Introduction to

Low Alloy Steel:

Alloying Elements
SME Corrosion, En Omar Abu Bakar
March 31st 2017 Pengerang

Omar Abu Bakar/ Charlie Chong

 Argon oxygen decarburization (AOD)Piping

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Omar Abu Bakar/ Charlie Chong
Omar Abu Bakar/ Charlie Chong
Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong
 Abstract
Low Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts
between 1.0% and 9% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are
broken down into two groups: low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels. The difference between the two is
somewhat arbitrary: Smith and Hashemi define the difference at 4.0%, while Degarmo, et al., define it at 8.0%. Most commonly, the phrase "alloy steel" refers to low-alloy
steels.

Strictly speaking, every steel is an alloy, but not all steels are called "alloy steels". The
simplest steels are iron (Fe) alloyed with carbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%, depending on
type). However, the term "alloy steel" is the standard term referring to steels with other
alloying elements added deliberately in addition to the carbon.
Common alloyants include manganese (the most common one),
nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron.
Less common alloyants include aluminum, cobalt, copper,
cerium, niobium, titanium, tungsten, tin, zinc, lead, and zirconium.

The following is a range of improved properties:

strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance,
corrosion resistance, hardenability, and hot hardness.

To achieve some of these improved properties the metal

may require heat treating.

SME Corrosion, En Omar Abu Bakar

Omar Abu Bakar/ Charlie Chong
 Material science
Alloying elements are added to achieve certain properties in the material. As a
guideline, alloying elements are added in lower percentages (less than 5%) to
increase strength or hardenability, or in larger percentages (over 5%) to achieve
special properties, such as corrosion resistance or extreme temperature stability.
 Manganese, silicon, or aluminum are added during the steelmaking process to
remove dissolved oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus from the melt.
 Manganese, silicon, nickel, and copper are added to increase strength by
forming solid solutions in ferrite.
 Chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten increase strength by
forming second-phase carbides.
 Zirconium, cerium, and calcium increase toughness by controlling the shape of
inclusions.
 Sulfur (in the form of manganese sulfide) lead, bismuth, selenium, and
tellurium increase machinability.

 Nickel and copper improve corrosion resistance in small quantities.

 Molybdenum helps to resist embrittlement.

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 Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii

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 Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii

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 Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii

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 The alloying elements tend to form either solid solutions or compounds/carbides
(second phase).

 Nickel is very soluble in ferrite; therefore, it forms compounds, usually Ni3Al.

 Aluminum dissolves in the ferrite and forms the compounds Al2O3 and AlN.
 Silicon is also very soluble and usually forms the compound SiO2•MxOy.
 Manganese mostly dissolves in ferrite forming the compounds MnS,
MnO•SiO2, but will also form carbides in the form of (Fe,Mn)3C.
 Chromium forms partitions between the ferrite and carbide phases in steel,
forming (Fe,Cr3)C, Cr7C3, and Cr23C6. The type of carbide that chromium
forms depends on the amount of carbon and other types of alloying elements
present.
 Tungsten and molybdenum form carbides if there is enough carbon and an
absence of stronger carbide forming elements (i.e., titanium & niobium), they
form the carbides W2C and Mo2C, respectively.
 Vanadium, titanium, and niobium are strong carbide forming elements, forming
vanadium carbide, titanium carbide, and niobium carbide, respectively.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong

 Eutectoid temperature
Alloying elements also have an effect on the eutectoid temperature of the steel.
Manganese and nickel lower the eutectoid temperature and are known as
austenite stabilizing elements. With enough of these elements the austenitic
structure may be obtained at room temperature. Carbide-forming elements raise
the eutectoid temperature; these elements are known as ferrite stabilizing
elements

Note:
In the Fe-C system, there is a eutectoid point at approximately 0.8wt% C, 723°C. The phase just above the eutectoid temperature for plain
carbon steels is known as austenite or gamma. We now consider what happens as this phase is cooled through the eutectoid temperature
(723°C).

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Omar Abu Bakar/ Charlie Chong
 AISC Definination

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 S S OxS S C A S
Element % S P
Mechanism Alloying Effects
T C S C

C Formation of cementite (as well as other carbides), and to the formation of strengthens the martensite ☒
pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, and iron-carbon martensite. Increase hardness but does not increase hardenability

Al 0.95-1.30 Al2O3 and AlN Alloying element in nitriding steels ☒

Boron 0.001-0.003 A powerful hardenability agent

Cr 0.5-2 ☒ (Fe,Cr3)C, Cr7C3, and Cr23C6 Increases hardenability ☒

Retard pearlite or bainite formation
Carbide-forming elements raise the eutectoid temperature; these elements are known
as ferrite stabilizing elements

4–18 Increases corrosion resistance

Manganese 0.25–0.40 ☒ MnS, MnO•SiO2, but will also form carbides (Fe,Mn)3C, Solid solution strengthening Combines with sulfur and with phosphorus to reduce the brittleness. Also helps to remove excess oxygen ☒ ☒ ☒
in ferrite from molten steel.
Manganese lower the eutectoid temperature and are known as austenite stabilizing Strengthen ferrite, increase hardenability, increase strength
elements (Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also
increases the hardness penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the
critical quenching speed)

>1.0 Increases hardenability by lowering transformation points and causing transformations to be sluggish

Mo 0.2-5 ☒ Mo2C Retard pearlite or bainite formation Stable carbides; inhibits grain growth. Increases the toughness of steel, thus making molybdenum a very
valuable alloy metal for making the cutting parts of machine tools and also the turbine blades of turbojet
engines. Also used in rocket motors.

Ni 2-5 ☒ Ni3Al Toughener (?) ☒ ☒ ☒ ☒

Nickel lower the eutectoid temperature and are known as austenite stabilizing elements

12-20 Increases corrosion resistance

Si 0.2-0.7 ☒ SiO2•MxOy Promote ferrite transformation, increase strength slightly, improve Increases strength ☒ ☒ ☒
toughness and hardenability when work in conjunction with other alloy.

2 Spring steel

>>2 Improve magnetic properties

S/Pb/Bi/Se/Te 0.08–0.15 (S) Free machining

W ☒ W2C Also increases the melting point.

Cu 0.1-0.4 ☒ Corrosion resistance ☒ ☒

These elements are intended to alter the microstructure of carbon steels, which is Increases strength ☒
usually a ferrite-pearlite aggregate, to produce a very fine dispersion of alloy carbides
Ti in an almost pure ferrite matrix. This eliminates the toughness-reducing effect of a Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces martensitic hardness in chromium steels ☒
pearlitic volume fraction yet maintains and increases the material's strength by refining
V 0.15 ☒ the grain size, which in the case of ferrite increases yield strength by 50% for every Stable carbides; increases strength while retaining ductility; promotes fine grain structure. Increases the ☒
halving of the mean grain diameter. Precipitation strengthening plays a minor role, too. toughness at high temperatures

Nb ☒

Nitrogen ?

Zr/Ca/Ce Improve toughness by controlling the shape of inclusion ☒

P ☒

Ca ☒

Rare earth ☒
SS: Solid Soln., SP: Second phase carbide ST: Strengthening, AS: Austenite Stabilizing, SC: Shape controls, CC: Corrosion controls. OXS: O2/S/P Scavenger,

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel

 References.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel
http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf
http://aarontan.org/MSE250.html

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong

 HSLA Classification
 Weathering steels: steels which have better corrosion resistance. A common
example is COR-TEN.
 Control-rolled steels: hot rolled steels which have a highly deformed austenite
structure that will transform to a very fine equiaxed ferrite structure upon
cooling.
 Pearlite-reduced steels: low carbon content steels which lead to little or no
pearlite, but rather a very fine grain ferrite matrix. It is strengthened by
precipitation hardening.
 Acicular ferrite steels: These steels are characterized by a very fine high
strength acicular ferrite structure, a very low carbon content, and good
hardenability.
 Dual-phase steels: These steels have a ferrite microstruture that contain small,
uniformly distributed sections of martensite. This microstructure gives the
steels a low yield strength, high tensile strength, high rate of work hardening,
and good formability. DP steels have high ultimate tensile strength (UTS, enabled by the martensite) combined with low initial yielding stress (provided by the
ferrite phase)ow yield to tensile strength ratio (yield strength / tensile strength = 0.5), high early-stage strain hardening and macroscopically homogeneous plastic flow.High early-stage
strain hardening and macroscopically homogeneous plastic flow (enabled through the absence of Lüders effects)(High initial strain hardening rates).

 Microalloyed steels: steels which contain very small additions of niobium,

vanadium, and/or titanium to obtain a refined grain size and/or precipitation
hardening.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-strength_low-alloy_steel

 HSLA

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 Schaeffer diagram

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Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_earth_element
Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong
 Torbjörn Carlberg’s Equilibrium Diagram

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u5axDAgs7iA

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 Manganese Mn
Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases the hardness
penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical quenching speed. This
also makes the steel more stable in the quench. Steels with manganese can be
quenched in oil rather than water, and therefore are less susceptible to cracking
because of a reduction in the shock of quenching. Manganese is present in most
commercially made steels.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong

 Effects of Alloying Elements in Steel
Alloying elements are added to effect changes in the properties of steels. The basis of
this section is to cover some of the different alloying elements added to the basic
system of iron and carbon, and what they do to change the properties or effectiveness
of steel.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf

 Carbon
The presence of carbon in iron is necessary to make steel. Carbon is essential to the
formation of cementite (as well as other carbides), and to the formation of pearlite,
spheroidite, bainite, and iron-carbon martensite, with martensite being the hardest of
the micro-structures, and the structure sought after by knifemakers. The hardness of
steel (or more accurately, the hardenability) is increased by the addition of more
carbon, up to about 0.65 percent. Wear resistance can be increased in amounts up to
about 1.5 percent. Beyond this amount, increases of carbon reduce toughness and
increase brittleness. The steels of interest to knifemakers generally contain between
0.5 and 1.5 percent carbon. They are described as follows:
 Low Carbon: Under 0.4 percent
 Medium Carbon: 0.4 - 0.6 percent
 High Carbon: 0.7 - 1.5 percent
Carbon is the single most important alloying element in steel.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf

 Stored valves nt.

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 DIN 50CrV4 CCT Diagram for C Steel

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong George E. Totten. Steel Heat Treatment Handbook : Metallurgy and Technologies, CRC Press, USA 2006
 AISI4340 CCT

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong George E. Totten. Steel Heat Treatment Handbook : Metallurgy and Technologies, CRC Press, USA 2006
 Cementite

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.slideshare.net/RakeshSingh125/fe-cdiagram

 Cementite

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.slideshare.net/RakeshSingh125/fe-cdiagram

 Cementite
Perlite/ Bainite/ Martensite

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.slideshare.net/RakeshSingh125/fe-cdiagram

 Pearlites

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong https://www.youtube.com/embed/qyEsuBpII2k

http://aarontan.org/MSE250.html
 Bainites & Martensites

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://aarontan.org/MSE250.html

 Bainite Micro-Landscape
https://www.youtube.com/embed/GR6tqsOSoWw

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 Lost in Bainite Labyrinth

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong https://www.youtube.com/embed/Yqz-TCWLDiA

 Stored valves nt.

http://www.metallography.com/technotes/iron/whitefe.htm

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong

 Manganese
Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases the hardness
penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical quenching speed. This
also makes the steel more stable in the quench. Steels with manganese can be
quenched in oil rather than water, and therefore are less susceptible to cracking
because of a reduction in the shock of quenching. Manganese is present in most
commercially made steels.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf

 Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases the hardness
penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical quenching speed.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong

 Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases the hardness
penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical quenching speed.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.totalmateria.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=105

 Jominy Hardenability test

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.totalmateria.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=105

 Jominy Hardenability test

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.totalmateria.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=105

 Jominy Hardness test

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 Chromium
As with manganese, chromium has a tendency to increase hardness penetration. This
element has many interesting effects on steel. When 5 percent chromium or more is
used in conjunction with manganese, the critical quenching speed is reduced to the
point that the steel becomes air hardening. Chromium can also increase the
toughness of steel, as well as the wear resistance. Probably one of the most well
known effects of chromium on steel is the tendency to resist staining and corrosion.
Steels with 14 percent or more chromium are referred to as stainless steels. A more
accurate term would be stain resistant. Stainless tool steels will in fact darken and
rust, just not as readily as the non stainless varieties.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf

 Silicon
Silicon is used as a deoxidizer in the manufacture of steel. It slightly increases the
strength of ferrite, and when used in conjunction with other alloys can help increase
the toughness and hardness penetration of steel.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf

 Nickel
Ni can strengthen ferrite matrix, therefore increasing the strength of the steel. It is
used in low alloy steels to increase toughness and hardenability. Nickel also tends to
help reduce distortion and cracking during the quenching phase of heat treatment.

Lowering Ar3 (third transformation temperature) which helps with fine grain formation.

 Ferrite stabilizing

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf

 Molybdenum
Molybdenum increases the hardness penetration of steel, slows the critical quenching
speed, and increases high temperature tensile strength.

Vanadium
Vanadium helps control grain growth during heat treatment. By inhibiting grain growth
it helps increase the toughness and strength of the steel.

 Shape controls

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf

 Tungsten
Used in small amounts, tungsten combines with the free carbides in steel during heat
treatment, to produce high wear resistance with little or no loss of toughness. High
amounts combined with chromium gives steel a property known as red hardness. This
means that the steel will not lose its working hardness at high temperatures. An
example of this would be tools designed to cut hard materials at high speeds, where
the friction between the tool and the material would generate high temperatures.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf

 Copper
The addition of copper in amounts of 0.2 to 0.5 percent primarily improves steels
resistance to atmospheric corrosion. It should be noted that with respect to knife
steels, copper has a detrimental effect to surface quality and to hot-working behavior
due to migration into the grain boundaries of the steel.

 Shape controls

Niobium
In low carbon alloy steels Niobium lowers the transition temperature and aids in a fine
grain structure. Niobium retards tempering and can decrease the hardenability of steel
because it forms very stable carbides. This can mean a reduction in the amount of
carbon dissolved into the austenite during heat treating.

 Shape controls

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf

 Boron
Boron can significantly increase the hardenability of steel without loss of ductility. Its
effectiveness is most noticeable at lower carbon levels. The addition of boron is
usually in very small amounts ranging from 0.0005 to 0.003 percent.

Titanium
This element, when used in conjunction with Boron, increases the effectiveness of the
Boron in the hardenability of steel.

 Shape controls

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.globalmetals.com.au/_pdf/Metallurgical_Overview/section_4.pdf

 Microstructural aspect of the studied steels. Soaking temperature: 820ºC. Overaging
temperature: 300ºC. Metallographic etching: Nital. Analysis performed at 1/4 thickness. (a)
Base metal, optical microscopy; (b) 10 ppm boron, optical microscopy; (c) base metal,
scanning electron microscopy; (d), 10 ppm boron, scanning electron microscopy; (e) 30
ppm boron, optical microscopy; (f), 50 ppm boron, optical microscopy; (g) 30 ppm boron,
scanning electron microscopy; (h), 50 ppm boron, scanning electron microscopy.

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2238785414001136

Omar AbuBakar/ Charlie Chong