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Parenting and Adolescents' Depressive Symptoms:

The Mediating Role of Future Time Perspective

Loredana R. Diaconu-Gherasim, Colleen M. Bucci, Kathryn R. Giuseppone &

Laura E. Brumariu

To cite this article: Loredana R. Diaconu-Gherasim, Colleen M. Bucci, Kathryn R. Giuseppone &
Laura E. Brumariu (2017): Parenting and Adolescents' Depressive Symptoms: The Mediating Role
of Future Time Perspective, The Journal of Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/00223980.2017.1372349

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2017.1372349

Published online: 18 Oct 2017.

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 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2017.1372349

Parenting and Adolescents’ Depressive Symptoms: The

Mediating Role of Future Time Perspective
Loredana R. Diaconu-Gherasima, Colleen M. Buccib, Kathryn R. Giusepponeb,
and Laura E. Brumariub
a
Alexandru Ioan Cuza University; bAdelphi University

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study investigated the relations between maternal and paternal Received 10 November 2016
rearing practices and adolescents’ depressive symptoms, and whether Accepted 30 May 2017
time perspective in adolescence explains these links. The sample
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KEYWORDS
included 306 students (158 girls), aged between 10.83 and 14.42 years. Adolescence; depressive
Adolescents completed questionnaires assessing their perceptions of symptoms; maternal and
maternal and paternal acceptance and psychological control, and of paternal parenting;
their future time perspective and depressive symptoms. Adolescents mediation; time perspective
who rated their mothers as more accepting and those who rated their
fathers as less psychologically controlling also reported lower levels of
depressive symptoms and greater future time perspective. Further,
adolescents who had greater future time perspective reported lower
levels of depressive symptoms. Finally, time perspective partially
mediated the relations of maternal and paternal acceptance, and
paternal control with depressive symptoms in adolescence. The
findings highlight the unique relations of maternal acceptance and
paternal psychological control with adolescents’ depressive symptoms,
and that future time perspective is one mechanism that might explain
why parenting strategies are linked with depressive symptoms in
adolescence.

Depression is one of the most prevalent disorders in childhood and adolescence, and depres-
sive symptoms are problematic for nearly one fourth of all children (Kessler, Avenevoli, &
Merikangas, 2001). Further, depressive symptoms in childhood and adolescence undermine
social and school functioning, and portend later maladjustment (Hammen, Rudolph, &
Abaied, 2014). Thus, studies evaluating factors associated with the development of depres-
sive symptoms are clearly needed. The goals of this study were to evaluate the relative contri-
bution of both maternal and paternal rearing practices (acceptance and psychological
control) to depressive symptoms, and whether adolescents’ future time perspective is one
potential mediator of these relations in a sample of Romanian adolescents.
Theoretical models of childhood depression emphasize the significant role played by
parental rearing practices, including parental rejection (or low acceptance) and parental con-
trol, in its development and maintenance (see Abela & Hankin, 2008; Alloy, Abramson,

CONTACT Laura E. Brumariu lbrumariu@adelphi.edu Department of Psychology, Gordon F. Derner School of

Psychology, Adelphi University, 158 Cambridge Avenue, Garden City, NY 11530, USA.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 2 L. R. DIACONU-GHERASIM ET AL.

Smith, Gibb, & Neeren, 2006; Yap & Jorm, 2015 for reviews). Overall, theorists advanced the
ideas that maladaptive parenting, including parental rejection or low acceptance, and high
parental control promote a negative inferential style, a sense of helplessness, lower perceived
mastery, and lower self-esteem, which, in turn, are hypothesized to contribute to childhood
depression (e.g., Abela & Hankin, 2008; Alloy et al., 2006; Barber & Xia, 2013).
Comprehensive literature reviews and meta-analytic findings suggest that parental rejection
or low acceptance, and to a lesser extent parental control, assessed retrospectively or concur-
rently, are linked with depressive symptomatology (Alloy et al., 2006; McLeod, Weisz, &
Wood, 2007; Yap & Jorm, 2015). In spite of advances in the literature, it is important to note
that most studies of childhood depression focused on maternal rearing practices (Alloy et al.,
2006), most likely because mothers are perceived as primary caregivers, with less evidence
regarding the association for fathers. However, a comprehensive review (Lamb, 2012) sug-
gested that maternal and paternal low acceptance and high control have similar negative effects
on children and adolescents, although there are exceptions. For example, one study showed
that 16-year-old depressed adolescents have mothers who use more control and fathers who
show more overprotection (Nilzon & Palmerus, 1997), whereas other studies reported that
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depressed children have mothers relying more on overprotection (e.g., Stein et al., 2000).
Developmental literature, however, suggests that in spite of similarities in parental rearing
practices and abilities to parent well (Lamb, 2012), mothers and fathers may show some dif-
ferences in parenting. For example, fathers tend to display more strictness whereas mothers
show more involvement and affection, and are more emotionally expressive and more
encouraging of understanding of affective states (e.g., Bariola, Gullone, & Hughes, 2011).
Thus, we hypothesized that both parents’ rearing practices would be related to adoles-
cents’ depressive symptoms, although we expected stronger effects for maternal parenting,
given that mothers typically have a central role in supporting children’s modulation of their
affective states (Bariola et al., 2011). In this study, we focused on adolescents’ perceptions of
parenting because previous research underscores the importance of children’s own views as
“receivers” of parenting, that children are sensitive observers of their parents’ behavior, and
that the effects of parenting practices might depend on how children interpret and filter
parental behaviors (e.g., Casas, 2011).
Theorists emphasize that exposure to aversive social contexts, including maladaptive par-
enting, fosters a sense of lack of support, and security, and fuels a negative self-view and
diminished self-efficacy that signal a risk for depression (e.g., Hammen et al., 2014). Low
parental acceptance and high levels of control may also predispose a child to take responsi-
bility for these invalidating parental behaviors, and to develop cognitive vulnerabilities (e.g.,
depressogenic inferential style) and interpersonal or emotional difficulties, which in turn cre-
ate a propensity for depression (see Abaied & Rudolph, 2014; Hammen et al., 2014 for
reviews). Empirical evidence based on a few studies suggests that adolescents’ low self-worth,
dysfunctional attitudes, negative inferential styles, rumination and negative perceptions of
the self, world, and future partially explain the relation between parenting and younger and
older adolescents’ depression (e.g., Gate et al., 2013; see Alloy et al., 2006 for a review). It is
also important to note that most findings have not yet been replicated.
However, in spite of these advances in the literature, we know little about other potential
factors explaining the relations between both parental acceptance and psychological control
and adolescents’ depression. We evaluated whether adolescents’ future time perspective is
one potential mediator of these relations.
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 3

Parenting and Future Time Perspective

In spite of different conceptualizations, theorists agree that future time perspective reflects a
mental representation of the future, an anticipation of events, or an orientation toward the
future (Peetsma, 2000; Trommsdorff, Burger, & Fuchsle, 1982). In this study, we used Peets-
ma’s (2000) conceptualization of future time perspective, defined as the degree to which ado-
lescents place value on a goal or aspect of their lives in the future, their intent to reach a goal
in a certain life domain, and what specific feelings and emotions arise toward the goal or life
domain. Peetsma’s model of future time perspective allows the differentiation among atti-
tudes toward events from three life domains viewed over time: school and professional
career, social relations, and leisure (or free) time.
Based on the social learning theory, Trommsdorff et al. (1982) proposed that parental
behaviors influence children’s attitudes toward the future and willingness to pursue future
goals by setting the normative standards affecting values, interests, and goals, providing
them information about future planning, and fostering a sense of self-efficacy about the
future. Empirical evidence shows that parental encouragement of future planning and paren-
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tal acceptance are associated with children’s or adolescents’ stronger, positive, and more dif-
ferentiated future orientations, and more optimism and realization of their aspirations (e.g.,
Johnson, Pas, & Bradshaw, 2016; see Kracke & Schmitt-Rodermund, 2001 for a review).
Additional studies on parental control showed that it hinders adolescents’ interests in their
future education and their optimism about the future (see Seginer, 2009 for a review).
Regarding the relations of each parent’s rearing practices with their adolescents’ time per-
spective, the emerging yet limited literature suggests that maternal acceptance and support-
iveness relate to older adolescents’ perceptions of the importance of future orientation, their
educational attainments, and a positive and elaborated orientation toward the future (e.g.,
Kerpelman, Eryigit, & Stephens, 2008; see Seginer, 2009 for a review). Paternal parenting
(warmth and autonomy) is modestly or non-significantly associated with adolescents’ future
orientation (Kerpelman et al., 2008; see Seginer, 2009 for a review). Thus, studies suggest
that mothers may act as the primary agents of socialization of future orientation, and that
maternal rearing practices may be more relevant than paternal rearing practices for adoles-
cents’ future time perspective.
Given the scarce previous literature, it is important to further evaluate both maternal and
paternal rearing practices in relation to adolescents’ future time perspective. We hypothe-
sized that adolescents who perceive their parents as less accepting and more controlling
would report weaker future orientations. Further, we evaluated whether the associations
with future time perspective would be stronger for maternal rearing practices.

Time Perspective and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence

Future time perspective might be relevant for depression especially during adolescence, a
time when rates of depressive symptoms increase (Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002).
Future time perspective reflecting the anticipation of events has a cognitive component
(along with affective and behavioral ones) that might be conceptually linked with the nega-
tive belief systems, emphasized as key vulnerabilities to depression in cognitive theories. For
example, some cognitive theories of depression have focused on hopelessness, which refers
to the expectation that negative events will happen in the future and the belief in one’s
 4 L. R. DIACONU-GHERASIM ET AL.

inability and helplessness to have an impact on these outcomes (Abramson, Metalsky, &
Alloy, 1989). Self-regulatory theories (e.g., Weisz, Sweeney, Proffitt, & Carr, 1993) also
emphasize that one’s expectations about outcomes and one’s personal investment in out-
comes (e.g., goals and values) lead to depression. Further, Beck’s cognitive theory of depres-
sion underscores that the cognitive triad, referring to negative thoughts about the future,
along with negative views about the self and the world, plays a role in activating and main-
taining depressive symptoms (Beck, Ruch, Shaw, & Emery, 1979).
Conceptually, future time perspective also includes an evaluation component of future
outcomes (Nurmi, 1991). However, future time perspective and depression are distinct con-
structs. For example, future time perspective does not contain the negative interpretative
and emotional connotations characteristic to depression (Chin & Holden, 2013). Further,
future time perspective represents a specific belief toward specific future events (one will be
able to engage in useful plans in the future, and/or one will be able to reach desired goals in
the future), whereas depression reflects a more generalized belief about the future (Hirsch
et al., 2007). Because future time perspective represents how adolescents think about their
life experiences in the future, we conceptualized it as a potential cognitive factor associated
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with depressive symptoms.

Previous literature predominantly explored the relation between future time perspective
and depression in adult samples and showed that greater orientation toward the future or
future thinking is associated with lower levels of depression in primary care adult patients
(Chang et al., 2013), college students (Chin & Holden, 2013), and older adults (Hirsch et al.,
2007). To our knowledge, only one study addressed the link between future time perspective
and depression in youths. Specifically, based on a sample of 12 to 13 year olds, Hamilton
et al. (2015) found that adolescents with weaker future orientations experience higher levels
of depressive symptoms concurrently, but not 9 months later. Thus, relatively little is known
about this relation in adolescence. The onset of change and emotional upheaval is particu-
larly prevalent in adolescence (Spear, 2000). Future time perspective also starts developing at
this age, and appears to be more real and psychologically closer, as adolescents begin to attri-
bute a greater importance to the future, envisage future experiences and events, and explore
possible life and career options (Nurmi, 2004).
In this study, we hypothesized that adolescents who are less oriented toward the future or
have poorer future time perspective would report higher levels of depressive symptoms. Fur-
ther, in spite of theoretical links among parenting, time perspective, and adolescent depres-
sion, no study addressed their relations. To advance the literature, we evaluated whether
future time perspective partially explains the relations of parental acceptance and psycholog-
ical control with adolescents’ depressive symptoms.
It is also important to note that most previous studies addressing links between parenting
and depression or between future time perspective and depression relied on Western sam-
ples. Very little is known regarding these associations in non-Western countries, including
Eastern European countries (for exceptions, see Gherasim, Butnaru, Gavreliuc, & Iacob,
2013). There are significant cultural differences between Romanian and Western countries
rooted in the historical heritage such as religion (Catholic/Orthodox Eastern versus
Catholic/Protestant Western) and social values. Traditionally, Eastern European countries,
including Romania, value social interdependence, hierarchy (e.g., obedience toward adults in
charge, including parents), and traditional roles specific to more collectivistic cultures.
Western societies, on the other hand, value autonomy and egalitarianism (Schwartz, 2006).
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 5

It is also important to note that are also differences in political climate (ex-communist
Romania versus non-communist Western countries). Further, families from former commu-
nist countries, including Romania, manifest decreased well-being and overall life satisfaction
compared to those from West-European countries (Oishi, Diener, Lucas, & Suh, 2009).
Exposure to Western culture, in the context of integration in the European Union, and
parental temporary labor migration however, may have affected parenting approaches.
Because context specificity may influence the relation between parenting rearing practices
and children’s depressive symptoms (Gherasim, Brumariu & Alim, 2017), it is particularly
important to evaluate the relation of parenting with adolescents’ depressive symptoms in the
East European cultural contexts. Thus, to enhance the literature, we addressed these ques-
tions in a Romanian sample.

Method
Participants
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Adolescents were recruited from local schools in the North Eastern part of Romania. Schools
distributed the invitation letters for the study and parents/legal guardians returned consent
forms if they agreed to allow their child to participate. Adolescents signed assent forms. The
response rate was 79.89%. Research assistants collected all data at schools. Adolescents par-
ticipating in the study also participated in a raffle and received small prizes (school supplies).
The sample included 306 adolescents (148 boys and 158 girls), mean age D 12.85 years
(SD D .85; range D 10.83–14.42 years), with 29.4% in the fifth grade, 38.2% in the sixth
grade, and 32.4% in the seventh grade. Parental education was distributed as follows: less
than a high school degree (mothers—17% and fathers—19.3%); high school degree (moth-
ers—32.7%; fathers—34.3%); college degree (mothers—28.1% and fathers—27.5%); and an
advanced degree (mothers—12.4% and fathers—8.5%). Mother and father education were
significantly associated (r D .69, p < .001), and therefore we computed an overall parental
education variable by averaging them. Most adolescents reported intact-family status
(84.31%), with 15.36% indicating single-parent status [divorced (11.11%), separated
(1.63%), or widowed (2.62%)], and .33% reporting other status. Approximately 14.1% of
mothers and 33% of fathers had a history of temporary migration (i.e., working abroad).

Measures
The measures were translated from English into Romanian using the forward-backward
translation method (Hambleton, 2005). Two members of the research team independently
translated each measure, and then two other team members translated the measures back to
English. Minimal differences in translations were discussed among the team members and a
translator, and an agreement was reached. The back-translation method retained the con-
ceptual meaning of the original measures.

Adolescents’ Perceptions of Parental Rearing Practices

Adolescents reported their perceptions of psychological control and acceptance separately
for mothers and fathers. For each parent, they filled out a 17-item psychological control scale
consisting of eight items from the psychological control subscale from the Revised Children’s
 6 L. R. DIACONU-GHERASIM ET AL.

Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI; Schaefer, 1965), and nine items proposed by
Barber (1996, Psychological Control Scale-Youth Report, PCS-YR). Adolescents also rated
each parent’s behaviors on the 10-item acceptance subscale from the Revised Children’s
Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (Schaefer, 1965). Items were scored using a three-
point scale (psychological control: mother a D .81, father a D .80; acceptance: mother a D
.88, father a D .86). Previous literature showed that parental psychological control and
acceptance scales relate to other measures indexing the quality of parent child relationship
(e.g., Kerns, Brumariu, & Seibert, 2011)

Adolescents’ Depressive Symptoms

Adolescents completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children
(CES-DC; Weissman, Orvaschel, & Padian, 1980), a 20-item scale assessing depressive
symptomology in children and adolescents. In order to avoid conceptual overlap between
the future time perspective and depressive symptoms, we eliminated one item from the
CES-DC that specifically deals with thoughts about the future (i.e., I felt like something good
was going to happen). The adolescent was asked to report how much she or he has experi-
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enced each symptom in the past week, from (0) “not at all” to (3) “a lot.” Scores range from
0 to 51, and scores above 15 may indicate clinically significant levels of depression (Weiss-
man et al., 1980). In this sample, 28.8% of children had scores above 15 (a D .87). The CES-
DC relates to other measures of depression and problem behaviors (e.g., Doerfler, Felner,
Rowlison, Raley, & Evans, 1988).

Adolescents’ Future Time Perspective

Adolescents completed three scales from the Time Perspective Questionnaire (TPQ; Stout-
hard & Peetsma, 1999), capturing their long-term time perspective in three different life
domains: school and professional career (7 items, e.g., I like thinking about going to college
or what job I might have when I leave school), social relations (6 items; I hope to spend a lot
of time with my friends when I leave school), and leisure time (6 items; e.g., My free time
will be a very important part of my life when I’m older). Items are rated on a five-point scale.
The three subscales were highly correlated (r between school/ professional career and social
relationships D .65; r between school/ professional career and leisure time D .52; and r
between social relationships and leisure time D .63, all ps ˂ .001), thus we averaged them to
obtain a total score of future time perspective, used in the main analyses. Internal consisten-
cies for the TPQ’s dimensions ranged between .61 and .86, and alpha for the entire scale was
.84 (similar findings to van der Veen, & Peetsma, 2011). Previous literature shows that the
TPQ is associated with investment in learning and academic achievement in children and
adolescent samples (e.g., van der Veen, & Peetsma, 2011).

Results
Preliminary Analyses
Descriptive statistics for the main variables are presented in Table 1. Adolescent’s gender and
age, and parental marital status were not significantly related to adolescents’ depressive
symptoms. Parental education was significantly associated with adolescents’ depressive
symptoms (r D ¡.21, p < .001). In addition, adolescents with mothers, but not fathers, with
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 7

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, and minimum and maximum values of the main study variables.
Variables N Mean SD Minimum Maximum

1. Maternal acceptance 306 25.03 4.86 10.00 32.00

2. Maternal psychological control 306 28.67 6.24 17.00 47.00
3. Paternal acceptance 298 23.45 5.14 10.00 30.00
4. Paternal psychological control 298 27.82 6.20 17.00 48.00
5. Future time perspective 302 25.37 3.65 13.33 31.67
6. Depressive symptoms 306 12.22 8.66 0.00 51.00

a history of migration tended to express higher levels of depressive symptoms than those
with mothers who did not have a migration history, t (304) D 1.91, p D .057, M (SD) D
14.55 (9.47), and M (SD) D 11.84 (8.48). Zero-order correlations among the main variables
are presented in Table 2. Because of missing data on parental rearing practices (2.6%) and
future time perspective (1.3%) questionnaires, we used pairwise comparison. Partial correla-
tional analyses controlling for the demographic variables indicated that none of the results
changed significantly.
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Path Analysis Testing the Study Hypotheses

In order to explore the associations between adolescents’ perceived parental rearing practices
and their depressive symptoms and the mediating role of future time perspective on these
relations, we relied on path analyses. We used the full information maximum likelihood
method in the path analyses (Amos 20 software), which is efficient in handling missing data
(Enders & Bandalos, 2001). To estimate mediation models in an SEM framework, we fol-
lowed the Holmbeck’s (1997) recommendations. According to Holmbeck, a significant
direct relation between the independent (parenting) and dependent (depression) variables is
the first condition for mediation. Thus, at the first step, we tested the direct effects model
(and the proposed mediating variable, future time perspective, was not included in this
model).
At the next step, the mediation was evaluated by comparing a full mediation model with a
partial mediation model (the direct model is not used for comparison, Holmbeck, 1997). In
the full mediation model, only the indirect paths between the independent variables (mater-
nal and paternal rearing practices) and the dependent variable (depressive symptoms)
through the proposed mediator (future time perspective) were included (i.e., the direct paths

Table 2. Zero-order correlations among the main study variables.

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Maternal acceptance
2. Maternal psychological control ¡.17**
3. Paternal acceptance .56*** ¡.12*
4. Paternal psychological control ¡.03 .48*** ¡.29***
5. Future time perspective .29*** ¡.16** .33*** ¡.27***
6. Depressive symptoms ¡.29*** .19** ¡.29*** .23*** ¡.27***


p < .05.



p < .01.




p < .001.
 8 L. R. DIACONU-GHERASIM ET AL.

between the independent variables and the dependent variable were constrained to zero). In
the partial mediation model, the indirect paths between the independent variables (parent-
ing) and the dependent variable (depression) via the proposed mediator (future time per-
spective) were tested along with direct paths between independent variables and the
dependent variable (i.e., the paths between the independent variables and the dependent var-
iable are not constrained to zero). Then, the full mediation model and the partial mediation
model were compared using chi-square difference test (Meade, Johnson, & Braddy, 2008). If
there is a statistical difference, then the better fitting model is retained.
In all three models, parental education and maternal migration status were included as
control variables because of their significant correlations with depressive symptoms. We
included covariances among the variables in the models (e.g., covariances among all parent-
ing variables, covariances between parenting variables, and parental education and maternal
history of immigration).
The results of the direct effect model (x2 (1) D .27, p D .60; NNFI D .99; CFI D 1,
RMSEA < .001) showed significant main effects of maternal acceptance and paternal con-
trol on adolescents’ depressive symptoms (Est. D -.18, p ˂ .01 and Est. D .14, p ˂ .05,
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respectively). The effects for maternal control and paternal acceptance were not significant
(Est. D .07 and Est. D ¡.10, all ps ˃ .05, respectively).
Further, estimation of the full mediation model showed that the model obtained accept-
able fit indices, x2 (7) D 28.15, p ˂ .001; NNFI D .93; CFI D .94, RMSEA D 0.10, and
explained 11.1% of the variance in adolescents’ depressive symptoms. Maternal and pater-
nal acceptance and paternal psychological control were significantly related with adoles-
cents’ future time perspective (Est. D .20, p ˂ .01, Est. D .15, p ˂ .05, and Est. D -.21,
p ˂ .01, respectively). Future time perspective was significantly associated with depressive
symptoms (Est. D ¡.24, p ˂ .01).
The fit indices for the partial mediation model indicated very good fit: x2 (3) D 3.51, p D
.319; NNFI D .99; CFI D .99, RMSEA D 0.024, and this model explained 17.5% of the vari-
ance in adolescents’ depressive symptoms. Further, model comparisons indicated that the
partial mediation model is a better fitting model than the full mediation model, Dx2 D
24.67, Ddf D 4, p ˂ .01. Therefore, the partial mediation model was retained as the final
model. Standardized path estimates are shown in Figure 1. Given the complexity of the
model, covariances are not represented. Maternal acceptance, but not maternal psychological
control, was significantly associated with adolescents’ depressive symptoms. In contrast,
paternal psychological control, but not paternal acceptance, was marginally significantly
related to depressive symptoms, after controlling for the other variables (e.g., maternal con-
trol). In addition, parents’ acceptance and paternal psychological control, but not maternal
psychological control, were significantly associated with adolescents’ future time perspective.
Regarding the control variables, parental education, but not maternal history of migration,
remained significantly related to adolescents’ depressive symptoms.

Assessment of Mediating Paths

Finally, we tested whether future time perspective mediates the relation between parental
acceptance/control and adolescents’ depressive symptoms using Tofighi and MacKinnon’s
(2011) method. This method determines the confidence intervals for the observed indirect
effects based on the estimated unstandardized path coefficients and their standard errors.
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 9
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Figure 1. Standardized path estimates of the partial mediation model evaluating adolescents’ future time
perspective as a mediator between parental rearing practices and adolescents’ depressive symptoms.
y p D .079.
p < .05.

p < .01.

Confidence intervals not including zero indicate significant mediated effects. Results
showed that future time perspective partially mediates the relations of maternal acceptance,
paternal acceptance, and paternal control with adolescents’ depressive symptoms, Estimate
(SE) D ¡.049 (.017), 95% CI [¡0.085, ¡0.017], Estimate (SE) D ¡.036 (.023), 95% CI
[¡0.09, ¡0.001], and Estimate (SE) D .041 (.017), 95% CI [0.01, 0.075], respectively.

Evaluating an Alternative Mediation Model

Because it is also plausible that adolescents’ depression may affect their view of the future, we
also tested an alternative mediation model with depressive symptoms as mediator between
parental rearing practices and adolescents’ future time perspective. The fit indices for the
model indicated acceptable fit: x2 (2) D 6.03, p D .049; NNFI D .98; CFI D .98, RMSEA D
0.08. Comparing this alternative model with the initial partial mediation model showed that
the initial mediation model, with future time perspective as a mediator, is a better fit to the
data, Dx2 D 2.52, Ddf D 1, p ˂ .01.

Follow-Up Analyses Evaluating Differences in the Effects of Maternal and Paternal

Rearing Strategies
We further test the equality of the standardized coefficients from parental acceptance to
depressive symptoms and from parental control to depression, respectively, using Kwan and
Chan’s (2011) method. Specifically, we used reparametrization and imposed two linear equality
constraints on the partially mediated model: (1) the path between maternal acceptance and
depression equals the path between paternal acceptance and depression, and (2) the path
between maternal control and depression equals the path between paternal control and depres-
sion (x2 (6) D 4.78, p D .57; NNFI D .98; CFI D 1.00, RMSEA ˂ .001). We then compared the
 10 L. R. DIACONU-GHERASIM ET AL.

constrained model with the unconstrained model (i.e., the partial mediation model). The
results indicated significant differences between these two models (Dx2 D 1.26, Ddf D 3, p ˂
.001), further suggesting that the effects of maternal and paternal rearing practices on adoles-
cents’ depressive symptoms are significantly different (i.e., results are stronger for maternal
than paternal acceptance and for paternal rather than maternal psychological control).
We used the same procedure to test the equality of the standardized coefficients from
parental acceptance to time perspective and from parental control to time perspective. Fit
indexes of the constrained model were: x2 (7) D 84.04, p ˂ .001; NNFI D .79; CFI D .79,
RMSEA D .19, and model comparison indicated significant differences between the initial
unconstrained partial mediation and the constrained partial mediation model, (Dx2 D 80.53,
Ddf D 4, p ˂ .001), showing that the effects of maternal and paternal parenting, on adoles-
cents’ time perspective are significantly different (i.e., results are stronger for maternal rather
than paternal acceptance and for paternal rather than maternal psychological control).

Discussion
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The first goal of our study was to evaluate the relative contribution of both maternal and
paternal rearing practices (acceptance and psychological control) to depressive symptoms in
adolescence. The second goal was to investigate whether adolescents’ future time perspective
explains the relations of parental rearing practices with adolescents’ depressive symptoms in
a Romanian sample.
Our hypothesis that both parents’ rearing practices would be related to adolescents’
depressive symptoms, with stronger effects for maternal parenting, was partially confirmed.
Maternal rather than paternal acceptance, and paternal rather than maternal psychological
control emerged as relevant for adolescents’ depressive symptoms. These findings are consis-
tent with the idea that mothers may influence children’s adjustment by assuming more a
nurturing role, while fathers’ influence may be primarily though more disciplinarian
approaches (e.g., Brand & Klimes-Dougan, 2010; Perris et al., 1980). Thus, results under-
score the unique association of each parent’s rearing practices with adolescents’ depressive
symptoms and add to the scarce literature in this area (Nilzon & Palmerus, 1997; Stein et al.,
2000), particularly in non-Western adolescent samples.
Despite evidence that parental rearing practices are associated with depressive symptoms
in adolescence, the question of how to explain this association has been neglected (for excep-
tions, see Alloy, 2006; Gate et al., 2013; Liu, 2003). We investigated whether depressive
symptoms are directly promoted as a function of parental rearing practices, or whether
parental rearing practices promote weaker future time perspective, which in turn may relate
to adolescents’ depressive symptoms. Our results showed that adolescents perceiving their
mothers as more accepting and fathers as more accepting and less controlling have greater
future time perspective. These findings are consistent with those of previous studies con-
ducted on adolescent and young adult samples indicating that parental acceptance is related
to a more optimistic and elaborated orientation toward the future, and that parental control
is associated with a decreased interest in future education and a less optimistic view about
the future (see Kracke & Schmitt-Rodermund, 2001; Seginer et al., 2009 for reviews). Fur-
ther, the effects of maternal acceptance were stronger than those of paternal acceptance,
whereas the effects of paternal psychological control were stronger than those of maternal
psychological control. Thus, it is crucial to consider both parents’ parenting strategies in
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 11

relation to adolescents’ depressive symptoms, given the nuanced differences of their

relations.
Our study also adds to the literature by showing that adolescents who have greater time
perspective also experience lower levels of depressive symptoms. These results parallel those
based on studies of adult samples demonstrating that future thinking is associated with lower
levels of depression, less hopelessness, and negative emotions (Chin & Holden 2013; Hirsch
et al., 2007). They also complement those reported by Hamilton et al. (2015) based on a sam-
ple of 12 to 13 years-old, and further confirm that the relation between time perspective and
childhood depression holds at younger ages too. This finding is unique as it suggests that
how adolescents envision the future is relevant to their depressive symptoms. It is likely that
weaker views about future in school and professional career, social relations, and leisure
time may prone children to think negatively about future and experience more depressive
symptoms.
A key set of findings from this study is that adolescents’ future time perspective par-
tially explained the relations between parental rearing practices and adolescence depres-
sion. Specifically, adolescents perceiving a higher level of maternal acceptance were
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more orientated to the future and in turn, they reported lower levels of depressive
symptoms. Interestingly, although paternal acceptance and adolescents’ depression were
not significantly related in the path model, findings showed that they have an indirect
relation explained by adolescents’ future time perspective. A similar pathway emerged
for paternal psychological control. Adolescents perceiving a higher level of paternal psy-
chological control were less orientated toward the future, and in turn, they reported
higher levels of depressive symptoms. It is likely that children who perceive their moth-
ers or fathers as less encouraging and warm and their fathers as controlling their emo-
tional world, may be less likely to imagine the future as being different from the
present, and may have difficulty envisioning their future, particularly in life domains
such as school and social relationships. As a result, they may experience greater depres-
sive symptoms. It is important to extend this work in the future by empirically testing
models including other parenting dimensions, such as discipline, autonomy granting,
or withdrawal, relevant to adolescence depression (Yap & Jorm, 2015). Our work could
also be extended by evaluating the potential mediation role of other aspects of time
perspective (e.g., extension and valence of time or attitude toward time) in the context
of other risk factors (e.g., negative life events, Hamilton et al., 2015) in order to further
understand the complex relations among parenting, future time perspective, and adoles-
cents’ depressive symptoms.
Although the results regarding the associations of maternal history of migration and
parental education are not central to this study, they deserve comment. The association
between maternal history of migration and adolescents’ depression was modest when parent-
ing variables were taken into account. Thus, in spite of negative potential effects of separa-
tion from mothers, due to mothers working abroad, on adolescents’ adjustment, one
possibility is that the adolescents’ perceptions of mothers as accepting, warm, and supportive
attenuate the negative impact of maternal temporary absence on adolescent depression
(Dreby & Stutz, 2012). Further, the potential negative effects of maternal migration could be
partially compensated by leaving children in the care of close family members, and by reli-
ance on effective communication strategies, such as regular phone calls, home or social net-
working, that may support the maintenance of the parent–child connection (Schapiro,
 12 L. R. DIACONU-GHERASIM ET AL.

Kools, Weiss, & Brindis, 2013). Whereas our data did not allow testing these hypotheses,
studies assessing whether maintenance of communication and good quality of parent–child
relationships during temporary separation attenuate adolescents’ symptoms are warranted.
In addition, higher parental level of education was significantly associated with lower adoles-
cents’ depressive symptoms. It is possible that adolescents from more advantaged back-
grounds may experience less stress conducive to adolescent depressive symptoms than those
from less favorable backgrounds (Bolland, Lian, & Formichella, 2005).
Although this study enhances the literature, several limitations should be noted. First, our
results are correlational and do not lend themselves to any causal interpretations. While our
alternative model with adolescents’ depression acting as a mediator between parenting and
future time perspective was a weaker model, reverse causation is still plausible, such as ado-
lescents’ lower levels of depressive symptoms may trigger higher levels of future time per-
spectives and more positive parenting practices. Longitudinal studies with several time
points of data collection should be conducted in order to disentangle possible bidirectional
effects. Second, whereas all the data were collected via self-reported questionnaires, which
may introduce common method variance, and future studies should rely on a multiple infor-
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mant approach (e.g., parents, peers, teachers) in order to enhance the current findings.
Incorporating parents’ reports of their parenting practices would particularly add to the liter-
ature. Finally, the results may be different for a clinical sample, although one third of this
community sample presented with clinically significant levels of depression.
The current findings advance the literature on adolescents’ perceived parenting practices,
their future time perspective, and their depressive symptoms. In summary, we found that
maternal and paternal rearing practices show unique associations with depressive symptoms
in adolescence. We identified one mechanism, future time perspective, that explains the rela-
tions of parental acceptance and control with adolescents’ depressive symptoms. The field
would benefit from longitudinal studies to clarify potential bidirectional effects. An addi-
tional key follow-up would be to evaluate other mechanisms that may be responsible for the
relations between parenting and depressive symptoms in adolescence.

Author Notes
Loredana R. Diaconu-Gherasim is an associate professor, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sci-
ences, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Romania. Her research focuses on parenting, children’s
psychological well-being and academic motivation, and the relations between time perspective and
children’s adjustment.

Colleen M. Bucci is a graduate student in the clinical psychology doctoral program, Gordon F. Derner
School of Psychology, Adelphi University, USA. Her research evaluates how parenting, in combination
with other factors, relates to children’s academic competence and cognitive abilities.

Kathryn R. Giuseppone is a graduate student in the clinical psychology doctoral program, Gordon F.
Derner School of Psychology, Adelphi University, USA. Her research evaluates family and child
related factors associated with secure attachments and internalizing problems.

Laura E. Brumariu is an assistant professor, Gordon F. Derner School of Psychology, Adelphi Univer-
sity, USA. Her research focuses on developmental models of childhood internalizing problems, child-
ren’s social and emotional development, and approaches to assessing parent-child attachment.
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 13

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