B L O O D Blood cells originated or
produced through the red bone
LECTURE
Introduction to Human Blood
Bones might be seen as rock
solid but just porous inside.
Large and small vessel enters
through the holes in the
bones
Most of the large bones has a
hollow core filled with soft
bone marrow
Marrow: Consists of fat and
other supportive tissue but
its most important element
are the blood stem cells
Stem cells are constantly
dividing, they can
differentiate in red blood
cells, white blood cells, and
platelets. Stem cells can
send hundreds of billions of
new blood cells into
circulation everyday
The new cells enter the
bloodstream through holes in
small capillaries in the
marrow, through the
capillaries they reach larger
blood vessels and exit the
bone
If you have a problem with
your blood it can be traced
back to the bone marrow
marrow that is located in the
compact region of the bone
Usually the long bones and
the short bones produce the
blood for the transportation
and other activities of the
body
Functions of the Blood
3 General Functions of the
Blood
1. Transport of gases,
nutrients and waste
products
- The substances such
as gases,
nutrients, waste
products, processed
molecules, and
regulatory
molecules can be
exchanged between
the blood as well
as the tissue fluid
through the
capillary walls
- Some substances
(like gases, and
nutrients) can be
transported to and
from various organs
of the body and the
blood will also
help in maintaining
the homeostasis
- There is
equilibrium between
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 all the components either inside of the
of the body membrane as well as
2. Regulation of pH and outside of that membrane
osmosis
The blood has an ability In terms of the
to regulate the body concentration present
temperature by absorbing between the external and
heat especially from the the internal part of the
active muscles cell, osmotic pressure
can cause diffusion of
The myofiber has aerobic the solvent (that’s why
respiration with the they have the ability to
presence of numerous enter the inside part of
mitochondria within the the cell to balance
sarcomere everything)

Osmosis have chemical Ecology: everything

signals (ions, should be connected to
macromolecules (sugar, everything else
glucose), other
proteins) The balance between the
external and internal
Osmosis: balances environment can regulate
between solutes and some balances within the
solvents outside and body (E.g., H2O (Water)
inside part of the cell balance within the body)

Molecules that are The normal range of pH

responsible for osmosis level of the blood:
These can create the 7.35-7.45
osmotic pressure of the
blood The blood contains a
- Salts certain buffer that
- Other organic helps in regulating the
molecules body pH and keeps the pH
- Plasma proteins in

The osmotic pressure 3 Protection against

exist when there is a foreign substances
difference in terms of Defence mechanisms of
the solute concentration the blood:

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White Blood Cells or wastes (metabolic waste
Leukocytes - to protect coming from the kidney),
the body from infection during the protein
Phagocytes: Cell eating synthesis they are
Endocytosis: The process secreted by the
of uptake of secretory vesicles and
extracellular material the cellular wastes
or membrane proteins by (carbon dioxide) will be
invagination of the cell carried away from the
membrane tissue to organs and it
Considered foreign will be carried out as
substances waste elimination such
- Bacteria as the lungs and the
- Fungi kidneys
- Worm
- Virus In the lungs, the carbon
Other Functions of the dioxide is excreted
Blood everytime we exhale
● Transport of
processed molecules The metabolic waste
● Transport of coming from the kidney
regulatory will be excreted through
molecules urine
● Maintenance of body
temperature The processed molecules
● Clot formation and regulatory molecules
- There is (hormones, other
platelets or proteins, enzymes, and
thrombocytes messenger chemicals) are
responsible in transferred to various
creating a organs and tissues by
signal so the blood
there will be
no blood loss The transportation of
when the different proteins,
patient enzymes, and chemical
sustain injury signals can influence
the metabolism
The blood picks up or
transports those
considered as cellular

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 transport the
molecules
present inside
the blood
- Water can be
absorb from
the digestive
tract that is
produced by
the cellular
metabolism
Three Proteins that are
found in the Plasma
Different Components of Blood
These can be sourced out
1. Plasma
from the liver
- 55% of the Blood
1. Albumins
- A fluid contains water
- Ability to
and other solid
maintain the
molecules
pH and the
- Considered as the liquid
osmotic
portion of the blood
pressure
- 91-92% of plasma are
within the
water and the remaining
blood
8% is composed of the
- Ability to
proteins and other
maintain the
solutes
blood volume
- The proteins and other
and pressure
solutes can be dissolve
- Transport
in the water
other ions and
Different Components of
salt molecules
the Plasma
that can be
● Water
found and
- Other books
needed by the
said 92% of
body
water are
2. Globulins
found in the
- Transport
plasma itself
other organic
- They have the
molecules
ability to
- Fight against
maintain the
infection
blood volume
3. Fibrinogen
and to

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 - Ability to do product of the
clotting metabolism
Other Solutes inside the (carbon
Plasma dioxide)
1. Ions - Located in the
- Considered as lung tissue
salts 5. Regulatory
- Responsible in Substances
the - Enzymes,
maintenance of hormones, and
the osmotic other chemical
pressure and signals that
pH can be release
- Located in the by some
intestines nervous
2. Nutrients tissues
- Lipids, - Helps in
glucose, amino metabolism
acids, - Located in the
phospholipids, different
and vitamins organs of the
can be found body
in the plasma 2. White Blood Cells
- Food for the (Buffy Coat)
cells - Can be also
- Located in the created inside
intestines the red bone
3. Waste Products marrow
- Urea, uric - Also known as
acid, ammonia leukocytes
- Excreted by - Main function
the kidneys of the WBC is
- Located in the to combat any
liver microbial
4. Gases infection that
- Oxygen and can cause
Carbon Dioxide diseases
- Responsible - Produces the
for cellular NK Cells
respiration (Natural
and end Killing/Killer

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 Cells) that is to interact and
essential in responsible for
defending the specific immunity
body against Monocytes do
infection phagocytic process,
2 Types of White Blood they eat cellular
Cells debris
1. Granular Leukocytes Monocytes is
- Contains nucleus responsible for
- Contains antigen presenting
neutrophils, cells in immune
eosinophils, and system response
basophils Specific immunity
Main function of only targets the
the neutrophils is typical pathogens
to phagocyte the that will be killed
pathogens by the lymphocytes
Eosinophil do 3. Platelets (Buffy Coat)
phagocytic process - Essential in
wherein they have homeostasis
the ability to especially during
phagocyte in the injury
antigen-antibody - Also known as
complexes and other thrombocytes
allergens - Responsible in
Basophils releases maintaining
histamine and homeostasis
heparin - Can be extracted
Histamine and from the red bone
heparin are marrow
responsible in - They are small
promoting the blood fragments coming
flow to injured from a certain
tissue process during the
2. Agranular hematopoiesis
Leukocytes (production of RBC)
- Contains 4. Red Blood Cells
lymphocytes and - Also known as
monocytes erythrocytes
Main function of - Responsible in the
the lymphocytes is transportation of

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 the oxygen and
carbon dioxide
- They are reddish
maroon biconcave
disk without any
nucleus
Non-specific Response
Any invasion of microbial
pathogens inside the body can
be killed by the NK cells and
the mast cells in the
phagocyte cells
Specific Response
There will be only specific
antigen that will interact
with the specific antibody
If the flu is caused by a
virus there will be an
increase in numbers of the
lymphocytes and eosinophil
Hematopoiesis
Hemato: Blood
Poiesis: A process
- The process that
produces formed elements
- A process by which the
elements in the blood
will be made inside the
red bone marrow
- In the fetus it occurs
in several tissues
including the liver,
thymus, spleen, lymph
nodes, and red bone
marrow
- After giving birth it is
confined primarily to
red bone marrow, but
some white blood cells
are produced in
lymphatic tissues
How blood cells are formed
within the bone marrow?
Mature blood cells have
limited lifespan and must be
continuously replaced through
a process called
hematopoiesis
It starts in the red bone
marrow
All formed elements of the
blood drive from a common
progenitor, the hematopoietic
stem cells (HSCs)
The HSCs are multipotent
(they can differentiate to
all types of blood cells)
HSCs can multiply constantly
to maintain their numbers in
the bone marrow
Cytokines controls the
proliferation of
differentiation and survival
or death of the various
progenitors
Differentiation starts when
progenitor cells develop
surface receptors for a
specific stimulating factor,
once this happened the cell
lose their potency and become
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committed to a certain cell
type
Production of RBC is
stimulated by erythropoietin
(EPO)
During the differentiation
process, the cells reduce in
size, increase in number,
start making hemoglobin, and
lose their nucleus
Erythropoietin is produced
predominantly by the liver
during fetal development and
by the kidneys in adulthood
Production of the key players
of the body’s innate immune
response granulocytes and
macrophages is controlled by
several colony-stimulating
factors (CSFs)
CSF are secreted by mature
lymphocytes and macrophages,
but can be produced if needed
by any organ or cell type
Production of platelets is
stimulated by thrombopoietin
(TPO), a hormone secreted by
the kidneys and liver
TPO is responsible for
formation of megakaryocytes
Megakaryocytes are gigantic
cells that develop as a
result of multiple rounds of
DNA replication without cell
division
Different processes involved
in the production of the
different elements of the
blood
The multipotent stem cells
can be sourced out from the
red bone marrow will create 2
specialized stem cells
1. Myeloid Stem Cells
- Responsible in
generating the RBC,
Platelets, and WBC
- Will give rise to
erythroblasts (red
blood formation
cell)
Erythro: Red blood
Blast: Formation
2. Lymphoid Stem Cells
- Responsible in the
production of
lymphocytes
The 2 specialized stem cells
will be done by the
differentiation process
wherein they will be
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separated from the separate molecules
multipotent stem cells (globin)
- 4-6 million RBC per
Hematopoietic Stem Cells cubic meter of the
- Responsible in whole blood
generating all the ● Hemoglobin
components of the blood ●
essential within the
body
- Produces RBC
- Rare cell
- Found in the bone marrow

Different components of the

Built-in to each globin is an
Blood Cell
organic molecule called heme
● Erythrocytes
- Red Blood Cells Heme
- Considered as small
● A single iron atom that
biconcave
can be found in the
- Disk-shaped with
center of the 4
thick edges
tertiary/quaternary
- Nucleus is lost
structure of the protein
during development
● Iron in the heme can
- Can live for 120
combine loosely and
days
reversibly with the
- Transports O2 to
oxygen molecule
tissues
- Certain protein
Production of Erythrocytes
(hemoglobin) is
1. Decrease blood O2
attached to the
levels cause kidneys to
erythrocyte
increase production of
- Hemoglobin is
erythropoietin (EPO)
responsible for the
2. Erythropoietin
transportation of
stimulates red bone
oxygen and carbon
marrow to produce more
dioxide
erythrocytes
- Hemoglobin is a
3. Increased erythrocytes
large complex
cause an increase in
protein that
blood O2 levels within
consists of 4
the body

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Red Blood Cell Production
Polycythemia
● Medical condition caused
by RBC in the blood
● Blood is excessively
thick and unable to flow
properly and form
unnecessary dangerous
clot within the blood
vessel of human
Formation of RBC takes 2 days
The body makes 2 million RBC
every second
Blood is made up of cellular
and liquid components
Blood consists of 45% RBC, 1%
Platelets and WBC, and 55%
Plasma
Hemoglobin Breakdown
Types of Bile Pigments
Secreted in the bile (fluid
produced by the liver)
Has initial bright yellow and
turns into urine yellow when
eliminated by the kidney
1. Bilirubin
2. Biliverdin
The old blood cells will be
reused again in different
processes
Plasma Transport
- Carries red blood cells
which carries oxygen,
WBC, platelets, and
nutrients
Nutrients includes amino
acids, vitamins, fats,
sugar, and fatty acids
- Plasma also transports
heat and helps with heat
loss
- Plasma is 7% proteins
- Most important protein
in plasma is the albumin
proteins
Albumin proteins in the
blood plasma pulls water
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 back into the blood 2. Eosinophils
capillary from the - Reduces
surrounding tissue inflammation
Albumin in the blood - Destroy parasites
plasma means there are (parasitic worms)
higher water 3. Basophils
concentration in the - Least common
fluid in the surrounding - Has a U shape
tissue than there is in - Have the ability to
the blood dilate the blood
- Plasma also has vessels that can
important salts and cause the
electrolytes such as contraction of the
sodium and potassium smooth muscles
- Heparin can prevent
Leukocytes clotting and
- White Blood Cells (WBC) promote blood flow
- Lacks hemoglobin Agranulocytes: Has no
- Larger than erythrocytes specific granules
- Contains nucleus 1. Monocytes
- Translucent unless - Largest WBC
stained - Produces
- Not numerous like RBC macrophages, old
- 5,000-11,000 WBC per cells, and debris
cubic of the blood - Have the ability to
- Fights infection stimulate other WBC
- Removes dead cells and to defend the body
debris by phagocytes 2. Lymphocytes
- Responsible in killing - Several different
cancerous cells types (T
- Important in homeostasis cells/lymphocytes
Types of Leukocytes and B
Granulocytes: Contains cells/lymphocytes)
specific granules - Lead to production
1. Neutrophils of antibodies
- Most common - Have the ability to
- Remains in the recognize and
blood for 10-12 destroy the cancer
hours then move to cells
tissues - The last defense of
- Phagocytes the body against

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 the invasion of
microorganism

Types of White Blood Cells

Eosinophil

Neutrophil

Lymphocyte

Basophil

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 produce antibodies in
response.

Each antibody is very

specific it will only attack
one type of bacteria

Other lymphocytes produce

antitoxins which combined
with the invaders toxins and
make them harmless

By shapeshifting, WBC can

Monocyte/Macrophage move 1000x faster than most
cells
White Blood Cell
- Cells of the immune Platelets
system - Small fragments of the
Phagocytes cell, each consisting a
- Multi lobed nucleus small amount of
within the cytoplasm cytoplasm surrounded by
- They seek out to engulf a cell membrane
bacteria - Produced in the red bone
- Will often die loaded marrow from large cells
with bacteria that they called megakaryocytes
have killed during the
- In boils and cuts it differentiation process
will be seen as yellow - Small fragments break
pus off from the
Lymphocytes megakaryocytes and enter
- Have huge nucleus just the blood as platelets
little cytoplasm - Plays an important role
- Formed in lymph nodes in preventing blood loss
- Found all around the
body (armpits and neck) Blood Loss
- When blood vessels are
Invading pathogens contain a damaged, blood can leak
chemical on their surface into other tissues and
called antigens. The disrupt normal function
lymphocytes detect this and - Blood that is lost must
be replaced by

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 production of new blood forming platelet
or by transfusion plug
3. Blood Clotting
Processes for Preventing (Coagulation)
Blood Loss - A platelet plug
1. Vascular Spasm reinforced with
- Immediate response strands of a
but temporary protein called
constriction of a fibrin
blood vessel the 2 activation pathways
results when smooth for coagulation
muscle within the 1. Extrinsic Pathway
wall of the vessels - Starts with
contracts the exposure
- Can close small of blood
vessels completely clotting
and stop the flow factors to the
of blood through tissue factor
them (TF), in the
- Stimulated by extravascular
chemicals released tissue
by cells of the - Induced by
damaged blood injuries to
vessel wall and by the blood
platelets vessels
- Also stimulated by 2. Intrinsic Pathway
local pain - Involves only
receptors and by factors within
substances released blood vessels,
by endothelial is thought to
cells serve as a
2. Platelet Plugs positive
- Can seal up small feedback loop,
breaks in blood amplifying
vessels coagulation
- Activated platelets The 2 pathways converge into
become adhesive to a common pathway producing
each other and to thrombin and ultimately
the endothelium, fibrin
they clump together Thrombin has the central role
in the coagulation cascade.

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It split soluble fibrinogen
to generate insoluble fibrin
Thrombin further activates
platelets and initiates a
positive feedback loop that
is essential for clot
propagation
Once the vessels are repaired
they must be dissolve to
restore blood flow
Fibrinolysis: Small cascade
that produces the enzyme
plasmin
Plasmin splits fibrin and
dissolves the clot
Unwanted blood clot formation
or thrombosis is the most
common cause of blocked
arteries in heart attacks,
strokes, and pulmonary
embolism
Factors Preventing
Inappropriate Coagulation
● Platelet-repellent
property of the
endothelium
● Anticoagulant factors:
Serpins, APC/protein S
● Fibrinolysis
High Risks for Thrombosis
● Atrial Fibrillation
● Inactivity
● Immobilization
Drugs Uses to Prevent
Thrombosis
● Inhibit platelet
aggregation: Aspirin,
clopidogrel, and
prasugrel
● Inhibit coagulation:
Heparin, and warfarin
Homeostasis: Process that
controls bleeding at the site
of injury
Blood loss is stopped by
formation of blood clots that
seal the breaks in blood
vessels
Hemostatic mechanisms
involves
- Small cell fragments
(platelets)
- Dozen of soluble
clotting factors
These elements are always
present in the blood in their
inactive form, ready to
activate within seconds of
injury
Platelets activate when bind
to:
1. Collagen
2. von Willebrand Factor
(VWF)
2 types of antibiotics
1. Broad Spectrum
- They can kill the
gram-positive and
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 gram-negative
bacteria
2. Narrow Spectrum

The silent pandemic is called

the multi-drug resistant

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