provides a basis for proposing Hypothesis 9 and introducing another ele-
ment of the Eight “S” model, i.e. the system of informal communication. This element was used
in 59.7% of the entities, which indicates that it may be considered a relatively important factor,
especially due to the fact that as much as 79.5% of them achieved an increase in the revenue
growth rate. The result obtained (0.305) indicates the existence of an average statistical rela-
tionship between the use of informal communication and the results achieved by the company,
which supports this hypothesis.
Discussion
The research results showed that inconsistencies in the strategy have a negative impact
on the results achieved by a majority of the companies. As confirmed by other researchers, it
is connected with the conflicting priorities or vague strategy (Hrebiniak 2006) and the lack of
clarity in strategy formulation (Grundy 2012). As indicated by the conducted research, most
organizations pay attention to the organizational structure supporting the strategy implementa-
tion. It is the element considered while selecting the development concept in order to eliminate
the negative consequences resulting from possible mismatch. Such findings also support the
results of Brenes, Mena and Molina (2008). There may be also drawn a conclusion that the
transfer of the responsibility for implementation activities to leaders at various levels of the or-
ganizational structure is important from the viewpoint of the results obtained. As mentioned by
Forrester (2000), the empowerment, and the decision power is supposed to support the strategy
execution. The research results proved that although the level of the employee participation as
a natural support for the strategy implementation is relatively low, it brings positive results.
There have also been indicated positive implications associated with the introduction
of Balanced Scorecard to the enterprise management system, as it is one of the methods that
improves the strategy implementation results. It was already mentioned in various studies
(Thompson and Mathys, 2008; Perkins, Grey, Remmers, 2014). It can be also stated, that the
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220 research showed that it isn’t necessary for employees to share the underlying values in order for
the strategy to be implemented. It is sufficient to take actions that aim at involving employees
in the strategic management process – mainly due to the communication benefits.
Conclusions
The main limitation of the described surveys, due to their nature, was the subjectivity of
answers. It prevented the obtaining of unequivocal declarations required to identify specific ty-
pes of barriers. Therefore, more in-depth surveys should be conducted, covering a wider group
of respondents, in order to obtain a more complete picture reflecting companies performance.
In addition, the specific character of the Eight “S” model should be examined in companies of
various sizes. However, as the research has shown, the factors defined as Resources and Shared
Values have a minor impact on the strategy implementation. There is an additional element that
could be incorporated into the model - the system of informal communication.
Acknowledgements
The project was financed with the funds of The National Science Centre based on the
decision no. DEC-2011/03/B/HS4/04247.
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“Journal of Baltic Science Education” ISSN 1648-3898

Impact Factor - 0.226 (2010), 0.425 (2011), 0.444 (2012)
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/journal.htm
http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/jbse/
Fast Publication
Peer Reviewed
Highly Cited
Papers submitted to JBSE should be original

work and substantively different from papers
that have been previously published or are un-
der review in a journal or another peer-reviewed
conference. Particularly we invite submission
of papers describing innovative research on all
aspects of science education and related areas.
Submitted papers will be assessed based on their
novelty, scientific and technical quality, poten-
tial impact, and clarity of writing.
Instruction for authors and other details are available on our website at: http://www.jbse.
webinfo.lt/requirements.htm
http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/jbse/files/JBSE_requirements_2012.pdf
For contacts and papers submission: mail.jbse@gmail.com
Sincerely yours,
Editorial Board
ISSN 2029-6932
problems
of Management
in the 21st century
Vol. 9, No. 3, 2014
228 1st International Baltic Symposium on Science

and Technology Education (BalticSTE2015)
 „STATE-OF-THE-ART AND FUTURE

PERSPECTIVES“
15-18 June 2015, Siauliai, Lithuania

SECOND ANNOUNCEMENT
Dear Colleagues,
On behalf of the organizing committee, we are delighted to welcome
you to Šiauliai, Lithuania, for the I International Baltic Symposium on Sci-
ence and Technology Education, BalticSTE 2015.
The Symposium will be held in Šiauliai (Lithuania) in June 2015 dur-
ing days 15-18.
We cordially encourage you to attend and contribute to one of the major events of
2015 on the field of science and technology education. We are confident that you will ap-
preciate the scientific program and the city of Šiauliai. We look forward to seeing you in
2015 in Lithuania.
Organizer of the Symposium

Siauliai University, Faculty of Education, Natural Science Education Research Centre, Lithu-
ania, http://www.gutc.su.lt/
Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania
http://www.gu.puslapiai.lt/indeks_en.htm
SHORT PAPER
(For the registration you are kindly required to submit a short paper /an extended ab-
stract/)
Delegates, who would like to present their work at the BalticSTE2015, are invited to submit
a short paper (an extended abstract) for consideration by the Scientific Committee.
The proposal should be plain text typed in English and should be between 1 and 2 A4
page (approx. 500-1000 words). Texts margins: top and bottom 20mm, left - 25mm, right
- 20mm. The text must be elaborated in Word for Windows, using 11 point Times New Ro-
man letters, line spacing – single.
Title of contribution
author(s) - name first then the family name;
affiliation: institution, city, country;
The main text that should contain:
1. Abstract (50-80 words, in 10 pt size) + keywords (3 - 5 keywords).
2. Introduction: Background, framework and purpose/research questions etc.
3. Methodology of research (study)
4. Results of Research
5. Conclusions and implications
6. References (Cited references only APA. Some examples can be found here:
http://www.usq.edu.au/library/help/referencing/apa
7. Acknowledgements (if any)
The use of footnotes to the text is not recommended. The work should be written in an
impersonal style.
One presenting author may submit only one short paper. A Short Paper which is more than
two pages will be returned.
ISSN 2029-6932
problems
of Management
in the 21st century
Vol. 9, No. 3, 2014
The Short Paper should be prepared as attractively as possible, much like a manuscript for 229
journal submission.
None short paper will be published or presented as a poster without the pay-
ment of the registration fees
Please note that the Short Paper is required in order to complete your Symposium registra-
tion
Accepted Short Papers will be published in the BalticSTE2015 Proceedings (with an ISBN
number)
For any question in regard to the submission process: balticste@gmail.com
FULL PAPER SUBMISSION

Authors are invited to submit a paper before 20 May 2015. The submission will undergo a
double blind peer review process and will be returned for revisions if necessary. Authors
will then submit a final paper till the end of June 2015.
OPTIONS
SUBMISSION OF SCIENTIFIC / RESEARCH WORK
This type of submission is best suited for scholarly work and reports completed research
(analytical, argumentative papers etc.). Each submission will be carefully reviewed by three
independent reviewers and ranked based on: quality of preparation, relevance to the S&TE
community, scientific quality, originality, and importance of the contribution.
Deadline for submission: May 20th 2015

Notification of acceptance: June 10th 2015
Accepted papers will be published in two journals based on the review result:
Journal of Baltic Science Education (ISSN 1648-3898). All papers should be prepared
according to JBSE requirements - http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/requirements.htm. Papers
are limited to fifteen (15) A4 pages. The article processing charges specially for Baltic-
STE2015 authors has been fixed at the rate of 100 EUR (cash will be possible during open-
ing hours of registration desk).
Problems of Education in the 21st Century (ISSN 1822-7864). All papers should be
prepared according to PEC requirements - http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/Problems_of_Educa-
tion.htm. Papers are limited to fifteen (12) A4 pages. The article processing charges spe-
cially for BalticSTE2015 authors has been fixed at the rate of 50 EUR (cash will be possible
during opening hours of registration desk).
SUBMISSION OF APPLIED RESEARCH/PRACTICE/METHODICAL WORK
This type of submission is best suited for practical/didactical work and reports, as well
as position papers raising original and provocative theoretical or practical discourses and
questions. (small-scale research, applied research, didactical/methodical papers, case
studies, best educational practices etc.). Each submission will be carefully reviewed by two
independent reviewers and ranked based on: quality of preparation, relevance to the S&TE
community, didactical quality, originality, and importance of the contribution.
Deadline for submission: May 20th 2015
Notification of acceptance: June 10th 2015
ISSN 2029-6932
problems
of Management
in the 21st century
Vol. 9, No. 3, 2014
230 Accepted papers will be published in two journals based on the review result:
Gamtamokslinis ugdymas / Natural Science Education (ISSN 1648-939X). All pa-
pers should be prepared according to GU/NSE requirements - http://gu.puslapiai.lt/GU-
www/indeks.htm. Papers are limited to eighth (8) A4 pages. No extra article processing
charges for BalticSTE2015 authors.
Švietimas: politika, vadyba, kokybė / Education Policy, Management and Quality

(ISSN 2029-1922). All papers should be prepared according to SPVK/EPMQ requirements -
http://gu.puslapiai.lt/SVIETIMAS_PVK_en.htm. Papers are limited to eighth (8) A4 pages.
No extra article processing charges for BalticSTE2015 authors.
For any question in regard to the submission process: balticste@gmail.com
Important Dates
Abstract (Short Paper)/Poster Submission 20 April 2015
Abstract (Short Paper)/Poster Acceptance 30 April 2015
Registration and payment 20 May 2015
Camera-ready paper submission 20 May 2015
Announcement of the Final Symposium

02 June 2015
Program
15 – 18 June 2015
Symposium Dates
(13/14 - arrival; 18/19 - departure)
Symposium Website: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/balticste

E-mail: balticste@gmail.com
Phone: +370 41 595736; Fax: +370 41 595710
© NSERC, Siauliai University, 2014
ISSN 2029-6932
problems
of Management
in the 21st century
Vol. 9, No. 3, 2014
231
Gamtamokslinis ugdymas / Natural
Science Education
ISSN 1648-939X
NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION – is a periodical, peer reviewed, scientific-methodical

journal, issued by the SMC „Scientia Educologica“. It is an international journal, wherein the scien-
tific and methodical articles published in Lithuanian, English and Russian languages. This journal
is intendent for the teachers of general education schools, the lecturers of higher educational institu-
tions and all, who are interested in the problems of natural science education.
This journal is abstracted / listed /

indexed / cited in:
COPERNICUS INDEX
LIST OF SCIENCE EDUCATION JOUR-
NALS
DIRECTORY OF RESEARCH JOUR-
NALS INDEXING (DRJI)
JOURNALS OF INTEREST TO CHEMI-
CAL EDUCATORS
LIST OF SCIENCE EDUCATION JOUR-
NALS: SciEdu 4 U.com
SKYLIGHT: SCIENCE EDUCATION
JOURNALS (promoted by the University
of British Columbia) -
OPEN ACADEMIC JOURNALS INDEX
(OAJI)
WebQualis (QUALIS/CAPES)
E-mail: gu@gu.puslapiai.lt
Website: http://gu.puslapiai.lt/GUwww/indeks.htm
Full-text articles are available at: http://oaji.net/journal-detail.html?number=514
ISSN 2029-6932
Problems of Management in the 21st Century, ISSN 2029-6932
Vol. 9, No. 3, 2014
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas (E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt)

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė
Paste-up artist Loreta Šimutytė-Balčiūnienė
Contact person Laima Railienė (E-mail: laimarailiene@yahoo.com)
28 December 2014. Publishing in Quires 4,0625. Edition 200.
Publisher SMC „Scientia Educologica“,

Donelaicio Street 29, Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: gu@gu.puslapiai.lt
Phone: +370 687 95668
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/centras.htm
Contact person: Laima Railienė (E-mail: laimarailiene@yahoo.com)

Printing Šiauliai printing house

9A P. Lukšio Street
LT-76207 Šiauliai, Lithuania
Phone: +370 41 500 333.
Fax: +370 41 500 336
E-mail: info@dailu.lt

Problems of Management in The 21st Century, Vol. 9, No. 3, 2014

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Vol. 9, No.

Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

Prof., Dr. Constantin Bratianu, Academy of Economic Studies, Romania

Address: Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

ISSN 2029-6932 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2014

THE RISKS OF CURRENT POLITICAL RISK MANAGEMENT

THE IMPACT OF CORPORATE CULTURE ON PRODUCTIVITY OF FIRMS IN GHANA:

GENDER ASPECTS OF INHERITANCE MANAGEMENT IN GEORGIA CULTURAL

FUNCTIONAL HEALTH ASSESSMENT AS THE DETERMINANT OF SOCIAL

ATTITUDES OF SHOP FLOOR EMPLOYEES TOWARD WOMEN MANAGERS IN

MODEL OF SUCCESSFUL STRATEGY EXECUTION: REVISING THE CONCEPT

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ..............................................................................223

PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY ............................................... 225

Quality Issues and Insights IN THE 21st CENTURY ......................................... 226

JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION ............................................................ 227

1st INTERNATIONAL BALTIC SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION .............................................................................231

Received: November 12, 2014 Accepted: December 15, 2014

THE IMPACT OF CORPORATE CULTURE 173

ON PRODUCTIVITY OF FIRMS IN GHANA:

Organisations want to obtain the commitment of their employees. Management would

176 Methodology of Research

Data Collection Procedure

Table 1. Level of running and living the company’s brand values.

Opinions (X) Frequency (Y) XY Percentage %

Strongly Not Impressed (1) 3 3 4.84

Impressed (4) 29 116 46.77

Strongly Impressed (5) 4 20 6.45

Total (∑) 62 211

Table 2. Distribution of satisfaction with the values and norms to stakeholders.

Opinions (X) Frequency (Y) XY Percentage %

Impression of customers on customer service and culture

Table 3. Distribution on impression of customers on customer service and cul-

Opinions (X) Frequency (Y) XY Percentage %

Strongly Not Impressed (1) 3 3 4.84

Not Impressed (2) 6 12 9.68

Moderately Impressed (3) 20 60 32.26

Impressed (4) 29 116 46.77

Strongly Impressed (5) 4 20 6.45

Total (∑) 62 211

Distribution on impression of customers on customer service and culture 179

Opinion on Reliability and Transparency

Table 4. Distribution on reliability and transparency of Vodafone.

Reliability and Transparency (X) Frequency (Y) XY Percentage %

Yes (3) 54 162 87.10

Total (∑) 62 170

Advised by Constantin Bratianu, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania

Received: September 11, 2014 Accepted: December 18, 2014

GENDER ASPECTS OF INHERITANCE 183

186 Problem of Research

This research focuses on gender inequality in the context of inheritance management,

Law Regulations and Cultural Practices

Table 1. Division of inheritance (%).

Major part should be given to a son 14 16 12 16

Should be given completely to a daughter 0 1 3 1

Don’t know/refuse to answer 1 1 1 2

We sold our house in Gali, I have a sister-in-law and we symbolically...My husband

Dividing property, unfortunately, it is that in Georgia that when a daughter is mar-

As compensation a woman gets… a kind of status, a “pseudo” status… “the real

A woman is not supposed to be an inheritor. Instead, a man is the only heir.

A woman would only be dowered with immovable property if a family owned

As mentioned above, it is necessary to acknowledge that the unequal distribution of in-

According to Georgian human rights activist Tamar Gurchiani, Georgia’s participation

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ..............................................................................223

PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY ............................................... 225

Quality Issues and Insights IN THE 21st CENTURY ......................................... 226

JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION ............................................................ 227

NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION .............................................................................231

 „STATE-OF-THE-ART AND FUTURE