Duarte Individual and Dual Sports First Quarter

BACHELOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION – MODULE
DAEHAN COLLEGE OF
BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY, INC.
COLLEGE DEPARTMENT
Student’s Module in
Individual and
Dual Sports
Coverage: Midterm
Prepared by:
EMMANUEL J. DUARTE, LPT

MAPEH/PE Instructor
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Quarter 1:
Introduction – Defining Sport
What to Know?
In the beginning of this quarter, we are going to define what the sport
is and centers on individual and dual sports. This lesson will unlock the
definitions, examples and skills pertaining to individual and dual sports.
They also delve into related principles and teaching strategies of physical
education.
Once you’re done reviewing with this quarter, you’ll have bolstered your
understanding of:
 Comparing individual, dual, and team sports
 Modifying individual and dual sports to aid successful participation at
all levels
 P.E. etiquette and fair play
 Fostering life skills and motor learning with activities, sports and
games
Let’s start it defining what a sport is.
Let’s get started!

What is a sport?
According to Global Association of International Sports Federation
(GAISF)…
 the sport proposed should include an element of competition
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 the sport should not rely on any element of “luck” specially integrated
into the sport
 the port should not be judged to pose an undue risk to the health and
safety of its athletes or participants
 the sport proposed should in no way be harmful to any living creature
 the sport should not rely on equipment that is provided by a single
supplier
According to the Encyclopedia of World Sport, an activity can be

considered as sport if it involves…
 competition between two or more individuals or teams
 rules of play that allow a winner to be determined
 a primary goal victory
 victory determined by the relative physical ability of the competitors,
although strategy and chance may also play a role
According to Google Search, sports is…

 an activity involving physical exertion and skill in which an individual
or team competes against another or others
According to Australian Sports Commission (ASC), sports is…

 a human activity capable of achieving a result requiring physical
exertion and/or physical skill, which, by its nature and organization,
is competitive and is generally accepted as being a sport
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According to Free Dictionary Online, sports is…

 an activity involving physical exertion and skill that is governed by a
set of rules or customs and often undertaken competitively
According to P.E. Teacher, sports is…

 an activity that requires physical actions and skills where individuals
or teams are competing under the set of rules to achieve the primary
goal, to win.
Brief History of Sport

The documented history of sport goes back at least 3,000 years. In
the beginning, sport often involve the preparation for war or training as a
hunter, which explains why so many early games involved the throwing of
spears, stakes, and rocks and sparring one-on-one with opponents.
One only has to look at the animal world to find evidence that play is
an inborn characteristic of virtually all developed species. It plays an
important role in education and development. We see kittens and pups
fight mock battles to develop their strength, speed, endurance and will. By
such innocent play, they prepare themselves for survival and fulfill their
desire for challenge and pleasure.
We human beings are not just rational animals. We have an infinite
thirst for knowledge, truth and happiness. It is these spiritual
characteristics which distinguish human beings from animals. In the
onward advance of human civilization, sports and games have also played
an integral role in this unfolding of human potential. At every stage of the
evolutionary process, sport has played a vital role in helping to develop,
define and test newly acquired physical, psychic and social skills.
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As we changed from food-gatherers to hunters, sport and play were

no longer simply exercises of the "fight or flight" mechanism. They became
the training which would prepare young hunters for the hunt. Youths
emulated the elders of the tribe, to ready themselves for the day when they
would have to do the providing. It was probably at this time that the first
team sports evolved, as a result of the collective effort needed in stalking,
trapping, killing and transporting.
As the population increased, conflicts arose between tribes over
territory, herds, wealth, and prestige and due to mutual fears. As tribes
clashed with each other, the sport field became the training ground for
battle. Those who succeeded in the warrior-like play of the sport field were
best equipped for survival and victory on the battlefield. Sport kept the
skills and mind of the warriors sharp and ready. As well as a training for
survival, it became the way in which a youth made the transition to
adulthood. Young men proved their valor, strength and intelligence and
thus their capacity to lead and protect their people. It was probably at this
stage that the first spectator sports originated, as the community gathered
round to see who would be their victors. Once this stage was reached, there
is no evidence to show that there was any great advancement in the concept
or purpose of sports for many millennia, save for the occasional
introduction of new weapons and fighting arts.
The Olympic Games

The year 776 B.C. was an important turning point: the first Olympic
Games were celebrated at Olympia, in Greece, in honor of Zeus (Greek god
of the gods). During the games, warfare was suspended and a period of
divine peace was declared. With the first Olympic Games in 776 BC – which
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included events such as foot and chariot races, wrestling, jumping, and
discus and javelin throwing – the Ancient Greeks introduced formal sports
to the world. The following by no means exhaustive list takes a look at the
beginning and evolution of some of today’s most popular sporting pastimes.
However, the games contested were still tests of combat arts: wrestling,
javelin, discus, archery, shot put, marathon, boxing etc.
Equestrian and boating sports were also developed in roughly the
same period in different parts of the world. The team, ball and vehicle
sports which we are familiar with today are the inventions of recent times.
Here we may count basketball, baseball, football, rugby, cricket, volleyball,
tennis, squash, badminton, handball, surfing, hockey, skiing, cycling, moto-
cross, auto racing, etc. Polo. Lacrosse and bowling are based on ancient
regional games, while the basic elements of athletics have been with us for
millennia.
The use of weapons in sporting contests has always fascinated those
with a natural inclination for the military arts and hunting. These include
trap and skeet, archery, fencing and target shooting. Nevertheless,
beginning with that noble idea at Olympia 2700 years ago sport has become
increasingly divorced from warfare. In an atmosphere of greater prosperity
and peace, the philosophy became "Sports for the sake of sport". From that
time to the present, athletes have applied themselves, body and mind,
striving to be the best, to master themselves, break the record, win the
medal and wear the laurels of victory.
The New Era of Sport

We have seen how Sport has evolved from a simple test of survival
skills to training for battle, hunting and adulthood, then to an event
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celebrating skills, strength and endurance and finally, in recent decades, to

a highly commercialized institution with questionable social value. Sport
has, in the past, occasionally been abused for the satisfaction of the lusts of
the dominant class of society, however it has generally played a
constructive role. Athletes, like writers and mystics, offer an example of the
possibilities of what human beings could be physically, mentally and
morally. Now sport must be liberated from the chains of materialism to
regain its exalted position in the vanguard of human society. Sport showed
us our potentiality for a perfect physique, acutely tuned mind, and united
collective effort. Now as we cross the threshold into a new era of spiritual
discovery and awakening, may sport, through the medium of SSAC, gain its
true meaning and prominence in human life.
Sports are classified as…

 Individual Sports – are played by one participant on each
competing side
 Dual Sports – played by two competing pairs or by two people
opposing each other
 Team Sports – are played by three or more players
Differences of Individual, Dual, and Team Sports

Individual Sports
 foster a higher amount of discipline, self-confidence, focus and
passion
 you may only have yourself to listen to and don’t have to cope with
other’s ideas
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Individual sports are those sports where only one athlete competes for
his or her own side. Many track and field, cross country, and swimming
events are individual competitions, where one athlete is solely responsible
for winning or losing. Golf is another sport where each athlete is on his or
her own.
Skiing, snowboarding, and many other events you see in Olympic and
other international competitions are individual sports as well. Gymnastics
is a sport where athletes compete on a team but perform individually. Even
basketball can be a one-on-one activity.
Pros and Cons of Individual Sports
Individual sports can be fun because you’re solely responsible for the
outcome. The performance rests on your shoulders, and you receive all of
the credit for your victory. Individual sports require a competitive spirit
and a self-starting nature. You’re on your own as an individual athlete, so
you have to compete without anyone beside you to take up the slack.
On the opposite side of the argument, if you lose, all of the blame falls on
you as an individual athlete. You also don’t have a teammate to lean on if
you’re struggling or having a bad performance. It’s easier to get discouraged
when you’re the only athlete competing.
Dual Sports
 dependent and foster a high amount of discipline, confidence and
focus
 it makes it a little more complicated and to open to their ideas too,
since they are the half of your team and have just as much thought as
you do
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There are only a handful of sports that are strictly dual sports and don’t
have an option for individual competition. At the Olympic level, beach
volleyball involves two players per team. In professional wrestling—which
some would argue isn’t a sport—tag team matches involve two-person
teams where one competitor tags in or out of the match. You can play two-
on-two basketball as well.
Pros and Cons of Dual Sports
Competing in dual sports can be fun because of the camaraderie and
teamwork involved in working together as a team. Dual teammates can
encourage each other and play off each other to win. One teammate can
also bear the load when the other one is struggling or having difficulty. Dual
sports require cooperation, so if you get along well with your fellow
athletes, you’ll do well in a dual sport.
There are disadvantages to dual sports as well. You have less control
over the outcome when you’re relying on another teammate. You can have
your best individual performance and still lose the match or game in a dual
sport, which is an important factor to remember. You can also find the
burden of a game or match falling on you if your teammate is performing
poorly or has a bad attitude.
Team Sports
 hardest of all, you have to have a lot of patience and very open
minded because everyone might have different ideas.
 many variables are considered to determine the success or failure of
the team
 it depends on the collective effort of all its players
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The category of team sports is even broader. The most popular sports at
the college level—sports like football, baseball, and basketball—are team
sports. Teams play volleyball, hockey, and lacrosse as well. Relays in
swimming or track and field are team efforts. The dynamic of team sports is
even more different than individual or dual sports, because of the
cooperation and specialization of roles on teams.
Sometimes an individual or dual sport can cross over to being a team
sport. In large international competitions like the Olympics or the Davis
Cup in tennis or Ryder Cup in golf, you can compete as an individual or
part of a duo, but you’re also competing for your country’s team as a whole.
In gymnastics, athletes compete in individual events, but the team as a
whole receives a score.
Test Yourself
Student’s Activity 1
Answer the following questions.
1. In your own opinion, how will you define sports?
2. If you are going to choose, individual, dual or team sports?
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Quarter 2:
Introduction of Athletics
What to Know?
In this quarter, you are going to define, search on the historical
background, and recognize how athletics started. Also, you are going to
identify the different track and field events and discuss the different
running, walking, jumping and throwing events.

Athletics, also called track-and-field sports or track and field, a
variety of competitions in running, walking, jumping, and throwing events.
Although these contests are called track and field (or simply track) in the
United States, they are generally designated as athletics elsewhere. This
article covers the history, the organization, and the administration of the
sports, the conduct of competitions, the rules and techniques of the
individual events, and some of the sports’ most prominent athletes.
Track-and-field athletics are the oldest forms of organized sport,
having developed out of the most basic human activities—running, walking,
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jumping, and throwing. Athletics have become the most truly international
of sports, with nearly every country in the world engaging in some form of
competition. Most nations send teams of men and women to the
quadrennial Olympic Games and to the official World Championships of
track and field. There also are several continental and intercontinental
championship meets held, including the European, Commonwealth,
African, Pan-American, and Asian.
Within the broad title of athletics come as many as two dozen distinct
events. These events, generally held outdoors, make up a meet. The outdoor
running events are held on a 400-metre or 440-yard oval track, and field
events (jumping and throwing) are held either inside the track’s perimeter
or in adjacent areas.
In many parts of the world, notably the United States, Canada, and
Europe, the sport moves indoors during the winter; because of limited
space, some events are modified and several are eliminated altogether
Also within the general scope of track-and-field athletics come
separate but related competitions that are not contested on the track.
Cross-country running competition is carried out on various types of
countryside and parkland. Marathons and races of other long distances are
run on roads, and the long-distance race walks are contested on measured
road courses. The rules followed by all organized competitions are
established and enforced by the International Association of Athletics
Federations (IAAF) and its member body from each nation. The IAAF also
ratifies all world records.
HISTORY
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There is little in the way of definitive records of athletics’ early days as

organized sport. Egyptian and Asian civilizations are known to have
encouraged athletics many centuries before the Christian era. Perhaps as
early as 1829 BC, Ireland was the scene of the Lugnasad festival’s Tailteann
Games, involving various forms of track-and-field activity. The Olympic
Games of Greece, traditionally dated from 776 BC, continued through 11
centuries before ending about AD 393. These ancient Olympics were strictly
male affairs, as to both participants and spectators. Greek women were
reputed to have formed their own Heraea Games, which, like the Olympics,
were held every four years.
Athletics as practiced today was born and grew to maturity in
England. The first mention of the sport in England was recorded in 1154,
when practice fields were first established in London. The sport was banned
by King Edward III in the 1300s but revived a century later by Henry VIII,
reputed to be an accomplished hammer thrower.
MODERN DEVELOPMENT
The development of the modern sport, however, has come only since
the early 19th century. Organized amateur footraces were held in England
as early as 1825, but it was from 1860 that athletics enjoyed its biggest
surge to that date. In 1861 the West London Rowing Club organized the
first meet open to all amateurs, and in 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club
(AAC) was founded and conducted the first English championships. The
emphasis in all these meets was on competition for “gentlemen amateurs”
who received no financial compensation. In 1880 the AAC yielded
governing power to the Amateur Athletic Association (AAA).
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The first meet in North America was held near Toronto in 1839, but it
was the New York Athletic Club, formed in the 1860s, that placed the sport
on a solid footing in the United States. The club held the world’s first indoor
meet and helped promote the formation in 1879 of the National Association
of Amateur Athletes of America (NAAAA) to conduct national
championships. Nine years later the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) took
over as national governing body, amid reports that the NAAAA was lax in
enforcing amateurism.
Athletics was well established in many countries by the late 1800s,
but not until the revival of the Olympic Games in 1896 did the sport become
truly international. Although begun modestly, the Olympics provided the
inspiration and standardizing influence that was to spread interest in
athletics worldwide. In 1912 the International Amateur Athletic Federation
(IAAF) was founded, and by the time that organization celebrated its 75th
anniversary in 1987 it had more than 170 national members. Its rules
applied only to men’s competition until 1936, when the IAAF also became
the governing body of women’s athletics.
Major international competitions before World War II included the
Olympics, the British Empire Games, and the European Championships,
but after the war athletics experienced its greatest period of growth, taking
root especially in the developing countries. By the 1950s world-class
athletes from African, Asian, and Latin American nations were enjoying
great success at international meets.
ORGANIZATIONS AND TOURNAMENT

Top-level competition in athletics is still restricted to the amateur
athlete, although the definition of “amateur” continues to evolve. The IAAF
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over time has reduced its definition of an amateur athlete to the simplest
possible terms: “An amateur is one who abides by the eligibility rules of the
IAAF” is the complete rule, allowing for change whenever the federation
alters any of its other rules. IAAF or International Amateur Athletic
Federation and International Association of Athletics Federations is the
international governing body for the sport of athletics, covering track and
field, cross country running, race-walking, mountain running and ultra-
running. Included in its charge are the standardization of rules and
regulations for the sports, recognition and management of world sports,
and the organization and sanctioning of athletics competition, including
World Athletic Championship. IAAF was named as World Athletics since
October, 2019.
In the 1980s the IAAF attempted to keep its athletes from benefiting
financially from the sport. This was always a struggle, however, as star
athletes and eager meet promoters managed to circumvent the rules. So did
entire nations: eastern European countries provided government aid to
athletes, other countries encouraged military personnel to concentrate on
track-and-field training, and U.S. athletes received college scholarships in
return for their skills.
Financial aid was made acceptable in the 1980s through the use of
trust funds. Athletes were permitted to accept payment for appearing in
competition, for performing well, for appearing in television commercials,
or for other sport-related activities. The money was placed in trust; training
expenses could be charged to the fund, with the remaining funds, if any,
going to the athlete on retirement from competition. Some athletes were
reported to have made several hundred thousand dollars a year under the
new system.
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The primary functions of the IAAF are to maintain a set of rules that
are uniform throughout the world, to approve world records for outdoor
and indoor competition, and to promote international athletics. While
continuing to administer athletics competition in the Olympic Games, the
IAAF began its own quadrennial World Championships in 1983,
established World Cup competitions, and established walking, cross-
country, marathon and other road races, indoor track and field, and junior
competitions.
Each IAAF member nation has its own set of rules and maintains its own
set of records in line with international guidelines. The amateur athletic
federations of individual countries conduct their own national
championships.
In the United States, for example, The Athletic Congress (TAC) alone
has the power to select international teams (except for the Olympic team,
which is under the jurisdiction of the United States Olympic Committee), to
establish rules, and to accept or reject records. It also conducts the national
championships and other competitions. Meets in which participation is
restricted to college or university athletes usually are governed by the rules
of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), National
Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), or one of two junior (two-
year) college groups. Most secondary schools in the United States come
under the aegis of the National Federation of State High School Athletic
Associations.
The details of the conduct of athletics competitions vary with the
location and the level and type of meet. To a great degree the basic sport
has been standardized by the rules of the IAAF. Outdoor track events take
place on the 400-metre (about 440-yard) oval running track. Track
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compositions differ greatly. Once almost all tracks were of natural materials
(dirt, clay, cinders, and crushed brick being the most common), but all
major competition tracks now are made of synthetic materials. The
synthetic track provides more consistent and faster footing in all weather
conditions. Field event performers also benefit from improved footing;
jumpers and javelin throwers perform on the same materials used for
synthetic tracks, while the throwers of the shot, discus, and hammer work
in circles made of concrete.
Indoor track meets adapt themselves to widely varying and often
limiting conditions. Tracks range in size generally from 150 to 200 meters
or 160 to 220 yards and have synthetic surfaces over wood. Some tracks
have banked curves, others are unbanked. Cross-country running utilizes
any terrain that is available—parks, golf courses, and farmland. The
prescribed IAAF distance in international races for men is approximately
12,000 meters (7.5 miles) and for women 4,000 meters (2.5 miles). Road
events include walking, marathon, and other road runs of widely varying
distances.
MEETS
Equipment
Every event has items of equipment that are essential to the conduct
of the event. All athletes, for example, require shoes that give traction and
protection with minimum weight. Other items of equipment include the
starting blocks used by sprinters and hurdlers, hurdles, vaulting poles, and
the implements employed in the various throwing events.
Timing and measurements
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Exacting timing and measurement of performances are a vital part of

athletics, not only to determine winners at the meet in question but also to
provide marks that can be compared for record purposes. Fully automatic
timing, using photography, is required for world records and all major
competitions. Timing, once done in fifths of a second and then in tenths,
now is done in hundredths of a second. By rule, an aiding wind of more
than 2 meters per second (4.473 miles per hour) nullifies a record time in
distances up to 200 meters. Metric measurements are required for both
track and field events, even in the United States. The only English-measure
distance that remains popular is the one-mile run. With the 1987
inauguration of the World Indoor Championships, the IAAF began
accepting indoor records.
Presentation
Athletics meets differ greatly in presentation. The typical school,
university, or club meet is of one-day duration. Conference meets generally
last two days, while national championships require three to four days to
accommodate large numbers of athletes. The Olympic Games and World
Championships are scheduled for eight days of athletics competition.
All track events begin with the firing of a gun. In races of one lap or
less the runners remain in their marked lanes for the entire distance. In
longer events the runners may ignore the lane markers and run as close to
the inside edge of the track as is prudent. The runner whose torso reaches
the winning line first is the winner.
Field events have two types of qualifying competitions. In the smaller
meets all participants are allowed three attempts, with the top six to nine
athletes getting three more. In the larger meets there is a qualifying round
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from which about 12 athletes advance to the finals, at which stage the
remaining competition proceeds in the same manner as in the smaller
meets. The exceptions in field event competition are the vertical jumps—the
high jump and pole vault. Jumpers are given three tries at each height;
three consecutive misses cause elimination.
Although athletics is basically an individual sport, team scoring is
sometimes important. Dual meets are always scored, but there are no
official scores for multi-team international meets, such as the Olympic
Games. Conference and national meets among universities also are scored
officially. The points allotted to individual events and places vary from meet
to meet. A national competition may award 10 points for first place, 8 for
second, and so on. Similarly, an international dual meet awards 5 points for
first place, 3 for second, 2 for third, and 1 for fourth. The team with the
highest point total wins the meet. Cross-country meets always are scored,
with the winner getting 1 point, second place 2 points, etc., the low score
winning.
Runners have a chance to compete year-round. The indoor season
lasts from January through March; the outdoor competition lasts until June
for schools and colleges, with the higher-level individual competitors
participating in track through September. In the United States autumn is
given over to cross-country running. International cross-country is held in
winter.
Conflicts and controversies

Athletics, occupying center stage at all international games, generates
its share of conflicts. Until the IAAF’s trust-fund system there was
continual concern about athletes earning money by violating rules. From
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about 1970 the question of drug usage has been a major issue. Athletes are
forbidden to use a number of drugs that are said to improve performance.
Testing for such use is required at the major meets, and, while the great
majority of athletes tested are found to be free of banned drugs, each year a
small number of athletes are found guilty of violating the drug rule and are
suspended from competition, usually for 18 months. Most frequently the
violators have used anabolic steroids in an attempt to increase muscle size
and strength.
Test Yourself
Answer the following questions
1. How athletic sports does started?
2. What is the international organization that governs all track and field
sports?
3. How does track events begin?
Quarter 2.1:
Athletic Sports: Events
What to know?
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As many as 25 events may make up a men’s meet; women compete in

a few less. The men’s track events at championship meets generally include
the 100-, 200-, 400-, 800-, 1,500-, 5,000-, and 10,000-metre runs; the
3,000-metre steeplechase; the 110- and 400-metre hurdles; and the 400-
and 1,500-metre relays. The field events usually include the high jump, pole
vault, long jump, triple jump, shot put, discus throw, hammer throw, and
javelin throw. The decathlon, combining 10 track-and-field events, is also
featured. Women run much the same schedule, with a 100-metre hurdles
event instead of 110 meters. They compete in the heptathlon (seven events)
rather than the decathlon. Women walk up to 20,000 meters and men up
to 50,000 meters.

RUNNING
The sprints
The relatively short sprint distances, ranging up to 400 meters,
require a sustained top speed. Originally all sprinters started from a
standing position, but in the 1880s the crouch start was invented, and it
became a rule that sprinters must start with both feet and both hands on
the track. The introduction of the adjustable starting block aided the quick
start, critical in the sprints.
The current record holder at 100 meters generally is considered to be
“the fastest human.” Holding that title have been such champions as Eddie
Tolan, Jesse Owens, Bobby Morrow, Bob Hayes, and Carl Lewis (all of the
United States), Valeriy Borzov (U.S.S.R.), Linford Christie (U.K.), and
Donovan Bailey (Canada). Maurice Greene of the United States set a record
time of 9.79 seconds at a 1999 meet in Athens, Greece. Outstanding women
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sprint champions have included Fanny Blankers-Koen (the Netherlands),

who won four gold medals in the 1948 Olympics, Wilma Rudolph (U.S.),
who won three in 1960, Marita Koch (East Germany), who was a winner at
all three sprint distances, and Florence Griffith Joyner (U.S.), who set
world records at 100 and 200 meters in 1988.
The 400 meters is run in lanes all the way; distance is equalized by a
staggered start, the sprinters being spaced progressively farther up the
track based on the distance their lane is from the inside edge. Outstanding
in this event were Lee Evans (U.S.), whose 43.86-second mark remained
the world record 20 years after he set it in 1968, Alberto Juantorena
(Cuba), whose 44.26-second time in the 1976 Olympics was the fastest
without the aid of high altitude, and Michael Johnson (U.S.), whose world
record time of 43.18 seconds was set at the 1999 World Championships in
Sevilla, Spain. Jarmila Kratochvilova (Czechoslovakia) won a rare double
victory in the women’s 400- and 800-metre events at the 1983 World
Championships.
Mid-distance running
The longer the race, the more endurance is needed. The middle-
distance events, in this discussion, range from 800 to 2,000 meters. Some
authorities regard the 3,000-metre race as middle-distance.
Middle-distance runners usually are able to perform well at either the
shorter or the longer distances. Racing tactics, including pacing, are more
important at these than at any other distances. Even though it is no longer a
championship event, the mile is still a glamour event. The first athlete to
run a mile in less than four minutes—Roger Bannister of England in 1954—
captured world attention. A “sub-four” is still a notable time, even though it
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is now routinely accomplished by the world’s top runners. Other great

middle-distance runners include Paavo Nurmi (Finland), who won both the
1,500 (the metric “mile”) and 5,000 meters on the same day in the 1924
Olympics, Sebastian Coe (U.K.), who won two Olympic gold medals at
1,500 meters and two silver at 800 meters, Noureddine Morceli (Algeria),
who won two world championships and an Olympic gold medal in the 1,500
meters, and Hicham El Guerrouj (Morocco), who set outdoor and indoor
world records in the 1,500 meters and the mile. Two Soviet women created
memorable middle-distance records. Tatyana Kazankina won five world
records, while Lyudmila Bragina established eight. Mary Decker Slaney
(U.S.) also won consistently at the middle distances.
Long-distance running
There is some difference of opinion over the dividing line between
middle-distance and long-distance runs. The long-distance events
considered here are those ranging from 3,000 meters upward; they include
the marathon, steeplechase, cross-country, and road runs. Speed becomes
an even less important factor in the longer runs, pace and endurance
correspondingly more so. The longer the run, the less likely the burst of
speed known as the “finishing kick” at the end of the race.
Runners may also overlap the long- and middle-distance events.
Nurmi, Gunder Hägg (Sweden), and Said Aouita (Morocco) all set world
records at both 1,500 and 5,000 meters. Nurmi won at all distances longer
than 1,000 meters except the marathon. Distance runners provide the most
prolific record setters, including Nurmi, Ron Clarke (Australia), Kip Keino
(Kenya), Haile Gebrselassie (Ethiopia), and Emil Zátopek (Czechoslovakia),
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the last of whom performed the remarkable feat of winning the marathon
and the 5,000- and 10,000-metre races at the 1952 Olympic Games. The
longer races for women have been slow to develop, but a number of runners
have been able to compete at various distances, including Ingrid
Kristiansen (Norway).
The steeplechase combines long-distance running with hurdling, each
runner being required to clear seven water jumps and 28 hurdles in a
3,000-metre course. Although hurdling is an important aspect of the event,
by far the greatest need is the ability to run the distance. Steeplechase
competitors are often specialists, but there are examples of fine distance
runners who have successfully overcome more experienced hurdlers. Henry
Rono (Kenya), one of the most successful at the steeplechase, also held
world records at 3,000, 5,000, and 10,000 meters.
The marathon was a key event at the first modern Olympic Games in
1896, and it has become a major attraction of the Olympics and other
international contests. The race originally commemorated the feat of a
Greek soldier who in 490 BC supposedly ran from Marathon to Athens to
bring news of the Greek victory over the Persians. At 26.22 miles (42,186
meters) the marathon is the longest race of the track meet. Hannes
Kolehmainen (Finland) and Zátopek are two of the more memorable
marathoners.
Hurdling
The hurdling events combine sprinting with negotiating a series of
obstacles called hurdles. Men run the 110-metre high hurdles over 10
barriers 106.7 cm (42 inches) high and 9.14 meters (10 yards) apart. The
400-metre intermediate hurdles also covers 10 hurdles, but 91.4 cm (36
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inches) in height and 35 meters (38.29 yards) apart. Women now run both
the 100-metre high and 400-metre hurdles. A hurdler may knock down any
number of hurdles but is disqualified if he runs out of his lane or uses his
hands to knock over hurdles. The object is to make the hurdling action
smooth and rhythmic so as not to disrupt forward progress.
High hurdlers need excellent speed, most champions also being good
sprinters. An outstanding example is Harrison Dillard (U.S.), who won the
100-metre flat race in the 1948 Olympics and the high hurdles in the 1952
Games. Intermediate hurdlers also combine speed with hurdling ability.
Glenn Davis (U.S.), who won both the 1956 and 1960 Olympics, was a
world-record breaker on the flat as well as over the hurdles. Edwin Moses
(U.S.) virtually revolutionized the event with his unusual 13-stride (between
hurdles) technique. He also won two Olympics and achieved a winning
streak lasting nearly 10 years.
Relays
The relays involve four runners per team, each member carrying a
baton for 25 percent of the total distance before passing it to the next team
runner. Two events, the 4 × 100- and 4 × 400-metre relays, are standard.
They are included both in low-level dual meets and in the Olympic Games
and the IAAF World Championships. Speed is essential in both events, and
the ability to pass the baton well is especially crucial in the shorter event,
where each runner covers 100 meters. Exchanging the baton while running
about 25 miles per hour brings to the event a quality of suspense. Many
races have been won or lost by the quality of baton passing. Other relay
events—the 4 × 200-, 4 × 800-, and 4 × 1,500-metres—are run much less
frequently.
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WALKING
This event, also called race walking, is relatively minor. Aside from
the Olympic and other multinational competitions, it is seldom a part of
track meets. Olympic competition is over 20,000 and 50,000 meters, while
other distances are used in individual competitions.
JUMPING
Men and women compete in four jumping events: the high jump, long
jump, triple jump, and pole vault.
High Jump
There is one basic rule for high jumping: the jumper must leave the
ground from one foot, not two. The object is to clear a thin bar perched atop
two standards, and the jumper remains in the competition as long as he
does not have three consecutive misses. Jumpers may enter the
competition at any height above the minimum height and are allowed to
pass any height as the bar is raised to new levels. Inflated or foam-rubber
landing pits have replaced dirt and sawdust pits. The modern pits are of
value because jumpers often land on the back of the shoulders and neck.
Jumping styles evolved in the 20th century with techniques called the
scissors, eastern cut-off, western roll, and straddle (or belly roll) preceding
the Fosbury flop. Named for its inventor, Dick Fosbury (U.S.), the 1968
Olympic champion, the flop involves an approach from almost straight
ahead, then twisting on takeoff and going over headfirst with the back to
the bar. Charles Dumas (U.S.), a notable example of the straddle jumpers,
in 1956 became the first man to clear 7 feet (2.13 meters). Valeriy Brumel
(U.S.S.R.) held the high-jump record for 10 years using the straddle jump.
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A woman jumper, Iolanda Balas (Romania), achieved remarkable feats in

the event, establishing 13 world records and a winning streak of 140 meets.
Pole Vault
Pole-vaulting is conducted along the lines of the high jump; i.e.,
vaulters attempt to vault over a crossbar placed on uprights, they have
three tries at each height, and they land in an inflated or composition pit.
The vaulter runs down a runway for about 45 meters (150 feet) carrying a
pole. After planting the end of the pole in a box that is sunk below ground
level, the vaulter leaves the ground and pulls himself upward until he is
almost doing a handstand on the pole. He twists as he nears the crossbar
and arches over it feet first and facedown.
The first poles, of solid ash, cedar, or hickory, were heavy and cumbersome.
Once the bamboo pole was introduced in 1904, it was quickly adopted.
Records set with bamboo lasted until 1957, when records were set with an
aluminum pole and a steel pole; these were followed by the fibreglass pole
in the 1960s.
The dominant vaulter of the bamboo era was Cornelius Warmerdam
(U.S.), who scored six world records; he was the first vaulter to go over 15
feet (4.6 meters), and he set a record of 15 feet 7.75 inches that lasted for 15
years. The constant improvement of fibreglass poles helped vaulters such as
Sergey Bubka (Ukraine) push the record over 20 feet in the 1990s. In the
1990s the IAAF added women’s pole vault to the competition roster, and
Stacy Dragila (U.S.) became the event’s first women’s world and Olympic
champion.
Long Jump
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Long jumping, formerly called broad jumping, is the least

complicated of the field events. Speed is the most essential ingredient for a
successful jump. Jumpers make their approach down the runway at nearly
top speed, plant a foot on the takeoff board, and leap into the air. A legal
jump requires that no part of the forward foot extend beyond the board.
The most popular long-jumping style is called the “hitch-kick,” in which the
runner seemingly walks in air.
Three distinct landmarks stand out in the history of long jumping.
The first of these was the achievement of Jesse Owens (U.S.), who on May
25, 1935, jumped 8.13 meters (26 feet 8.25 inches), a record that endured
for 25 years. The second was Bob Beamon’s (U.S.) leap of 8.90 meters (29
feet 2.5 inches), a jump that exceeded the old world record by 55 cm (21.5
inches). The third feat came in 1991, when Mike Powell (U.S.) broke
Beamon’s 23-year record with a jump of 8.95 meters (29 feet 4.5 inches).
Notable among the women jumpers are Heike Drechsler (Germany)
and Jackie Joyner-Kersee (U.S.), both of whom leaped over 7 metres (23
feet).
Triple Jump
Once known as the hop, step, and jump, the triple jump includes
three distinct segments of action. The jumper comes down the runway and
bounds off a takeoff board, similar in style to but a little slower than long
jumpers. The first segment involves the jumper executing a hop by landing
on the same foot from which he took off. Then he takes a step, landing on
the other foot, and concludes with a jump into the sand pit.
Among the outstanding competitors, Adhemar da Silva (Brazil) won
two Olympics and set five world records; Jozef Schmidt (Poland), also a
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two-time Olympic champion, set a record in 1960 of 17.03 meters (55 feet
10.5 inches) and was the first to go over the 17-metre barrier; and Viktor
Saneyev (U.S.S.R.) had three world records and three Olympic wins and
one second place. Women began competing in the triple jump in the mid-
1980s.
THROWING
The four standard throwing events—shot, discus, hammer, and
javelin—all involve the use of implements of various weights and shapes
that are hurled for distance.
Shot Put
The putting action is best described as shoving the shot, because the
rules require that the arm may not extend behind the shoulders during the
putting action. The spherical shot is made of metal. The men’s shot weighs
7.26 kg (16 pounds) and is 110–130 mm (4.3–5.1 inches) in diameter.
Women put a 4-kg (8.82-pound) shot that is 95–110 mm (3.7–4.3 inches)
in diameter.
The putter must launch the shot from within a ring 2.135 meters (7
feet) in diameter and so must gather momentum for the put by a rapid
twisting movement. Shot-putters are among the largest athletes in track
and field, the most massive ranging from 250 to 300 pounds (113 to 136
kg). Beginning in the 1950s, weight training became a major part of a shot-
putter’s training program. In that same period the O’Brien style of putting
was popularized, with outstanding results. Developed by Parry O’Brien
(U.S.), the style involved a 180-degree turn (rather than the usual 90-
degree turn) across the ring, getting more speed and momentum into the
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action. O’Brien was the best exponent of the style, winning three Olympic
medals (two gold) and raising the record from 17.95 meters (58 feet 10.75
inches) to 19.30 meters (63 feet 4 inches).
Some athletes have turned to a style in which the putter spins one and
a half turns before releasing the shot, a technique developed by Brian
Oldfield (U.S.).
Discus Throw
Discus throwing is considered by many the classic event of athletics,
the Greek poet Homer having made references to discus throwing in the
8th century BC. Modern male athletes throw a 2-kg (4.4-pound) platelike
implement from a 2.5-metre (8.2-foot) circle. The discus is launched after
the thrower, starting at the back of the circle, has completed one and a half
turns. The women’s discus weighs 1 kg (2.2 pounds).
Legendary among discus throwers are the feats of Al Oerter (U.S.),
the first to throw over 200 feet (61 meters). He won an Olympic gold medal
at the 1956 Games as a 20-year-old and at each of the following three
Games as well. He also set four world records. A standout among women
throwers was Faina Melnik (U.S.S.R.), who set 11 world records.
Hammer Throw
The implement used in the hammer throw is not a conventional
hammer but a metal ball at least 110 mm (4.3 inches) in diameter attached
to a wire, the whole implement being a minimum of 1,175 mm (46.3 inches)
in length and weighing a minimum of 7.2 kg (16 pounds). The handle at the
end of the wire opposite from the ball is gripped by the thrower and
released after three or four body turns have developed maximum
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centrifugal force. The throwing circle is slightly smaller than that of the
discus. Women’s hammer throw was introduced into international
competition in the 1990s. The hammer used by women is slightly shorter
and weighs a minimum of 4 kg (8.8 pounds).
American athletes of Irish birth or descent totally dominated the
event from the 1890s to the 1930s and included John Flanagan, who
unofficially set 17 world records and won three Olympic gold medals (1900,
1904, and 1908). After the passing of the Irish dynasty, the power shifted to
the eastern Europeans. Among them was Yury Sedykh (U.S.S.R.), who won
at the 1976 and 1980 Olympics and raised the record from 80.32 meters
(24.5 feet) to 86.74 meters (26.4 feet).
Javelin Throw
Javelin throwing involves a spear like implement that is hurled with
an over-the-shoulder motion at the end of an approach run. It is a direct
descendant of spear-throwing contests, introduced in the Olympics of 708
BC. The men’s javelin weighs about 800 grams (1.8 pounds) and must be at
least 260 cm (8.5 feet) long. The women throw a javelin that must weigh at
least 600 grams (1.3 pounds) and be at least 220 cm (7.2 feet) long. It is the
only throwing event not using a circle. The javelin is not required to stick
but must land point-first for a valid throw.
Throwers from Finland have historically been a force in the event. Matti
Järvinen, a Finn, established 10 world records and improved the record by
6.22 meters, finally reaching 77.23 meters (253 feet 4.5 inches) in 1936. As
records continued to be broken, there was less and less space within the
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stadium to throw the javelin safely. Terje Pedersen (Norway) broke the
300-foot (91.44-metre) barrier in 1964, and by 1984 Uwe Hohn (East
Germany) had thrown a prodigious 104.80 meters (343.8 feet), a throw so
great that it influenced a change in the design of the javelin to keep it within
the safe confines of the field. Beginning in 1985, throwers used a javelin
that, at the same weight, was designed to reduce the length of the throw by
9 to 12 meters (30 to 40 feet). The design of the women’s javelin was
changed after successive world records pushed close to 80 meters (262.5
feet) in the late 1980s.
MULTI-EVENTS
Decathlon
The decathlon is a summer sporting event that consists of ten track
and field events over two days. The events in the decathlon are held in this
order: 100 meters, long jump, shot put, high jump, 400 meters, 110 meters
hurdle, discus throw, pole vault, javelin throw, 1500 meters. The Olympic
decathlon is a male event, the winner is often considered the unofficial
greatest all-around athlete in the world. The modern Olympic decathlon
was first run at the 1912 games.
Heptathlon
The heptathlon is a summer sporting event that consists of seven
track and field events over two days. The events in the heptathlon are held
in this order: 100 meters hurdles, high jump, shot put, 200 meters, long
jump, javelin throw and 800 meters. The Olympic heptathlon is a female
event. The modern Olympic heptathlon was first contested in the 1984
games.
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Pentathlon
The pentathlon is a summer sporting event that consists of five events
in the course of one day. The pentathlon as it is performed today is known
as the modern pentathlon, the events are held in this order: épée fencing,
200 meter freestyle swim, horse show jumping, 3200 meter race combined
with four stops for laser pistol shooting. The Olympic modern pentathlon
was introduced as a male event at the 1912 games, a female event was
introduced at the 2000 games. All multi-event Olympic sports are derived
from the Ancient Olympic pentathlon, which consisted of the discus throw,
the javelin throw, the long jump, wrestling, and the stadion or short foot
race.
Triathlon
A triathlon is a summer sporting event that consists of three events
that occur sequentially, one after another, with no break. The events are
held in this order: 1.5 km freestyle swim, 40 km cycle road race, 10 km foot
run. The Olympic triathlon holds separate events for men and women, the
triathlon was first run at the 2000 games.
Biathlon
A biathlon is a winter sporting event that consists of cross-country
skiing combined with rifle-shooting. The distances and number of shooting
stops have varied over the years, currently men’s biathlon events include
the 10 km, the 20 km, the 12.5 km pursuit, the 15 km mass start and the 4 x
7.5 km relay. Women’s biathlon events include the 7.5 km, the 15 km, the 10
km pursuit, the 12.5 km mass start and the 4 x 6 km relay. The male
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biathlon was first contested in the 1960 Olympics games, the female
biathlon was first contested in the 1992 Olympic Games.
Test Yourself
Search and list down the names of the current world record holder of
the different track and field events today – from running, walking, jumping
and throwing events.
Quarter 2.2:
Athletics – Rules and
Regulations (running events)
What to know?
Athletics is the collective name for a collection of sporting events that
involve competitors running, walking, throwing and jumping. The roots of
athletic events are prehistoric, with ancient communities competing with
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each other in various events. Track and field events set simple goals – run
the fastest, throw the farthest or jump the greatest distance – that require
different types of athleticism. Track meets are a symphony of speed, power,
and pure strength and focused technical skills. And each class of events
enforces similar basic rules. Learn the rules to gain a deeper appreciation
for the difficulty of each event. In this quarter, we are going to discuss the
basic rules and regulations of the different events in the track and field.
Other terms
Starting Blocks
Starting blocks are a device used in the sport of track and field by
sprint athletes to brace their feet against at the start of a race so they do not
slip as they stride forwards at the sound of the starter’s pistol.
False Start
In sports, a false start is a movement by a participant before (or in
some cases after) being signaled or otherwise permitted by the rules to
start. Depending on the sport and the event, a false start can result in a
penalty against the athlete’s or team’s field position, a warning that a
subsequent false start will result in disqualification, or immediate
disqualification of the athlete from further competition.
100-METER DASH
The 100-meter dash is one of the most exciting events in track and
field, with the Olympic Games gold medal winners earning the title of
"Fastest Man in the World" or "Fastest Woman in the World." Here are
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important rules governing the start of the race, the use of running lanes,
and the finish of the race.
The Start of the Race
In a 100-meter dash, runners start from a crouched position with
their fingertips just behind the starting line and their feet propped up on
starting blocks behind them. If the competition is submitting race results to
the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), the starting
blocks must be equipped with an approved false-start control apparatus.
This apparatus sends an audio signal to an official wearing headphones if
the runner’s foot leaves the blocks before the starter gun is fired. The race
begins with the starter gun, after the starter has announced "on your
marks" and "set." If a runner leaves his blocks before the gun, that runner is
called for a false start and is disqualified from the race.
Running within Assigned Lanes
Eight to 10 running lanes cover the width of the track, and the lanes
are numbered with the left-most inside lane assigned number 1. The IAAF
specifies that the lanes be between 48 and 49.25 inches wide and the NCAA
specifies 42 inches. Runners are required to stay within their assigned lane
throughout the race. A runner is disqualified if he crosses into another
runner’s lane and impedes that runner’s progress.
The Finish of the Race
The finish line is a white line, 5 centimeters wide, that runs
perpendicular to the lane lines. When any part of the runner’s body crosses
the front plane of the finish line, that runner has finished the race. After the
runners complete the race, they are ranked by the order in which they
crossed the finish line. Photo-finish equipment should be used at all IAAF-
approved races to help determine the outcome of closely contested races.
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200-METER DASH
The 200 meter sprint is one of the shortest sprint races in the
summer Olympic Games. The only shorter race is the 100 meter sprint. The
200 meter race is a great test of power and speed as you are forced to run
around a curve and on a straight path. There are a few key rules for the 200
meter sprint in Olympic competition.
The Track
The 200 meter Olympic sprint is run on an oval-shaped track that is
400 meters in circumference. The track for the 200 meter sprint must be a
material that allows for spiked running shoes, according to the IAAF rules.
Also, a runner cannot run inside the inner-most lane of the track and must
refrain from stepping on the inner-most line of the track that separates the
track from the infield.
The Start
The rules require 200 meter sprinters to use starting blocks. Blocks
are not allowed to touch the start line or any part of another runner's lane.
If the runner false starts once in an Olympic 200 meter race, a race official
will present him with a red card and he will be disqualified from the race,
according to the IAAF.
Banned Substances
Testing positive for a substance banned by the IAAF will result in a
disqualification from the race. Any achievement by the athlete during that
race will be nullified. For example, if the athlete was to win the gold medal
in the 200 meter sprint and set a world and Olympic record, all three
achievements would be wiped out by the IAAF. Also, the athlete will be
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suspended from competition for a designated length of time, according to

the IAAF.
Fun Facts
American sprinter Michael Johnson ran the 200 meters in 19:32 at
the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia, breaking the world
record he had set earlier in the year at the U.S. Olympic trials. The record
stood for 12 years before Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt broke it with a time
of 19:30 at the summer Olympic Games in Beijing, China in 2008.
400-METER DASH
Track competitions date back to the seventh century B.C. Today’s
rules are derived from 19th century university competitions held in
England. People compete in running events such as the 400-meter dash
worldwide, with such events considered headliners at the Olympic Games.
The standard track that athletes compete on is a 400-meter oval, according
to Tom Hanlon in the “The Sports Rules Book.”
Heats
Runners go through heats, or preliminary races, to eliminate the
slower competitors. This means the final race is run by the fastest
competitors.
Start
The 400-meter dash utilizes a staggered start to equalize the distance
for all of the competitors. Runners must stay in their own lanes. Starting
blocks are allowed in the 400-meter race. All races begin with a report from
the starter’s gun after “on your marks” and “set” commands.
Disqualification
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An athlete who makes a false start gets one warning. After that, the
runner is disqualified from the race. A runner also can be disqualified for
jostling or obstructing another athlete to impede her progress. A competitor
who is not fouled and achieves an advantage via stepping on or over an
inside lane line also may be disqualified.
MIDDLE AND LONG DISTANCE

Middle and long distance races include the 800 meters, 1500 meters,
5000 meters, 10,000 meters and the marathon, which is 26.2 miles (42.195
kilometers) long.
Distance Running Competition
Eight runners participate in the 800-meter final, 12 in the 1500 final,
and 15 in the 5000. In 2004, 24 men and 31 women participated in their
respective 10,000-meter events. In the marathon, 101 runners started in
the men’s race, 82 in the women’s event.
Depending on the number of entrants, Olympic distance running
events of less than 10,000 meters may include preliminary heats. In 2004
there were two rounds of heats prior to the 800 and 1500 finals and one
round of heats prior to the 5000 final.
All distance races are run on tracks except the marathon, which
generally begins and ends in the Olympic stadium, with the remainder of
the event run on nearby roads.
The Start
All Olympic middle and long distance races begin with a standing
start. The start command is, “On your marks.” Runners may not touch the
ground with their hands during the start. As in all races – except those in
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the decathlon and heptathlon – runners are permitted one false start and
are disqualified on their second false start.
The Race
In the 800, runners must remain in their lanes until they pass
through the first turn. As in all races, the event ends when a runner’s torso
(not the head, arm or leg) crosses the finish line.
In races of 1500 meters or longer run on a track, competitors are
generally divided into two groups at the start, with approximately 65
percent of the runners on the regular, arced starting line and the remainder
on a separate, arced starting line marked across the outer half of the track.
The latter group must remain on the outer half of the track until they pass
through the first turn.
HURDLES
Athletes who compete in hurdle races need a sprinter’s speed as well
as the technical ability to clear the hurdles. Runners typically take seven to
eight strides before hurdle one, then use a three-stride pattern between the
rest, according to Brian Mac, performance coach for UK Athletics. The
trailing leg, which initially drives a runner’s body at the hurdle, also must
sweep over the hurdle rather than around it. The International Association
of Athletics Federations is the worldwide governing body for track and field
events, including hurdles. Associations at the national, state and local level
generally follow IAFF rules, though modifications can exist.
Set-Up
The placement of the hurdles depends on the length of the race and
the sex of the athlete. Ten hurdles are used in the 100-meter, 110-meter and
400-meter hurdle races. Men run the 110 races with 9.14 meters between
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hurdles and women run the 100 races with 8.5 meters between hurdles,
according to IAAF rules. Both men and women run the 400 races with 35
meters between hurdles. The same set-up applies to youth divisions.
Hurdles are 106.7 centimeters tall for men and 83.8 centimeters tall for
women in the 110 and 100 races. Hurdles are 91.4 centimeters tall for men
and 76.2 centimeters tall for women in the 400 races. The National
Collegiate Athletic Association requires hurdles to be placed in all lanes but
allows racers to run only in alternate lanes. The IAAF and USA Track and
Field do not have this requirement. However, neither organization
prohibits this set-up, which is common practice, according to USATF. The
set-up limits races to four runners per heat on most tracks.
Downed Hurdles
Runners who deliberately knock down a hurdle are disqualified under
IAAF rules. Runners who knock over a hurdle accidentally are not
disqualified. Whether the hurdle was downed deliberately is left to the
referee’s judgment. The National Federation of High Schools had a similar
rule until 2010. Now, if a runner knocks down a hurdle with her hand she is
disqualified, according NFHS rules. Under the old rules, a hurdle
intentionally knocked down by a runner’s foot also led to disqualification.
Other Requirements
In all levels of competition, runners are required to attempt to clear
each hurdle. A hurdler who runs around a hurdle is automatically
disqualified. Runners who trail a leg or foot below the horizontal plane of
the hurdle’s top at the moment of clearance also are disqualified, according
to IAAF rules. The international organization’s rules also require runners to
stay in their own lane throughout the race.
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400-METER RELAY
The 400-meter relay race is a significant race in major track and field
events, such as the Olympics, the World Championships and national
championships. Relay races are won by the teams that finish the race in the
fastest time, but there are other factors involved besides speed. A relay
team must be well-coordinated and possess the ability to pass a baton from
one member of the team to the next without dropping it while maintaining
maximum speed.
The Race
A full lap around a world-class outdoor track is 400-meters. During
this race, each runner runs 100 meters with a baton in-hand and stays in
his own lane. Because tracks curve, it looks like the runners in the outside
lanes have a significant lead on those running in inside lanes, but each
runner runs the same distance throughout the race.
The Start
The leadoff runners in this race start off in starting blocks. They hold
the baton in one hand and take off when they hear the starter's gun. If a
runner leaves the starting blocks early, the gun fires a second time to
indicate a false start, and the race must start again. If a runner makes a
second false start, his team is disqualified from the race.
Passing the Baton
After each runner runs his leg of the 400-meter relay race, he hands
off the baton to his teammate. That teammate must receive the baton
within a 20-meter area. If the pass comes before or after that area, the pass
is considered illegal, and the team is disqualified. Also, if a runner drops the
baton while passing or in the middle of the race, the team is disqualified.
Winning the Race
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The team that completes four separate baton passes legally and
successfully and has its last runner cross the finish line first wins the race.
Because the 400-meter relay involves such fast and decisive passes, judges
sometimes have to review recordings of significant races (Olympics, World
Championships, national championships, Olympic Trials) before declaring
a winner.
WALKING RACE
In the Olympics, men compete in 20-kilometer and 50-kilometer race
walking events while women participate in a 20-kilometer race walk.
Race Walking Defined
IAAF rules spell out the differences between running and walking.
Competitors who cross the boundary from walking to running during a race
walk are cited for “lifting” infractions. Basically, the walker’s front foot
must be on the ground when the rear foot is raised. Also, the front leg must
straighten when it makes contact with the ground.
The Competition
No preliminary heats were held during the 2004 Olympics. At the
Athens Games, 48 men and 57 women participated in their respective 20-
kilometer race walking events, while 54 men competed in the 50-kilometer
event.
The Start
All race walking events begin with a standing start. The start
command is, “On your marks.” Competitors may not touch the ground with
their hands during the start. As in all races – except those in the decathlon
and heptathlon – race walkers are permitted one false start but are
disqualified for their second false start.
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The Race
Walkers do not race in lanes. The event ends when a competitor’s
torso (not the head, arm or leg) crosses the finish line.
Test Yourself
Write true if the statement is correct and false if not.
_____1. The running events usually begins with the starter gun, after the
starter has announced "on your marks" and "set."
_____2. In 100-meter dash runner is disqualified if he crosses into
another runner’s lane and impedes that runner’s progress.
_____3. If the runner false starts once in a 200 meter race, a race official
will present him with a red card and he will be disqualified from the race.
_____4. Starting blocks are allowed in the 400-meter race.
_____5. Runners who knock over a hurdle accidentally are not
disqualified.
Quarter 2.3:
Rules and Regulations –
Jumping and Throwing
Events
HIGH JUMP
44
One of several events held in a track and field competition, the high
jump must comply with the rules set forth by the sport’s governing body.
While most official track and field events abide by the International
Association of Athletics Federations rules and regulations, you may find
slight rules differences with collegiate and high school competitions. The
rules govern everything from apparatus and equipment to footwear and
competing.
Requirements for Uprights
IAAF rule 182 states that any style of rigid uprights or standards can
be used. The uprights must be between 4 meters and 4.04 meters apart --
about 13 feet 1/8 inch and a maximum of about 13 feet 1/4 inch apart. For
high school competitions, the minimum distance can't be less than 12 feet.
The crossbar rests on two flat and rectangular supports, each one firmly
attached to an upright. Rule 181 requires the supports to be 4 centimeters
wide and 6 centimeters long -- about 1.5 inches wide and about 2.3 inches
long.
Crossbar Rules
The crossbar, typically made of fiberglass or other suitable material,
has three parts -- a circular bar with two end pieces. IAAF rule 181 states
that the circular part of the bar must have a diameter of 30 millimeters,
which is slightly larger than 1 inch. The two end pieces can be circular or
semi-circular but must have a one flat surface, which allows the crossbar to
rest on the supports. The crossbar is allowed to sag a maximum of 20
millimeters or about 3/4 inch.
Landing Area Specs
Typically made with cushioning pads or mats and covered by a spike-
proof material, the pit or landing area must also comply with the rules. The
45
area must be 6 meters long, 4 meters wide and 0.7 meters high - about
19.50 feet long, 13 feet wide and 2 1/3 feet high. The front corners of the
landing pads must have a cutaway to allow the front of the pads to be
directly under the crossbar.
Footwear Rules
The rules state that shoes worn by high jumpers may have up to 11
spikes. The protruding portion of the spikes can't be more than 9
millimeters long -- about 1/3 inch. The thickness of the sole can't be more
than 13 millimeters -- about 1/2 inch -- and the heel can't be thicker than 19
millimeters -- about 3/4 inch.
Common High Jump Failures
Failures or fouls can happen in a several ways. The more common
failures include:
 taking off with two feet
 hitting the bar during the jump, causing it to fall off of its supports
 touching the area beyond the uprights before jumping and clearing
the bar
 deliberately steadying the bar during the jump or replacing it after
you jump
 and allowing the allotted amount of time for a trial to elapse without
jumping
POLE VAULT
The modern Olympics include a large variety of events in Track &
Field, but perhaps none as unique as the pole vault.
Equipment
46
Pole vaulters' poles are among the least-regulated of any Olympic

apparatus. The pole can be made of any material or combination of
materials and may be of any length or diameter, but the basic surface must
be smooth. The pole may have protective layers of tape at the grip and at
the bottom end.
Vaulting Area
The runway is at least 40 meters long. Vaulters can place as many as
two markers on the runway. Competitors plant their poles in a one-meter
long box that’s 60 centimeters wide at the front and 15 centimeters wide at
the back. The crossbar is 4.5 meters wide.
The Competition
During the 2004 Athens Games, 38 men and 35 women participated
in their respective qualification rounds to earn a spot in the pole vault final.
Sixteen men and 14 women participated in their respective finals.
Qualification results do not carry over into the final.
Rules
Once the vaulter leaves the ground, he/she may not move the lower
hand above the upper hand on the pole, nor may he/she move the upper
hand higher on the pole. Vaulters also may not steady the bar with their
hands during the vault. A successful vault is one in which the crossbar
remains in place when the vaulter has left the landing area.
Competitors may begin vaulting at any height announced by the chief
judge or may pass, at their own discretion. Three consecutive missed vaults,
at any height or combination of heights, will eliminate the vaulter from the
competition.
The victory goes to the vaulter who clears the greatest height during
the final. If two or more vaulters tie for first place, the tie-breakers are: 1)
47
The fewest misses at the height at which the tie occurred, and 2) The fewest
misses throughout the competition.
If the event remains tied, the vaulters have a jump-off, beginning at
the next greater height. Each vaulter has one attempt. The bar is then
alternately lowered and raised until only one vaulter succeeds at a given
height.
LONG JUMP
The long jump was an event included in the Ancient Greek Olympics,
although it had significantly different rules back then. The long jump for
men has been a modern Olympic event since 1896, along with the standing
long jump. However, the latter event was dropped after the 1912 Olympics.
A women's Olympic long jump event was added in 1948. The event is
sometimes called "the broad jump."
Equipment and Long Jump Rules
The sole of a long jumper's shoe can have a maximum thickness of 13
millimeters. Spikes are allowed.
The runway must be at least 40 meters long. Competitors may place
as many as two location markers on the runway. The jumper's farthest
point forward in contact with the take-off board, i. e., the toe of the
jumper's shoe, must be behind the leading edge of the take-off board. The
board itself must be 20 centimeters wide and level with the ground.
Somersaults are not permitted. Jumpers must land within the sand pit in
the landing area, which may vary in width from 2.75 to 3.0 meters.
How Do They Measure the Long Jump?
48
Long jumps are measured from the forward edge of the take-off board
to the impression in the landing pit closest to the take-off board made by
any part of the body of the jumper.
Each jump must be completed within one minute from the time the
jumper steps onto the runway. Jumps executed with a tailwind or more
than two meters per second don't count.
The Competition
Twelve competitors qualify for the Olympic long jump final. Results
from the qualification rounds do not carry over into the final.
Each finalist takes three jumps, and then the top eight jumpers receive
three more attempts. The longest single jump during the final wins. If two
jumpers are tied, the jumper with the longer second best jump is awarded
the medal.
The Complexity of the Long Jump
Viewed casually, the runner stands at the beginning of the runway,
accelerates to the take-off board, and then jumps as far as he or she can.
In reality, the long jump is one of the more technical Olympic events. There
are at least three different techniques for approaching the take-off board,
each with its arm and body position. The maximum acceleration is achieved
with the longest legal run-up (by using the full 40 meters of the runway).
But the more steps the jumper takes, the more difficult it becomes to
calibrate the take-off with the forward edge of the runner's take-off foot as
close as possible to the leading edge of the take-off board without fouling.
All but the last two strides are normally the same length. The second-
to-last stride, however, is longer and is designed to lower the runner's
center of gravity. The last stride is shorter than the others and is designed
49
to do the opposite, to lift the center of gravity of the jumper's body as high
as possible to begin executing the jump itself.
Hand and arm position, as well as the jumper' body angle during the time
the jumper is in the air, are also important. Several different techniques are
used to maximize the jumper's total distance without causing the jumper to
fall backward during the landing.
TRIPLE JUMP
The triple jump's original name, the "hop, step, and jump," accurately
describes this Olympic event. Jumpers must hit their marks accurately in
all three phases of the jump to gain success. They use a combination of
speed and strength, with consistent striding and sound technique. But it's
less glamorous than its better-known cousin, the long jump.
Jumping Area and Rules
The runway is at least 40 meters long. Competitors may place as
many as two markers on the runway. Jumpers take off in the “hop” phase
and land on the takeoff leg. They take one step onto the other foot (step
phase), then jump. Otherwise, triple jump rules are identical to those of the
long jump. Jumps are measured from the nearest impression made in the
landing pit by any part of the jumper’s body.
The Competition
Each nation is permitted a maximum of three competitors. Olympic
competition includes a qualifying round, where all entrants who achieve a
pre-set standard will advance to the final. Qualifying results do not carry
over into the final round.
Jumping Area and Rules
50
The runway is at least 40 meters long. Competitors may place as

many as two markers on the runway. Jumpers take off in the “hop” phase
and land on the takeoff leg. They take one step onto the other foot (step
phase), then jump. Otherwise, triple jump rules are identical to those of the
long jump. Jumps are measured from the nearest impression made in the
landing pit by any part of the jumper’s body.
The Competition
Each nation is permitted a maximum of three competitors. Olympic
competition includes a qualifying round, where all entrants who achieve a
pre-set standard will advance to the final. Qualifying results do not carry
over into the final round.
SHOT PUT
The shot put was first introduced in 1896 and is still used today as a
traditional field event at the Olympic, college and high school levels. This
sport combines strength, form and technique. Like all events, there are
many rules and regulations participants must follow to ensure a fun,
challenging and competitive atmosphere.
Identification
The shot put event focuses on hurling a heavy metal ball as far as
possible. The athlete holds the "shot" close to his neck with his elbow
parallel to the ground. The thrower then uses one of two techniques that
helps him gain inertia and momentum to propel the shot. The two
techniques are known as the glide and spin. With the glide technique, the
thrower faces 180 degrees away from the position they will be throwing and
swiftly kicks while simultaneously rotating until reaching the throwing
51
position. The spin is a glide that requires more rotation and is one of the
most popular techniques used during competitions.
Equipment and Playing Area
According to the USA Track & Field 2010 Competition Rules
Handbook, the put circle must have a diameter of 2.135 meters or 7 ft, the
construction of the shot should be a solid spherical shape of brass, iron or
any other type of metal that is as hard as brass and the finish must be
smooth. The weight of the shot for high school athletes is between 11 and 13
pounds for boys and 8.8 pounds for girls, and for college and Olympic
athletes, it is 16 pounds for men and 8.8 pounds for women, according to
Brian Mac Sports Coach. There is also a wooden toe board at the front of
the circle that cannot measure higher than 10 cm and should be painted
white.
The Put
The shot must be placed on the shoulder with only one hand, and
once the thrower takes a stance in the circle to start a put, the shot should
be touching or very close to the chin and neck. Do not drop your hand once
in this position, and make sure you do not bring the shot behind the
shoulder. Each shot putter has a certain number of throws to complete;
once the athlete's name is called, he has one minute to complete his throw.
Any improper technique will result in a foul for that throw.
Execution
After the throw, the thrower must stay in the circle and wait for the
measurement. The judges must determine if the throw landed inside the
designated boarders, and the thrower's shoes must not touch the outside of
the circle or the toe board. The distance of the throw is measured from the
52
circumference of the circle along a line to the nearest mark made by the fall
of the shot.
DISCUS THROW
The discus throw is a field event that has been competed since the
days of the ancient Greek Olympiad. The discus is a circular object held in
the tips of the fingers by an athlete standing in a circle, initially facing away
from the landing area or sector. The athlete quickly spins around one and
half times, building momentum, before releasing the discus. The mechanics
of the discus throw are intricate and are typically mastered over several
years time. U.S. and international governing bodies embrace specific rules
of competition for this event.
The Discus
The discus should be made of solid or hollow wood or synthetic
material with a metal rim encircling the discus. The top and bottom of the
discus must be identical and must be smooth throughout. The center of the
discus should be raised and taper to the rim. The competitive weight of the
discus varies with sex and age. Per International Association of Athletic
Federations rules, females of all ages and levels use a discus weighing 1
kilogram, or 2.2 pounds, while boys use a 1.5-kg, or 3.3-pound, discus.
Junior men use a 1.75-kg, or 3.85-pound, discus, and a 2-kg, or 4.4-pound,
discus is used by senior men and by men at the college level.
Legal Throw
The discus is thrown from a circle measuring 2.5 meters, or 8.2 feet,
in diameter. The circle has a white rim 6 mm thick. Athletes may touch the
inside of the rim only. The athlete must begin each attempt from a
53
stationary position within the circle. Once the throw is completed the
athlete must exit the circle from the back half.
Throwing Aids
In the discus throw the athlete is permitted to use chalk on both
hands and the discus to assist in properly gripping the implement. There
should be no taping of the hand or fingers other than to cover an injury.
Foul Throw
Dropping of the discus outside of the circle during initial swings
before the turn and throw results in a foul attempt. An attempt is
considered a foul if the athlete touches the top or outside of the rim during
the throw. If the discus lands on or outside of the sector lines the throw is
determined to be foul. The athlete should not leave the circle until the
discus has touched the ground or the attempt will be foul.
Measurement
The measurement of each throw is conducted immediately following
the attempt. An attempt is measured from the nearest mark of the discus to
the inside of the circumference of the circle.
HAMMER THROW
Hammer throwing, using actual sledgehammers, was popular for
centuries in the British Isles. The modern version of the sport, employing a
16-pound steel ball at the end of a wire, joined the Olympics in 1900 on the
men's side. The Olympics' egalitarian trend came to fruition in 2000, when
women were permitted to fling a smaller version of the hammer.
Like the javelin, hammer throwing is not as common as shot putting

or discus throwing among young competitors - for obvious safety reasons -
54
so many aren't familiar with this sport. Indeed, if you've attended a local
Highland Games event, the only hammer throwing you've seen probably
involved men in kilts tossing real hammers.
Technique for Throwing the Hammer
As in the discus throw, hammer throwers spin to generate speed prior
to the throw. The speed of the hammer just prior to release will largely
determine the length of the throw, provided the competitor uses the correct
release point.
Equipment for the Olympic Hammer Throw
The hammer is a three-part device that includes a metal ball, called
the “head,” attached to a steel wire not longer than 121.5 centimeters (3 feet
11 3/4 inches), and a grip or “handle” on the end. The hammer is the only
throwing competition in which athletes may wear gloves.
Men throw a 7.26-kilogram ball (16 pounds), with a diameter ranging
between 110 to 130 millimeters (4.3 to 5.1 inches), while women throw a 4-
kilogram version (8.8 pounds) with a diameter of 95 to 100 millimeters (3.7
to 3.9 inches).
Throwing Area and Rules
The hammer is thrown from a circle with a 2.135-meter diameter (7
feet). Competitors may touch the inside of the circle's rim but cannot touch
the top of the rim during the throw. The thrower cannot touch the ground
outside the throwing circle during an attempt, nor can he/she leave the
circle until the hammer hits the ground. The circle lies within an enclosure
to ensure the safety of the bystanders.
The Hammer Throw Competition
Athletes in the hammer throw must achieve an Olympic qualifying
distance and must qualify for their nation’s Olympic team. A maximum of
55
three competitors per country may compete in the hammer throw. Twelve
competitors qualify for the Olympic hammer throw final. The results from
the qualification rounds do not carry over into the final.
As in all throwing events, the 12 finalists have three attempts apiece,
then the top eight competitors receive three more attempts. The longest
single throw during the final wins.
JAVELIN THROW
The javelin throw is the field event where an athlete runs down a
narrow runway then tosses a long, spear-like object as far as he can into a
marked field area. The layout of the runway, the specs for the javelin and
how it's thrown are all governed by the rules and regulations of the sport.
Runway Specs
The runway must be at least 33 yards and as much as 37 yards long.
Two white parallel lines, slightly wider than 4 feet apart, mark the runway.
At the end of the runway is an arch-shaped foul line with a radius of about 9
feet. The arc, which is made of wood or some other type of durable
material, must be flush with the ground and painted white. The thrower
can't touch any of these lines, leave the runway, or the area outside of these
lines, before the javelin lands.
Equipment Specs
The javelin head is made of metal, tapers to a point and is attached to
either a hollow or solid shaft. The shaft must have a uniform, smooth
surface with no ridges or grooves. The javelin can't have any attachments
that can change its center of gravity or throwing characteristics. The cord
grip must have a constant thickness and can't be more than .31 inches
larger than the diameter of the shaft. The javelin used by men must be
56
between 102 and 106 inches long with a minimum weight of 28 ounces. For
women, the length is about 87 to 91 inches with a minimum weight of 21
ounces.
Throwing Technique
Proper technique requires the athlete to hold the javelin with only one
hand on the cord grip. Gloves aren't allowed, and tape on the fingers is
permitted only if it’s to cover an open wound. The rules do, however, allow
athletes to chalk their hands. The javelin must be thrown with an over-the-
shoulder motion. The competitor can't turn his back to the throwing area
until the javelin is airborne.
Legal Throws
The javelin must land within the "sector" to register a score. This fan-
shaped area extends out from the ends of the arch-shaped foul line. The
javelin can't land on the lines marking the sides of the sector. The metal
head of the javelin has to hit the ground first or the throw is a foul.
Test Yourself
Write true if the statement is correct and false if not.
_____1. Vaulters can place as many as two markers on the runway.
_____2. A successful vault is one in which the crossbar remains in place
when the vaulter has left the landing area.
_____3. In long jump, if two jumpers are tied, the jumper with the longer
second best jump is awarded the medal.
_____4. The thrower must stay in the circle and wait for the measurement.
_____5. The javelin must be thrown with an over-the-shoulder motion.
57

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BACHELOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION – MODULE

EMMANUEL J. DUARTE, LPT

Let’s get started!

According to the Encyclopedia of World Sport, an activity can be

According to Google Search, sports is…

According to Australian Sports Commission (ASC), sports is…

According to Free Dictionary Online, sports is…

According to P.E. Teacher, sports is…

Brief History of Sport

As we changed from food-gatherers to hunters, sport and play were

The Olympic Games

The New Era of Sport

celebrating skills, strength and endurance and finally, in recent decades, to

Sports are classified as…

Differences of Individual, Dual, and Team Sports

2. If you are going to choose, individual, dual or team sports?

Let’s get started!

There is little in the way of definitive records of athletics’ early days as

ORGANIZATIONS AND TOURNAMENT

Exacting timing and measurement of performances are a vital part of

Conflicts and controversies

As many as 25 events may make up a men’s meet; women compete in

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sprint champions have included Fanny Blankers-Koen (the Netherlands),

is now routinely accomplished by the world’s top runners. Other great

A woman jumper, Iolanda Balas (Romania), achieved remarkable feats in

Long jumping, formerly called broad jumping, is the least

Let’s get started!

suspended from competition for a designated length of time, according to

MIDDLE AND LONG DISTANCE

Pole vaulters' poles are among the least-regulated of any Olympic

The runway is at least 40 meters long. Competitors may place as

Like the javelin, hammer throwing is not as common as shot putting

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