ĐX NGHIÊM-NTP THẢO-HUA_BIOTECH 2012

UNIT 2.

I.TEXT
THE CELL

ALL CELLS ARE PROKARYOTIC OR EUKARYOTIC

The biological universe consists of two types of cells: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
Eukaryotes include four kingdoms: Plants, animals, fungi, and protists. Prokaryotes include
bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotic cells consist of a single closed compartment that is
surrounded by the plasma membrane, lack a defined nucleus, and has a relatively simple
internal organization. All prokaryotes consist of cells of this type. Bacteria, a numerous type
of prokaryote, are single celled organisms; the cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, can be
unicellular or be filamentous chains of cells. Although bacterial cells do not have membrane-
bounded compartments, many proteins are precisely located in their aqueous interior, or
cytosol, indicating the presence of internal organization.

Eukaryotic cells, unlike prokaryotic cells, contain a defined membrane-bound nucleus and
extensive internal membranes that enclose other compartments, the organelles. The region of
the cell lying between the plasma membrane and the nucleus is the cytoplasm, comprising the
cytosol and the organelles. Eukaryotes comprise all members of the plant and animal
kingdoms, including the fungi, which exist in both multicellular forms (molds) and
unicellular forms (yeasts), and the protozoans (proto,primitive; zoan, animal), which are
exclusively unicellular.

All cells are thought to have evolved from a common progenitor because the structures and
molecules in all cells have so many similarities. In recent years, detailed analysis of the DNA
sequences from a variety of prokaryotic organisms has revealed two distinct types: the so-
called “true” bacteria, or eubacteria, and archaea (also called archaebacteria or archaeans).
Working on the assumption that organisms with more similar genes evolved from a common
progenitor more recently than those with more dissimilar genes, researchers have developed
the evolutionary lineage tree. According to this tree, the archaea and the eukaryotes diverged
from the true bacteria before they diverged from each other. Many archaeans grow in unusual,
often extreme, environments that may resemble ancient conditions when life first appeared on
earth. For instance, halophiles (“salt loving”) require high concentrations of salt to survive,
and thermoacidophiles (“heat and acid loving”) grow in hot (80_ C) sulfur springs, where a
pH of less than 2 is common. Still other archaeans live in oxygen-free milieus and generate
methane (CH4) by combining water with carbon dioxide.

PARTS OF A CELL

The cell can be divided into three main sections: the cell membrane, the cytoplasm (which
includes the organelles) and the nucleus.
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Nucleus: The nucleus houses most of the DNA and is the control center of the cell. It is
surrounded by a membrane that lets certain molecules into and out of the nucleus to keep the
DNA safe. This DNA never leaves the nucleus.

Figure 1. Overview of a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

Cell Membrane: The cell membrane is the border that surrounds a cell. It monitors what goes
into and out of the cell. Embedded in the cell membrane are receptors. Receptors cross the
membranes and act as docking stations for molecules. When a specific type of molecule
attaches to a receptor, a series of chemical reactions (cell signaling) can occur in the cell,
creating a cellular response. If a receptor is blocked, cell signaling is stopped and no response
occurs. This is how some biologic therapies work: they attach to receptors and interrupt cell
signaling. Other biologics work by mimicking the signaling molecule.

Organelles: There are many different types of organelles within the cytoplasm of a cell, and
each performs a specific function. For example, ribosomes make proteins. Mitochondria
make energy. The endoplasmic reticulum folds and transports certain proteins. Golgi bodies
modify proteins and are involved in their transportation around the cell. Vacuoles store
cellular waste products for disposal.

THE WORK OF CELLS

Cells grow and divide

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The most remarkable feature of cells and entire organisms is their ability to reproduce. The
simplest type of reproduction entails the division of a “parent” cell into two “daughter” cells.
This occurs as part of the cell cycle, a series of events that prepares a cell to divide followed
by the actual division process, called mitosis. The eukaryotic cell cycle commonly is
represented as four stages. The chromosomes and the DNA they carry are copied during the S
(synthesis) phase. The replicated chromosomes separate during the M (mitotic) phase, with
each daughter cell getting a copy of each chromosome during cell division. The M and S
phases are separated by two gap stages the G1 phase and G2 phase, during which mRNAs
and proteins are made. In single-celled organisms, both daughter cells often (though not
always) resemble the parent cell. In multicellular organisms, stem cells can give rise to two
different cells, one that resembles the parent cell and one that does not. Such asymmetric cell
division is critical to the generation of different cell types in the body. After replicating, the
daughter cells grow to their intended size.

Cells Metabolize: Cell metabolism is the process by which cells process nutrients and
maintain a living state. Cells break down large molecules into smaller molecules to produce
energy and molecular building blocks, which are used to create new cell structures and control
cell function.

Cells Respond to Stimuli: Unicellular and multicellular organisms respond to internal and
external stimuli. For example, plants grow toward a light source because light is needed for
photosynthesis and the production of energy. Light and the ability to respond to its presence
are essential to a plant’s survival. Cells can respond to a whole range of stimuli.

Cells Adapt: Organisms may thrive or die based on their ability to adapt to adverse
environmental conditions such as changes in temperature, solute concentration, oxygen
supply and the presence of hazardous agents.

II. VOCABULARY
Adapt [ә'dæpt] Thích nghi, thích ứng (với môi trường...)
Adverse ['ædvә:s] Bất lợi, có hại
Animal ['ænimәl] Động vật
Assumption [ә'sʌmp∫n] Điều được chấp nhận là đúng hoặc chắc sẽ xảy
ra, nhưng không được chứng minh; giả định
Cell cycle [sel 'saikl] Chu kỳ tế bào
Cell signaling [ sel 'signәling] Tín hiệu tế bào

Concentration [,kɔnsn'trei∫n] Sự tập trung, nồng độ

Consist [kәn'sist] Bao gồm, gồm có
Cyanobacterium [sai'ænә bæk'tiәriәm] Vi khuẩn lam
Cytoplasm ['saitәplæzm] Tế bào chất
Cytosol ['saitәsɔl] Bào tương
Diverge [dai'vә:s] Thay đổi khác nhau
Earth [ә:θ] Đất, mặt đất, quả đất
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Endoplasmic reticulum Lưới nội chất

['endouplæzmik ri'tikju:lәm]
Eukaryote [ә:kæriәt] Sinh vật có nhân điển hình (sinh vật nhân thật)
Evolve [i'vɔlv] Tiến triển; tiến hoá; mở ra
Filamentous [,filә'mentәs] Có nhiều sợi nhỏ, như sợi nhỏ; như chỉ
Fungus ['fʌηgәs] số nhiều fungi Nấm
Golgi body [gɔlgi bɔ:di] Thể Golgi
Interior [in'tiәriә] Bên trong; ở phía trong
Lineage tree ['linidʒ tri:] Cây phả hệ, sơ đồ hình cây nòi giống, dòng
giống, dòng dõi
Metabolize [mә'tæbәlaiz] Đồng hóa, chuyển hóa

Mitochondria [maitoukәnd'riә] Ty thể

Mitosis [mi'tousis] Sự phân bào có tơ

Multicellular ['mʌlti 'seljulә] Đa bào

Nucleus ['nju:kliәs] Nhân (tế bào)

Organelle [,ɔ:gә'nel] Hạt cơ quan (cơ quan tử); cơ quan tế bào

Phase [feiz] Giai đoạn, thời kỳ (phát triển, biến đổi)
Photosynthesis [,foutou'sinθәsis] Sự quang hợp

Plant [plɑ:nt] Thực vật

Plasma membrane ['plæzmә,membrein] Màng tế bào, màng sinh chất

Prokaryote [prәʊ'kæriәt] Sinh vật chưa có nhân điển hình (sinh vật nhân
nguyên thủy)
Protist ['proutist] Sinh vật đơn bào, sinh vật nguyên sinh
Receptor [ri'septә(r)] Cơ quan nhận cảm, thụ quan
Reproduce [,ri:prә'dju:s] Tái sản xuất
làm sinh sôi nẩy nở; tái sinh, mọc lại

Resemble [ri'zembl] Giống với, tương tự (người nào, vật gì), có sự

tương đồng với
Ribosome [raibәsm] Riboxôm
Stem cell ['stem'sel] Tế bào gốc, tế bào mầm

Stimuli ['stimjulai] Sự kích thích; tác nhân kích khích

Survive [sә'vaiv] Tiếp tục sống, tiếp tục tồn tại; sống sót; còn lại

Therapy ['θerәpi] Phép chữa bệnh; sự điều trị; liệu pháp

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Thrive [θraiv] Lớn nhanh, mau lớn, phát triển mạnh

Unicellular [,ju:ni'seljulә] Đơn bào, chỉ có một tế bào

Vacuole ['vækjuoul] Không bào

III. READING COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

1. Which statement is false?

a. Archaea are not eukaryotic organisms.
b. Protists are a group of small animals.
c. Inspite of lacking subcellular organelle membranes, internal components of a
prokaryote are partly organized.
d. Most eukaryotes are multicellular organisms.
2. Which statements are true?
a. Fungi can be unicellular or multicellular.
b. Protozoans have membrane-bound nuclei.
c. Cyanobacteria normally have more than one nuclei in an organism.
d. Viruses are classified as prokaryotes
3. The evolutionary lineage tree has been mainly created from
a. Morphology of cells.
b. Anatomy of organisms.
c. Data of genetic material.
d. Protein sequence data.
4. According to the evolutionary lineage tree,
a. Archaebacteria, which are known as extremophiles, appeared the earliest on the Earth.
b. Archaebacteria evolved from eukaryotic ancestors.
c. Eubacteria and eukaryotes evolved from archaeans.
d. Archaea are ubiquitous in extreme environments.
5. Biologics are
a. People who study cell signaling.
b. Biological treatments.
c. Biological preventions.
d. Biological cures.
6. New DNA molecules are synthesized
a. In M phase
b. G2 phase
c. After G1 phase
d. After G2 phase
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7. Match the cell parts and their functions

Nucleus produces ribosomes.
Nucleolus directs all activities of the cell including reproduction.
Vacuole Most of the cell's energy is produced within these rod-
shaped organelles.
Golgi Complex These small organelles contain chemicals that break
down food particles and worn out cell parts.
Cytoskeleton The sac within the cytoplasm stores water, food, waste
products, and other materials./ Some animal cells have
them acuoles that store food, water, waste, and other
materials.
Chloroplast These organelles capture energy from the sunlight and
use it to produce food for the cell.
Cytoplasm These small strcutures function as factories to produce
proteins. They may be attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum, or they may be floating the cytoplasm.
Cell Membrane helps to maintain the cell's shape.
Ribosomes includes a gel-like fluid in which many different
organelles are found.
Lysosome recieve materials from the endoplasmic reticulum and
send them to other parts of the cell. They also release
materials outside the cell.
Mitochondria This network of passageways carries materials form one
part of the cell to another.
Cell Wall forms a barrier between the cytoplasm and the
environment outside the cell.
Rough Endoplasmic In a plant cell, a stiff wall surrounds the membrane,
Reticulum/Smooth giving the cell a rigid, boxlike shape.
Endoplasmic Reticulum

IV. GRAMMAR

PUNCTUATION

Rules for comma usage:

1. Use a comma to separate the elements in a series (three or more things), including the last
two. "He hit the ball, dropped the bat, and ran to first base." You may have learned that the
comma before the "and" is unnecessary, which is fine if you're in control of things. However,
there are situations in which, if you don't use this comma (especially when the list is complex
or lengthy), these last two items in the list will try to glom together (like macaroni and
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cheese). Using a comma between all the items in a series, including the last two, avoids this
problem. This last comma—the one between the word "and" and the preceding word—is
often called the serial comma or the Oxford comma. In newspaper writing, incidentally, you
will seldom find a serial comma, but that is not necessarily a sign that it should be omitted in
academic prose.

2. Use a comma + a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so) to connect two
independent clauses, as in "He hit the ball well, but he ran toward third base."

Contending that the coordinating conjunction is adequate separation, some writers will leave
out the comma in a sentence with short, balanced independent clauses (such as we see in the
example just given). If there is ever any doubt, however, use the comma, as it is always
correct in this situation.

One of the most frequent errors in comma usage is the placement of a comma after a
coordinating conjunction. We cannot say that the comma will always come before the
conjunction and never after, but it would be a rare event, indeed, that we need to follow a
coordinating conjunction with a comma. When speaking, we do sometimes pause after the
little conjunction, but there is seldom a good reason to put a comma there.

3. Use a comma to set off introductory elements, as in "Running toward third base, he
suddenly realized how stupid he looked."

It is permissible to omit the comma after a brief introductory element if the omission does not
result in confusion or hesitancy in reading. If there is ever any doubt, use the comma, as it is
always correct.

4. Use a comma to set off parenthetical elements, as in "The Founders Bridge, which spans
the Connecticut River, is falling down." By "parenthetical element," we mean a part of a
sentence that can be removed without changing the essential meaning of that sentence. The
parenthetical element is sometimes called "added information." This is the most difficult rule
in punctuation because it is sometimes unclear what is "added" or "parenthetical" and what is
essential to the meaning of a sentence.

5. Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. You could think of this as "That tall,
distinguished, good looking fellow" rule (as opposed to "the little old lady"). If you can put an
and or a but between the adjectives, a comma will probably belong there. For instance, you
could say, "He is a tall and distinguished fellow" or "I live in a very old and run-down house."
So you would write, "He is a tall, distinguished man" and "I live in a very old, run-down
house." But you would probably not say, "She is a little and old lady," or "I live in a little and
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purple house," so commas would not appear between little and old or between little and
purple.

6. Use a comma to set off quoted elements. Because we don't use quoted material all the
time, even when writing, this is probably the most difficult rule to remember in comma usage.
It is a good idea to find a page from an article that uses several quotations, photocopy that
page, and keep it in front of you as a model when you're writing. Generally, use a comma to
separate quoted material from the rest of the sentence that explains or introduces the
quotation:

• Summing up this argument, Peter Coveney writes, "The purpose and strength of
the romantic image of the child had been above all to establish a relation
between childhood and adult consciousness."

If an attribution of a quoted element comes in the middle of the quotation, two commas will
be required. But be careful not to create a comma splice in so doing.

• "The question is," said Alice, "whether you can make words mean so many
things."
• "I should like to buy an egg, please," she said timidly. "How do you sell them?"

Be careful not to use commas to set off quoted elements introduced by the word that or
quoted elements that are embedded in a larger structure:

• Peter Coveney writes that "[t]he purpose and strength of . . ."

• We often say "Sorry" when we don't really mean it.

And, instead of a comma, use a colon to set off explanatory or introductory language from a
quoted element that is either very formal or long (especially if it's longer than one sentence):

• Peter Coveney had this to say about the nineteenth-century's use of children
in fiction: "The purpose and strength of . . . . "

7. Use commas to set off phrases that express contrast.

• Some say the world will end in ice, not fire.

• It was her money, not her charm or personality, that first attracted him.
• The puppies were cute, but very messy.

8. Use a comma to avoid confusion. This is often a matter of consistently applying rule #3.

• For most the year is already finished.

• For most, the year is already finished.
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• Outside the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken branches.

• Outside, the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken branches.

9. Typographical Reasons: Between a city and a state [Hartford, Connecticut], a date and the
year [June 15, 1997], a name and a title when the title comes after the name [Bob Downey,
Professor of English], in long numbers [5,456,783 and $14,682], etc. Although you will often
see a comma between a name and suffix — Bob Downey, Jr., Richard Harrison, III — this
comma is no longer regarded as necessary by most copy editors, and some individuals —
such as Martin Luther King Jr. — never used a comma there at all.

Use a semicolon [ ; ]

• to help sort out a monster list:

There were citizens from Bangor, Maine; Hartford, Connecticut; Boston,
Massachusetts; and Newport, Rhode Island.
OR
We had four professors on our committee: Peter Wursthorn, Professor of
Mathematics; Ronald Pepin, Professor of English; Cynthia Greenblatt, Professor
of Education; and Nada Light, Professor of Nursing.
• to separate closely related independent clauses:
My grandmother seldom goes to bed this early; she's afraid she'll miss out on
something.

The semicolon allows the writer to imply a relationship between nicely balanced ideas
without actually stating that relationship. (Instead of saying because my grandmother is afraid
she'll miss out on something, we have implied the because. Thus the reader is involved in the
development of an idea—a clever, subliminal way of engaging the reader's attention.)

It is rare, but certainly possible, that you will want a semicolon to separate two
independent clauses even when those two independent clauses are connected by a
coordinating conjunction. This is especially true when the independent clauses are complex or
lengthy and when there are commas within those independent clauses. You might consider
breaking those two independent clauses into separate sentences when this happens.

• Coach Auriemma realized that his next recruiting class contained two superb
guards, a fine post player, and a power forward; but as of the end of the spring
recruiting season, he was still pushing to discover better first-year players for the
interior positions.

PRACTISE:
A. Add commas and semicolons to complete the sentences:
1. In theory the dark smoke from the burning oil wells absorbs sunlight and the
surrounding air is heated.
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2. The anticipation that biological and chemical weapons would be used caused
unprecedented stress for the troops.
3. It seems that she answered the question easily but her answer was actually quite
complex..
4. It can be beneficial to register for classes early yet each student must wait his or her
turn.
5. Analyzing the data reveals public support of conflict for as environmental issues
become a variable attitudes towards war become more complex.
6. Because of mass destruction to the system sewage overflowed and spread diseases.
7. I did not want to go to class nor did I want to write that paper.
8. She worried about finding someone to take care of the dog and provide a good home
for him.
9. I did not want to scare him so I did not tell him about the accident.
10. Eventually I got around to finishing the term paper.
11. At the casino Mike lost his money and his pride.
12. My favorite pizza combinations are sausage peppers and onions mushrooms extra
cheese and anchovies and hamburger sun-dried tomatoes pepperoni and sliced red
potatoes.
13. Tom the owner of Skip's Septic Service said he would be here tomorrow however
there's always a chance he won't be able to come especially if it rains.

B. Choose the right answer.

a. Karen is rich; ___, her cousin Kate is poor.

i. therefore
ii. however
iii. otherwise

b. You'd better take a taxi. ___, you'll arrive late.

i. Consequently
ii. Furthermore
iii. Otherwise

c. I enjoy reading this new magazine. ___, it has good articles.

i. Moreover
ii. Nevertheless
iii. However

d. Jack wasn't tired. ___, he took a nap.

i. Otherwise
ii. Hence
iii. Nevertheless

e. Phil was not thirsty; ___, he drank five glasses of water.

i. however
ii. moreover
iii. furthermore
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f. The kids didn't study. ___, they failed the course.

i. Therefore
ii. Nonetheless
iii. Otherwise

g. The weather was terrible. ___, we decided to delay our trip.

i. Furthermore
ii. Besides
iii. Therefore

h. You must buy the tickets; ___, we won't be able to see that play.
i. otherwise
ii. although
iii. besides

i. The neighborhood isn't very interesting. I like the house, ___.

i. moreover
ii. thus
iii. though

j. We live in the same building; ___, we hardly see each other.

i. however
ii. therefore
iii. furthermore

k. He didn't earn enough money. ___, his wife decided to get a job.
i. Moreover
ii. Therefore
iii. Although

l. That house isn't big enough for us, and ___, it's too expensive.
i. furthermore
ii. hence
iii. although

m. We have plenty of money and workers; ___, we hope to finish the house
remodeling soon.
i. nevertheless
ii. unless
iii. thus

n. She's extremely rich; ___, she's not snobbish.

i. hence
ii. however
iii. otherwise

o. It was a windy and rainy night. ___, I decided to go out.

i. nevertheless
ii. otherwise
iii. hence