Latest Developments on SpaceX’s Falcon 1 and Falcon 9

Launch Vehicles and Dragon Spacecraft

Lauren Dreyer
SpaceX
1 Rocket Road
Hawthorne, CA 90250
310-363-6392
lauren@spacex.com

Abstract—SpaceX is committed to revolutionizing access to
space by providing highly reliable, low cost launch services.
To this end, SpaceX has been developing a family of
orbital transportation solutions comprised of SpaceX-
developed proprietary technologies, as well as off-the-shelf
and minimally modified hardware from leading aerospace
subcontractors. SpaceX is currently offering launch
services on the Falcon 1, Falcon 9, and Falcon 9 Heavy
launch vehicles as well as commercial flights on the Dragon
spacecraft. Founded in mid-2002, SpaceX has been busy.
This paper provides the latest developments and progress,
including recent launches and future plans. 12
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................1
2. COMPANY BACKGROUND .................................................1
3. FALCON 1 LAUNCH VEHICLE ...........................................4
3. FALCON 9 LAUNCH VEHICLE ...........................................7
3. DRAGON SPACECRAFT ...................................................10
4. CONCLUSION ..................................................................15
1. INTRODUCTION
SpaceX entered the market with a small but scalable
satellite launch vehicle, the Falcon 1. The Falcon 1 is a
two-stage launch vehicle, capable of lifting approximately
420 kg into low earth orbit (LEO). Both stages burn the
same propellants, namely RP-1 rocket-grade kerosene and
liquid oxygen (LOX), and are propelled by engines entirely
designed and developed in-house by SpaceX. Falcon 1 has
launched four times from SpaceX’s launch facilities on
Omelek Island at United States Army Kwajalein Atoll
(USAKA). The enhanced Falcon 1, or Falcon 1e, is
planned as a block upgrade to the Falcon 1 launch vehicle
and offers additional capability enabled by an upgraded
Merlin engine, elongated first stage tank, and an expanded
fairing. With a capability of just over 1000 kg to LEO,
Falcon 1e will begin launching mid-2010.
SpaceX is also developing multi-engine versions of the
Falcon that will serve the medium, intermediate and heavy
launch markets: Falcon 9 and Falcon 9 Heavy. The Falcon
1 developed (and largely fabricated) entirely in-house. This
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978-1-4244-2622-5/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE.
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IEEEAC paper#1667, Version 3, Updated 2009:01:09
9 is a much larger, EELV-class booster capable of lifting
12,500 kg to LEO, or 4,640 kg to Geosynchronous Transfer
Orbit (GTO). Like the Falcon 1, it is a two-stage launch
vehicle which uses RP-1 and LOX propellants. Falcon 9
will initially launch from SpaceX’s launch complex SLC-40
on Cape Canaveral. This launch pad will also support the
Falcon 9 Heavy variant starting in late 2010, which will
have a payload capacity of over 29,600 kg to LEO and
15,000 kg to GTO.
Additionally, SpaceX is developing a reusable spacecraft,
Dragon, with NASA sponsorship under the Commercial
Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program. It is
designed to deliver over 2.5 metric tons of cargo to the
International Space Station (ISS) when launched on board
SpaceX’s Falcon 9 Launch Vehicle. The inaugural flight of
Dragon is scheduled for 2009. Although Dragon is being
designed to address ISS cargo requirements, its generic
architecture allows it to accommodate in-space technology
demonstrations and scientific instrument testing. The
spacecraft can effectively serve as a recoverable and
reusable host spacecraft bus with its own propulsion,
avionics, attitude determination & control, communications,
thermal control and power subsystems. Dragon offers both
pressurized and unpressurized payload accommodations,
with the former being fully recoverable.
2. COMPANY BACKGROUND
Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) was founded in
2002 for the express purpose of increasing the reliability,
and reducing the cost, of space access. (In a truly
commercial environment these two objectives are
necessarily inseparable). The first product, the Falcon 1
launch vehicle, was designed, built, qualified and static
fired on a launch pad at Vandenberg Air Force Base in
California less than two and a half years after company
inception, with the inaugural launch occurring less than a
year later. Furthermore, the vehicle was designed from a
blank sheet, with all major components including the
structure, mechanisms, engines for both stages, avionics,
flight and guidance software and ground systems all being
approach, while highly atypical for the aerospace industry

1
in general, is central to SpaceX’s overall philosophy of
minimizing external dependencies, both to control costs and
to decrease development time. The subsequent Falcon 9
and the Dragon spacecraft developments have used a similar
approach with minimal outsourcing or use of contractors
and very few single-source suppliers. In 2006, the Falcon 9
Launch Vehicle and Dragon spacecraft were selected by
NASA via a Space Act Agreement to demonstrate delivery
and return of cargo to the International Space Station (ISS).
Three demonstration missions will be conducted,
culminating in Dragon berthing with ISS, delivering
simulated cargo, and returning to Earth.
SpaceX currently has twelve launches on its manifest, with
its customer base distributed fairly evenly between US
government, commercial satellites and foreign entities. In
2008, NASA awarded SpaceX a NASA Launch Services
contract for the Falcon 1 and Falcon 9 launch vehicles.
The contract is an Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity
(IDIQ) contract where NASA may order launch services
through June 30, 2010, for launches to occur through
December 2012. Under the NASA Launch Services IDIQ
contracts, the potential total contract value is up to $1
billion, depending on the number of missions awarded.
SpaceX also has an IDIQ contract with the US Air Force.
footing as we move towards volume commercial launches.
The ultimate objective for SpaceX is not launching rockets
or transporting cargo, but human space transportation and
everything SpaceX has undertaken to date is focused on this
goal. The Falcon 1 launch vehicle, although a useful
product in its own right, is also a test platform for the much
larger Falcon 9 vehicle. The Falcon 9 has been designed
from the start to comply with NASA human-rating
requirements (safety factor of 1.4). The Dragon spacecraft
is being designed to meet NASA’s ISS cargo resupply
needs after Shuttle retirement, but it is also designed from
the start to be upgraded to full crew capability with
relatively minor modifications. This goal of human space
transportation permeates everything SpaceX does and also
mandates the highest levels of reliability.
SpaceX is currently offering commercial launch services on
two different launch vehicles, the Falcon 1 and Falcon 9, as
well as commercial flights on the Dragon spacecraft.

In addition, NASA has selected the SpaceX Falcon 9 launch

vehicle and Dragon spacecraft for the International Space
Station (ISS) Cargo Resupply Services (CRS) contract
award. The contract is for a guaranteed minimum of 20,000
kg to be carried to the International Space Station. The firm
contracted value is $1.6 billion and NASA may elect to
order additional missions for a cumulative total contract
value of up to $3.1 billion. SpaceX is on sound financial

Customer Launch Vehicle

Falcon 9 Maiden Q4 2008* Falcon 9
li h
ATSB Malaysia 2009 Falcon 1
Falcon 1 Flight 6 2009 Falcon 1 Figure 1 – SpaceX Vehicles: (top to bottom, left to right)
Falcon 1 Flight 7 2009 Falcon 1 Falcon 1, Falcon 1e, Dragon spacecraft, Falcon 9 w/5.2m
fairing, Falcon 9 Heavy w/5.2m fairing
MDA Corp 2009 Falcon 9
NASA COTS 1 2009 Falcon 9/ Dragon Personnel and Facilities
Avanti HYLAS (GTO) 2009 Falcon 9 SpaceX has grown to nearly 600 employees in six years,
NASA COTS 2 2009 Falcon 9/ Dragon with a projected growth rate of approximately 50% per year.

NASA COTS 3 2010 Falcon 9/ Dragon Headquarters, Hawthorne, CA— The company is
MDA Corp 2010 Falcon 1 headquartered in Hawthorne, California where SpaceX has
a 51,000 m2 (550,000 ft2) facility. Most employees are
Swedish Space Corps. 2010 Falcon 1 stationed in this location and all vehicle design and
DragonLab™ Mission 2010 Falcon 9/ Dragon manufacturing is performed in this facility.
1
Bigelow Aerospace 2011 Falcon 9/ Dragon
DragonLab™ Mission 2011 Falcon 9/ Dragon
2
Table 1. SpaceX Launch Manifest
* Flight hardware at launch site

2

Figure 2 - SpaceX’s Hawthorne Headquarters and
Production Facility
Texas Test Facility, McGregor, TX—Approximately 70
employees are permanently stationed at SpaceX’s 120 ha
(300 ac) Propulsion and Structural Test Site, near Waco,
Texas, where all vehicle rocket engines and structures are
tested and qualified. This site hosts six different rocket
engine test stands. These range from a small hypergolic test
facility where the Draco reaction control thrusters for the
Dragon spacecraft are being tested to the 67 m (220 ft) high
Falcon 9 test stand capable of test firing an entire Falcon 9
first stage with over 3.67 MN (825,000 lbf) thrust.
Structural test stands are capable of supporting qualification
testing of the Falcon 1 and Falcon 9 first and second stages,
as well as the various composite components of the
vehicles. Fairing deployment tests have also been
supported by this facility.
Figure 3 - Engine and Structural Tests at SpaceX's
Texas Test Site
Cape Canaveral Launch Facility, Cape Canaveral, FL—
Another 30 personnel are employed in Florida developing
the Falcon 9 launch pad on Cape Canaveral. SpaceX has
been granted a lease by the US Air Force’s 45th Space
Wing to launch Falcon 9 vehicles from SLC-40, the former
Titan IV launch pad. All demolition has been completed,
3
and propellant and gas infrastructure is currently being
installed. An integration facility for the vehicle and
payloads and a Launch Control Center are also being built
at this location. These launch facilities received the first
Falcon 9 at the end of 2008.
SpaceX also has a small Washington DC office and several
permanent personnel at the Falcon 1 launch facility in the
Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site (RTS) at
United States Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA).
Achievements
In six years, SpaceX has achieved the following:
• Developed, built, tested and successfully launched the
Falcon 1 four times, which included “clean sheet”
development of all propulsion, structures and avionics,
fully qualifying the vehicle, ground and launch support
systems, and certifying a Flight Termination System
with a Federal Range. The fourth flight of Falcon 1, on
September 28, 2008, resulted in Falcon 1 becoming the
first privately developed, liquid fueled rocket to reach
orbit.
• Developed, built and activated (with range approval)
two launch sites, including all regulatory approvals and
coordination, and began development of Space Launch
Complex 40 at Cape Canaveral in Florida. This site has
been approved for use by the Department of Defense,
and a site license for SpaceX use has been granted.
Design of ground support equipment (GSE) is largely
complete and construction has started at the site. All
ground segment systems are expected to be installed,
tested, and operational for the first launch of the Falcon
9 vehicle. Additional launch sites will be built in the
near future, based on customer needs, to establish
launch site redundancy and ensure all customers launch
without delay.
• Developed and demonstrated a responsive launch
operations campaign. The United States Air Force
“clocked” our operations and determined that SpaceX
could launch the Falcon 1 within 77 hours of arrival of
hardware at the launch site. Additionally, following an
automated abort during Falcon 1’s March 2007 launch
campaign, SpaceX demonstrated the ability to refuel,
recycle and successfully launch in less than one hour.
SpaceX also completed the same procedure in less than
forty minutes in the August 2008 launch campaign for
Falcon 1 Flight 3.
• Established a Mission Integration and Launch Services
program which has successfully integrated three
missions – each in less than one year. Notably, for the
Office of Operationally Responsive Space’s Jumpstart
mission (Falcon 1 Flight 3), mission integration was
completed for three separate candidate payloads, with
the actual flight payload determined just four weeks
prior to static fire.
• Developed the major Falcon 9 subsystems to a point of
significant readiness. In late November 2008, a Falcon
9 first stage underwent a full mission simulation during
a 178 second multi-engine static fire test stand at the
SpaceX Texas Test Facility. This first stage included
all the major structural and propulsion elements. The
Merlin engine, used on both the first and second stages
of the vehicle, has completed qualification testing. The
Falcon 9 vehicle was fully integrated at Cape Canaveral
one day ahead of schedule on December 30, 2008.
Whether measured by weight or cost, the majority of
the vehicle was flight hardware. As of the time of final
paper submission, erecting the vehicle to vertical was
imminent.
• Brought a 550,000 square foot design and
manufacturing facility on-line in Hawthorne, CA,
which utilizes the latest technology available for
machining, quality control, welding, and composite
production. With the current addition of duplicate
production capability equipment, bolstering timeline
assurance, SpaceX has the manufacturing infrastructure
and capability to provide the quality and on-time
production to support up to twenty (20) Falcon 9 flights
per year.
• To further demonstrate SpaceX’s commitment to
Quality and reliable systems, the company passed its
ISO 9001:2000 quality certification in April 2006.
This is unprecedented in the aerospace industry, given
that this occurred while in the system demonstration
phase of the product development cycle. This was
accomplished in large measure because, since its
inception, SpaceX premised its planning and
engineering on a formalized, improvement-driven
Quality Management System (QMS). As processes
matured and key positions were filled, this premise
became a tangible, certifiable reality.
3. FALCON 1 LAUNCH VEHICLE
Falcon 1, the first privately-developed, liquid-fueled rocket
to reach Earth orbit, has launched four times from SpaceX’s
launch facilities on the remote island of Omelek, in
Kwajalein Atoll in the South Pacific Ocean. The Enhanced
Falcon 1 (Falcon 1e) is planned in 2010 as a block upgrade
to the Falcon 1 and will result in approximately a 50%
increase to payload lift capacity.
Vehicle Description
The SpaceX Falcon 1 is a two-stage small launch vehicle,
capable of lifting approximately 420 kg (925 lbm) into low
earth orbit (LEO). The vehicle is 21 m (68’) long and has a
diameter of 1.7 m (5.5’) with a 1.5 m (5’) diameter payload
fairing. It has a Gross Lift-off Weight (GLOW) of
approximately 27.6 t (61,000 lbm). Both stages burn the
same propellants, namely RP-1 rocket-grade kerosene and
liquid oxygen (LOX), and are propelled by engines entirely
4
designed and developed in-house by SpaceX. All vehicle
structures, most of the avionics and all ground systems were
also designed (and mostly built) by SpaceX.
The first stage is powered by a single Merlin engine which
generates 347 kN (78,000 lbf) thrust at lift-off. With a
vacuum Specific Impulse (Isp) of 304 seconds its
performance is equal to the highest performing Gas
Generator cycle kerosene engines ever built. Merlin is
turbopump-fed with a regeneratively-cooled thrust chamber
and nozzle. A pintle injector provides a robust design that
is insensitive to combustion instability. The engine
achieves reliability through simplicity and the use of
historically-proven design approaches.
The second stage of the Falcon 1 is propelled by a single
Kestrel engine, which generates 31 kN (7,000 lbf) vacuum
thrust. Kestrel is a pressure-fed engine and uses an ablative
combustion chamber. It burns for approximately 420
seconds during a typical mission and is also re-startable
during flight allowing for two or more burn orbit insertions
which significantly increases vehicle payload capability.
Flight History
SpaceX has executed four launches of the Falcon 1 vehicle,
the last of which was fully successfully, including
demonstrating second stage re-ignition.
Demonstration Missions—Prior to declaring Falcon 1 an
operational launch vehicle, two demonstration missions
were conducted. Demonstration Flight 1 lifted off on
March 25, 2006 and executed 30 seconds of powered flight
before a fire caused early termination. Prior to termination,
all vehicle systems, including the main engine, thrust vector
control, structures, avionics, software, guidance algorithm,
were operating nominally. Less than a year later, on March
20, 2007, Demonstration Flight 2 launched. Although
SpaceX does not claim this flight was a complete success,
the primary mission objectives for the Demonstration Flight
2 mission, both programmatic and technical, were met. The
vehicle attained a peak altitude of 289 km, 5.1 km/s
maximum velocity and remained in the center of the
intended ground track throughout flight. An upper stage
control anomaly, however, ultimately prevented it from
reaching orbital velocity, an important – but secondary
mission objective. This mission also demonstrated a highly
autonomous ground control system and rapid recycle from a
hot-fire abort to launch in only 65 minutes.
Had it not been for a second stage control anomaly, all
indications are that Falcon 1 would have achieved its
intended orbit. The full Flight Review is available on
SpaceX.com and includes detailed information on the
successes and anomalies of Demo Flight 2.
SpaceX declared the Falcon 1 ready to exit the
demonstration program and upgraded the launch vehicle to
operational status. Consistent with SpaceX’s corporate
philosophy of rapid and continuous improvement, Falcon 1
upgrades were instituted based upon experience from the
demonstration missions. These and future planned
upgrades, are described below.
Falcon 1 Flight 3—For Falcon 1 Flight 3, the Department
of Defense’s Operationally Responsive Space Office tasked
SpaceX with demonstrating its ability to perform responsive
mission integration for three separate candidate payloads.
The actual flight payload was to be determined by the ORS
Office at or before the SpaceX Flight Readiness Review,
which typically occurs two weeks before launch.
The primary ORS Office objective for the Launch vehicle
team on this mission was to perform integration tasks for 3
possible ORS Office payloads in addition to completing a
mission (Kick off to launch) in ~4 months. In addition to
responsiveness being demonstrated by the launch service
provider, responsiveness was also demonstrated by the
payload and ORS Office teams by building and testing each
of the three payloads being considered, then testing an
integrated stack. Also, each payload candidate team
participated in a Jumpstart pathfinder exercise where they
went to Kwajalein to plan and verify logistical operation
and to set up and certify three separate ground stations for
use in the mission should they be the one selected to fly.
Significant breakthroughs in Operational Responsiveness
were demonstrated through the integration activities of this
mission. The customer kickoff meeting was held in
February 2008 and the launch vehicle with the payload
integrated was vertical at the pad ready for launch in June
2008. Approximately four weeks prior to launch, the ORS
Office made its determination on which of the three payload
candidates would fly. The payload chosen was Trailblazer,
built and operated by SpaceDev of Poway, CA.
In preparation for the payload decision, the SpaceX team
had demonstrated responsiveness by preparing for the
possibility of flying any of the ORS payloads being
considered. Specifically, documentation and analysis were
completed in advance so that regardless of which payload
was ultimately chosen, the final integration and verification
activities could be kept to a bare minimum and fit within the
final two to four weeks of the launch campaign. Multiple
payload configuration analysis completed included coupled
loads analysis, collision avoidance maneuver analysis,
performance and trajectory analysis, and safety analysis.
Three separate interface control documents were worked
between SpaceX, the primary payload being considered,
and the Secondary Payload System teams. Additionally, the
FAA demonstrated responsiveness by licensing the launch
regardless of payload selected. To do this, they took the
payload safety information from all three candidates and
reviewed them all for acceptance prior to granting a
commercial launch license enveloping them all.
5
Falcon 1 Flight 3 launched on August 2, 2008. Falcon 1
executed a picture perfect first stage flight and ultimately
reached an altitude of 217 km, but encountered a problem
just after stage separation that prevented the second stage
from reaching orbit. However, there were still many
successful aspects of the mission. SpaceX accomplished the
ORS mission goal of rapidly integrating one payload
selected from three possible payloads. SpaceX also
integrated the rocket stages, rolled out to the pad, and
launched in only seven days. Positive aspects of the flight
itself include:
• Merlin 1C and overall first stage performance was
excellent
• The stage separation system worked properly, in
that all bolts fired and the pneumatic pushers
delivered the correct impulse
• Second stage ignited and achieved nominal
chamber pressure
• Fairing separated correctly
• Neither of the near miss potential failures of flight
two, nor any new ones, were present
In post-flight analysis, SpaceX quickly determined the
cause of the anomaly in Flight 3. The problem arose due to
a longer than expected thrust decay of the brand new Merlin
1C regeneratively cooled engine. Unburned fuel in the
cooling channels and manifold combined with residual
oxygen to produce a small thrust that was just enough to
overcome the stage separation pusher impulse. In fact, a
very small increase in the time between commanding main
engine shutdown and stage separation, an issue corrected
for Flight 4, would have been enough to save the mission.
Falcon 1 Flight 4—On September 28, 2008, SpaceX
successfully launched and achieved Earth orbit with the
fourth flight of the Falcon 1 launch vehicle. With this key
milestone, Falcon 1 became the first privately developed
liquid-fueled rocket to orbit the Earth.
Flight 4 lifted off at 4:15 p.m. (PDT) / 23:15 (UTC), just
fifteen (15) minutes into the launch window, from the
Reagan Test Site (RTS) on Omelek Island at the U.S. Army
Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) in the Central Pacific.
Preliminary data indicates that Falcon 1 achieved an
elliptical orbit of 500 km by 700 km, 9.2 degrees
inclination—exactly as targeted, and then went on to coast
and restart the second stage.
Orbit was achieved with the first burn terminating at 330.5
km altitude and 8.99 degree inclination. The goal for initial
insertion was a 330 km altitude and a 9.0 degree inclination.
The vehicle executed a second burn of the Kestrel engine to
circularize. The primary purpose of the second burn was to
test the restart capability and then burn as long as possible.
The upper stage coasted for 43.5 minutes and then burned
for 6.8 seconds, which is 4 seconds longer than needed to
circularize. Most of the burn was actually done sideways to
avoid creating a highly elliptical orbit, hence a change in
inclination to 9.3 degrees. The final orbit, confirmed by US
Space Command, was 621 km by 643 km.
Launched just eight weeks after Falcon 1 Flight 3, Flight 4
carried a payload mass simulator of approximately 165 kg
(364 lbs), designed and built by SpaceX, specifically for
this mission. Consisting of a hexagonal aluminum alloy
chamber 1.5 meters (5 feet) tall, the payload remains
attached to the second stage as it orbits Earth. A mass
simulator was chosen, in lieu of launching a payload for one
of several interested parties, to allow for the expedited
launch campaign approval and processing.
(Author’s note: as of this submission, the Public Post-Flight
Report was pending State Department approval, but is
expected in early 2009. Information from the report will be
included in the presentation, and the full report will be
available at SpaceX.com or by contacting the author
directly.)
Figure 4 – Falcon 1 Flight 4 lifting off
Future Flights—The next flight of Falcon 1 is scheduled for
the first part of 2009 and will carry a Malaysian satellite,
Razaksat, for ATSB to near equatorial orbit. Flights 6 and 7
will follow in late 2009. In 2010, the launch cadence for
Falcon 1 is expected to increase to one mission every two to
three months. These launches will occur from SpaceX’s
Kwajalein launch facility.
Upgrades
Consistent with SpaceX’s corporate philosophy of rapid and
continuous improvement, Falcon 1 upgrades were planned
based upon experience from the demonstration missions.
First Stage Upgrades—The Merlin engine employed for the
first two demonstration flights of the Falcon 1 utilized an
ablatively cooled thrust chamber and nozzle. To increase
6
reliability, performance and allow for potential reuse, the
chamber and nozzle have been upgraded to regeneratively
cooled designs. The sixteen month return to flight from
Flight 2 to Flight 3 is due primarily to this engine upgrade.
Because it is able to operate at higher temperatures and
pressures, the regeneratively cooled (Merlin 1C) design
provides a greater level of thrust, upwards of 125,000 lbf of
sea-level thrust. The full thrust of the Merlin 1C engine
exceeds the structural margins of the existing Falcon 1 first
stage tank design, which was originally qualified based on
the lower thrust of the ablatively cooled engine. In
addition, when operating at full thrust, the Merlin 1C
requires an increased propellant flow rate. Therefore, the
first stage tank structure will be redesigned and qualified to
meet the increased load requirements and propellant needs
of the Merlin 1C engine. This full block upgrade, called the
Falcon 1e (for enhanced) will be available beginning in the
second quarter of 2010. However, as an interim upgrade,
the Merlin 1C engine will be flown at a reduced thrust level
for operational launches in 2008, 2009, and early 2010.
First Stage Upgrades—As a weight savings measure, the
stage 2 tank material has been changed from aluminum
2219 to a 2014 aluminum alloy. In addition, slosh baffles
have been added to both the Fuel and LOX tanks to prevent
further occurrences of the stage 2 loss of control anomaly
experienced during the Demo 2 mission. An illustration of
the slosh baffle addition is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 - Stage 2 cross section illustrating internal slosh
baffles
Reliability improvements have been made to the Kestrel
engine, which also allowed for some mass reductions. For
the Falcon 1e, additional mass savings will be achieved by
changing the second stage tank material to a 2195 aluminum
lithium alloy.
Payload Fairing Upgrades—The Falcon 1 employs a bi-
conic aluminum payload fairing with a maximum inner
diameter of 54 in (1.4 m) and an internal height of 110 in
(2.8 m). Minimal changes were made to the fairing
assembly in preparation for the operational launches
following the Demo 2 mission. For mass savings and to
provide increased payload volume, the payload fairing for
the Falcon 1e will be a composite ogive with a maximum
inner diameter of 61 in (1.55 m) and an internal height of
150 in (3.8 m). A dimensional comparison of the Falcon 1
and Falcon 1e payload fairings is provided in Figure 6.
Figure 6 - Falcon 1 and Falcon 1e payload fairing
dimensions, m [in]
3. FALCON 9 LAUNCH VEHICLE
SpaceX’s Falcon 9 launch vehicle is a much larger, EELV-
class (Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle) booster
capable of lifting 12,500 kg (27,500 lbm) to LEO, or 4,640
kg (10,200 lbm) to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO).
Like the Falcon 1, it is a two-stage launch vehicle with both
stages also burning RP-1 and LOX propellants. The first
stage is powered by nine Merlin engines, virtually identical
to those used on the Falcon 1 first stage, which generate a
combined thrust of over 4.9 MN (1,100,000 lbf) at lift-off.
The second stage is powered by a single Merlin-vacuum
engine which shares over 90% commonality with the first
Figure 7 – Falcon 9 Launch Vehicle, fully integrated at Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex (SLC) 40
7
stage engines but employs a much larger nozzle to optimize
performance for vacuum operation. The Falcon 9 stands
54.9 m (180 ft) tall on the launch pad when using the 5.2 m
(17 ft) diameter payload fairing, or 50 m (165 ft) tall when
launching the Dragon spacecraft. The first and second
stages are both 3.6 m (12 ft) diameter and the Gross Lift-off
Weight (GLOW) is approximately 333 t (735,000 lbm) in
the LEO configuration.
The Falcon 9 will initially launch from SpaceX’s launch
complex SLC-40 on Cape Canaveral in mid-2009. This
launch pad will also support the Falcon 9 Heavy variant
starting in late 2010, which will have a payload capacity of
over 28,000 kg (62,000 lbm) to LEO.
The Falcon 9 has been designed from its inception to be a
human-rated vehicle. It meets or exceeds all NASA human-
rating requirements, including structural Factors-of-Safety
of 1.4 (vs. 1.25 for EELV), design for minimum risk, and
failure-tolerance criteria. It will be crew-capable when
combined with the Dragon spacecraft and a Launch Escape
System. Furthermore, it is the only vehicle in its class with
engine-out capability from lift-off (and two engine-out
capability during part of the 1st stage burn), thereby
increasing mission reliability. Like the smaller Falcon 1, it
is held down to the launch pad for approximately three
seconds after first stage ignition to allow engine pressures to
stabilize before committing to flight. If the Flight Computer
detects any key parameters out of specification at T-0.5
seconds, lift-off is aborted, the engines shut down and the
vehicle safed. Launch control personnel can then review
data and decide whether a recycle is possible within the
current launch window. This feature of the Falcon vehicles
also greatly enhances reliability by ensuring all critical
systems are operating nominally prior to lift-off.
As part of the Falcon 9 development, SpaceX has been
conducting a series of multi-engine hot-fires to ensure a
thorough understanding of the complexities involved in
making nine engines work together successfully. This was
one of the most significant challenges of the Apollo
Program’s Saturn V booster development.

On November 22, 2008, a nine engine, 178 second full The engine assembly from Texas and other hardware from
mission simulation burn was performed on the Falcon 9 California converged in Florida for integration. The
Test Stand in Texas. This test was the culmination of a following figures chronicle that process:
series of burns on this test stand, starting with a single
engine and progressing through two, three, five then all nine
engines totaling over 95 seconds of testing. No significant
issues were encountered while ramping up to the full
complement of nine, and efficiencies in fueling rate and
countdown procedures were gained throughout.

Figure 8 – Nine Merlin engines prior to hot-fire Figure 10 - The Falcon 9 Payload Fairing half on its
shipping stand
Immediately following the nine-engine, mission duration
test, the engines were shipped to Cape Canaveral, Florida
and integrated with the Falcon 9 vehicle. The Falcon 9
vehicle was fully integrated on December 30, 2008, and (as
of final paper submission) erecting the vehicle to vertical
was imminent. Falcon 9 will have its maiden flight in mid
2009.

Figure 11 - Falcon 9 skirt mated with fuel tank end of

the first stage

Figure 9 - Engine assembly leaving Texas bound for

Florida

8
 40.

Figure 15 - Side view of the entire assembly (from left)

engines, skirt, first stage tank, interstage, second stage
and 5.2 meter payload fairing (prior to fairing
integration)

Figure 12 – Falcon 9 first stage tank being loaded onto

the shipping structure

Figure 16 - Fully integrated Falcon 9

Figure 13 - Falcon 9 first stage being lifted off the

shipping truck and lowered it onto the integration
assemblies

Figure 17 - A view of the erector (center) standing

vertical on the launch mount base with the cradle on top

Figure 14 - Falcon 9 second stage (left) and the two 5.2

meter diameter fairing halves (right) arriving at SLC-

9
 change required to provide crew transportation services to
and from the ISS.

3. DRAGON SPACECRAFT
The Dragon spacecraft is under development by SpaceX in
collaboration with NASA to provide cargo (and potentially
crew) transportation services to and from the International
Space Station (ISS). In response to NASA’s Commercial
Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) call in 2005,
SpaceX proposed, and has been developing, a flexible,
generic and reusable spacecraft dubbed “Dragon”. Dragon
launches on a standard Falcon 9 booster identical to the
commercial version, and is capable of delivering at least
2550 kg (5600 lbm) of cargo to the ISS. Furthermore,
Dragon is equipped with a heatshield and other recovery
systems to enable a controlled atmospheric reentry and
splashdown in the ocean under parachutes, thereby
providing NASA with cargo down-mass capability.

The Dragon spacecraft has both pressurized and

unpressurized cargo volumes. Pressurized cargo is
accommodated in the pressurized section of the “capsule”,
which is recoverable. This allows both up- and down-mass
capability for pressurized cargo. Unpressurized cargo is
carried in the “trunk”: the unpressurized sleeve that joins
Dragon to the Falcon 9 second stage during launch. This
trunk is jettisoned from the Dragon capsule just prior to
reentry and is therefore not recoverable. Figure 18 - Two views of the Dragon spacecraft and
trunk
Cargo mass can be freely traded between capsule and trunk
sections. Pressurized cargo is mounted inside the pressure The Dragon spacecraft will transport at least 2550 kg (5600
vessel using a flexible rack system designed to lbm) of cargo to the ISS (almost 3400 kg (7500 lbm)
accommodate all standard NASA cargo packages, both soft without growth and margin allocations), and is capable of
and hard-mounted. Unpressurized cargo is attached to a returning 2000 kg (4400 lbm) or more to earth depending
cargo carrier inside the trunk using the same standard bolt on other mission parameters. These values are based on the
pattern as the shuttle cargo bay carriers. After orbit Block 1 Falcon 9 which will be available in 2009. By the
insertion and separation from the Falcon 9 second stage, this end of 2010, the Block 2 Falcon 9 will increase up-mass
trunk volume is open to space. If Flight Releasable Attach capacity by approximately 2500 kg (5500 lbm).
Mechanisms (FRAMs) are used to attach the unpressurized
cargo to the cargo carrier, then the Space Station Robotic Table 1. Basic System Parameters
Manipulator System (SSRMS) can unload this cargo while
Dragon is berthed with ISS. Unpressurized trash for Total Pressurized Volume 15 m3
disposal can also be reloaded into the trunk as needed. Total Unpressurized Volume 30 m3
Usable Pressurized Volume 7~10 m3
Since SpaceX intends to perform both cargo and crew
Usable Unpressurized Volume >14 m3
services using Dragon, it was designed from the start to
human-rating requirements and is essentially identical in Array Power Capacity 1.8 kW
either configuration. The inclusion of three windows and Dry Mass 4800 kg1
higher structural Factors-of-Safety speaks to these Propellant load 1230 kg
intentions. The Environmental Control System will need to
Pressurized Cargo 1700 kg
be upgraded to a full Life Support System with carbon
dioxide scrubbers and humidity control, and crew External Cargo 850 kg
accommodations like seats, spacecraft control over-rides Total lift-off mass 8620 kg
etc. would also be required, but otherwise the Dragon Falcon 9 capability to ISS orbit 9290 kg2
spacecraft is crew capable. Up to seven crew members can 1. Includes 15 – 20% growth margin
be accommodated. The addition of a Launch Escape 2. Block 1, no margin
System to the Falcon 9/Dragon stack is the only additional

10

Spacecraft Subsystem Summary
The major structural elements of the Dragon spacecraft are
shown in Figure 19. The nose cone is jettisoned during
ascent like a payload fairing. A Passive Common Berthing
Mechanism (PCBM) is used to provide the ISS mechanical
interface. The pressure vessel is aluminum alloy and the
trunk is a composite structure. The “Service Section” is an
unpressurized annulus that wraps around the base of the
capsule and houses the propulsion and recovery systems.
Although the total pressurized volume in the capsule is
approximately 15 m3, the usable volume is typically 7-10
m3, due to the practicalities of packing this complex shape
with cargo consisting largely of rectangular prisms.
Similarly, although the total unpressurized volume is
approximately 30 m3, protrusions into this volume make the
usable volume closer to 14 m3.
Nose Cone
Passive Common
Berthing Mechanism
Pressurized Section
Service Section
(Unpressurized)
NTO/MMH
Thrusters
Heat Shield
Trunk
(Unpressurized)
Figure 19 - Major Dragon Components
Dragon uses 18 “Draco” hypergolic thrusters for both
reaction control and orbital maneuvers including de-orbit.
They are arranged in four cross-strapped modules which are
identical except that two modules have four thrusters and
the others have five (this is mandated by ISS safety
requirements). The whole propulsion system is at least two-
fault (and in most cases three or more fault) tolerant. These
thrusters and the propellant tanks are being developed and
tested in-house at SpaceX.
11
Dragon avionics is architected around four redundant Flight
Computers which are interconnected using a Byzantine
redundancy management system, currently being developed
by SpaceX. SpaceX is also designing a generic Remote
Input-Output module (RIO), each of which contains a
complement of up to 14 FPGA-based “Personality
Modules” (PMs). Depending on the specific combination
of PMs, a RIO can serve as an engine controller for the
Falcon 9, a value controller in Dragon, a communications
controller (including command encryption/decryption), or a
host of other functions. Consequently these RIO modules
appear throughout the Falcon 9 and Dragon architecture in
nearly a dozen different roles.
Electrical power is generated using two single-axis gimbled
solar arrays deployed from the Dragon trunk. Energy
storage uses batteries of commercial Lithium-Polymer cells
that SpaceX has been developing and recently qualified for
use on the Falcon launch vehicles. The Dragon power
system is design with over 200% power margins and is at
least three-fault tolerant.
Figure 20 – Draco Thruster Hot-Fire Testing
Thermal Control is achieved using dual pumped fluid loops
with a radiator on the skin of the trunk structure. The
Environmental Control System maintains a comfortable
“shirt-sleeve” environment inside the pressure vessel by
providing air circulation, controlling pressure,
pressurization rates and temperature. Humidity is also
monitored. For ISS missions, fire detection, pressure
equalization, air sampling and exchange with ISS is also
provided.
On-orbit communications and commandability is achieved
using commercial S-band digital transceivers linking
directly to ground stations or via TDRSS. Crosslink
communications with ISS (both telemetry and command) is
through a UHF transceiver that SpaceX is developing,
dubbed Commercial UHF Communications Unit (CUCU).
NASA will be launching this hardware on a shuttle flight in
2009 for installation in an Express Rack on ISS prior to the
Demo C2 mission.
Dragon Guidance, Navigation and Control (GNC) uses
redundant Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs), GPS
receivers and Star Trackers. Relative navigation with ISS is
being performed using a combination of Relative-GPS and
LIDARs mounted on Dragon.
The shape of the Dragon capsule allows for a lifting reentry
profile with peak quasi-static accelerations around 3.4 g’s.
Two drogue and three main parachutes ensure a safe and
controlled landing. The entire Entry, Descent and Landing,
and Recovery system is at least two-fault tolerant, and is
designed for safe passive return even without any guidance
functionality (albeit with higher g-forces). The primary
heatshield is a PICA-like material, as used on Mars Science
Laboratory and Orion. SpaceX is fabricating and qualifying
this material in-house.
COTS
Status—SpaceX started work on COTS on September 1,
2006, and to-date has completed all 12 scheduled
milestones (of 22 total) on-time. The COTS award is a pay
by performance award, thus a milestone must be completed
to receive the associated payment. These milestones
include System Requirement Reviews (SRRs) and
Preliminary Design Reviews (PDRs) for each of the three
demonstration missions, plus the Critical Design Review
(CDR) for the first demo mission. Other milestones
completed include the Program Management Review, Initial
Hot-Fire of the Draco hypergolic thruster, the 15 second
nine-engine test firing and two Financing Rounds. The next
major milestone is CDR covering both the second and third
demo missions together, which is on-track for completion in
December 2008.
The complete Dragon qualification structure will is
currently in testing at SpaceX’s Texas Test Facility. Other
critical qualification articles, such as RIO modules,
batteries, the nose cone and thrusters, are also in testing.
Qualification testing on many items for the first Demo C1
missions is already underway at SpaceX.
Concept of Operations—The Dragon spacecraft and the
Falcon 9 booster will be manufactured at SpaceX
headquarters in California and then shipped to the launch
pad at Cape Canaveral, Florida. Cargo manifested for a
given missions will be received from NASA and staged in a
dedicated holding building on SLC-40. Then, in the
integration facilities currently under construction on SLC-
40, the cargo will be loaded into the capsule and the trunk.
These two sections are then integrated together and mated
to the launch vehicle horizontally.
Approximately four days prior to launch, the complete
integrated vehicle stack is rolled out of the integration
hanger to the launch pad and attached to the launch mount.
Late-load cargo can be accommodated into the trunk until
12
L-2 days and into the capsule until T-9 hours. Two hours
before launch the vehicle is erected to vertical.
During launch the Dragon spacecraft is typically injected
into an elliptical phasing orbit with an apogee at least 10 km
lower than the current ISS altitude. Once the on-orbit and
ground elements (at both SpaceX and NASA) are ready to
support joint operations, Dragon is given approval to
approach ISS and begins Proximity Operations, eventually
parking in the predefined “Berthing Box” about 10 m (33 ft)
below ISS. The SSRMS then grapples Dragon and
maneuvers it into the berthing port (nominally the nadir port
of the Harmony module). Once berthed, the hatches are
opened and the ISS crew unloads pressurized cargo and
reloads Dragon with down-cargo and/or pressurized trash
for disposal. The SSRMS is used to detach unpressurized
cargo from the trunk and reattach any unpressurized items
for disposal.
Once cargo and trash transfer is complete, the hatches are
resealed and the SSRMS is used to unberth Dragon and
move it to the departure position. Dragon then departs the
vicinity of ISS and begins phasing for return to earth.
Dragon uses its thrusters to perform a de-orbit burn while
still attached to the trunk, but then jettisons it, performs a
Collision Avoidance Maneuver (CAM) and reorients itself
for reentry. The trunk reenters and burns up over the
Pacific Ocean while Dragon, having thermal protection and
greater lift than the trunk, lands further downrange under
parachutes just off the coast of California. A recovery ship
is used to recover Dragon and return it to SpaceX
headquarters for unloading and refurbishment. A typical
cargo mission duration is approximately 2-4 weeks.
Demonstration Missions—Three demonstration missions are
planned as part of the SpaceX COTS cargo capability
development. The first mission, known as Demo C1, is
scheduled to occur in June 2009. This inaugural mission for
Dragon is a very basic “up and back” flight of the
spacecraft. It tests fundamental functionality including
basic control and maneuvers in orbit. Dragon will be de-
orbited after approximately four hours in orbit and
recovered.
Demo C2, scheduled for November 2009, is a far more
sophisticated mission nominally lasting approximately five
days. During this time Dragon will approach to about 10
km below ISS and verify functionality of the radio crosslink
that is required to provide spacecraft telemetry to the ISS
crew during Proximity Operations and also basic remote
commandability.
The final Demo C3 mission will actually approach and berth
with ISS. Hatches will be opened and cargo transfer will be
demonstrated. After return to earth and recovery, the
SpaceX COTS system will have been certified and proven
operational, opening the way for commercial cargo resupply
services.
ISS Cargo Accommodations—A typical ISS cargo servicing ISS cargo service missions for NASA. These Dragon
mission will require Dragon to accommodate a manifest missions have been dubbed “DragonLab™” in the tradition
consisting of cargo in a variety of different standard sizes of SkyLab and SpaceLab before it. The first such mission is
and packages. A module rack system allows these packages scheduled for launch in 2010 with at least one flight per
to be stowed according to package type, late-load/early year thereafter.
access and on-orbit access requirements. Power and data
services are provided to cargo items in some locations. DragonLab™ represents a new, emergent capability. Flying
Figure 21 shows Dragon fully loaded with a typical payloads on the shuttle is the closest analogy, but the
complement of pressurized cargo. significant safety requirements inherent to a crewed vehicle
make this path unnecessarily onerous for payloads and
experiments that do not require crew interaction.
Single
-Single CTBCTB Furthermore the 24 month typical timeline for shuttle
-MLEMLEsized locker
sized locker
payloads preclude many classes of experiments, especially
-TripleCTB/CWC for commercial experimenters who frequently require
Triple CTB / CWC
greater flexibility and faster turn-arounds. DragonLab™
-M01
M01
offers the opportunity to get in-space results, acquire flight
-M02 heritage and raise Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs)
M02
much faster and possibly for lower cost than the usual
-M03
M03 ground-test approaches.
-RTA
RTA
For any experiment or payload that does not require crew
-DMLE
DMLEfreezer
freezer interaction, the prospect of being able to fly in space
(GLACIER)
(GLACIER) 8/28
without building a spacecraft bus and without interacting
with any government space agency is extremely appealing.
Figure 21 - Typical Load of Pressurized ISS Cargo The costs and turn-around times for actually flying
experiments are significantly reduced over any comparable
Unpressurized cargo is typically mounted to the cargo avenue, making this ideal for payload with highly
carrier in the trunk using FRAMs so it can be unloaded on- responsive requirements. A nominal payload integration
orbit. Figure 22 shows four large ORUs mounted to the timeline of only five months is anticipated for most
carrier and also unloading by the Special Purpose Dexterous payloads. Furthermore, the Payload Safety requirements for
Manipulator (SPDM) on the SSRMS. DragonLab™ are significantly reduced due to Dragon being
un-crewed (as opposed to other opportunities, such as
DragonLab™ Shuttle), and the approval process is dramatically simpler
and faster. Mission durations from several weeks to over a
Numerous parties have expressed an interest in flying year are anticipated, depending on customer requirements.
payloads on Dragon without any particular need to visit
ISS. Consequently, SpaceX is currently manifesting fully Payloads on these missions can be hosted in any of three
commercial Dragon missions quite apart from any possible sections as follows.

Figure 22 - Dragon Trunk Cargo accommodations and unloading

13
Pressure Vessel—Payloads mounted inside the pressurized
section are completely recoverable and benefit from a shirt-
sleeve laboratory-type thermal and pressure environment.
Convection cooling can be used for electronic modules
since air pressure and temperature is maintained within
reasonable limits. Cold plates can also be provided if
necessary for greater heat loads or tighter thermal
requirements. A Shuttle Middeck Locker configuration is
the simplest mechanical interface, though any standard
NASA cargo package is easily accommodated. Custom
mechanical mounting configurations can also be arranged.
There is a strong preference for soft packaging (like Crew
Transfer Bags) wherever possible since this simplifies
dynamic interactions, but SpaceX routinely performs
Coupled Load Analyses for hard-mounted payloads so these
are not an obstacle.
Electrical power (28 V DC) can be provided to payloads if
needed, with 120 V DC also offered as a non-standard
service. Up to 1000 W continuous (2000 W peak) power is
available for all payloads combined, though allocations for
individual payloads over the course of a mission will be
negotiated as part of a launch contract. Payload data
services including RS-422 serial connections and Ethernet
ports will also be available. Payload telemetry outputs of
up to 400 kbps (across all payloads) will be available, with
data being either down-linked to the ground during ground
passes, or stored locally on Dragon for download after
landing. Similarly, uplink connectivity can be provided (up
to 8 kbps across all payloads) for basic command and
control of payloads. Note neither the uplink nor the
downlink will necessarily be real-time or continuous.
pressure vessel. Thermal control can also be provided via
Multilayer Insulation (MLI) and, if necessary, actively
cooled cold plates. Figure 23 shows trunk dimensions and
usable volume.
As with the Pressure Vessel, the trunk could accommodate
the entire 6000 kg (13,000 lbm) of payload mass capacity,
but in practice most payloads will be volume limited. Note
that the trunk is jettisoned just prior to re-entry and is not
recoverable.
Sensor Bay—There is also a small recoverable
unpressurized volume available for payloads on these non-
ISS missions. The Sensor Bay is part of the Service
Section, the unpressurized annulus around the base of the
capsule that also houses the propulsion and recovery
systems. On ISS missions, this Sensor Bay is filled with
LIDAR equipment required for relative navigation in
proximity with ISS and hosts the Grapple Fixture required
for berthing with ISS. For free-flying missions these
LIDARs and Grapple Fixture are not required thereby
freeing up this 0.1 m3 (4 ft3) volume. The Sensor Bay hatch
is opened after the spacecraft is deployed into orbit and
closed again prior to reentry. Hatch dimensions are shown
in Figure 23.

Nominal cargo integration occurs at L-14 days, though late-

load can be accommodated until T-9 hours. Nominal return
of payloads to customers is at End-of-Mission EOM+7
days, though again, non-standard arrangements can be
accommodated with return as early as EOM+2 hours.
Hatch and vessel dimensions are shown in Figure 23.
Actual pressurized volume is approximately 15 m3 (530 ft3),
though a usable volume of 7-10 m3 (247-353 ft3) is more
realistic. Although the pressurized section can
accommodate up to the full 6000 kg (13,000 lbm) capacity,
in practice most manifests will be volume-limited.

Trunk—The trunk is ideal for hosting unpressurized

payloads and experiments, including those that require large
apertures (up to 3.5 m (11.5’) diameter) or exposure to the
space environment. Furthermore, spacecraft of significant
size and mass can be deployed into orbit from this location.
There is no standard mechanical mounting configuration in
this section, though the cargo carrier uses the same bolt
pattern as the Shuttle cargo carriers. The standard payload
power supplied in the trunk is 120 V DC, though 28 V DC
can also be provided. Payload data services similar to those
in the Pressure Vessel are also provided. An electrical
umbilical and feed-throughs provide connectivity between
trunk payloads and supporting electronics inside the

14
 Figure 23 – Dimensions of Dragon Payload Sections
The Sensor Bay is an ideal location for small sensors,
apertures, collectors and witness plates that require
exposure to space, but also need to be recovered after the
mission. Electrical feed-throughs allow connectivity
between sensors hosted in the Sensor Bay and supporting
electronics hosted inside the Pressure Vessel.
DragonLab™ in particular represents an Emergent
Capability unlike anything currently available. SpaceX is
actively soliciting expressions of interest from prospective
users and working to establish manifests for missions
starting in 2010.
Video tours of SpaceX’s California, Florida and Texas
facilities are available online.

Applications—Potential uses for this new DragonLab™

payload capability include:

• Instrument & sensor testing – raise TRLs and gain

Flight Heritage
• Spacecraft deployment from the trunk
• Science observations in support of:
o Earth science, geophysics and aeronomy
o Astronomy, astrophysics and relativity
• Radiation effects research
• Materials and space environments research and
observations
• Microgravity research
• Life sciences research
• Biotech and pharmaceutical research
There has been a groundswell of interest from researchers in
the above communities, many of whom have seen
significant cuts in both funding and flight opportunities in
recent years. Other interested parties include researchers
from the sounding rocket community, and those with shuttle
and ISS experiments in the queue but with little chance of
being manifested on the few remaining flights.

4. CONCLUSION
In six short years, SpaceX has made tremendous progress.
With the pathfinder Falcon 1 launch vehicle, which
successfully reached orbit and became the first privately-
developed, liquid-fueled rocket to reach Earth orbit, critical
systems of the larger Falcon 9 vehicle were proven. With a
robust manifest in 2009, SpaceX is rapidly marking towards
completing development and launching the Falcon 9 launch
vehicle and Dragon spacecraft. Additionally, with at least
three flights in 2009, SpaceX will continue to retire system
risk on the Falcon 1 vehicle.

By changing the price points of launch by a factor of five,

increasing reliability and flight rates, and introducing new
capabilities such as fully commercial DragonLab™
missions for payloads, SpaceX stands on the threshold of a
paradigm shift in the way space is accessed, used and
experienced by people everywhere.

15