(2) DISC BRAKE

THE HISTORY OF THE DISC BRAKE

Piston seal

Disc brakes offer better stopping performance than comparable drums, including resistance to ‘fade’ caused by overheating. We trace the
development of this important automotive innovation back to the opening years of the Twentieth century.

Although Fredrick William Lanchester is generally recognised as being the first UK motor manufacturer to patent a mechanical
version of the automotive disc brake in 1902, the Birmingham-based automotive engineer can only really be credited for
improving an existing technology. This is because a very basic disc and calliper- type braking system had been fitted to the front
wheel of an electrically powered vehicle built in the US by Elmer Ambrose Cleveland back in 1898.

The performance of the disc-based braking system fitted to Lanchester’s cars was severely limited as the braking medium acting
on the disc was made from copper. Not only were these copper ‘pads’ noisy in operation, they also wore out quickly due to the
dusty conditions that prevailed on the roads at the time. Despite later versions having more efficient asbestos-lined pads, drum-
based braking systems proved simpler and cheaper to make and became the preferred choice with vehicle manufactures right up
until the mid ‘Fifties.

As pre-war American cars were notoriously under braked, several experiments with complex internal and expanding disc-based
systems took place in the US during the lead up to the Second World War. The outbreak of war resulted in this research being
switched to the development of reliable and efficient hydraulically operated caliper- type disc brakes for aircraft applications.

After the war, UK-based Dunlop became a major producer of aeronautical disc brakes, a factor that led to the company to adapt
the technology for use on performance road vehicles. In 1953, a Jaguar C-type racer caused a sensation when it was fitted with a
pair of fade-resistant Dunlop-made automotive disc brakes for that year’s Mille Milgia time trail in Italy. Citroën followed this
up with a pair of powered inboard front discs on its 1955 DS and in 1956, the Triumph TR3 became the first British-built
production car to be fitted with front disc brakes as standard.
Disc brakes comprise of a cast iron disc that rotates at the same speed as a car’s road wheel. Each disc is partly covered by a
caliper containing a pair of cylindrical hydraulically operated pistons. Activating the car’s brake pedal causes the cylinders to
push on a set of steel-backed friction pads and press them against the disc to slow or halt the car. A set of rubber seals around
each piston prevents hydraulic fluid escaping from the caliper when pressure is applied, while rubber sealing rings keep dust and
dirt out of the housings.

The inner face of the disc not covered by the caliper is protected from road debris and water by a pressed steel splash shield.
Each piston is cast in a ‘U’ shape so that the fluid pushes on a flat surface and the minimum amount of material comes into
contact with the steel part of the pad. As the caliper covers only part of the disc, the whole assembly is more easily cooled in the
slipstream than the linings in an enclosed drum brake.

Heat transfer from the friction surface into the caliper is kept to the minimum on a disc brake, thus preventing brake ‘fade’, a
common problem that can severely affect the performance of overheated drum-based systems. Brake fade is when a very hot
drum moves away from the shoe assembly slightly, decreasing the vehicle’s braking efficiency. On a disc brake-equipped car the
opposite happens as the disc expands slightly when it gets overheated. As an expanded disc moves closer to the pads, braking
efficiency is maintained so long as the fluid doesn’t reach boiling point.

Pads are relatively easy to change and are generally held in place by two retaining pins that pass through the caliper. Each
retaining pin is kept in place by a special spring clip. A shim plate is usually fitted between the piston and pad to eliminate brake
squeal, while some pads incorporate wear indicators. Pads are usually segmental in shape but some can be rectangular, oval or
even square. When replacing pads, it’s always advisable to put a smear of special brake grease on each side of the shim as an
extra precaution against squeal.

As well as fixed calipers, there are several different types of assembly: the swinging type, the first type and the sliding-caliper
brake. A swinging caliper contains a single direct acting hydraulic piston that operates on one friction pad. Fluid pressure on the
cylinder or piston causes the caliper to operate the other pad in a swinging or sliding motion. Fist-type calipers are designed for
compactness and have special V- slots in a fixed housing to prevent jamming. Applying the brake move the cylindrical part of
the ‘fist’ and corresponding pad onto the disk.

The sliding caliper brake works on the principal of two pistons working in a single cylinder. When pressurised fluid acts between
them, it forces each piston apart. One piston forces a friction pad onto the disc by direct action, while the other piston forces the
caliper in the opposite direction and in doing so brings the companion pad in direct contact with the disc

Some calipers fitted to high performance cars contain four pistons, two in each caliper. For extra performance, discs can be
drilled or have angled grooves milled across their faces. Modern replacement pads don’t contain any dangerous asbestos, but are
made of various hard compounds that can sometimes include metal particles. The combination of these different materials can
cause the disc to wear out and as such it is expected that new discs are fitted on every second or third pad change.

Development of disc brakes began in England in the 1890s.

However, the limited choice of metals in this period meant that he had to use copper as the braking medium acting on the disc.
The poor state of the roads at this time, no more than dusty, rough tracks,meant the copper wore quickly, making the disc brake

system non-viable. A
[1]
disc brake is a type of brake that uses the calipers to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc or a "rotor" to
create friction.[2] This action slows the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle, either to reduce its
rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The energy of motion is converted into waste heat which must be
dispersed.
Hydraulically actuated disc brakes are the most commonly used form of brake for motor vehicles, but the
principles of a disc brake are applicable to almost any rotating shaft. The components includes the disc,
master cylinder, caliper (which contains cylinder and two brake pads) on both side of the disc

The American Crosley Hot Shot is often given credit for the first production disc brakes. For six months in 1950, Crosley built a
car with these brakes, then returned to drum brakes. Lack of sufficient research caused enormous reliability problems,
especially in regions requiring the use of salt on winter roads, such as sticking and corrosion. Drum brake conversions for Hot
Shots were quite popular. The Crosley disc was a Goodyear development, a caliper type with ventilated rotor, originally
designed for aircraft applications.

Chrysler developed a unique braking system, offered from 1949 to 1953. Instead of the disc with caliper squeezing on it, this
system used twin expanding discs that rubbed against the inner surface of a cast-iron brake drum, which doubled as the brake
housing. The discs spread apart to create friction against the inner drum surface through the action of standard wheel cylinders.
Because of the expense, the brakes were only standard on the Chrysler Crown and the Town and Country Newport in 1950.
They were optional, however, on other Chryslers, priced around $400, at a time when an entire Crosley Hot Shot retailed for
$935. This four-wheel disc brake system was built by Auto Specialties Manufacturing Company (Ausco) of St. Joseph,
Michigan, under patents of inventor H.L. Lambert, and was first tested on a 1939 Plymouth. Chrysler discs were “self
energizing” in that some of the braking energy itself contributed to the braking effort. This was accomplished by small balls set
into oval holes leading to the brake surface. When the disc made initial contact with the friction surface, the balls would be
forced up the holes forcing the discs further apart and augmenting the braking energy. This made for lighter braking pressure
than with calipers, avoided brake fade, promoted cooler running, and provided one-third more friction surface than standard
Chrysler twelve-inch drums. Today’s owners consider the Ausco-Lambert very reliable and powerful, but admit its grabbiness
and sensitivity.

Racing breakthrough
Reliable caliper-type disc brakes first appeared in 1953 on the Jaguar C-Type racing car. These brakes allowed the little
company to win the 1953 24 Hours of Le Mans. These were developed in the UK by Dunlop. That same year, the aluminum
bodied AustinHealey 100S, of which 50 were made, was the first car sold to the public to have disc brakes. They were fitted to
all 4 wheels.

Mass production
The first mass production use of the modern disc brake was in 1955, on the Citroën DS, which featured caliper-type front disc
brakes among its many innovations. These discs were mounted inboard near the transmission, and were powered by the
vehicle’s central hydraulic system. This model went on to sell 1.5 million units over 20 years with the same brake setup.

The Jensen 541, with four-wheel disc brakes, followed in 1956.

Disc brakes were most popular on sports cars when they were first introduced, since these vehicles are more demanding about
brake performance. Discs have now become the more common form in most passenger vehicles, although many (particularly
light weight vehicles) use drum brakes on the rear wheels to keep costs and weight down as well as to simplify the provisions
for a parking brake. As the front brakes perform most of the braking effort, this can be a reasonable
compromise.

Many early implementations for automobiles located the brakes on the inboard side of the driveshaft,
near the differential, while most brakes today are located inside the wheels. An inboard location reduces
the unsprung weight and eliminates a source of heat transfer to the tires.

Historically, brake discs were manufactured throughout the world with a strong concentration in Europe
and America. Between 1989 and 2005, manufacturing of brake discs migrated predominantly to China.

Disc brakes in the U.S.

After a 10-year hiatus, America built another production automobile equipped with disc brakes — the
1963 Studebaker Avanti (the Bendix system was optional on some of the other Studebaker models).
Front disc brakes became standard equipment in 1965 on the Rambler Marlin (the Bendix units were
optional on all American Motors’ Rambler Classic and Ambassador models), as well as on the Ford
Thunderbird, and the Lincoln Continental. A four-wheel disc brake system was also introduced in 1965
on the Chevrolet Corvette Stingray.
Motorcycle Applications

The first motorcycles to use disc brakes were racing vehicles. MV Agusta was the first to offer a front
disc brake motorcycle to the public on a small scale in 1965, on their relatively expensive 600 touring
motorcycle, using a mechanical brake linkage. In 1969 Honda introduced the more affordable CB750,
which had a single hydraulically actuated front disc brake (and a rear drum brake), and which sold in
huge numbers. Disc brakes are now common on motorcycles, mopeds and even mountain bikes
I. INTRODUCTION
The disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the friction caused by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set
of calipers [1.1]. The brake disc (or rotor) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such as reinforced
carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form
of brake pads, mounted on a device called a brake calipers, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically
against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes convert motion to heat, and if the brakes get
too hot, they become less effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade. Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping
performance, because the disc is more readily cooled. A schematic diagram is shown in the figure.

Fig: 1.1 Disc Brake and Drum Brake.

Theory of brakes
Disc brakes: Shoes or pads contract and provide compressive frictional force on the outer surface of a rotating
Disc. It is a circular metal Disc on which the pads are mounted. Usually it is made up of cast iron material. The design of Disc brakes is
varied depending on the application, amount of exposure, thermal properties of the material and the amount of heat dissipation required when
brakes are applied and the total mass to be stopped [1.1] .This project report will contain the design of a Disc brake rotor, and analyze results
of Structural and Thermal Analysis at a later stage
DISC BRAKES consist of two pads that grasp a rotating disk. The disk, or rotor, connects to the wheels by an axle. You control the grasping
power. When you pull on the brake, the clamps come together on the disk, forcing it to stop spinning and causing your vehicle to slow down
and eventually stop.

Disc brakes offer better stopping performance than comparable drum brakes, including resistance to brake fade. Disc brakes were most
popular on sports cars when they were first introduced, since these vehicles are more demanding about brake performance.
Discs have now become the more common form in most passenger vehicles. A cross-drilled disc on a modern motorcycle discs. The design
of the disc varies somewhat. Some are simply solid cast iron, but others are hollowed out with fins or vanes joining together the disc's two
contact surfaces. This "ventilated" disc design helps to dissipate the generated heat and is commonly used on the more heavily-loaded front
discs. Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc to aid in removing dust and gas.
Some discs are both drilled and slotted. On the road, drilled or slotted discs still have a positive effect in wet conditions because the holes or
slots prevent a film of water building up between the disc and the pads. One reason is the disc's lack of self-assist makes brake force much
more predictable, so peak brake force can be raised without more risk of braking induced steering or jackknife on articulated vehicles.
Another is disk brakes fade less when hot, and in a heavy vehicle air and rolling drag and engine braking are small parts of total braking
force, so brakes are used harder than on lighter vehicles, and drum brake fade can occur in a brake pads.
The brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad material embedded in the disc in the process of bedding while wearing evenly.
Caliper holds pads and squeezes them against rotor Calipers.
The brake caliper is the assembly which houses the brake pads and pistons. The pistons are usually made of aluminum or chrome-plated steel.
There are two types of calipers: floating or fixed.rotor spins with wheel when used in conjunction with brake pads, slows vehicle Vents help
provide cooling to brake
Caliper Types.
There are 2 types of Calipers Fixed Calipers are disc brakes that use a caliper that is FIXED in position and does not slide. They have pistons
on both sides of the disc. There may be 2 or 4 pistons per caliper
Floating much more common Single Piston Easier to work with on inboard side of caliper
Fixed Caliper Motorcycles and some import trucks and cars use this type Similar to bicycle brakes
Sliding Caliper Applies pressure to two pads on opposite sides of rotor Caliper Sliding Fixed
Friction Material exposed to air
Fixed Caliper Applies two pistons to opposite sides of rotor Caliper stays stationary Disc Brakes require higher hydraulic pressure
Caliper Operation Caliper Brake Fluid
1 Pads
2 Rotor
Step 1: Force is applied to by driver to the master cylinder
Step 2: Pressure from the master cylinder causes one brake pad to contact rotor.
Step 3: The caliper then self-centers, causing second pad to contact rotor
In a disc brake, the brake pads squeeze the rotor instead of the wheel, and the force is transmitted hydraulically instead of through a cable.
Friction between the pads and the disc slows the disc down. A moving car has a certain amount of kinetic energy, and the brakes have to
remove this energy from the car in order to stop it. Brakes convert the kinetic energy to heat generated by the friction between the pads and
the disc. Most car disc brakes are vented.
Vented disc brakes have a set of vanes, between the two sides of the disc that pumps air through the disc to provide cooling.
Vented Rotors Vented Rotors have Fins in the spaces between their machined surfaces. These spaces allow air to pass through, which helps
carry heat away.
Non vented Rotor Non Vented Rotors are used on smaller vehicles, and have no cooling fins

One of the most important control system of an automobile is BRAKE SYSTEM .They are required to stop the vehicle within the smallest
possible distance and is done by converting kinetic energy of the vehicle into heat energy which is dissipated into atmosphere. The main
requirements of brakes are given below:-
The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle within the minimum possible distance in an emergency. But this should also be
consistent with safety. The driver must have a proper control over the vehicle during emergency braking and the vehicle must not skid.

The brakes must have good anti fade characteristics and their effectiveness should not decrease with constant prolonged application.

The actual stopping distance of vehicle while braking depends on the following factors:-.
Vehicle speed
2. Condition of the road surface
3. Condition of tyre tread
4. Coefficient of friction between the tyre tread and the road surface
5. Coefficient of friction between the brake drum/disc and brake lining/friction pad
Disc brakes are safety-critical automotive components that must satisfy tough costand environmental requirements [231]. According to [232],
drivers often evaluatethe performance of automotive braking systems in terms of the brake pedal ‘feel’.This is one of the first customer touch
points during a driving experience, and assuch it can be an important contributor to quality perception and customer appeal[233]. The brake
pedal feel depends on the synergistic influence of the performanceof the braking system and the driver's subjective perception related to the
quality ofthe brake pedal feel. The brake pedal feel gives the driver a perception of thebraking dynamics and braking performance of the
vehicle. In this context, it isrelevant that the brake pedal feel is significantly affected by the properties of thebrake friction material, such as,
for instance, the compressibility of the friction material.
Motor vehicle brakes are expected to provide high, stable values of the braking torque under different operating conditions. The operating
conditions of a brake are determined by the synergistic influence of the brake actuation pressure, the sliding speed and/or the brake interface
temperature. It is also well known that the interaction in the brake friction pair determines the performance ofa brake. Consequently, brake
performance is strongly influenced by the behavior of the friction material. The sensitivity of the performance of a brake frictionmaterial to
changes in the brake actuation pressure, in synergy with changes inspeed and temperature, is particularly important regarding possible
corrections ofbrake performance during a braking cycle. The control and optimization of brake performance and its sensitivity to changes in
speed, pressure and temperature during braking is an issue that needs to be analysed better. In other words, the relevant features of the friction
material, as obtained after the development and manufacturing phase, could be enhanced further by identification of the influence of the
operating conditions on the final performance of the friction pair. Obviously, this could result in remarkable improvement in the performance
exhibited. Nowadays, automotive braking systems are expected to offer stable and at thesame time maximum performance under all braking
conditions, to exactly match the driver's demands. The operation of motor vehicle brakes needs to be intelligently supported in order to
optimize their non-linear behaviour. Owing tothe strongly non-linear nature of the braking process, the demands imposed on abraking system
and especially on the brakes are very complex and cover a wide range of operating conditions. In the braking systems employed onmodern
motor vehicles, extreme demands are placed on the friction pair and its tribological performance

The most important infl uence on the sensitivity of brake performance to diff erentbraking regimes is the interaction in the friction pair. The
brake friction materialhas a significant infl uence on the contact situation in the friction pair. As a consequence, the properties of friction
materials play a crucial role in the driver'sperception of braking performance, especially at elevated brake interface temperatures. The
properties of the brake friction material influence the performance of disc brakes, i.e. their sensitivity to pressure, speed and temperature
during a braking cycle, in several diff erent ways. The brake friction material often critically influences the friction level and its variation
during braking, the in-stop friction rise, the hot compressibility, and so on. On the other hand, driversexpect a relatively constant level of
brake performance in various braking regimes,i.e. the highest level of reliability of the brakes. The level of the braking torque in abraking
cycle is a very important issue in the use of a vehicle. It should remain at astable level in a braking cycle and, at the same time, it should be
maximized.However, owing to the frequent, high fl uctuations in brake performance that occur,especially the rise in the in-stop braking
torque, the stability of brake performanceis not ensured. This causes a poor brake pedal feel. Accordingly, the driver obtainsconfusing
feedback about the vehicle dynamics and the performance of the brakingsystem. That is why some level of dynamic control and optimization
of the brakeperformance should be provided during a braking cycle. In other words, afunctional relationship between the brake pedal travel
and the brake performanceneeds to be established and optimized, in order to match drivers' demands.
6. Braking force applied by the driver

The caliper is connected to some stationary part of the vehicle, like the axle casing or the stub axle and is cast in two parts, each part
containing a piston. In between each piston and disc there is a friction pad held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc., passages are
drilled in the caliper for the fluid to enter or leave each housing. These passages are also connected to another one for bleeding.
When the brakes are applied hydraulically actuated pistons move the friction pads into contact with the disc, applying equal and opposite
forces theater. On releasing the brakes the rubber sealing rings act as return springs and retract the pistons and the friction pads away from
the disc.

(3)CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF THE BRAKE DISC

Braking System Basics

Disc and drum brakes are both based on a hydraulic pressure system. Braking starts with a mechanical force — your
foot pressing the brake pedal. When it comes to driving safety, nothing is more critical than your tires and brakes.
Here’s a guide to the two types of passenger-vehicle brakes, disc and drum. We explain how they work, how they’re
different and alike, why you may have both types on the same vehicle, what kind of wear to expect and what parts
will need maintenance. Two types brake discs are generally used the solid type and the ventilated type. The ventilated
type more efficient since it provides better cooling. But they are thicker and heavier than solid type, they are liable to
wrap at severe braking conditions, the dirt accumulates in the vents which affects cooling and apart produces wheel

A piston compresses brake fluid inside the master cylinder located under your vehicle’s hood near your engine. This
creates a lot of hydraulic pressure, generating a much bigger force than that of the small e ort of pressing down on the
pedal.
The pressure is transferred via the brake fluid through the brake lines then through brake hoses (flexible tubes) that
connect the lines with brake assemblies at each wheel.
. There, wheel cylinders convert that hydraulic pressure back to mechanical force. Brake friction material is pushed
against the brake disc or drum, slowing or stopping your vehicle.

Basics of Disc Brakes

Disc brakes are found on most vehicles today. They are mounted on the front axle and often the rear as well. To stop a
wheel (and your car), a disc brake uses a caliper connected with brake pads to grab a spinning disc, or rotor.
The caliper is an assembly mounted to the vehicle with a bracket so it frames the rotor. It looks and functions like ac-
clamp. It contains:
Brake pads: metal plates bonded with material that provides stopping friction.
One or two pistons to push the brake pads against the rotor when you brake.
A bleeder screw to allow for servicing the brakes and replacing the fluid.
A rubber piston seal that prevents brake fluid leakage and retracts the piston when the brakes release.
A dust boot to keep contaminants out of the cylinder. Anti-rattle clips that keep the brake pads stable.
 The rotor is made of cast iron or a steel/cast iron composite. It’s attached to the wheel hub and turns with the wheel.
It’s the surface the brake pads contact. When you step on the brakes, pressurized brake fluid pushes against the
pistons inside the caliper, forcing the brake pads against the rotor. As the brake pads press against both sides of the
disc, the friction stops the wheel’s rotation. Rotors can either be solid or vented. Vented ones have more surface area
and can more easily dissipate heat.
.

When mounting bell is not a part of the brake disc then this multi-part disc configuration is called hybrid or composite
brake disc. In this design, the disc is sometimes called the braking or friction ring. There are different ways to join a
mounting bell and a friction ring mainly depending upon the material of the disc. Two methods used for joining a
friction ring and a mounting bell by using a connecting element, the connecting element is a special threaded bolt
which is screwed to the mounting bell and free to slide in radial direction inside the friction ring. This bolt is usually
made of steel which could experience corrosion and heat could conduct quickly to the mounting bell. The connecting
element is made of a ceramic material to avoid the corrosion problems and reduce the heat transfer to the bell. The
head of the ceramic pin is cast into the mounting bell. In another design, several projecting teeth on the inner
periphery of friction ring are finely machined and then mounting bell is casted so that these teeth are embedded into
the bell material. In this design mounting bell is usually made of a light alloy e.g. aluminum or magnesium. One
major advantage of the hybrid brake disc is the relative freedom of expansion of the friction ring which results in
lower thermal distortion

Two Types of Disc Brakes

There are two types of disc brakes, named after the type of brake caliper used: floating and fixed.
A floating caliper (also called sliding) is the most common type. It has one or two pistons. When the brakes are
applied, the inner brake pad is forced against the disc while, at the same time, the caliper body moves closer to the
rotor. This action forces the outer brake pad against the rotor.

The fixed caliper design has one or more pistons mounted on each side of the rotor. The caliper itself doesn’t budge:
It’s rigidly fastened to a brake caliper bracket or the spindle. When the brakes are applied, only the caliper pistons
move, pressing the brake pads against the disc.
Basics of Drum Brakes
Drum brakes are an older style of brake, not common on today’s vehicles. When they are used it is only on the rear
axle.
They don’t use brake pads as the friction material. Instead of a caliper that clamps brake pads against a rotor, a drum
brake system has a wheel cylinder with pistons that push brake shoes out against the inside of a spinning drum. This
contact slows and stops the rotation of the brake drum and the wheel.

Which Is Better?
Although they both operate with the same basic hydraulics, the two types of brakes perform differently.
Disc brakes are more efficient, provide better stopping power, dissipate heat easier and work better in wet conditions,
all while being less complex.
Most of today’s vehicles have disc brakes at all four wheels. Some base models have disc on the front axle and drum
on the rear, to keep costs down. In these models, why are disc put on the front and drum on the rear? It’s due to
weight factors. A typical, unloaded vehicle is already about 10 percent heavier in front due to the engine. Then when
you hit the brakes, the weight of the car transfers to the front. More braking power is needed there, making it a job for
disc brakes. Here’s more on how disc and drum brakes compare.
.
Efficiency Heat management. Since they are exposed to air, disc
Stopping power. Disc brakes apply more braking force brakes cool better. Drum brake components aren’t as
faster, resulting in shorter stopping distances. exposed to the air so they take more time to cool down
after braking. This can cause brake fade, a loss of
stopping power when friction material overheats.
Wet performance. Disc brakes perform better in wet
conditions because they are open to the air and can sling
water o easily. Plus, the rotors get dried by the pads
dragging across them. When water gets inside a drum
brake it tends to get trapped inside the drum, so it takes
longer for the friction material to dry out.
Weight. Discs are lighter than drum brakes designed to
apply the same force.
Emergency brake. A vehicle’s emergency brake is
usually applied to the rear axle. This feature is easier to
install on a drum brake than to a caliper or inside the
hub of a disc brake rotor.
Servicing
Cleaning. Disc brakes are self-cleaning. The brake pads
“wipe” the rotor o when they’re engaged. Drum brakes
are closed and are prone to brake dust collecting from
the shoes, so they need periodic cleaning.
Repairs. Drum brakes have more hardware and can be
more complex to service. But drum brake shoes and
wheel cylinders typically cost less to replace than disc
brake pads and calipers.
The discs of the brakes are made of pearlite gray cast iron. The
material is cheap and has good anti wear properties. Cast steel discs
have also been employed in certain cases, which wear still less and
provide higher coefficient of friction. Their main drawback is the
non-uniform frictional behavior.
…(3)CONSTRUCTIONAL
FEATURES OF THE BRAKE DISC
Basic Principles
The modern automotive disc brake is an ‘open’ type of
‘spot’ disc brake, i.e. the friction surfaces are not
enclosed for protection (a ‘dust’ shield may be fitted to
prevent the ingress of road debris and water spray, but
does not enclose the brake).The rotor is a disc that is
attached to the wheel hub and rotates with it while the
stator, which is attached to the axle or suspension (e.g.
the steering knuckle),consists of two opposing brake
pads that are held in a ‘caliper’ and clamped against the
disc by the actuation forces. The friction surface of the
brake pad only covers a portion (typically no more than
15%) of the rotor friction surface area. As the pads are
clamped against the disc by the actuation force, the
friction force generated opposes the motion of the disc
and slows it down. Because the disc is attached to the
road wheel of the vehicle, the vehicle is decelerated.
Their resistance to temperature effects, especially fade,
compared with even the most advanced drum brakes of
the time, enabled racing drivers to brake harder and
later than their competitors. This resistance to
temperature effects provides greater consistency of
performance, which is the main reason why disc brakes
have superseded drum brakes for higher duty
automotive applications, especially on vehicle front
axles.
Disc brake pads have no significant self-servo effect (as explained
later), and the friction force generated is usually considered to be
directly proportional to the actuation force applied. This means that
greater actuation force is required todeliver a particular brake torque
output from a disc brake compared with a drumbrake, which has a
significant self-servo effect. Since the brake pads of a disc
brakecontact only the side faces of the disc, radial thermal
expansion during operationdoes not affect the torque generated
while in the axial direction thermal expansionis small and of little
consequence (except in parking brake mode). This permitssmall
running clearances and large area actuators with a high
mechanicaladvantage. Most modern passenger cars and light vans
with hydraulically actuatedbrakes are also fitted with brake boosters
to multiply the actuation force thatoriginates from the driver effort
(force on the brake pedal). Although the rotors ofopen disc brakes
may be exposed to dirt, dust and water contamination, they havethe
advantage of being largely self-cleaning via the centrifuge action
whereasbraking debris tends to accumulate inside a drum brake.
Disc rotation also helpsdust and gases released during braking to
escape. The inherent self-cleaningcharacteristic can be further
assisted by slots in the pads, and grooves or holes inthe rotors,
although this also reduces their thermal mass
In a hydraulically actuated disc brake (as fitted to a passenger car or
light van) slave pistons in the caliper are forced against the pad
back plates by hydraulic pressure,generating a normal force at each
pad/disc friction interface. The hydraulic seals inthe system are
designed to provide a small amount of pad retraction via
themechanism of seal ‘rollback’, so that springs or other devices to
move the padsclear of the disc when not being used are not
required. This means that thresholdpressures, i.e. the hydraulic
actuation pressure required to overcome the forces ofthe springs or
retraction mechanisms, are reduced and braking
performancebecomes more linear. Despite seal ‘rollback’, disc
brake pads do often touch thedisc surface while rotating, so residual
brake drag losses are not completelyeliminated, and some
manufacturers are considering positive retraction of thebrake pads
in their quest for CO emission reduction. For mechanically
(orelectromechanically) actuated disc brakes, e.g. on larger
commercial vehicles thatuse compressed air for brake actuation,
positive pad retraction is required, usuallyby a spring in the actuator
chamber, and therefore threshold pressures are moresignificant.
Threshold pressures and forces should always be included in
brakeperformance calculations. It is possible that hydraulically
and/or air-actuated discbrakes will eventually be superseded by
electromechanical actuation. Potentiallythese could provide faster
response and better control of running clearances as wellas
eliminating concerns about the risk of fluid vaporisation and end-
of-life recoveryof brake fluid in the case of hydraulically actuated
systems. Concerns about safetyand compliance with legislation
coupled with the technological challenges of thehigh electric
current demands have so far been a major inhibitor to
theimplementation of electromechanical actuation of road vehicle
braking systems.
There are two designs of automotive disc brake caliper
predominantly in use today.The original design of caliper had a
separate actuator for each brake pad either side of the disc in the
‘fixed’ or ‘opposed piston’ hydraulic caliper arrangement,illustrated
in Figure 5.1.
figure
0.00 fixed or Opposed piston disc brake caliper
For each pad there may be one, two or more pistons to ensure that
actuation force is uniformly distributed over the pad/disc friction
interface. This is especially important for high aspect ratio pads, i.e.
where the pad circumferential length is more than about twice its
radial width. This design has very few moving parts and the actuation
pistons on each side of the rotor give good actuation force
equalisation on both sides, but do require brake fluid to be transferred
from one side of the caliper to the other, across the ‘bridge’ part close
to the disc, which may be hot. As a result, this design is susceptible to
brake fluid vaporisation. The disadvantages include weight and size;
the outboard piston requires space inside the road wheel and
constrains the position of the disc with respect to the wheel, which is
not compatible with the preferred design of many modern front
suspensions and steering geometry (Figure 5.2). However, where very
wide section tyres permit positioning the brakes deep into large offset
wheels, e.g. in highperformance luxury cars, fixed calipers with two or
more pistons each side actuating large area high aspect ratio pads to
accommodate the power dissipation requirements are popular
(a) Fixed caliper. (b) Sliding caliper.
The other, more recent, design of disc
brake caliper is the ‘sliding’ (or ‘fist’) type
caliper (Figure 5.3), which has a fixed
carrier attached to the axle casing or

CHAPTER 3
mounting, e.g. the steering knuckle, and
this carrier is fitted with two rods or pins on
which the body of the caliper slides. The
caliper body has an actuator on one side
only (the inner side) because the force it
applies to the inner pad backplate is
reacted by the opposing force generated
on the pad on the outer side of the disc as
the caliper body slides. The applied force
and the reaction force are almost equal
and opposite; there is a small difference
because of friction in the slide pins.
Although this is low when new, it can
adversely affect force equalisation when

© Cengage Learning 2014

the slide pins are worn or damaged, e.g. by
corrosion or water ingress and road debris
contamination, so effective sealing of the
slides is essential. The absence of an
outboard actuator allows the rotor to be
positioned further outboard, which in turn
allows optimum positioning of the

Disc Brake System Principles

suspension lower ball joint to achieve the
desired steering geometry. For hydraulic
actuation, the brake fluid vaporization risk
is much reduced because there is fluid path
across. Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you should be able to:
Figure…………..
t *EFOUJGZUZQFTPGEJTDCSBLFT
t *EFOUJGZEJTDCSBLFDPNQPOFOUT
t %FTDSJCFEJTDCSBLFPQFSBUJPO
Mounting the calipers ahead of the centre of the wheel can help
caliper (and pad) cooling, but can also deflect cooling air away
KEY TERMS
from the rotor. It can also increase the load carried by the wheel
brake
bearings because ofpads
the torque reaction developed atdust
the boot
calipers. shims
brake rotors fade square seal
For these reasons calipers are preferably mounted to the rear of the
caliper pistons fixed calipers squealer
brake but for the front axles of front wheel drive (FWD) passenger
composite rotor floating calipers
car types of vehicles, packaging requirements of the steering
linkage often dictate mounting the calipers forward of the wheel
centre.
 Disc Brake Systems and
Components

Even though disc brakes are not a new design, they were not
widely adopted for use in passenger vehicles until the 1960s.
Drum brakes were used on the front and rear of many vehicles,
and disc brakes did not become standard equipment on many
domestic vehicles until the 1970s. Since then, disc brakes have
become standard on the front and rear of most passenger cars
and light trucks sold today.

DiSC BrAke SyStemS

Front disc brakes are standard on all modern cars and light
trucks, and disc brakes are often utilized for the rear brakes as
well. The main advantages of disc brakes compared to drum
brakes are:
• Increased resistance to brake fade
• Quicker shedding of water from the friction surfaces
• Self-cleaning of dust and debris
• Self-adjusting
F i Gure 14-2 An example of a common type of front disc brake assem
A disadvantage of disc brakes is that they require significant
force to clamp the pads against the brake rotor. This increases
the effort by the driver to slow and stop the vehicle. Because of Fixed Calipers. Fixed calipers, like the caliper
this, disc brake-equipped cars require the use of a power assist
system to decrease driver effort and fatigue. shown in Figure 14-3, have at least two pistons. Hydraulic
pressure forces each piston out with equal force so that both
Disc Brake types and Operation brake pads apply equally against the rotor. Fixed calipers are
All disc brakes are similar in operation: pressurized brake fluid
forces the caliper piston outward from the caliper bore, which bolted directly to the steering knuckle. The brake pads are
applies pressure against the brake pads. This squeezes the two
brake pads against the rotor or disc, as illustrated in Figure 14-1. often held in place within the caliper by a set of pins or
The pads pressing against the rotor create friction and heat. The covers, as shown in Figure 14-4. By removing the pins, the
friction slows the disc, which in turn slows the wheel and tire.
The heat is dissipated into the air. pads can be replaced without removing the entire caliper
assembly
Disc Brake Calipers
The caliper is the hydraulic output for the disc brake system.
Each caliper contains one or more pistons. The number of
pistons depends on caliper design and its application on the
vehicle. The caliper houses the piston(s) and pads and attaches to
the steering knuckle, partially covering the rotor. An example is
shown in Figure 14-2.
There are two major types of disc brake calipers, the fixed and
floating caliper designs. Fixed calipers tend to be larger and are
mostly used on high-performance applications. Floating calipers
are smaller, lighter, and are widely used on most passenger cars
and light trucks in service today.

FIGURE 3-3 An example of a fixed brake caliper.

 the rotor

FIGURE 3-4 Fixed calipers use pins or bolt-on

covers

Since hydraulic pressure is transmitted without loss, the pressure

applied to the inner and outer caliper pistons is the same. This
means that each piston will be applied with equal force against
the brake pad and retain the pads.
brake fluid to the caliper, and internal passages in the caliper
supply fluid to the outer pistons, as shown in Figure 3-5. The
piston seal, sometimes called a square seal, seals each piston in
the bore. A dust boot protects the outside of the piston and the
Fluid pass
piston bore from debris. The dust boot is an accordion-type seal,
meaning it will expand and contract to cover the piston as the
piston moves outward in the bore. Fixed calipers have at least
one bleeder screw, and some designs have more than one to
provide complete bleeding of air from the system.
When the brakes are applied, hydraulic pressure pushes on
the back of each piston. As the piston moves outward in its
bore, the piston seal deforms slightly, twisting to follow the
piston. When the brakes are released, the caliper seal
returns to its original shape, pulling the piston back into the
bore. By doing this, the piston seal acts as a return spring for
the disc brakes. As the brake pads wear, the pistons will
move further out of their bores to compensate for the space
left by the worn pads. When the brakes are applied, the high
pressure in the hydraulic system forces the pistons out and
takes up the void in the caliper piston bore. When the brakes
are released, the piston seal returning to its normal shape
cannot force the piston back more than a very slight amount.
So each time the brakes are applied and the pads wear
slightly, the piston also moves a very slight amount further Figure 3-5. Inside of a fixed caliper. Internal passages allow
out of the bore. This is how the disc brakes self-adjust for
wear. fluid to pass from one side to the other

Floating Calipers. The most widely used type of caliper is

the floating caliper. This is because floating calipers are less
susceptible to pulsation from rotor run out and because they are
smaller and lighter than fixed calipers. Floating calipers are
mounted so that they can move laterally on bolts or pins, as
shown in Figure 3-7.

Figure 3-6. An example of mounting bolts on a floating caliper.
Floating calipers generally use only one or two pistons
mounted on the inboard side. A cross section of a floating caliper
is shown in Figure 14-8. As hydraulic pressure forces the piston
out of its bore, the caliper body is forced in the opposite
direction on the mounting hardware. This is a result of Newton’s
Third Law of Motion: for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction, as shown in Figure 14-9 in the case of caliper
action. For the floating caliper to operate correctly and for both
the inner and outer pads to wear equally, the caliper must be able
to move freely on the mounting hardware. As the brakes are
exposed to normal operating conditions, rust and corrosion can
limit the caliper’s ability to float. This will lead to uneven pad
wear.
A variation of the floating caliper is the sliding caliper. Sliding
calipers do not use mounting bolts or pins; instead they are
mounted so that they can slide on the steering knuckle. An
example is presented in Figure 14-10. An example of a common
sliding caliper used for many years on Ford vehicles is shown in
Figure 14-11. The operation of the sliding caliper is the same as
that of the floating caliper, in that it must be able to move in
response to piston movement.
Both floating and sliding calipers operate hydraulically, the
same as fixed calipers. When the piston is forced outward by
hydraulic pressure, the piston seal deforms calipers. A dust boot
protects the outside of the piston and the spring bore just as in
fixed caliper designs.
Figure 3- … An example of a sliding caliper used on a ford
vehicle.
Caliper Construction. Calipers can be made
from cast iron or aluminum. Many older vehicles use cast iron
calipers since they are strong, have adequate heat dissipation
abilities, and are inexpensive. Most modern vehicles have
aluminum calipers to reduce weight
. figure 3-……Example of steel and phenolic plastic caliper
Caliper pistons are made of steel, phenolic plastic, or
aluminum. Examples of steel and phenolic pistons are
shown in Figure 14-13. Steel pistons have been in service
for many years and continue to be widely used. Steel
pistons are strong and can be fitted very close in the caliper
bore, usually within 0.005 inches. Phenolic plastic pistons
have also been in use for many years and are used to reduce
weight. Plastic pistons, while lighter, have much thicker
walls than comparable steel pistons to increase strength.
Plastic pistons tend to expand more than steel pistons and
require a larger clearance to the piston bore, typically 0.008
to 0.010 inches. Many calipers use aluminum pistons.
Aluminum pistons are lightweight and strong, having the
advantages of both steel and plastic pistons.
As discussed above, the caliper piston seal is a square
seal, housed in a recess in the piston bore, as shown in
Figure 14-14
.
figure 3-…. The square seal keep fluid in the caliper
and act as the return spring for the piston
The inner surface of the seal encircles the piston,
prevents fluid loss, and acts as a piston return spring. The
dust boot is attached to the outside edge of the piston bore,
and its inner surface attaches to the outer lip of the piston.
This is shown in Figure 14-15 with the seal removed from
the caliper for clarity. As the piston moves outward, the
dust boot expands to protect the outside surface of the
piston. Dust boots may be secured to the caliper with a snap
ring, by a press-fit between the seal and the caliper, or with
the lip of seal placed into a groove cut into the caliper body.
Floating calipers have mounting bolts, pins, or bushing bores, as
shown in Figure 14-16. Many calipers bolt directly to the
steering knuckle, as shown in Figure 14-17, while other vehicles
use a caliper support bracket to hold the pads and caliper to the
knuckle, as shown in Figure 14-18.
Figure 3-… Some vehicles have the caliper mount directly to the
steering knuckle as in this example
 Calipers that are bolted to the knuckle often use a
combination mounting bolt and sleeve that rides in the caliper
body, as shown in Figure 14-19. The bolt/sleeve allows the
caliper to move backward as the piston is pushed against the
inner pad.
Vehicles that use a mounting bracket often use a type of
floating pin that connects the caliper to the bracket, like that
shown in Figure 14-20. The caliper bolts to the pins, which float
in the bracket. When the brakes are applied, the caliper piston
moves against the inner pad, and the caliper moves backward as
the pins extend out of their bores in the bracket
 These bolts hold
This bushing the bracket to the
and bolt secure steering knuckle.
the caliper to
the bracket.

.
Figure 3-… Many cars and trucks use a support bracket that mounts the knuckle, and the caliper then bolts to the
bracket
Caliper bracket Caliper

.
Figure 3-… An example of a caliper and support bracket

Figure 3-… Springs, clips, and retainers of various shapes and sizes are used to hold the pad and prevent vibration
and noise.

Most caliper arrangements use some type of hardware to reduce pad noise. Pad clips, like the type shown
in Figure 14-21, are used to keep the pads secure in the bracket and to reduce vibration and noise. The
pads must be able to move laterally in the clips, but they are held tight radially to prevent noise. Many
pads also use shims attached to the pad backing, like those shown in Figure 14-22, to help reduce noise.
Many replacement pads have the shims attached to the backing plate, while other pad sets have shims
with adhesive backs that need to be applied to the pads when they are installed. Regardless of the type of
shims and hardware, it is important that these pieces be installed and that they are installed correctly.
Figure 3-…. Shims are used to alter the frequency of pad vibration so that they are inaudible to human.
Disc Brake Rotors. The brake rotors are half of the friction components in disc brake systems; the
pads are the other half. Rotors, also called brake discs, are mounted to the hub and rotate with the wheel
and tire. As the caliper clamps the brake pads against the rotor, a substantial amount of friction is created
between the pads and rotor. This friction is what slows the wheel and also causes the intense heat
generated by the brakes. Because of the stresses of braking and the heat that is generated, brake rotors
have to be strong and able to withstand high operating temperatures.
The most common brake rotors are made of cast iron and have two friction surfaces separated by vents. The
center of the rotor, called the hat, provides the mounting point for the rotor on the hub. The center hub hole is
designed to fit precisely to the hub. Replacement rotors should always be checked against the original rotors to
ensure that the hat areas match and that the rotors will correctly fit the vehicle. The type of rotor pictured in
Figure 14-23, is called a vented rotor. The vents are located between the two friction surfaces. The overall
friction surface area is large, but the contact area of the pads is small. As the pads are pressed against the rotor
heat is generated all around the rotor’s surfaces. As the rotor spins, air is pulled through the vents to remove
heat from the friction surfaces and cool the rotor, as shown in Figure 14-24. The front brake rotors on all
modern cars and trucks are vented. Nonvented or solid rotors, like the rotor in Figure 14-25, are used on the
rear of some vehicles, and they can be found on the front of some older, smaller vehicles. Nonvented rotors
can be used in the rear since the rear brakes are doing less work than the front brakes, and the additional
cooling is not necessary
Brake disc, also called brake rotor, is fixed to the axle, so it rotates with the same speed as the
wheel. Braking power of a disc brake is determined by the rate at which kinetic energy is
converted into heat due to frictional forces between the pad and the disc. For an efficient brake
design, it is also important that heat is dissipated as quickly as possible otherwise the temperature
of a disc might rise and affect the performance of a disc brake. So to get an optimum
performance in demanding applications, ventilation is introduced in the brake discs which
increases the cooling rate. Brake discs could be divided in two categories:
1. Solid brake discs
2. Ventilated brake discs
A solid brake disc is the simplest form and consists of a single solid disc. In a ventilated disc,
vanes or pillars or both separate two annular discs and provide a passage for the air to flow.
Ventilated brake discs increase the cooling rate and result in lower surface temperature. This
lower temperature reduces the risk of brake fade and also helps in reducing wear of the disc and
pad. Both of these designs are constructed with or without a mounting bell. A mounting bell
increases the distance from the friction surface to axle and the surface area of the disc which
improves cooling and therefore it helps to protect the wheel bearings from the high temperature
generated due to braking operation

For many vehicles, the vents in the rotors are simply straight passages from the outside to the inside of the hub
or hat section of the rotor. Some vehicles use rotors that have curved or directional vents. Rotors with
directional vents have improved airflow for better heat dissipation, but they must be installed on the correct
side of the vehicle to work correctly
Figure 3-… An example of a high-performance rotor,

Some rotors, instead of being made completely of cast iron, are a composite of a steel hub and iron friction
surface, like the composite rotor in Figure 14-26. This type of rotor offers a slight weight reduction over a
cast iron rotor.
Brake rotors on some high-performance vehicles may be drilled and/or slotted. Drilled and/or slotted rotors
are common on motorcycles but are not generally found on passenger cars or trucks. Drilled rotors, like that
shown in Figure 14-27, have a series of holes drilled through the friction surface. Slotted rotors are similar
except that the slots do not go through the entire depth of the friction surface, as shown in Figure 14-28. When
the brakes are applied, the point of application between the pads and rotors can create a gas barrier that reduces
braking ability. The holes and slots in these rotors allow this gas to escape, which improves braking.
Some high-performance vehicles offer ceramic composite brake rotors. These rotors and pads offer
extreme heat dissipation, reduced weight, and the ability to withstand high-speed braking with reduced
fade or distortion. Fade is the term used to describe the loss of braking power or performance, usually as
a result of heat. Ceramic-composite brakes are optional equipment on cars such as the Corvette Z06 and
on many other vehicles, but they can add several thousand dollars to the price of the car

Disc Brake Pads. Brake pads, which are comprised of the friction material or pad lining and the
backing or support plate for the lining, clamp down on the brake rotor to slow the wheel. The parts of a brake
pad are shown in Figure 14-29.

Figure 3-… Examples of brake pads. Pads come in many sizes and shapes depending on how they are mounted

The materials that make up the pad friction material determine its coefficient of friction and ultimately, how
well the vehicle stops. As with brake shoe linings, brake pad friction materials vary depending on the
manufacturer and the application. Common ingredients include iron, steel, copper, synthetic fibers, and
ceramics.
Brake pads, as shown in Figure 14-30, are shaped to follow the curve of the brake rotor. When the caliper
piston(s) move outward, the pads are pressed against the rotor with great force, which result in friction and
generate heat. The pads must be made from materials that can not only withstand the friction and heat of
braking, but also be able to operate effectively when the brakes are cold. Brake pad linings are a compromise
between several factors, such as pad life, noise generation, and cold and hot coefficients of friction. Brake pads
that use soft friction compounds offer quiet operation and will not wear the brake rotors very fast, but will
themselves wear quickly and may not have the stopping power of semi-metallic or metallic pads
that contain metal shavings and other materials that increase stopping performance. Semi-metallic
pads, however, will cause more rapid wear of the rotor and also tend to generate more noise
and rust-colored brake dust.
Pads are often categorized as asbestos, organic, semimetallic, or ceramic.
Asbestos pads were made with asbestos fibers, which tolerated the high temperatures generated by the brake
system but also produced dust that if inhaled, could cause lung damage and cancer. Asbestos has been phased
out of brake linings since the 1990s. Organic pads are made of natural compounds such as glass and Kevlar.
These pads are softer and create less noise but also wear faster and make a lot of brake dust due
to the softer compounds. Semi-metallic pads contain iron, steel, copper, and
graphite, which are mixed together into the friction compound. Semimetallic pads offer
longer service life but also wear the brake rotors faster and can generate more brake noise and dust. Many
newer brake pads use ceramic fibers and other materials, such as copper, and are often considered superior to
other pads due to their ability to dissipate heat, long service life, provide quiet operation, and generate low
dust.

Brake pads often have grooves and chamfers cut into the lining, as shown in Figure 14-31. Grooves are
used to help remove the dust generated between the pad and the rotor during braking. Chamfering the
leading edges of the pads helps decrease noise.

Figure 3-…. An example of pads with grooves for dust dispersion and chamfered edge to reduce noise.

Manypads have a built-in wear indicating device, sometimes called a squealer due to the noise it makes
when it comes into contact with the rotor, as shown in Figure 14-32. Figure 14-33 shows an example of a
wear indicator tab. Some pads use an electrical pad wear indicator that is embedded into the pad’s friction
material
Figure 3-…. A close up of a wear indicator.

These pad has the electrical connector and sensor used to alert the driver when the pads are worn out. An
example of how this looks installed on the vehicle is shown in Figure 14-35. This sensor activates a warning
light on the dash, an example of which is shown in Figure 14-36, to alert the driver that the brake pads need to
be inspected and/or replaced

Figure 3-…. This brake system uses electronic pad wear sensors. The wire leading into the center of the caliper is
attached to the brake pad sensors.

Figure3-… When the pad wears to the point

REAR DISC BRAKE SYSTEMS
Rear disc brakes are replacing rear drum brakes on more and more cars and trucks. Rear disc brakes operate
exactly like those on the front, but they are smaller in both rotor and pad size.

Rear Disc Brake Designs. Rear disc brakes can be either fixed caliper or floating caliper designs. Fixed
DBMJQFSTUFOEUPCFVTFEPOIJHIFSQFSGPSNBODFWFIJDMFT compared to floating calipers. Rear
brake rotors can be either vented or solid, depending on the requirements of the vehicle. Figure 14-37 and
Figure 14-38 show a front and rear disc brake assembly for comparison. The front rotor is vented, and the pads
are larger than those used on the rear brake. The rear rotor is also a solid rotor.

Rear Disc Brakes and Parking Brakes. All vehicles sold in the United States are required to have a
parking or emergency brake. The parking brake is a mechanical brake that often uses components of the
hydraulic service brakes but does not rely on the hydraulic system to operate. This is so that in the event of a
loss of hydraulic pressure, the parking brake can be used to slow and stop the vehicle, albeit with a much
longer stopping distance.

When the parking brake is part of the rear disc brake caliper, it is called an integral parking brake caliper.
Figure 14-39 shows an illustration of this type of caliper. The piston, under normal braking, is applied by
hydraulic pressure, but when the parking brake is applied, a lever pushes the caliper piston out slightly, which
locks the pads against the rotor. There are two methods for applying the caliper piston with the parking brake, a
threaded piston and a ball-and-ramp design.
A threaded caliper, as shown in Figure 14-39, uses a threaded piston and a screw that passes through the
caliper body. When the parking brake is set, the brake cable pulls on the lever at the back of the caliper. An
example is shown in Figure 14-40. The lever is attached to the rear of the screw, and the front of the screw is
seated against the rear of the caliper piston. When the lever rotates the screw, the screw turns in the caliper and
pushes against the piston. The piston moves out slightly, setting the pads against the rotor. A spring, often
located at the rear of the caliper at the lever, retracts the lever and screw when the parking brake is released.

Figure 3-.. An example of a rear rotor for comparison

The ball-and-ramp design uses an actuator with reliefs that are cut into its surface. The reliefs are tear drop
shaped and are deeper at the large end and shallow at the point. Ball bearings are placed between the piston and
the actuator and sit in the reliefs. When the parking brake is applied, the actuator turns and the ball bearings
move from the deep to the shallow part of the relief. This action pushes the bearings against the piston to set
the brake. When it is released, the actuator rotates back and the bearings recess back into the reliefs.
Figure 3-… An example of an integral rear brake caliper.

. SUMMARY
Disc brakes are less prone to fade than drum brakes
There are two major types of disc brake caliper the fixed and floating caliper designs.
Fixed caliper are bolted directly to the steering knuckle.
Floating caliper move laterally on bolts or pin. Pad clips and shims are used to keep the pad secure in
the bracket and reduce vibration and noise.
Some pads use an electrical pad wear indicator that is embedded into the pad’s friction material. When
the parking brake is part of the rear disc brake caliper, it is called an integral parking brake caliper
design.
…..4 Do you know how the disc brake is
affected?
Causes & Cures for Disc Brake Problems
There are as many causes as there are cures for disc brake problems. Brake pedal pulsation tops the list,
while disc brake noise and brake pedal sensitivity follow as second and third place contenders. Most of
these problems can be avoided if technicians have the right parts and follow the correct procedures. Brake
problems usually indicate the need for certain repairs or replacement parts, so here is a quick review of
some common fixes:
Let’s begin by looking at two leading causes of brake pedal pulsation: rotor warpage and uneven rotor
wear

ROTOR WARPAGE
By now, most technicians know that over torquing lug nuts causes brake pedal pulsation by distorting or
warping the brake rotors. Of course, if over torqued lug nuts were the whole story of disc brake diagnosis,
I could close this column and take the rest of the day off! Unfortunately, less obvious faults can cause
pedal pulsation, especially on that fresh new brake job. Although some vehicles are very sensitive to
over-torquing, other vehicles are relatively immune.
SETTING UP THE LATHE
Inaccurate lathe setups play a major role in creating uneven rotor wear. If you can visualize a brake rotor
“wobbling” between the pads mounted in a brake caliper, it’s not hard to also visualize that, each time the
high point of the rotor contacts the pad, some metal is worn away from the rotor.
Eventually, the high point of the rotor’s friction surface is worn off, which ruins the parallelism between
the inner and outer rotor surfaces. It is important to make sure you are using the correct settings.
WHEEL BEARING ADJUSTMENT
Loose wheel bearings will cause the rotor to tilt in the caliper when a load or side thrust is placed on the
bearings. Disc brake pistons require lots of fluid volume and pressure to push the pad against the rotor. If
loosely adjusted wheel bearings force the pistons into the caliper, the result will be a low or spongy brake
pedal.
Conventional wheel bearings must be adjusted with a slight amount of preload in the bearings. Excessive
preload, however, will cause the bearings to overheat. It’s best to follow specified adjustment procedures
from an applicable shop manual.
MOUNTING THE BRAKE PADS
As mentioned above, disc brake squeal occurs due to a high-frequency vibration between the brake pad
and rotor. Following correct pad mounting procedures can prevent the majority of brake squeal.
When installing the pads, it’s important to use new mounting hardware. Most mounting hardware is made
from soft materials like rubber or spring steel, which is designed to acoustically insulate the caliper from
the mounting bracket and wheel spindle. These parts lose their sound proo ng qualities as they age.
Second, the caliper guide pins or slides must be cleaned and lubricated with a recommended high-
temperature brake part lubricant to prevent corrosion or sticking. Free- floating calipers relieve the
tendency of pads to rub or bind against the brake rotor and, thus, reduce noise.

Pad shims must be reinstalled if they were originally used. Too often, these shims are discarded with the
old pads while the brake tech unwittingly installs the new pads – minus the required shims.
To prevent shim loss, many manufacturers are now attaching adhesive shims to the backing plates of the
new pads. Other pads require clip-on shims. It’s important not to attach clip on shims to the backing plate
with an adhesive noise-silencing compound. Adhesive destroys the noise-insulating properties of the
shim. In many cases, manufacturers actually recommend that these shims be lubricated with high-
temperature silicone grease. Last, many pads are made with mounting tabs designed to hold the pad
tightly in the caliper. Taking the time to crimp these tabs into the caliper will reduce the possibility of pad
vibration and brake squeal.
DISC BRAKE NOISE
Disc brake squeal is perhaps the most difficult problem to eliminate on most vehicles because it’s
aggravated by uncontrollable factors including weather changes and the design of the brake itself.
The squeal is caused by the pad vibrating at a high frequency as it engages the rotor. The type of material
used in the pad and the rotor may further aggravate the squeal. High performance racing-type pads, for
example, are designed for maximum stopping power and durability, with noise factors being the least part
of the design criteria. Many early European vehicles are particularly offensive in this regard because a
premium is placed upon pad performance rather than noise suppression.
ROTOR FINISH
The issue of applying a non-directional or swirl finish to a freshly turned rotor is complicated by the fact
that, while brake pad manufacturers recommend a sanded swirl finish, most deliver their new rotors with
a smooth, cut finish. There’s a reason for this apparent dichotomy: Brake manufacturers know that many
technicians operate rotor lathes at maximum cutting and feed rates, which cause the metal to be folded or
peeled over instead of cleanly cut away.
Microscopically, the surface of the rotor looks like a freshly plowed field. These metal furrows are then
torn away by the new brake pad and become imbedded in the lining. The result is a metal-to-metal contact
effect between pad and rotor that theoretically causes brake squeal.
Although several types of sanding and buffing pads are now being marketed to help remove this folded
metal, no amount of sanding or honing can remedy the damage caused by a dull lathe bit or by fast, deep
cutting. Dull bits leave a pitted finish on the rotor. Likewise, excessively fast feed speeds or cutting
depths tend to tear away, rather than smoothly cut.
The other problem caused by using a fast cutting feed for the finish cut is cutting a “record player” groove
in the rotor. This spiral groove causes the pad to vibrate against the caliper, which, according to theory,
aggravates disc brake squeal.
To summarize, the rotor should have a smooth, non-directional finish. Some technicians test the finish by
scribing a line on the rotor with a ballpoint pen. If the ink line is smooth and continuous, the rotor is finish
correctly.
Last, it’s always a good idea to scrub loose particles from the rotor by using brake parts cleaner and a
clean cloth. Before mounting the brake rotor, make sure that the reluctor or tone ring for the anti-lock
brakes is free of grease and metal chips. Dirty tone rings can cause faults in the anti-lock system.
BRAKE PEDAL SENSITIVITY
Occasionally, a customer may complain that “the brakes just don’t feel the same as before.” In other
words, the new brakes may not feel as sensitive as the old ones. Keep in mind that loose wheel bearings
will cause sponginess in disc brakes.
Second, many rear disc brakes incorporate a park brake mechanism that adjusts itself each time the park
brake is applied. If the driver doesn’t occasionally use the park brake, excess clearance develops between
the rear disc pads and the rotors, which causes a low brake pedal. Some of these mechanisms can also
become corroded through lack of use, which complicates the repair.
Last, anti-lock braking systems require special brake bleeding procedures. In some cases, an interactive
computer scanner is required to flush air out of the system. If the new brakes “don’t feel the same,” one or
more of these factors may be responsible.
CORRECTLY RESURFACING ROTORS
Unfortunately, many repair shops don’t use the correct mounting fixtures or use the correct procedures to
correctly resurface rotors. Many technicians use brake drum, fixtures for example, to mount rotors on the
brake lathe. These old-style fixtures simply lack the accuracy to align the rotor at a perfect perpendicular
angle with the brake lathe arbor.
Other times, brake techs don’t make sure the rotor is mounted correctly on the lathe. Before mounting the
rotor, the chips and grease should be cleaned from the mounting fixtures s and arbor. The fixtures should
also be free of nicks and burrs. If a hub-type rotor, on which the fixtures bear against the wheel bearing
races is being turned, the bearing races must be pressed securely into the hub, and be free of chips and
debris.
If a hubless rotor is being turned, the rust should be buffed from the lug bolt surfaces of the rotor with an
abrasive buffing pad. It also pays to use mounting fixtures specially designed to mount hubless or
stamped-steel hub composite rotors. These fixtures offer optimum accuracy and have enough mass to
significantly reduce lathe vibration.
The last step after mounting a rotor to a lathe is to check the accuracy of the set-up. The quickest
procedure is to start the lathe, take a light scratch cut on the rotor with the cutting bit, and then shut the
lathe off. The arbor nut should then be loosened and the rotor or rotor/ fixtures assembly rotated one-half
turn.
After the arbor nut is retightened, the lathe should be started and another scratch cut taken. If the lathe and
set-up are accurate, the scratch cuts should occur at the same place on the rotor. If not, the set-up or
fixtures are incorrect for the application

LOW BRAKE FLUID This may be the result of worn disc brake pads,
or it may indicate a leak in the brake system. If the BRAKE WARNING LIGHT is also on, most likely
the problem is a leak (though the Brake Warning light may also come on if the master cylinder reservoir
has a fluid level sensor). Leaks are dangerous because they can cause brake failure. The brake calipers,
wheel cylinders, brake hoses and lines, and master cylinder all need to be inspected. If a leak is found, the
defective component must be replaced. Your vehicle should NOT be driven until the leak can be repaired

BRAKE SQUEAL Can be caused by vibrations between the disc brake pads and caliper, or the pads and
rotor. Harder semi-metallic brake pads tend to be noisier than non asbestos (NOA) or ceramic brake pads.
The noise can usually be eliminated by replacing the old pads with new ones (ceramic pads are usually
the quietest, but may not be available for some applications because the vehicle requires semi-metallic
pads), and resurfacing or replacing the rotors. Installing noise dampening shims behind the pads, spraying
the rotors with some type of aerosol brake noise control compound and/or applying a small amount of
high temperature Brake Grease (never ordinary grease) to the backs of the pads can also help suppress
noise. Also, if any pad mounting hardware such as shims or anti-rattle clips are missing, these should be
replaced.