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R S Ramalho - Introduction To Wastewater Treatment Processes-Academic Press (1977)
R S Ramalho - Introduction To Wastewater Treatment Processes-Academic Press (1977)
Wastewater Treatment
Processes
R. S. Rama/ho
LAVAL UNIVERSITY
QUEBEC, CANADA
A C A D E M I C PRESS, INC.
I l l Fifth A v e n u e , N e w Y o r k , N e w Y o r k 10003
Bibliography: p .
Includes index.
1. Sewage-Purification. I. Title.
TD745.R36 628.3 76-26185
ISBN 0 - 1 2 - 5 7 6 5 5 0 - 9
P R I N T E D I N T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S OF AMERICA
81 82 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Preface
This book is an introductory presentation meant for both students and
practicing engineers interested in the field of wastewater treatment. Most
of the earlier books discuss the subject industry by industry, providing
solutions to specific treatment problems. More recently, a scientific ap
proach to the basic principles of unit operations and processes has been
utilized. I have used this approach to evaluate all types of wastewater
problems and to properly select the mode of treatment and the design of
the equipment required.
In most cases, the design of specific wastewater treatment processes,
e.g., the activated sludge process, is discussed following (1) a summary
of the theory involved in the specific process, e.g., chemical kinetics,
pertinent material and energy balances, discussion of physical and chemi
cal principles; (2) definition of the important design parameters involved
in the process and the determination of such parameters using laboratory-
scale or pilot-plant equipment; and (3) development of a systematic design
procedure for the treatment plant. Numerical applications are presented
which illustrate the treatment of laboratory data, and subsequent design
calculations are given for the wastewater processing plant. The approach
followed, particularly in the mathematical modeling of biological treat
ment processes, is based largely on the work of Eckenfelder and as
sociates.
Clarity of presentation has been of fundamental concern. The text
should be easily understood by undergraduate students and practicing
engineers. The book stems from a revision of lecture notes which I used
for an introductory course on wastewater treatment. N o t only engineering
students of diverse backgrounds but also practicing engineers from
various fields have utilized these notes at the different times this course
was offered at Laval University and COPPE/UFRJ (Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil). Favorable acceptance of the notes and the encouragement of
many of their users led me to edit them for inclusion in this work.
I wish to express my appreciation to the secretarial staff of the Chemi
cal Engineering Department of Laval University, Mrs. Michel, Mrs.
Gagne, and Mrs. McLean, and to Miss Enidete Souza (COPPE/UFRJ)
for typing the manuscript. I o w e sincere thanks to Mr. Alex Legare for
the artwork, to Dr. and Mrs. Adrien Favre for proofreading the manu
script, and to Mr. Roger Theriault for his assistance in the correction of
the galleys. The valuable suggestions made by Dr. M. Pelletier (Laval
University) and Dr. C. Russo (COPPE/UFRJ) are gratefully acknowledged.
R. S. Ramalho
ix
1
Introduction
1. Introduction 1
2. The Role of the Engineer in Water Pollution Abatement 2
2.1. The Necessity of a Multidisciplinary Approach to the Water
Pollution Abatement Problem 2
2.2. A Survey of the Contribution of Engineers to Water Pollution
Abatement 2
2.3. A Case History of Industrial Wastewater Treatment 3
2.4. The Chemical Engineering Curriculum as a Preparation for the
Field of Wastewater Treatment 4
2.5. "Inplant" and " E n d - o f - P i p e " Wastewater Treatment 4
2.6. A N e w Concept in Process D e s i g n : The Flowsheet of the Future 7
3. Degrees of Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Standards . . 8
4. Sources of Wastewaters 9
5. Economics of Wastewater Treatment and Economic Balance for
Water Reuse 10
6. Effect of Water Pollution on Environment and Biota 14
6.1. Oxygen S a g Curve 14
6.2. Effect of Light 16
6.3. Decomposition of Carbonaceous and Nitrogenous Organic
Matter 17
6.4. Sludge Deposits and Aquatic Plants 18
6.5. Bacteria and Ciliates 19
6.6. Higher Forms of Animal Species 20
7. Eutrophication 22
8. Types of Water Supply and Classification of Water Contaminants . 22
References 25
1. Introduction
I t w a s o n l y d u r i n g t h e d e c a d e o f t h e 1960's t h a t t e r m s s u c h a s " w a t e r a n d
air p o l l u t i o n , " " p r o t e c t i o n of the e n v i r o n m e n t , " a n d " e c o l o g y " b e c a m e
household words. Prior to that time, these terms would either pass un
r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e a v e r a g e citizen, o r a t m o s t , w o u l d c o n v e y h a z y i d e a s t o h i s
m i n d . Since t h e n m a n k i n d h a s b e e n b o m b a r d e d b y t h e m e d i a ( n e w s p a p e r s ,
r a d i o , television), w i t h t h e d r e a d f u l i d e a t h a t h u m a n i t y is effectively w o r k i n g
for its s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e s s o f p o l l u t i o n o f t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t , for t h e s a k e o f a c h i e v i n g m a t e r i a l p r o g r e s s . I n s o m e c a s e s ,
people have been a r o u s e d nearly to a state of m a s s hysteria. A l t h o u g h pollu
t i o n is a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m , a n d it is, o f c o u r s e , d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e c i t i z e n r y b e
c o n c e r n e d a b o u t it, it is q u e s t i o n a b l e t h a t " m a s s h y s t e r i a " is i n a n y w a y
justifiable. T h e i n s t i n c t o f p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e species is a v e r y b a s i c d r i v i n g
1
2 1. Introduction
2.2. A S U R V E Y O F T H E C O N T R I B U T I O N O F
E N G I N E E R S TO WATER POLLUTION
ABATEMENT
The sanitary engineer, with mainly a civil engineering background, has
historically carried the brunt of responsibility for engineering activities in
water pollution control. This situation goes back to the days when the bulk of
wastewaters were of domestic origin. Composition of domestic wastewaters
does not vary greatly. Therefore, prescribed methods of treatment are rela
tively standard, with a limited number of unit processes and operations
2. Engineer's Role in Water Pollution Abatement 3
2.3. A C A S E H I S T O R Y O F I N D U S T R I A L
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
An interesting case history, emphasizing the role of the chemical engineer
in the design of a wastewater treatment plant for a sulfite pulp and paper mill,
is discussed by Byrd [ 2 ] . This pulp and paper plant was to discharge its waste
waters into a river of prime recreational value, with a well-balanced fish
population. For this reason, considerable care was taken in the planning and
4 1. Introduction
d e t a i l e d d e s i g n o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t facilities. A s t u d y o f a s s i m i l a t i v e
c a p a c i t y o f t h e river w a s u n d e r t a k e n a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s w e r e d e v e l o p e d .
Design of the t r e a t m e n t p l a n t involved a study to determine which waste
w a t e r effluents s h o u l d b e s e g r e g a t e d f o r t r e a t m e n t , a n d w h i c h o n e s s h o u l d b e
c o m b i n e d . F o r t h e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s a selection o f a l t e r n a t i v e s is d i s c u s s e d
[ 2 ] . S o m e o f t h e u n i t o p e r a t i o n s a n d p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d in t h e t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t , o r c o n s i d e r e d a t first b u t after f u r t h e r s t u d y r e p l a c e d b y o t h e r a l t e r
natives, were the following: sedimentation, dissolved air flotation, equaliza
t i o n , n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , filtration ( r o t a r y filters), c e n t r i f u g a t i o n , r e v e r s e o s m o s i s ,
flash drying, fluidized bed oxidation, multiple hearth incineration, wet
oxidation, adsorption in activated c a r b o n , activated sludge process, aerated
lagoons, flocculation w i t h p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s , c h l o r i n a t i o n , landfill, a n d s p r a y
irrigation.
I n t e g r a t i o n of all t h e s e u n i t o p e r a t i o n s a n d p r o c e s s e s i n t o a n o p t i m a l l y
d e s i g n e d t r e a t m e n t facility c o n s t i t u t e d a v e r y c h a l l e n g i n g p r o b l e m . The
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t involved a capital cost of over $10 million a n d a n o p e r a t i n g
c o s t i n excess o f $1 m i l l i o n p e r y e a r .
2.4. T H E C H E M I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G C U R R I C U L U M
A S A P R E P A R A T I O N F O R T H E FIELD O F
W A S T E W A T E R T R E A T M E N T [5]
C h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r s h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e b a c k g r o u n d t h a t is a p p l i c a b l e t o
water pollution problems. Their knowledge of m a s s transfer, chemical
k i n e t i c s , a n d s y s t e m s a n a l y s i s is specially v a l u a b l e in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
a n d c o n t r o l . T h u s , t r a i n i n g in c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g r e p r e s e n t s g o o d p r e p a r a
t i o n f o r e n t e r i n g t h i s t y p e of a c t i v i t y . I n t h e p a s t , t h e m a j o r i t y o f e n g i n e e r s
w o r k i n g in t h i s field h a v e b e e n s a n i t a r y e n g i n e e r s w i t h a civil e n g i n e e r i n g
background.
T h e m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y n a t u r e of t h e field s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d . C h e m i c a l
e n g i n e e r i n g g r a d u a t e s e n v i s i o n i n g m a j o r a c t i v i t y i n t h e field o f w a s t e w a t e r
treatment are advised to complement their b a c k g r o u n d by studying micro
biology, owing t o the great i m p o r t a n c e of biological wastewater t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s e s , a n d a l s o h y d r a u l i c s [ s i n c e t o p i c s s u c h a s o p e n c h a n n e l a n d stratified
flow, m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l i n g o f b o d i e s of w a t e r ( r i v e r s , e s t u a r i e s , l a k e s ,
i n l e t s , etc.) a r e n o t e m p h a s i z e d in fluid m e c h a n i c s c o u r s e s n o r m a l l y offered t o
chemical engineering students].
t o h a n d l e t h e o r i g i n a l full l o a d , i.e., t h e p o l l u t a n t s t r e a m s f r o m a p l a n t w h e r e
i n p l a n t w a s t e w a t e r c o n t r o l is n o t p r a c t i c e d . T h e t w o c a s e h i s t o r i e s d e s c r i b e d
in Ref. [ 6 ] a r e q u i t e r e v e a l i n g i n t h i s r e s p e c t .
F o r practicing i n p l a n t wastewater control, a d e e p k n o w l e d g e of the process
a n d a b i l i t y t o m o d i f y it, if n e c e s s a r y , a r e r e q u i r e d . T h e c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r is
a d m i r a b l y well s u i t e d t o h a n d l e t h i s j o b .
100 1 1
Flow
8 80
o
- BOD
8 60
ο -
-£ 4 0
ο . Vc lid ran je
-
§ 20
Q. -
1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent reduction in BOD or flow
Fig. 1.1. Effect of waste load reductions on capital cost of treatment
plant [6]. (Excerpted by special permission from Chemical Engineering, May 14, 1973.
Copyright by McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 10020.)
2. Engineer's Role in Water Pollution Abatement 7
T A B L E 1.1
Savings from Inplant Wastewater
Reductions 8
in B O D o r flow r a t e u p o n t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t facilities. T h i s g r a p h
is v a l i d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 % r e d u c t i o n in flow o r B O D . A n y f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n
p r o b a b l y r e q u i r e s a significantly different t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m .
S a v i n g s f r o m i n p l a n t w a s t e w a t e r c o n t r o l a r e t a b u l a t e d in T a b l e 1.1. W a s t e
w a t e r flow w a s c u t t o 8 5 % o f its v a l u e p r i o r t o i n p l a n t c o n t r o l a n d B O D l o a d
was cut to 50%. Moreover, the cost of these inplant controls was m o r e t h a n
offset b y e c o n o m i e s in t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t . A s s h o w n in T a b l e 1.1 t h e p r o g r a m
realized a n e t s a v i n g o f $ 5 7 6 , 0 0 0 / y e a r .
2.6. A N E W C O N C E P T I N P R O C E S S D E S I G N :
THE FLOWSHEET OF THE FUTURE
T h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s in S e c t i o n 2.5 a r e l e a d i n g e n g i n e e r s t o a n e w c o n c e p t i n
p r o c e s s d e s i g n . T h e flowsheet o f t h e f u t u r e will n o l o n g e r s h o w a line w i t h a n
a r r o w h e a d s t a t i n g " t o w a s t e . " E s s e n t i a l l y e v e r y t h i n g will b e r e c y c l e d , b y
p r o d u c t s will b e r e c o v e r e d , a n d w a t e r will b e r e u s e d . F u n d a m e n t a l l y t h e o n l y
s t r e a m s in a n d o u t o f t h e p l a n t will b e r a w m a t e r i a l s a n d p r o d u c t s . T h e o n l y
p e r m i s s i b l e w a s t a g e s will b e c l e a n o n e s : n i t r o g e n , o x y g e n , c a r b o n d i o x i d e ,
w a t e r , a n d s o m e ( b u t n o t t o o m u c h ! ) h e a t . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , it is a p p r o p r i a t e
t o recall t h e g u i d e l i n e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s F e d e r a l W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l
A c t o f 1 9 7 2 : (1) b e s t practical c o n t r o l t e c h n o l o g y , b y J u l y 1, 1 9 7 7 ; (2) b e s t
available t e c h n o l o g y , b y J u l y 1, 1 9 8 3 ; a n d (3) z e r o d i s c h a r g e b y J u l y 1, 1985.
8 1. Introduction
3. Degrees of W a s t e w a t e r
Treatment and Water Quality
Standards
T h e d e g r e e of t r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e d for a w a s t e w a t e r d e p e n d s m a i n l y on
d i s c h a r g e r e q u i r e m e n t s for t h e effluent. T a b l e 1.2 p r e s e n t s a c o n v e n t i o n a l
classification for wastewater treatment processes. Primary treatment is
e m p l o y e d for r e m o v a l o f s u s p e n d e d solids a n d floating materials, a n d also
T A B L E 1.2
Types of Wastewater Treatment
Primary treatment
Screening
Sedimentation
Flotation
Oil separation
Equalization
Neutralization
Secondary treatment
Activated sludge process
Extended aeration (or total oxidation) process
Contact stabilization
Other modifications of the conventional activated
sludge process: tapered aeration, step aeration,
and complete mix activated sludge processes
Aerated lagoons
Wastewater stabilization ponds
Trickling filters
Anaerobic treatment
Tertiary treatment (or "advanced treatment")
Microscreening
Precipitation and coagulation
Adsorption (activated carbon)
Ion exchange
Reverse osmosis
Electrodialysis
Nutrient removal processes
Chlorination and ozonation
Sonozone process
c o n d i t i o n i n g t h e w a s t e w a t e r for e i t h e r d i s c h a r g e t o a receiving b o d y o f w a t e r
o r t o a s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t facility t h r o u g h n e u t r a l i z a t i o n a n d / o r e q u a l i z a
tion. Secondary treatment comprises conventional biological t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s e s . T e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t is i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y for e l i m i n a t i o n o f p o l l u t a n t s
n o t removed by conventional biological treatment.
4. Sources of Wastewaters 9
T h e s e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s a r e s t u d i e d in f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s . T h e a p p r o a c h
utilized is b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t s o f u n i t p r o c e s s e s a n d o p e r a t i o n s . T h e final
o b j e c t i v e is d e v e l o p m e n t of d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s of g e n e r a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o any
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o b l e m , l e a d i n g t o a p r o p e r selection o f p r o c e s s a n d
the design of required equipment. Consequently, description of wastewater
t r e a t m e n t s e q u e n c e s for specific i n d u s t r i e s , e.g., p e t r o l e u m refineries, steel
mills, m e t a l - p l a t i n g p l a n t s , p u l p a n d p a p e r i n d u s t r i e s , b r e w e r i e s , a n d t a n
n e r i e s , is n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h i s b o o k . F o r i n f o r m a t i o n o n specific w a s t e w a t e r
treatment processes, the reader should consult Eckenfelder [3] a n d N e m e r o w
[7].
W a t e r q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s a r e u s u a l l y b a s e d o n o n e of t w o c r i t e r i a : s t r e a m
s t a n d a r d s o r effluent s t a n d a r d s . Stream standards refer t o q u a l i t y o f r e c e i v i n g
water d o w n s t r e a m from the origin of sewage discharge, whereas effluent
standards p e r t a i n t o q u a l i t y o f t h e d i s c h a r g e d w a s t e w a t e r s t r e a m s t h e m s e l v e s .
A d i s a d v a n t a g e o f effluent s t a n d a r d s is t h a t it p r o v i d e s n o c o n t r o l o v e r
t o t a l a m o u n t o f c o n t a m i n a n t s d i s c h a r g e d in t h e r e c e i v i n g w a t e r . A l a r g e
i n d u s t r y , for e x a m p l e , a l t h o u g h p r o v i d i n g t h e s a m e d e g r e e o f w a s t e w a t e r
treatment as a small one, might cause considerably greater pollution of the
receiving w a t e r . Effluent s t a n d a r d s a r e e a s i e r t o m o n i t o r t h a n s t r e a m s t a n d a r d s ,
w h i c h r e q u i r e d e t a i l e d s t r e a m a n a l y s i s . A d v o c a t e s o f effluent s t a n d a r d s
a r g u e t h a t a l a r g e i n d u s t r y , d u e t o its e c o n o m i c v a l u e t o t h e c o m m u n i t y ,
should be allowed a larger share of the assimilative capacity of the receiving
water.
Q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s selected d e p e n d o n i n t e n d e d u s e o f t h e w a t e r . S o m e o f
these standards include: concentration of dissolved oxygen ( D O , mg/liter),
p H , color, turbidity, hardness (mg/liter), total dissolved solids ( T D S , mg/liter),
s u s p e n d e d solids ( S S , m g / l i t e r ) , c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t o x i c ( o r o t h e r w i s e o b j e c
tionable) materials (mg/liter), odor, a n d temperature. Extensive tabulation of
w a t e r q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s f o r v a r i o u s u s e s a n d f o r s e v e r a l s t a t e s in t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s is p r e s e n t e d b y N e m e r o w [ 7 ] .
4. S o u r c e s of W a s t e w a t e r s
F o u r m a i n s o u r c e s o f w a s t e w a t e r s a r e (1) d o m e s t i c s e w a g e , (2) i n d u s t r i a l
w a s t e w a t e r s , (3) a g r i c u l t u r a l runoff, a n d (4) s t o r m w a t e r a n d u r b a n runoff.
A l t h o u g h t h e p r i m a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h i s b o o k is t h e s t u d y o f t r e a t m e n t o f
domestic and industrial wastewaters, contamination due to agricultural a n d
u r b a n runoffs is b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t . A g r i c u l t u r a l r u n o f f s
c a r r y i n g fertilizers (e.g., p h o s p h a t e s ) a n d p e s t i c i d e s c o n s t i t u t e a m a j o r c a u s e
of e u t r o p h i c a t i o n of l a k e s , a p h e n o m e n a w h i c h is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 7 o f t h i s
c h a p t e r . S t o r m runoffs in h i g h l y u r b a n i z e d a r e a s m a y c a u s e significant
10 1. Introduction
p o l l u t i o n effects. U s u a l l y w a s t e w a t e r s , t r e a t e d o r u n t r e a t e d , a r e d i s c h a r g e d
i n t o a n a t u r a l b o d y o f w a t e r ( o c e a n , river, l a k e , etc.) w h i c h is r e f e r r e d t o a s
the receiving water.
5. E c o n o m i c s of W a s t e w a t e r
T r e a t m e n t a n d E c o n o m i c Balance
for W a t e r R e u s e
I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a v e r a g e c o s t p e r t h o u s a n d g a l l o n s o f w a t e r is a p p r o x i
m a t e l y $0.20, w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o $ 0 . 0 5 / t o n . I t is a relatively c h e a p c o m
m o d i t y , a n d a s a r e s u l t t h e e c o n o m i c s o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t is v e r y c r i t i c a l .
I n p r i n c i p l e , b y utilizing s o p h i s t i c a t e d t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s , o n e c a n o b t a i n
potable water from sewage. E c o n o m i c considerations, however, prevent the
practical application of m a n y available t r e a t m e n t m e t h o d s . I n countries
w h e r e w a t e r is a t a p r e m i u m (e.g., I s r a e l , S a u d i A r a b i a ) s o m e s o p h i s t i c a t e d
w a t e r t r e a t m e n t facilities, w h i c h a r e n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y justified i n N o r t h
A m e r i c a , a r e n o w in o p e r a t i o n . I n e v a l u a t i n g a specific w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s , it is i m p o r t a n t t o e s t i m a t e a cost-benefit ratio b e t w e e n t h e benefit
d e r i v e d f r o m t h e t r e a t m e n t t o o b t a i n w a t e r o f a specified q u a l i t y , a n d t h e c o s t
for a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i s u p g r a d i n g o f q u a l i t y .
R e u s e o f w a t e r b y recycling h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h i n p l a n t
w a s t e w a t e r c o n t r o l ( S e c t i o n 2.5). S e l e c t i o n of a n o p t i m u m recycle r a t i o f o r a
specific a p p l i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s a n e c o n o m i c b a l a n c e in w h i c h t h r e e f a c t o r s m u s t
b e c o n s i d e r e d [ 3 ] : (1) c o s t o f r a w w a t e r utilized in t h e p l a n t ; (2) c o s t o f w a s t e
w a t e r t r e a t m e n t t o s u i t a b l e p r o c e s s q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s (in E x a m p l e 1.1,
t h i s is t h e c o s t o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r e c e d i n g r e c y c l i n g t o t h e p l a n t for
r e u s e ) ; a n d (3) c o s t o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r i o r t o d i s c h a r g e i n t o a r e c e i v i n g
w a t e r , e.g., in a river.
T h i s e c o n o m i c b a l a n c e is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 1.1.
E x a m p l e 1.1 [ 3 ]
A p l a n t u s e s 10,000 g a l / h r o f p r o c e s s w a t e r w i t h a m a x i m u m c o n t a m i n a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 1 l b p e r 1000 g a l . T h e r a w w a t e r s u p p l y h a s a c o n t a m i n a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 0.5 l b / 1 0 0 0 g a l . O p t i m i z e a w a t e r r e u s e s y s t e m f o r t h i s p l a n t
b a s e d o n r a w w a t e r c o s t o f $ 0 . 2 0 / 1 0 0 0 g a l . U t i l i z e d a t a in F i g . 1.2 t o e s t i m a t e
c o s t s for t h e t w o w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d in t h e p l a n t . T h e c o n
t a m i n a n t is n o n v o l a t i l e .
T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s a p p l y : (1) e v a p o r a t i o n a n d p r o d u c t loss ( s t r e a m
Ε in F i g . 1.3): 1000 g a l / h r of w a t e r ; (2) c o n t a m i n a n t a d d i t i o n ( s t r e a m Y
in F i g . 1.3): 100 l b / h r of c o n t a m i n a n t ; a n d (3) m a x i m u m d i s c h a r g e a l l o w e d
t o receiving w a t e r : 20 lb/hr of c o n t a m i n a n t .
5. Economics of Treatment and Reuse 11
50h
% Removal of contaminant
Fig. 1.2. Relationship between total cost and type of treatment [3].
Step 3. Effluent f r o m t h e p l a n t [ s t r e a m 4 ] is
A - Ε = 10,000 - 1000 = 9000 gal/hr
Step 4. F r o m t h e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e it follows t h a t since s t r e a m 4 is s p l i t
i n t o s t r e a m s 5 a n d 6,
Stream 6: 9000 - 7000 = 2000 gal/hr
Stream 7 : 2000 gal/hr
T h u s f o r 7 0 % recycle, v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e s f o r all s t r e a m s in F i g . 1.3 a r e n o w
determined.
Step 5. M a s s flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t in r a w w a t e r [ s t r e a m 1] is
F x (0.5/1000) = 3000(0.5/1000) = 1.5 lb/hr
Step 6. M a s s flow r a t e of c o n t a m i n a n t in s t r e a m 3 is
(1/1000) χ 10,000 = 10 lb/hr
Step 7. M a s s flow r a t e of c o n t a m i n a n t in t h e recycle [ s t r e a m 2 ] is
1 0 - 1 . 5 = 8.5 lb/hr
Loss-. lOOO g a l / h r
of water
Θ Contaminant
F- 3 0 0 0 gal/hr raw water addition
/ 0 . 5 lb contaminant per 100 lb/hr
/ 1000 gal; contaminant:
-Plant effluent:
\ \ 5 lb/hr
9 0 0 0 gal/hr
110 lb of contaminant
A = 10,000 gal/hr
I lb contaminant per 1000 gal
Contaminant
.·. 10 lb contaminant/hr
removed
Β lb/hr
R, recycle Β=4.5 lb/hr
R gal/hr
7 0 0 0 gal/hr 7000 gal/hr
contaminant: contaminant; Treatment
8.5 lb/hr Treatment 85.5 lb/hr-7 for discharge
for to receiving
2 0 0 0 gal/hr
reuse water
24.5 lb/hr of
contaminant
Contaminant Water d i s c h a r g e d — η
removed to river
D lb/hr W gal/hr
D=77 lb/hr W = 2 0 0 0 gal/hr
(20 lb/hr of contaminant)
Fig. 1.3. Flow diagram for Example 1.1. Encircled numbers are streams.
(Adaptedfrom Eckenfelder [3].)
5. Economics of Treatment and Reuse 13
Step 9. M a s s flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t in s t r e a m s 5 a n d 6 is
Step 12. T h e % r e m o v a l of c o n t a m i n a n t i n t h e t w o t r e a t m e n t s is
Step 13. T h e t y p e o f t r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e d is e s s e n t i a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d f r o m
t h e s e % r e m o v a l s o f c o n t a m i n a n t ( F i g . 1.2). I n t h e t r e a t m e n t for r e u s e ( 9 0 %
r e m o v a l ) , i o n e x c h a n g e is i n d i c a t e d . F o r d i s c h a r g e t o r e c e i v i n g w a t e r ( 1 8 . 4 %
r e m o v a l ) , F i g . 1.2 i n d i c a t e s t h a t p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t is sufficient. C o s t s f o r t h e s e
t r e a t m e n t s a r e r e a d f r o m F i g . 1.2.
Step 14. D a i l y c o s t f o r 7 0 % r e c y c l e :
gal $0.20 hr
Raw water: 3000^— χ — — — - χ 2 4 — = $14.40/day
hr 1000 gal day
Cost
gal $0.05 hr
2000f - χ — — χ 2 4 — = $ 2.40/day
hr 1000 gal day
gal $0.42 hr
T r e a t m e n t for reuse: 7 0 0 0 — χ — — — · χ 2 4 — = $70.56/day
hr 1000 gal day
Total: $87.36/day
140
60 1
ι ι
20 40 60 80 100
Recycle, %
Fig. 1.4. Relationship between total daily water cost and treated waste
recycle for reuse [3].
w i t h recycles v a r y i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f r o m 0 - 8 0 % . F i g u r e 1.4 is o b t a i n e d , w h i c h
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e o p t i m u m recycle is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 % f o r a c o s t o f a b o u t
$83.00/day.
6. Effect of W a t e r Pollution on
E n v i r o n m e n t a n d Biota
B a r t s c h a n d I n g r a m [ 1 ] m a d e a n i n t e r e s t i n g s t u d y o f t h e effect o f w a t e r
p o l l u t i o n o n e n v i r o n m e n t a n d b i o t a . T h e s e effects a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g s .
1.5-1.10, a n d a s u m m a r y o f t h e i r w o r k is p r e s e n t e d n e x t . T h e s o u r c e o f p o l
lution considered w a s r a w domestic sewage for a c o m m u n i t y of 40,000 people,
flowing t o a s t r e a m w i t h a v o l u m e flow o f 100 f t / s e c . L o w e r i n g o f t h e c o n
3
c e n t r a t i o n o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n ( D O ) a n d f o r m a t i o n of s l u d g e d e p o s i t s a r e t h e
most c o m m o n environmental disturbances which may damage aquatic biota.
6.1. O X Y G E N S A G C U R V E
T h e c u r v e in F i g . 1.5, r e f e r r e d t o a s d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n c u r v e , is a p l o t o f
d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l i t e r ) for a s t r e a m . I t is r e f e r r e d t o h e n c e
a s o x y g e n s a g c u r v e . S e w a g e is d i s c h a r g e d a t t h e p o i n t identified a s z e r o (0)
o n t h e a b s c i s s a axis. T h e v a l u e s t o t h e r i g h t o f p o i n t z e r o r e p r e s e n t m i l e s
d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e p o i n t o f s e w a g e d i s c h a r g e . C o m p l e t e m i x i n g is a s s u m e d ,
a n d t h e w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e is 2 5 ° C . A n a l t e r n a t i v e scale f o r t h e a b s c i s s a , in
t e r m s o f d a y s o f flow, is s h o w n in F i g . 1.5.
6. Effect of Water Pollution on Environment and Biota 15
O r d i n a t e o f t h e D O s a g c u r v e is in t e r m s o f m g / l i t e r o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n .
T h e shape of the D O sag curve, d o w n s t r e a m of the p o i n t of sewage discharge,
is u n d e r s t o o d f r o m e x a m i n a t i o n o f F i g . 1.6. T h e D O s a g c u r v e is t h e n e t
resultant of t w o c u r v e s : o n e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to depletion of dissolved oxygen
d u e t o its u t i l i z a t i o n for o x i d a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s f r o m t h e s e w a g e d i s
charge, and the other corresponding to oxygen gain by natural reaeration.
F i g u r e 1.5 s h o w s t h a t t h e D O s a g c u r v e r e a c h e s a l o w p o i n t a b o u t 2 7 m i l e s
d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e p o i n t o f s e w a g e d i s c h a r g e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 2\ d a y s o f
flow a n d a D O of a b o u t 1.5 m g / l i t e r .
Ε
Ο
Q
Miles (days)
T h i s p r o c e s s o f d e o x y g e n a t i o n w o u l d r e d u c e t h e D O t o z e r o in a b o u t \ \
d a y s flow, if t h e r e w e r e n o f a c t o r s in o p e r a t i o n t h a t c o u l d r e s t o r e o x y g e n t o
w a t e r . T h e river r e a c h w h e r e D O w o u l d b e c o m p l e t e l y g o n e w o u l d o c c u r
a b o u t 18 m i l e s d o w n s t r e a m f r o m t h e d i s c h a r g e o f s e w a g e . A f t e r r e a c h i n g its
m i n i m u m , D O level rises a g a i n t o w a r d a r e s t o r a t i o n , e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h i n g a
v a l u e n e a r l y e q u a l t o t h a t f o r t h e u p s t r e a m u n p o l l u t e d w a t e r , i.e., a D O of
approximately 7 mg/liter.
If p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e city r e m a i n s fairly c o n s t a n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r , a n d
flow r a t e is relatively c o n s t a n t , t h e l o w p o i n t o f t h e D O s a g c u r v e m o v e s u p
o r d o w n t h e s t r e a m w i t h fluctuations i n t e m p e r a t u r e . D u r i n g t h e w i n t e r t h e
r a t e o f o x i d a t i o n is l o w e r a n d g a i n o f o x y g e n b y r e a e r a t i o n is g r e a t e r , a s
solubility of oxygen in water increases at lower t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e s e t w o
factors c o m b i n e d cause the low p o i n t of the oxygen sag curve t o m o v e farther
d o w n s t r e a m . D u r i n g t h e s u m m e r , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r a t e of o x i d a t i o n is
h i g h e r a n d g a i n o f o x y g e n b y r e a e r a t i o n is less p r o n o u n c e d . T h e s e t w o f a c t o r s
c o m b i n e d c a u s e t h e l o w p o i n t of t h e o x y g e n s a g c u r v e t o m o v e u p s t r e a m .
T h e r e a c h o f a n y s t r e a m w h e r e t h e D O s a g c u r v e a t t a i n s its l o w p o i n t
r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t r e a m e n v i r o n m e n t p o o r e s t in D O r e s o u r c e s . L i v i n g s p e c i m e n s
t h a t n e e d a h i g h D O , s u c h a s c o l d w a t e r fish, suffocate a n d m o v e t o o t h e r
stream areas where the D O resources are greater.
T h e o t h e r c u r v e s h o w n i n F i g . 1.5 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e biochemical oxygen
demand ( B O D ) . T h i s i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2, S e c t i o n
2 . 3 . T h e b i o c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d is u s e d a s a m e a s u r e o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f
o x y g e n r e q u i r e d f o r o x i d a t i o n b y a e r o b i c b i o c h e m i c a l a c t i o n of t h e d e g r a d a b l e
o r g a n i c m a t t e r p r e s e n t in a s a m p l e o f w a t e r . T h e B O D is l o w in t h e u p s t r e a m
u n p o l l u t e d w a t e r ( a b o u t 2 m g / l i t e r ) , since t h e r e is n o t m u c h o r g a n i c m a t t e r
present to c o n s u m e oxygen. T h e n B O D increases abruptly at point zero
(sewage discharge), a n d gradually decreases d o w n s t r e a m from this point, as
o r g a n i c m a t t e r d i s c h a r g e d is p r o g r e s s i v e l y o x i d i z e d , u n t i l r e a c h i n g e v e n t u a l l y
a v a l u e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m g / l i t e r , i n d i c a t i v e of u n p o l l u t e d w a t e r . A t t h i s
p o i n t t h e r a w s e w a g e is stabilized. A s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 1.5, s t a b i l i z a t i o n is
a c h i e v e d a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 m i l e s d o w n s t r e a m f r o m t h e s e w a g e d i s c h a r g e .
B O D a n d D O a r e s o i n t e r r e l a t e d t h a t d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n is l o w
w h e r e B O D is h i g h , a n d t h e c o n v e r s e a l s o is t r u e .
F o u r d i s t i n c t z o n e s a r e s h o w n in F i g . 1.5 u n d e r n e a t h t h e D O c u r v e : (1)
c l e a n w a t e r z o n e ; (2) z o n e of d e g r a d a t i o n ; (3) z o n e of a c t i v e d e c o m p o s i t i o n ;
a n d (4) z o n e o f r e c o v e r y .
6.2. E F F E C T O F L I G H T
I n F i g . 1.6 t h e effects o f o x y g e n d e p l e t i o n b y o x i d a t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s
a n d o x y g e n g a i n b y r e a e r a t i o n a r e t h e o n l y o n e s c o n s i d e r e d in e x p l a i n i n g t h e
s h a p e of t h e o x y g e n s a g c u r v e . F o r a m o r e c o m p l e t e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r o b l e m
o n e n e e d s , in a d d i t i o n , t o c o n s i d e r t h e effect of light.
6. Effect of Water Pollution on Environment and Biota 17
A t a n y selected p o i n t in t h e s t r e a m , t h e r e is a v a r i a t i o n i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
dissolved oxygen d e p e n d i n g o n the time of day. D u r i n g daylight h o u r s , algae
a n d o t h e r p l a n t s give off o x y g e n i n t o t h e w a t e r t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f p h o t o
synthesis. This a m o u n t of oxygen m a y be so considerable t h a t the w a t e r
usually becomes supersaturated at some time during daylight h o u r s . In
a d d i t i o n t o g i v i n g off o x y g e n , t h e p r o c e s s o f p h o t o s y n t h e s i s r e s u l t s in t h e
m a n u f a c t u r e of s u g a r t o serve a s t h e b a s i s o f s u p p o r t f o r all s t r e a m life. T h i s
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s h o w n in E q . (1.1).
6C0 + 6H 0
2 2 C H 6 i 2 0 6 + 60 2 (1.1)
W h i l e p h o t o s y n t h e s i s o c c u r s , s o d o e s r e s p i r a t i o n , w h i c h c o n t i n u e s for 2 4 h r
a d a y , i r r e s p e c t i v e of i l l u m i n a t i o n . D u r i n g r e s p i r a t i o n 0 2 is t a k e n in a n d C 0 2
6.3. D E C O M P O S I T I O N OF C A R B O N A C E O U S
A N D NITROGENOUS ORGANIC MATTER
A c c e l e r a t e d b a c t e r i a l g r o w t h is a r e s p o n s e t o r i c h f o o d s u p p l i e s in t h e
d o m e s t i c s e w a g e . D u r i n g r a p i d u t i l i z a t i o n o f f o o d , b a c t e r i a l r e p r o d u c t i o n is
a t a n o p t i m u m , a n d u t i l i z a t i o n o f D O b e c o m e s fairly p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r a t e
o f f o o d u t i l i z a t i o n . F i g u r e 1.7 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e d o w n s t r e a m c h a n g e s
o f o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n t o a m m o n i a , n i t r i t e , a n d finally n i t r a t e . A h i g h initial
c o n s u m p t i o n of oxygen by bacterial feeding o n proteinaceous c o m p o u n d s
^ O r g a n i c nitrogen
2-
I -
0 L
2 1 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
24 0 24 48 72 96
Miles
a v a i l a b l e in u p s t r e a m w a t e r s t a k e s p l a c e d u e t o t h e freshly d i s c h a r g e d d o m e s t i c
s e w a g e . W i t h fewer a n d fewer o f t h e s e c o m p o u n d s left in d o w n s t r e a m w a t e r s ,
t h e D O c o n c e n t r a t i o n is p r o g r e s s i v e l y r e c o v e r e d , r e a c h i n g e v e n t u a l l y its
initial value of approximately 7 mg/liter.
A s i m i l a r p r o c e s s t a k e s p l a c e w i t h fat a n d c a r b o h y d r a t e foodstuffs. The
final p r o d u c t s o f a e r o b i c a n d a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n of n i t r o g e n o u s a n d
carbonaceous matter are
1. D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f n i t r o g e n o u s o r g a n i c m a t t e r
A e r o b i c (final p r o d u c t s ) : N 0 ~ , C 0 , H 0 , S O j "
3 2 2
A n a e r o b i c (final p r o d u c t s ) : m e r c a p t a n s , i n d o l e , s k a t o l e , H S , p l u s
2
miscellaneous products
2. D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t t e r
Aerobic: C 0 , H 0 2 2
N i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s i n s e w a g e p r o t e i n s c a u s e special p r o b l e m s in s o m e
r e c e i v i n g w a t e r s . H i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s in w a t e r c r e a t e c o n
d i t i o n s especially f a v o r a b l e for g r o w i n g g r e e n p l a n t s . If t h e w a t e r is free
flowing ( r i v e r s , b r o o k s ) , g r e e n velvety c o a t i n g s g r o w o n t h e s t o n e s a n d p o s s i b l y
l e n g t h y s t r e a m e r s , p o p u l a r l y k n o w n a s m e r m a i d ' s tresses, w a v e in t h e c u r r e n t .
T h e s e g r o w t h s a r e n o t u n a t t r a c t i v e a n d a l s o c o n s t i t u t e a m i n i a t u r e j u n g l e in
w h i c h a n i m a l life of m a n y k i n d s p r e y o n e a c h o t h e r , w i t h t h e s u r v i v o r s g r o w i n g
t o b e c o m e e v e n t u a l fish f o o d . If, h o w e v e r , t h e w a t e r is q u i e t (e.g., l a k e s ) ,
g r o w t h o f v e r y u n d e s i r a b l e t y p e s o f a l g a e is s t i m u l a t e d . T h e s e a l g a e m a k e t h e
w a t e r p e a g r e e n , smelly, a n d u n a t t r a c t i v e . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is d i s c u s s e d in
Section 7 of this chapter. Sometimes, these blue-green algae develop poisons
c a p a b l e of killing l i v e s t o c k , wildlife, a n d fish.
6.4. S L U D G E D E P O S I T S A N D A Q U A T I C PLANTS
A profile s h o w i n g s l u d g e d e p t h vs. d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e outfall of t h e s e w a g e
is s h o w n i n t h e b o t t o m p a r t o f F i g . 1.8. M a x i m u m d e p t h o c c u r s n e a r t h e
o u t f a l l , a n d t h e n t h e s l u d g e is g r a d u a l l y r e d u c e d b y d e c o m p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h
t h e a c t i o n o f b a c t e r i a a n d o t h e r o r g a n i s m s , u n t i l it b e c o m e s insignificant
a b o u t 30 miles b e l o w t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y .
A l s o a t t h e o u t f a l l t h e r e is g r e a t t u r b i d i t y d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f fine s u s
p e n d e d solids. A s t h e s e s o l i d s settle, t h e w a t e r b e c o m e s c l e a r a n d a p p r o a c h e s
t h e t r a n s p a r e n c y o f u p s t r e a m w a t e r , a b o v e t h e p o i n t of s e w a g e d i s c h a r g e .
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f a q u a t i c p l a n t s is i n d i c a t e d i n t h e u p p e r p a r t o f F i g . 1.8.
S h o r t l y after t h e d i s c h a r g e , m o l d s a t t a i n m a x i m u m g r o w t h . T h e s e m o l d s a n d
filamentous b a c t e r i a (Sphaerotilus) are associated with the sludge deposition
6. Effect of Water Pollution on Environment and Biota 19
s h o w n in t h e l o w e r c u r v e . F r o m m i l e 0 t o m i l e 36, h i g h t u r b i d i t y is n o t c o n
d u c i v e t o p r o d u c t i o n o f a l g a e , since t h e y n e e d s u n l i g h t in o r d e r t o g r o w a n d
light c a n n o t p e n e t r a t e t h e w a t e r effectively. T h e o n l y t y p e o f a l g a e t h a t m a y
grow are blue-green algae, characteristic of polluted waters. T h e y m a y cover
m a r g i n a l r o c k s in s l i p p e r y layers a n d give off foul o d o r s u p o n s e a s o n a l
decomposition.
A l g a e b e g i n t o i n c r e a s e in n u m b e r a t a b o u t m i l e 36. P l a n k t o n o r free-
floating f o r m s b e c o m e s t e a d i l y m o r e a b u n d a n t . T h e y c o n s t i t u t e a n e x c e l l e n t
f o o d s u p p l y for a q u a t i c a n i m a l s a n d a l s o p r o v i d e s h e l t e r f o r t h e m . T h u s , a s
p l a n t s r e s p o n d d o w n s t r e a m in d e v e l o p i n g a diversified p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e
recovery a n d clean water zones, a n i m a l s follow a parallel d e v e l o p m e n t ,
p r o d u c i n g a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f species.
F i g u r e 1.9 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n b a c t e r i a a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f
a n i m a l p l a n k t o n s u c h a s ciliated p r o t o z o a n s , r o t i f e r s , a n d c r u s t a c e a n s . T w o
die-off c u r v e s a r e s h o w n , o n e f o r t o t a l s e w a g e b a c t e r i a a n d t h e o t h e r f o r
c o l i f o r m b a c t e r i a o n l y . T h e t w o b e l l - s h a p e d c u r v e s p e r t a i n t o ciliated
p r o t o z o a n s a n d rotifers a n d c r u s t a c e a n s .
After entering the stream with the sewage, bacteria r e p r o d u c e a n d b e c o m e
a b u n d a n t , feeding o n t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r o f s e w a g e . C i l i a t e d p r o t o z o a n s ,
initially few in n u m b e r , p r e y o n t h e b a c t e r i a . B a c t e r i a p o p u l a t i o n d e c r e a s e s
g r a d u a l l y , b o t h b y a n a t u r a l p r o c e s s o f "die-off," a n d f r o m t h e p r e d a t o r y
20 1. Introduction
Fig. 1.9. Bacteria thrive and finally become prey of the ciliates, which, in
turn, are food for the rotifers and crustaceans [1 ] .
f e e d i n g b y p r o t o z o a n s . A f t e r a b o u t 2 d a y s flow, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 4 m i l e s
d o w n s t r e a m o f p o i n t z e r o , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t b e c o m e s m o r e s u i t a b l e for
ciliates, w h i c h f o r m t h e d o m i n a n t g r o u p o f a n i m a l p l a n k t o n . A f t e r a b o u t 7
d a y s , 84 m i l e s d o w n s t r e a m of p o i n t z e r o , ciliates fall v i c t i m t o r o t i f e r s a n d
c r u s t a c e a n s , w h i c h b e c o m e t h e d o m i n a n t species. T h u s , t h i s s e w a g e - c o n
s u m i n g b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s d e p e n d s o n a closely i n t e r r e l a t e d s u c c e s s i o n o f
species o f a n i m a l p l a n k t o n , o n e k i n d o f o r g a n i s m c a p t u r i n g a n d e a t i n g a n o t h e r .
T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n b a c t e r i a e a t e r s a n d t h e i r p r e y is f o u n d in t h e
o p e r a t i o n o f a m o d e r n s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t . I n fact, t h e s t r e a m c a n b e
t h o u g h t of a s a n a t u r a l s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t .
S t a b i l i z a t i o n o f s e w a g e in a p l a n t is m o r e r a p i d w h e n f e r o c i o u s b a c t e r i a -
e a t i n g ciliates a r e p r e s e n t t o k e e p t h e b a c t e r i a p o p u l a t i o n a t a l o w b u t r a p i d l y
g r o w i n g s t a t e . I n s o m e s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s , m i c r o s c o p i c e x a m i n a t i o n is
m a d e r o u t i n e l y t o o b s e r v e t h e b a t t l e lines b e t w e e n b a c t e r i a e a t e r s a n d t h e i r
prey.
6.6. H I G H E R F O R M S O F A N I M A L S P E C I E S
F i g u r e 1.10 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s e t y p e s o f o r g a n i s m s a n d t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n a l o n g
t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s t r e a m . C u r v e (a) r e p r e s e n t s t h e v a r i e t y , i.e., t h e n u m b e r s o f
species o f o r g a n i s m s f o u n d u n d e r v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f p o l l u t i o n . C u r v e (b)
6. Effect of Water Pollution on Environment and Biota 21
Fig. 1.10. Curve (a) shows the fluctuations in numbers of species; (b) the
variations in numbers of each species [1 ] .
r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o p u l a t i o n in t h o u s a n d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s o f e a c h species p e r
square foot.
I n t h e c l e a n w a t e r , u p s t r e a m of p o i n t z e r o , a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f o r g a n i s m s is
f o u n d w i t h v e r y few o f e a c h k i n d p r e s e n t . A t t h e p o i n t o f s e w a g e d i s c h a r g e ,
t h e n u m b e r o f different species is g r e a t l y r e d u c e d a n d t h e r e is a d r a s t i c c h a n g e
in t h e species m a k e u p of t h e b i o t a . T h i s c h a n g e d b i o t a is r e p r e s e n t e d b y a few
species, b u t t h e r e is a t r e m e n d o u s i n c r e a s e in t h e n u m b e r s o f i n d i v i d u a l s o f
each kind as c o m p a r e d with the density of p o p u l a t i o n u p s t r e a m .
I n c l e a n w a t e r u p s t r e a m t h e r e is a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f s p o r t s fish, v a r i o u s
m i n n o w s , c a d d i s w o r m s , mayflies, stoneflies, h e l l g r a m m i t e s a n d g i l l - b r e a t h i n g
snails, e a c h k i n d r e p r e s e n t e d b y a few i n d i v i d u a l s . I n b a d l y p o l l u t e d z o n e s
t h i s b i o t a is r e p l a c e d b y a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f r a t t a i l e d m a g g o t s , s l u d g e w o r m s ,
b l o o d w o r m s , a n d a few o t h e r species, r e p r e s e n t e d b y a g r e a t n u m b e r o f
individuals. W h e n d o w n s t r e a m conditions again resemble those of the u p
stream clean water zone, the clean water a n i m a l association tends t o r e a p p e a r
a n d the pollution-tolerant g r o u p of animals b e c o m e suppressed.
P o l l u t i o n - t o l e r a n t a n i m a l s a r e especially well a d a p t e d t o life in t h i c k
sludge deposits a n d to conditions of low dissolved oxygen. T h e rattailed
m a g g o t , for e x a m p l e , p o s s e s s e s a " s n o r k l e l i k e " t e l e s c o p i c a i r t u b e w h i c h is
p u s h e d t h r o u g h t h e surface film t o b r e a t h e a t m o s p h e r i c o x y g e n . T h u s , e v e n
in t o t a l a b s e n c e o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n it s u r v i v e s . T h e s e t y p e s of a n i m a l s a r e
found c o m m o n l y a r o u n d sewage treatment plants near the supernatant
sludge beds.
22 1. Introduction
The relationship between the number of species and the total population
is expressed in terms of a species diversity index (SDI), which is defined in
Eq. (1.2).
SDI = ( 5 - l ) / l o g / (1.2)
where 5, number of species; /, total number of individual organisms counted.
From the preceding discussion it is clear that the SDI is an indication of the
overall condition of the aquatic environment. The higher its value the more
productive is the aquatic system. Its value decreases as pollution increases.
7. E u t r o p h i c a t i o n [4]
Eutrophication is the natural process of lake aging. It progresses irrespective
of man's activities. Pollution, however, hastens the natural rate of aging and
shortens considerably the life expectancy of a body of water.
The general sequence of lake eutrophication is summarized in Fig. 1.11. It
consists of the gradual progression ("ecological succession") of one life stage
to another, based on changes in the degree of nourishment or productivity.
The youngest stage of the life cycle is characterized by low concentration of
plant nutrients and little biological productivity. Such lakes are called oligo-
tropic lakes (from the Greek oligo meaning "few" and trophein meaning "to
nourish," thus oligotropic means few nutrients). At a later stage in the succes
sion, the lake becomes mesotrophic (meso = intermediate); and as the life
cycle continues the lake becomes eutrophic (eu = well) or highly productive.
The final life stage before extinction is a pond, marsh, or swamp.
Enrichment and sedimentation are the principal contributors to the aging
process. Shore vegetation and higher aquatic plants utilize part of the in
flowing nutrients, grow abundantly, and, in turn, trap the sediments. The lake
gradually fills in, becoming shallower by accumulation of plants and sediments
on the bottom, and smaller by the invasion of shore vegetation, and eventually
becoming dry land. The extinction of a lake is, therefore, a result of enrich
ment, productivity, decay, and sedimentation. The effect of nitrogen- and
phosphorus-rich wastewater discharges on accelerating eutrophication has
been discussed in Section 6 of this chapter.
8. T y p e s of W a t e r S u p p l y a n d
Classification of W a t e r
Contaminants
According to their origin, water supplies are classified into three categories:
(1) surface waters, (2) ground waters, and (3) meteorological waters. Surface
waters comprise stream waters (e.g., rivers), oceans, lakes, and impoundment
24 1. Introduction
N0 - + ±0
2 2 -> N 0 -3 (1.4)
a n d C d . E v e n t h e i r p r e s e n c e in t r a c e q u a n t i t i e s (i.e., m i n i m u m d e t e c t a b l e
2 +
v o l a t i l e , is e v e n t u a l l y lost t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e . M e t h y l m e r c u r y , h o w e v e r , is
a b s o r b e d b y fish tissue a n d m i g h t r e n d e r it u n s u i t a b l e f o r h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n .
M e r c u r y c o n t e n t in fish tissue is t o l e r a b l e u p t o a m a x i m u m o f 1 5 - 2 0 p p m .
M e t h y l m e r c u r y p r e s e n t in fish is a b s o r b e d b y h u m a n tissues a n d e v e n t u a l l y
c o n c e n t r a t e s in c e r t a i n vital o r g a n s s u c h a s t h e b r a i n a n d t h e liver. I n t h e c a s e
o f p r e g n a n t w o m e n it c o n c e n t r a t e s in t h e fetus. R e c e n t l y in J a p a n , t h e r e w e r e
s e v e r a l r e p o r t e d c a s e s of d e a t h s f r o m m e r c u r y p o i s o n i n g , d u e t o h u m a n
c o n s u m p t i o n of m e r c u r y - c o n t a m i n a t e d fish. A n a l y s i s o f fish tissue r e v e a l e d
mercury concentrations of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 110-130 p p m . These high m e r c u r y
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e l a r g e fish i n t a k e in t h e t y p i c a l J a p a n e s e
diet, c a u s e d t h i s t r a g e d y .
References 25
C o n t a m i n a t i o n b y n i t r a t e s is a l s o d a n g e r o u s . F l u o r i d e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
s e e m a c t u a l l y beneficial, t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n p o t a b l e w a t e r s b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
a p p r e c i a b l e r e d u c t i o n in t h e e x t e n t o f t o o t h d e c a y . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , c o n
siderable controversy concerning fluoridization of potable water.
S o m e physical c o n t a m i n a n t s i n c l u d e (1) t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e (thermal
p o l l u t i o n ) . T h i s is t h e c a s e o f relatively w a r m w a t e r d i s c h a r g e d b y i n d u s t r i a l
p l a n t s after u s e in h e a t e x c h a n g e r s ( c o o l e r s ) ; (2) c o l o r (e.g., c o o k i n g l i q u o r s
d i s c h a r g e d b y c h e m i c a l p u l p i n g p l a n t s ) ; (3) t u r b i d i t y ( c a u s e d b y d i s c h a r g e s
c o n t a i n i n g s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ) ; (4) f o a m s [ d e t e r g e n t s s u c h a s a l k y l b e n z e n e
s u l f o n a t e ( A B S ) c o n s t i t u t e i m p o r t a n t c a u s e o f f o a m i n g ] ; a n d (5) r a d i o a c t i v i t y .
B i o l o g i c a l c o n t a m i n a n t s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e for t r a n s m i s s i o n o f d i s e a s e s b y
w a t e r s u p p l i e s . S o m e o f t h e diseases t r a n s m i t t e d b y b i o l o g i c a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n
of water are cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, a n d shistosomiasis.
References
1. Bartsch, A . F., and Ingram, W. M , Public Works 9 0 , 104 (1959).
2. Byrd, J. P., AlChE Symp. Ser. 6 8 , 137 (1972).
3. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes
& N o b l e , N e w York, 1970.
4. Greeson, P. E., Water Resour. BuH. 5 , 1 6 (1969).
5. Klei, W. E., and Sundstrom, D . W., AlChE Symp. Ser. 67, 1 (1971).
6. M c G o v e r n , J. G., Chem. Eng. (N.Y.) 8 0 , 137 (1973).
7. N e m e r o w , N . L., "Liquid Wastes o f Industry: Theories, Practice and Treatment."
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1971.
2
Characterization of Domestic
and Industrial Wastewaters
1. Measurement of Concentration of Contaminants in Wastewaters 26
2. Measurement of Organic Content: Group 1 — Oxygen Parameter
Methods 27
2.1. Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) 27
2.2. Chemical Oxygen Demand ( C O D ) 28
2.3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand ( B O D ) 33
2.4. Total Oxygen Demand ( T O D ) 39
3. Measurement of Organic Content: Group 2—Carbon Parameter
Methods 44
3.1. Wet Oxidation Method for T O C 44
3.2. Carbon Analyzer Determinations 44
3.3. Oxygen Demand-Organic Carbon Correlation 46
4. Mathematical Model for the B O D Curve 47
5. Determination of Parameters k and L 0 48
5.1. Log-Difference Method 48
5.2. Method of M o m e n t s 51
5.3. Thomas' Graphical Method 56
6. Relationship between k and Ratio B O D / B O D 5 u 58
7. Environmental Effects on the B O D Test 58
7.1. Effect of Temperature 58
7.2. Effect of pH 59
8. Nitrification 59
9. Evaluation of Feasibility of Biological Treatment for an Industrial
Wastewater 61
9.1. Introduction 61
9.2. Warburg Respirometer 61
9.3. Batch Reactor Evaluation 65
10. Characteristics of Municipal S e w a g e 65
11. Industrial Wastewater Surveys 66
12. Statistical Correlation of Industrial Waste Survey Data 66
Problems · 68
References 69
1. M e a s u r e m e n t of C o n c e n t r a t i o n
of C o n t a m i n a n t s in W a s t e w a t e r s
C o n t a m i n a n t s in w a s t e w a t e r s a r e u s u a l l y a c o m p l e x m i x t u r e o f o r g a n i c
a n d i n o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s . I t is u s u a l l y i m p r a c t i c a l , if n o t n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e ,
to obtain complete chemical analysis of m o s t wastewaters.
26
2. Organic Content Measurement: Oxygen Parameter Methods 27
2. M e a s u r e m e n t of O r g a n i c
C o n t e n t : G r o u p 1—Oxygen
Parameter Methods
2.1. THEORETICAL OXYGEN D E M A N D (ThOD)
Theoretical oxygen d e m a n d ( T h O D ) corresponds to the stoichiometric
a m o u n t of oxygen required to oxidize completely a given c o m p o u n d . Usually
e x p r e s s e d in m i l l i g r a m s o f o x y g e n r e q u i r e d p e r liter o f s o l u t i o n , it is a c a l
c u l a t e d v a l u e a n d c a n o n l y b e e v a l u a t e d if a c o m p l e t e c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s of t h e
w a s t e w a t e r is a v a i l a b l e , w h i c h is v e r y r a r e l y t h e c a s e . T h e r e f o r e , its u t i l i z a t i o n
is very l i m i t e d .
28 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
(CH 0) + 0
2 2 - C0 2 + H 0
2 (2.1)
Molecular weight: 30 32
T h O D v a l u e is r e a d i l y o b t a i n e d f r o m a s t o i c h i o m e t r i c c a l c u l a t i o n , b a s e d
on Eq. (2.1):
Ϊ000 ~ ThOD
2.2. C H E M I C A L O X Y G E N D E M A N D ( C O D )
C h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d ( C O D ) c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e a m o u n t of o x y g e n
r e q u i r e d t o o x i d i z e t h e o r g a n i c f r a c t i o n of a s a m p l e w h i c h is s u s c e p t i b l e t o
p e r m a n g a n a t e o r d i c h r o m a t e o x i d a t i o n in a n a c i d s o l u t i o n . Since o x i d a t i o n
p e r f o r m e d i n a C O D l a b o r a t o r y test d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e
s t o i c h i o m e t r i c E q . (2.1), C O D v a l u e is n o t e x p e c t e d t o e q u a l T h O D .
S t a n d a r d C O D tests ( S e c t i o n s 2.2.1 a n d 2.2.2) yield v a l u e s w h i c h v a r y
T A B L E 2.1
Average Values of Oxygen Parameters
for Wastewaters as a Fraction of the
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (Taken as
100)*
ThOD 100
TOD 92
C O D (standard method) 83
C O D (rapid tests) 70
BOD 2 0
With nitrification 65
Nitrification suppressed 55
BOD 5
With nitrification 58
Nitrification suppressed 52
a
F o r carbon parameters the T O C represents an
average o f about 95% o f the theoretical organic
carbon ( T h O C ) . Relationships between T h O D
and T h O C are discussed in Section 3 .
* For simplicity in Eq. (2.1), lactose was represented by o n e sugar unit (CH 0).
2
f r o m 8 0 - 8 5 % of t h e T h O D , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e
w a s t e w a t e r b e i n g t e s t e d . R a p i d C O D tests, d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 3 , yield
v a l u e s e q u a l t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 0 % of T h O D v a l u e .
A p p r o x i m a t e relationships between the various oxygen a n d c a r b o n p a r a m
eters a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 2 . 1 , a s e s t i m a t e d f r o m a g r a p h in E c k e n f e l d e r
a n d F o r d [ 4 ] . V a l u e s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 2.1 a r e t y p i c a l a v e r a g e v a l u e s ; c o r r e c t
r e l a t i o n s h i p s s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d for t h e w a s t e w a t e r in q u e s t i o n , a s t h e y a r e
d e p e n d e n t u p o n its c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n . T h u s , v a l u e s in T a b l e 2.1 a r e o n l y
u t i l i z e d f o r r o u g h e s t i m a t e s in t h e a b s e n c e o f a c t u a l d a t a . F o u r t y p e s o f C O D
tests a r e d e s c r i b e d n e x t .
2.2.1. S t a n d a r d D i c h r o m a t e Oxidation
M e t h o d [5, 8,13]
T h e s t a n d a r d d i c h r o m a t e C O D test is w i d e l y u s e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e c o n
c e n t r a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r in w a s t e w a t e r s . T h e t e s t is p e r f o r m e d b y h e a t i n g
u n d e r t o t a l reflux c o n d i t i o n s a m e a s u r e d s a m p l e w i t h a k n o w n excess o f
p o t a s s i u m d i c h r o m a t e ( K C r 0 ) , in t h e p r e s e n c e o f sulfuric a c i d ( H S 0 ) ,
2 2 7 2 4
f o r a 2 - h r p e r i o d . O r g a n i c m a t t e r in t h e s a m p l e is o x i d i z e d a n d , a s a r e s u l t ,
y e l l o w d i c h r o m a t e is c o n s u m e d a n d r e p l a c e d b y g r e e n c h r o m i c [ E q . ( 2 . 2 ) ] .
Silver sulfate ( A g S 0 ) is a d d e d a s c a t a l y s t .
2 4
C r 0 ? ~ + 14H+ + 6e ^
2 2Cr 3 +
+ 7H 0 2 (2.2)
M e a s u r e m e n t is p e r f o r m e d b y t i t r a t i n g t h e r e m a i n i n g d i c h r o m a t e o r b y
determining colorimetrically the green chromic produced. T h e titration
m e t h o d is m o r e a c c u r a t e , b u t m o r e t e d i o u s . T h e c o l o r i m e t r i c m e t h o d , w h e n
p e r f o r m e d w i t h a g o o d p h o t o e l e c t r i c c o l o r i m e t e r o r s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t e r , is
m o r e r a p i d , easier, a n d sufficiently a c c u r a t e for all p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s .
If c h l o r i d e s a r e p r e s e n t in t h e w a s t e w a t e r , t h e y i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e C O D test
since c h l o r i d e s a r e o x i d i z e d b y d i c h r o m a t e a c c o r d i n g t o E q . ( 2 . 3 ) .
6C1" + C r 0 ? ~ + 1 4 H 2
+
- 3 C l 4- 2 C r
2
3 +
+ 7H 0 2 (2.3)
T h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e is p r e v e n t e d b y a d d i t i o n o f m e r c u r i c sulfate ( H g S 0 ) t o t h e 4
mixture, as H g 2 +
combines with C I " to form mercuric chloride ( H g C l ) , 2
Hg 2 +
+ 2C1- - HgCl j 2 (2.4)
T h e p r e s e n c e of t h e A g S 0 c a t a l y s t is r e q u i r e d for o x i d a t i o n o f s t r a i g h t -
2 4
c h a i n a l c o h o l s a n d a c i d s . If insufficient q u a n t i t y o f H g S 0 is a d d e d , t h e excess 4
for t h e C O D test. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n
[Eq. (2.5)].
A g + C1" - A g C l i +
(2.5)
30 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
S t a n d a r d f e r r o u s a m m o n i u m sulfate [ F e ( N H ) ( S 0 ) - 6 H 0 ] 4 2 4 2 2 is u s e d
for t h e t i t r a t i o n m e t h o d . O r d i n a r i l y , s t a n d a r d f e r r o u s sulfate loses s t r e n g t h
with age, due to air oxidation. Daily standardization and mathematical
c o r r e c t i o n in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f C O D t o a c c o u n t for t h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n a r e
r e c o m m e n d e d [ 1 3 ] . C a d m i u m addition to the stock bottle of ferrous sulfate
completely prevents deterioration. Ferrous sulfate available from Hach
C h e m i c a l C o m p a n y for t h e C O D t e s t is p r e s e r v e d in t h i s m a n n e r , s o t h a t n o
further standardization checks are required.
T h e r e c o m m e n d e d p r o c e d u r e is t o c o o l t h e s a m p l e after t h e 2 - h r d i g e s t i o n
w i t h K C r 0 , a d d five d r o p s of f e r r o i n i n d i c a t o r , a n d t i t r a t e w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d
2 2 7
f e r r o u s a m m o n i u m sulfate s o l u t i o n u n t i l a r e d - b r o w n c o l o r is o b t a i n e d . T h e
e n d p o i n t is v e r y s h a r p . F e r r o i n i n d i c a t o r s o l u t i o n m a y b e p u r c h a s e d a l r e a d y
p r e p a r e d (it is a n a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n of 1 , 1 0 - p h e n a n t h r o l i n e m o n o h y d r a t e a n d
F e S 0 - 7 H 0 ) . T h e r e d - b r o w n c o l o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e n d p o i n t is d u e t o
4 2
f o r m a t i o n of a c o m p l e x o f f e r r o u s i o n w i t h p h e n a n t h r o l i n e . E q u a t i o n (2.6)
c o r r e s p o n d s t o o x i d a t i o n o f f e r r o u s a m m o n i u m sulfate b y d i c h r o m a t e .
C r 0 ? " + 14H + 6 F e
2
+ 2 +
^ 2Cr 3 +
+ 6Fe 3 +
+ 7H 0 2
(2.6)
E q u a t i o n (2.7) c o r r e s p o n d s t o f o r m a t i o n o f t h e ferrous-phenanthroline
c o m p l e x , w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e a s s o o n a s all d i c h r o m a t e is r e d u c e d t o C r 3 +
, and
t h e r e f o r e f u r t h e r a d d i t i o n of f e r r o u s a m m o n i u m sulfate r e s u l t s in a n excess
of F e 2 +
(ferrous ion).
Fe(C 1 2 H N )i
8 2
+
+ e ^ Fe(C H N )§
1 2 8 2
+
(2.7)
phenanthroline-ferric phenanthroline-ferrous
(pale blue) (red-brown)
T h e w a s t e w a t e r s a m p l e is b o i l e d w i t h a m e a s u r e d excess o f p e r m a n g a n a t e
in a c i d s o l u t i o n ( H S 0 ) f o r 3 0 m i n . T h e p i n k s o l u t i o n is c o o l e d a n d a k n o w n
2 4
excess o f a m m o n i u m o x a l a t e [ ( N H ) C 0 ] is a d d e d , t h e s o l u t i o n b e c o m i n g
4 2 2 4
c o l o r l e s s . E x c e s s o x a l a t e is t h e n t i t r a t e d w i t h K M n 0 s o l u t i o n u n t i l t h e p i n k
4
2. Organic Content Measurement: Oxygen Parameter Methods 31
c o l o r r e t u r n s . O x a l a t e u s e d is c a l c u l a t e d b y difference, a n d permanganate
utilized is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m s i m p l e s t o i c h i o m e t r y . E q u a t i o n (2.8) c o r r e s p o n d s
t o o x i d a t i o n of t h e o x a l a t e .
5 C O i - + 2 M n 0 " + 16H
2 4
+
10CO + 2 M n
2
2 +
+ 8H 0 2 (2.8)
H S0 -AgS0
2 4 4 s o l u t i o n a t 165°C for 15 m i n . T h e s o l u t i o n is d i l u t e d w i t h
distilled w a t e r a n d t i t r a t e d w i t h f e r r o u s a m m o n i u m sulfate, a s in t h e s t a n d a r d
method.
I n t h i s test, C O D yield for d o m e s t i c s l u d g e c o r r e s p o n d s t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
6 5 % of the value obtained by the s t a n d a r d m e t h o d . F o r o t h e r wastewaters,
C O D yield r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e r a p i d a n d t h e s t a n d a r d test v a r i e s d e p e n d i n g o n
t h e n a t u r e of t h e w a s t e w a t e r .
2.2.4. Instrumental C O D M e t h o d s [ 1 1 , 1 4 , 1 5 ]
I n s t r u m e n t a l C O D m e t h o d s a r e v e r y fast a n d yield r e p r o d u c i b l e r e s u l t s . I n
this section, the Precision A q u a R a t o r developed by the D o w Chemical
C o m p a n y a n d licensed t o t h e P r e c i s i o n Scientific C o m p a n y is d e s c r i b e d . T h e
C O D measurement requires only a b o u t 2 min and d a t a are reproducible to
w i t h i n ± 3 % o r b e t t e r . R e s u l t s c o r r e l a t e well w i t h t h o s e of t h e s t a n d a r d C O D
m e t h o d a n d are m u c h m o r e consistent t h a n B O D tests, which typically vary
by ± 1 5 % .
T h e A q u a R a t o r is d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e o x y g e n d e m a n d in t h e r a n g e o f
1 0 - 3 0 0 m g / l i t e r . S a m p l e s of h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e h a n d l e d b y p r e l i m i n a r y
d i l u t i o n of t h e s a m p l e . A flow d i a g r a m o f t h e P r e c i s i o n A q u a R a t o r is s h o w n
in F i g . 2 . 1 .
A 20-μ1 s a m p l e (20 χ 1 0 " liter » 0 . 0 2 c m ) , h o m o g e n i z e d if n e c e s s a r y , is
6 3
injected b y a s y r i n g e i n t o t h e P r e c i s i o n A q u a R a t o r . (See s a m p l e i n j e c t i o n
p o r t , S I P . ) T h e s a m p l e is s w e p t t h r o u g h a p l a t i n u m c a t a l y t i c c o m b u s t i o n
furnace (SF) by a stream of dry C 0 , which oxidizes t h e c o n t a m i n a n t s t o C O
2
a n d H 0 . W a t e r is s t r i p p e d o u t in a d r y i n g t u b e ( D T ) , a n d r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s
2
c o n t r o l s y s t e m . A n y t r a c e of o x y g e n p r e s e n t in t h e feed g a s is r e d u c e d b y a
"purifying" c a r b o n furnace ( P C F ) , yielding a b a c k g r o u n d gas s t r e a m of C O
32 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
PCF
Regulator Gas "purifying" carbon furnace
set at
10 psig
SIP
Sample
Control Flow meter
valve injection
Check port with
Q F
ο , * valve purging
Sample furnace manifold
-Start
Differential
pressure
regulator
(preset)
J
Bone dry [Exhaust
C0 9
DT gas
Drying
tube
Connection
to external recorder
and C 0 2 w h i c h is i n d i c a t e d a s a n o r m a l b a s e l i n e o f t h e r e c o r d e r . T h e s a m p l e
is injected i n t o t h e s a m p l e f u r n a c e ( S F ) , w h e r e c o n t a m i n a n t s a n d C 0 2 react
to form a typical mixture of C O , C 0 , a n d H 0 . T h e infrared analyzer (IA)
2 2
d e t e r m i n e s t h e i n c r e a s e o f C O c o n t e n t in t h e g a s s t r e a m , w h i c h is d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o C O D o f t h e s a m p l e . E x h a u s t g a s is t h e n d i s c h a r g e d t h r o u g h a
s a m p l e inlet p u r g i n g m a n i f o l d .
T h e A q u a R a t o r t h e o r y is d i s c u s s e d in S t e n g e r a n d V a n H a l l [ 1 4 , 1 5 ] .
E q u a t i o n s (2.9) a n d (2.10) i n d i c a t e t h e t y p e s o f r e a c t i o n s t h a t t a k e p l a c e
w h e n o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l is c o m b u s t e d in a t m o s p h e r e s o f o x y g e n a n d c a r b o n
d i o x i d e , respectively.
C H„N O
e c d + mC0 2 - (m + a ) C O + ( 6 / 2 ) H 0 + ( c / 2 ) N
2 2 (2.10)
If o x y g e n r e q u i r e d i n E q . (2.9) c o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d e x a c t l y , it w o u l d r e p r e
s e n t t h e T h O D of t h e s a m p l e . I d e a l l y , t h e d i c h r o m a t e C O D determination
a p p r o a c h e s t h i s v a l u e , b u t s o m e c o m p o u n d s a r e difficult t o o x i d i z e b y t h e
d i c h r o m a t e t r e a t m e n t . O x i d a t i o n w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e in t h e A q u a R a t o r is m o r e
vigorous than dichromate oxidation, a n d t h u s results represent a more
realistic level of o x y g e n d e m a n d of t h e c o n t a m i n a n t s p r e s e n t .
T h e o r i g i n a t o r s o f t h e m e t h o d u s e d in t h e A q u a R a t o r [ 1 4 , 1 5 ] d e m o n s t r a t e d
t h a t (m + a) in E q . (2.10) is e q u a l t o η in E q . ( 2 . 9 ) ; t h a t is, t h e n u m b e r of m o l e s
o f c a r b o n m o n o x i d e p r o d u c e d is t h e s a m e a s t h e n u m b e r of o x y g e n a t o m s
2. Organic Content Measurement: Oxygen Parameter M e t h o d s 33
2.3. B I O C H E M I C A L O X Y G E N D E M A N D ( B O D )
B i o c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d is u s e d a s a m e a s u r e o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f o x y g e n
r e q u i r e d for o x i d a t i o n o f b i o d e g r a d a b l e o r g a n i c m a t t e r p r e s e n t in t h e w a t e r
s a m p l e b y a e r o b i c b i o c h e m i c a l a c t i o n . O x y g e n d e m a n d o f w a s t e w a t e r s is
e x e r t e d b y t h r e e classes o f m a t e r i a l s : (1) c a r b o n a c e o u s o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s
u s a b l e a s a s o u r c e o f f o o d b y a e r o b i c o r g a n i s m s ; (2) o x i d i z a b l e n i t r o g e n
d e r i v e d f r o m n i t r i t e , a m m o n i a , a n d o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n c o m p o u n d s w h i c h serve
a s f o o d for specific b a c t e r i a (e.g., Nitrosomonas a n d Nitrobacter). This type
o f o x i d a t i o n (nitrification) is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 8 ; a n d (3) c h e m i c a l r e d u c i n g
c o m p o u n d s , e.g., f e r r o u s i o n ( F e 2 +
) , sulfites ( S O 2 -
) , a n d sulfide (S ~),
2
o r N a O H p r i o r t o t h e B O D test.
F o r each B O D bottle a control bottle, which does not contain the substrate,
is a l s o p r e p a r e d .
3. B o t t l e s a r e i n c u b a t e d a t 2 0 ° C . E a c h s u c c e e d i n g 2 4 - h r p e r i o d , a s a m p l e
bottle and a corresponding control bottle are taken from the incubator, a n d
d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n in b o t h is d e t e r m i n e d a s d e s c r i b e d a t t h e e n d of t h i s s e c t i o n .
T h e difference between concentrations of dissolved oxygen (mg/liter) in
c o n t r o l b o t t l e a n d i n s a m p l e b o t t l e c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e o x y g e n u t i l i z e d in
biochemical oxidation of c o n t a m i n a n t s [ E q . (2.11)].
V a l u e s o f y ( B O D , m g / l i t e r ) a r e p l o t t e d vs. i n c u b a t i o n t i m e t ( d a y s ) . A t y p i c a l
B O D c u r v e for o x i d a t i o n of c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t e r i a l s is s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 2 .
C u r v e s for cases w h e r e nitrification t a k e s p l a c e a r e d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 8.
b-BODy
b e c a u s e in t h e B O D b o t t l e n o t all s u b s t r a t e is o x i d i z e d . R a t i o s o f v a l u e s o f
B O D (or B O D ) to T h O D depend o n the chemical composition of the waste
M 5
w a t e r . A v e r a g e v a l u e s a r e given in T a b l e 2 . 1 .
T h e ratio of B O D 5 to B O D M also varies according t o the substrate. F o r
2. Organic Content Measurement: Oxygen Parameter Methods 35
It has just been stated that values of BOD and ThOD are not equal. M
Similarly, the value of BOD is generally lower than that for COD obtained
M
are not biochemically oxidizable and (2) certain inorganic ions such as sulfides
( S " ) , thiosulfates ( S 0 3 ~ ) , sulfites ( S O 3 " ) , nitrites ( N 0 " ) , and ferrous ion
2
2 2
One of the most frequent reasons for unreliable BOD values is utilization
of an insufficient amount of microorganism seed. Another serious problem
for industrial wastes is acclimation of seed. For many industrial wastes, the
presence of toxic materials interferes with growth of the microorganism
population. BOD curves obtained exhibit a time lag period (Fig. 2.3).
Low BOD values are obtained if adequate corrective action is not taken.
It becomes necessary to acclimate the microorganism seed to the specific
t (days)
Presence of algae in the wastewater being tested affects the BOD test. If
the sample is incubated in the presence of light, low BOD values are obtained
owing to production of oxygen by photosynthesis, which satisfies part of the
oxygen demand. On the other hand, if incubation is performed in darkness,
algae survive for a while. Thus, short-term BOD determinations show the
effect of oxygen on them. After a period in the dark, algae die and algal cells
contribute to the increase of total organic content of the sample, thus leading
to high BOD values. Therefore, the effect of algae on the BOD test is difficult
to evaluate.
w a t e r s m a y c o n t a i n several i o n s a n d c o m p o u n d s w h i c h i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e
original D O determination. T o eliminate these interferences, several m o d i
fications of the basic m e t h o d have been p r o p o s e d [ 1 3 ] . A brief description
follows of the azide modification of W i n k l e r ' s m e t h o d , which effectively
r e m o v e s i n t e r f e r e n c e c a u s e d b y n i t r i t e s . T h i s is t h e m o s t c o m m o n i n t e r f e r e n c e
f o u n d in p r a c t i c e . O t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o r e m o v e i n t e r f e r e n c e s a r e d e s c r i b e d
in Ref. [ 1 3 ] .
W i n k l e r ' s m e t h o d is b a s e d o n o x i d a t i o n o f i o d i d e i o n ( I " ) , w h i c h is c o n
tained in the alkali-iodide-azide reagent, to iodine ( I ) by dissolved oxygen 2
utilizing s t a r c h a s i n d i c a t o r . O x i d a t i o n is p e r f o r m e d i n a c i d m e d i u m ( H S 0 ) 2 4
in t h e p r e s e n c e o f m a n g a n e s e sulfate ( M n S 0 ) . T h e 4 alkali-iodide-azide
r e a g e n t is a s o l u t i o n o f N a O H , N a l , a n d N a N 3 (sodium azide).
E q u a t i o n (2.13) c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e o x i d a t i o n of I " t o I . 2
2 1 - -> I + 2e 2 (2.13)
I n t e r f e r e n c e o f n i t r i t e s is d u e t o t h e i r o x i d a t i o n t o N O w i t h f o r m a t i o n o f I 2
[Eq. (2.14)].
2 N 0 " + 21- + 4 H
2
+
- 2NO + I + 2 H 0
2 2 (2.14)
is o x i d i z e d t o t e t r a t h i o n a t e ( S 0 6 ) " ] .
4
2S 0§- + I
2 2 S Oi" + 21-
4 (2.15)
S t a r c h yields a b l u e c o l o r in t h e p r e s e n c e o f i o d i n e . T i t r a t i o n w i t h s o d i u m
t h i o s u l f a t e is c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e b l u e c o l o r d i s a p p e a r s .
A v a r i a t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e utilizes a n e w r e a g e n t ( p h e n y l a r s i n e o x i d e ,
P A O ) instead of s o d i u m thiosulfate. This reagent h a s the a d v a n t a g e of being
stable, whereas s o d i u m thiosulfate deteriorates rapidly a n d should be re-
standardized before each determination. A description of this i m p r o v e d
p r o c e d u r e is f o u n d i n Ref. [ 8 ] .
I n s t r u m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n is p e r f o r m e d b y D O
a n a l y z e r s . A d i a g r a m o f a t y p i c a l m o d e l o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t is s h o w n i n F i g .
2 . 4 . T h e D O a n a l y z e r is a g a l v a n i c s y s t e m w h i c h utilizes a c y l i n d e r - s h a p e d
l e a d a n o d e s u r r o u n d i n g a r o d - s h a p e d silver c a t h o d e . B o t h e l e c t r o d e s a r e
c o v e r e d b y a l a y e r o f K O H e l e c t r o l y t e c o n t a i n e d in a t h i n e l e c t r o l y t i c p a d . A
p l a s t i c m e m b r a n e c o v e r s t h e e l e c t r o d e s a n d e l e c t r o l y t e a n d serves a s a selective
diffusion b a r r i e r w h i c h is p e r m e a b l e t o all g a s e s , i n c l u d i n g m o l e c u l a r o x y g e n ,
b u t is v i r t u a l l y i m p e r m e a b l e t o i o n i c species w h i c h m a y b e p r e s e n t in t h e w a s t e
w a t e r s . T o m e a s u r e D O t h e p r o b e is d i p p e d i n t o t h e s a m p l e . A cell c u r r e n t
w h i c h is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e s a m p l e is m e a s u r e d
directly in t e r m s o f m g / l i t e r o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n b y t h e n e e d l e in t h e o x y g e n
38 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
m e t e r . T h e s a m p l e is c o n s t a n t l y s t i r r e d d u r i n g m e a s u r e m e n t , since o n l y u n d e r
t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s is t h e c u r r e n t d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a
t i o n in t h e b u l k o f t h e t e s t s a m p l e . C a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e D O a n a l y z e r is p e r f o r m e d
b y m e a s u r i n g t h e D O of a s a m p l e o f k n o w n o x y g e n c o n t e n t , w h i c h is d e t e r
mined by standard analytical m e t h o d s (namely, the Winkler m e t h o d ) [ 1 3 ] .
2.3.2. B O D M a n o m e t r i c M e t h o d s
T h e m a n o m e t r i c a p p a r a t u s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s s e c t i o n is t h e H a c h M o d e l
2173 [ 7 ] . T h e H a c h B O D a p p a r a t u s has been c o m p a r e d with the s t a n d a r d
dilution m e t h o d u n d e r controlled l a b o r a t o r y conditions. In routine analysis
it gives n e a r l y e q u i v a l e n t r e s u l t s a n d p r e c i s i o n . Since a p h y s i c a l c h a n g e is
o b s e r v e d , c h e m i c a l l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s is n o t r e q u i r e d . A d i a g r a m s h o w i n g
o n l y o n e b o t t l e is d e p i c t e d in F i g . 2 . 5 . T h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n is a s f o l l o w s :
A m e a s u r e d s a m p l e of s e w a g e o r w a s t e w a t e r is p l a c e d in a b o t t l e o n t h e
a p p a r a t u s , w h i c h is c o n n e c t e d t o a c l o s e d - e n d m e r c u r y m a n o m e t e r . A b o v e
t h e s e w a g e o r w a t e r s a m p l e is a q u a n t i t y of air ( w h i c h c o n t a i n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
2 1 % o x y g e n b y v o l u m e ) . O v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e b a c t e r i a in t h e s e w a g e utilizes
t h e o x y g e n t o o x i d i z e o r g a n i c m a t t e r p r e s e n t in t h e s a m p l e , a n d t h u s d i s s o l v e d
o x y g e n is c o n s u m e d . A i r in t h e c l o s e d s a m p l e b o t t l e r e p l e n i s h e s t h e utilized
o x y g e n , t h u s r e s u l t i n g in a d r o p of a i r p r e s s u r e in t h e s a m p l e b o t t l e . M e r c u r y
in t h e leg o f t h e m a n o m e t e r c o n n e c t e d t o t h e b o t t l e m o v e s u p w a r d , a s i n d i c a t e d
b y t h e a r r o w i n F i g . 2 . 5 . T h u s , t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p is r e g i s t e r e d o n t h e m e r c u r y
2. Organic Content Measurement: Oxygen Parameter Methods 39
a n d t h e s a m p l e c o n t i n u a l l y a g i t a t e d b y a m a g n e t i c s t i r r i n g b a r , w h i c h is
r o t a t e d b y a p u l l e y s y s t e m c o n n e c t e d t o a m o t o r . C a r b o n d i o x i d e is p r o d u c e d
b y o x i d a t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r , a n d m u s t b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s y s t e m s o t h a t
it d o e s n o t d e v e l o p a p o s i t i v e g a s p r e s s u r e w h i c h w o u l d r e s u l t in a n e r r o r .
T h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a d d i t i o n o f a few d r o p s o f p o t a s s i u m h y d r o x i d e
s o l u t i o n in t h e seal c u p o f e a c h s a m p l e b o t t l e . B O D r e a d i n g s a r e p e r i o d i c a l l y
c h e c k e d b y utilizing t h e s t a n d a r d g l u c o s e - g l u t a m i c a c i d s o l u t i o n .
W h e n high oxygen d e m a n d s are encountered the sample m u s t be diluted.
A c c u r a c y o f t h e m a n o m e t r i c test is c l a i m e d a s c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f t h e
d i l u t i o n test.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e a r c h for i m p r o v e d a n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s for d e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f o x y g e n d e m a n d h a s f o c u s e d o n t e c h n i q u e s [ 6 ] w h i c h a r e (1) m e a n i n g f u l
a n d c o r r e l a t e w i t h t h e a c c e p t e d p a r a m e t e r s for c o n t r o l a n d surveillance;
(2) r a p i d , s o r e s u l t s a r e k n o w n in m i n u t e s , n o t h o u r s o r d a y s ; a n d (3) t r u l y
adaptable to automation and continuous monitoring.
T h e Ionics m o d e l 225 T o t a l Oxygen D e m a n d ( T O D ) Analyzer determines
t o t a l o x y g e n d e m a n d w i t h i n 3 m i n . F i g u r e 2.6 s h o w s t h e f u n c t i o n a l e l e m e n t s
of the system which includes the injection system, the c o m b u s t i o n unit, the
oxygen sensor assembly, a n d the recorder.
CATALYST RECORDER
SCRUBBER-
DETECTOR CELL
ASSEMBLY
COMBUSTION
TUBE
Fig. 2.6. Flow diagram for the TOD analyzer [ 6 ] . (Reprinted with permission.
Copyright by The American Chemical Society.)
T h e w a s t e w a t e r s a m p l e is t r a n s m i t t e d b y a n a i r - o p e r a t e d a s p i r a t o r t o t h e
l i q u i d i n j e c t i o n v a l v e . U p o n a c t u a t i o n , t h e v a l v e delivers a 20-μ1 (0.02 c m ) 3
s a m p l e i n t o t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . T h e s a m p l i n g s y s t e m is c o n t r o l l e d b y a n
adjustable p r o g r a m timer or by a m a n u a l pushbutton. A carrier gas (nitrogen)
c o n t a i n i n g a s m a l l a m o u n t o f o x y g e n o f t h e o r d e r o f 2 0 0 p p m is i n t r o d u c e d
simultaneously with the wastewater sample into the combustion chamber.
T h e s a m p l e is v a p o r i z e d a n d t h e c o m b u s t i b l e c o m p o n e n t s a r e o x i d i z e d in a
c o m b u s t i o n t u b e . T h e t u b e , c o n t a i n i n g a p l a t i n u m s c r e e n c a t a l y s t , is m o u n t e d
i n a n electric f u r n a c e w h i c h is m a i n t a i n e d a t 9 0 0 ° C . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e o x y g e n
u t i l i z a t i o n in t h e c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s , a m o m e n t a r y d e p l e t i o n o f o x y g e n
o c c u r s in t h e i n e r t g a s s t r e a m . T h i s d e p l e t i o n is a c c u r a t e l y m e a s u r e d b y p a s s i n g
t h e effluent t h r o u g h a p l a t i n u m - l e a d fuel cell. Before e n t e r i n g t h e cell, t h e g a s
is s c r u b b e d a n d h u m i d i f i e d . S c r u b b i n g is d o n e b y p a s s i n g t h e g a s t h r o u g h a n
a q u e o u s caustic solution which removes carrier gas impurities harmful t o t h e
2. Organic Content Measurement: O x y g e n Parameter M e t h o d s 41
CHART
DIVISIONS
·/
— % Or
ΛΓ
/
ONE hIV
/
/ C A L I B R A T I O N CUR>IE
/
<
T« 9 0 0 C e
N 2 »20 cmVmii
e
02 200 ppm
s
/
>
TOD-ppm
0
0 100 200 300
Fig. 2.7. Typical calibration curve for TOD analyzer [9]. (Courtesy of Ionics
Incorporated.)
C + 0 2 - C 0 2 (2.16)
H 2 + K> - 2 H 0
2 (2.17)
Ν (combined) + ± 0 2 - NO (2.18)
S u l f u r o u s c o m p o u n d s a r e o x i d i z e d t o a s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f a fixed
42 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
R e s u l t s o f T O D a n a l y s i s for a n u m b e r o f different c o m p o u n d s i n d i c a t e t h a t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO « 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
WEEK
m e a s u r e d o x y g e n d e m a n d is u s u a l l y c l o s e r t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y c a l c u l a t e d t h a n
is t h e c a s e for c h e m i c a l m e t h o d s . T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in G o l d s t e i n
et al. [ 6 ] . N o n e of t h e c o m m o n i o n s n o r m a l l y f o u n d in w a t e r a n d w a s t e w a t e r s
causes serious interference with T O D analyses [ 6 ] .
C o r r e l a t i o n of T O D a n a l y s e s w i t h C O D h a s b e e n c h e c k e d f o r a n u m b e r o f
t y p i c a l w a s t e s t r e a m s [ 2 , 3 ] . F i g u r e 2.8 s h o w s c o r r e l a t i o n s o f T O D , C O D , a n d
B O D for a r a w w a s t e w a t e r . V a l u e s o f C O D v s . T O D f r o m F i g . 2.8 a r e p l o t t e d
5
in F i g . 2 . 9 , w h i c h s h o w s a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f T O D t o
C O D or B O D 5 depends entirely o n c o m p o s i t i o n of the wastewater. C o n
sequently, these ratios vary depending o n the degree of biological t r e a t m e n t
t o w h i c h t h e w a s t e w a t e r is s u b j e c t e d .
2,000
TOD(mg/| )
Fig. 2.9. The COD and TOD relationship of a raw wastewater [17]. (Reprinted
with permission. Copyright by The American Chemical Society.)
44 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
3. M e a s u r e m e n t of O r g a n i c
C o n t e n t : G r o u p 2—Carbon
P a r a m e t e r M e t h o d s [2, 3]
T o t a l o r g a n i c c a r b o n ( T O C ) tests a r e b a s e d o n o x i d a t i o n o f t h e c a r b o n o f
the organic m a t t e r t o c a r b o n dioxide, a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n of C 0 2 either by
absorption in K O H or instrumental analysis (infrared analyzer). Since
theoretical oxygen d e m a n d ( T h O D ) measures 0 2 and theoretical organic
c a r b o n ( T h O C ) m e a s u r e s c a r b o n , t h e r a t i o o f T h O D t o T h O C is r e a d i l y
calculated from the stoichiometry of the oxidation equation.
E q u a t i o n (2.20) c o r r e s p o n d s t o t o t a l o x i d a t i o n of s u c r o s e .
C H 0
1 2 2 2 1 1 + 120 2 -» 1 2 C 0 + 1 1 H 0
2 2 (2.20)
(12x12) (12x32)
T h e r a t i o of m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t s of o x y g e n t o c a r b o n is 2.67.
T h u s , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r a t i o of o x y g e n d e m a n d t o o r g a n i c c a r b o n c o r r e s p o n d s
t o t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c r a t i o o f o x y g e n t o c a r b o n for t o t a l o x i d a t i o n o f t h e
organic c o m p o u n d under consideration. The actual ratio obtained from C O D
( o r B O D ) tests a n d T O C determinations varies considerably from this
t h e o r e t i c a l r a t i o ( S e c t i o n 3.3). E x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f T O D is p e r
f o r m e d b y e i t h e r m a n u a l (wet o x i d a t i o n ) o r i n s t r u m e n t a l m e t h o d s .
3.1. W E T O X I D A T I O N M E T H O D F O R T O C
T h e m a n u a l o r w e t o x i d a t i o n m e t h o d for T O C c o n s i s t s of o x i d a t i o n o f t h e
s a m p l e in a s o l u t i o n o f p o t a s s i u m d i c h r o m a t e ( K C r 0 ) , f u m i n g
2 2 7 sulfuric
acid ( H S 0 ) , p o t a s s i u m iodate ( K I 0 ) , a n d p h o s p h o r i c acid
2 4 3 (H P0 ).
3 4
3.2. C A R B O N A N A L Y Z E R D E T E R M I N A T I O N S [1]
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e o f T O C a n a l y z e r s is c o m b u s t i o n o f
organic m a t t e r t o c a r b o n dioxide a n d water. C o m b u s t i o n gases are t h e n
p a s s e d t h r o u g h a n i n f r a r e d a n a l y z e r , sensitized f o r c a r b o n d i o x i d e , a n d t h e
r e s p o n s e is r e c o r d e d o n a s t r i p c h a r t . A d i a g r a m of t h e B e c k m a n m o d e l
9 1 5 - A T o t a l O r g a n i c C a r b o n ( T O C ) A n a l y z e r is s h o w n in F i g . 2.10. T h i s
i n s t r u m e n t permits separate m e a s u r e m e n t s for total c a r b o n a n d i n o r g a n i c
c a r b o n . T o t a l c a r b o n includes the c a r b o n of organic materials a n d i n o r g a n i c
c a r b o n in t h e f o r m of c a r b o n a t e s ( C 0 ~ ) , b i c a r b o n a t e s ( H C 0 ~ ) , a n d C 0
3 3 2
d i s s o l v e d in t h e s a m p l e . T h e r e a r e t w o s e p a r a t e r e a c t i o n t u b e s : o n e o p e r a t e d
46 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e ( 9 5 0 ° C ) for m e a s u r e m e n t of t o t a l c a r b o n a n d a n o t h e r
operated at low t e m p e r a t u r e (150°C) for m e a s u r e m e n t of inorganic c a r b o n .
D e p e n d i n g o n r a n g e o f a n a l y s i s , a 2 0 - 2 0 0 μΐ w a t e r s a m p l e is s y r i n g e injected
i n t o a flowing s t r e a m o f a i r a n d s w e p t i n t o a c a t a l y t i c c o m b u s t i o n t u b e c o n
t a i n i n g a c o b a l t o x i d e - i m p r e g n a t e d p a c k i n g . T h e s o u r c e o f a i r w h i c h is u s e d
as carrier/oxidizer should be a low h y d r o c a r b o n , low C 0 content cylinder. 2
T h e c o m b u s t i o n t u b e ( h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e c o m b u s t i o n t u b e ) is e n c l o s e d in a n
e l e c t r i c f u r n a c e t h e r m o s t a t e d a t 9 5 0 ° C . W a t e r is v a p o r i z e d a n d all c a r b o n a
c e o u s m a t e r i a l is o x i d i z e d t o C 0 a n d s t e a m . A i r f l o w c a r r i e s t h i s c l o u d o u t
2
o f t h e f u r n a c e w h e r e t h e s t e a m is c o n d e n s e d a n d r e m o v e d . T h e C 0 is s w e p t 2
is a m e a s u r e of C 0 p r e s e n t , w h i c h is directly p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e c o n c e n t r a
2
t i o n o f t o t a l c a r b o n in t h e o r i g i n a l s a m p l e a n d i n c l u d e s o r g a n i c c a r b o n ,
inorganic carbon, and C 0 2 dissolved in the sample. By using s t a n d a r d
s o l u t i o n s , t h e c h a r t is c a l i b r a t e d in m i l l i g r a m s t o t a l c a r b o n p e r liter o f s a m p l e .
I n a s e c o n d o p e r a t i o n , a s a m p l e o f s i m i l a r size is a l s o s y r i n g e injected i n t o a
s t r e a m of a i r a n d s w e p t i n t o t h e s e c o n d r e a c t i o n t u b e (low t e m p e r a t u r e
reaction tube), containing q u a r t z chips wetted with 8 5 % p h o s p h o r i c acid.
T h i s t u b e is e n c l o s e d in a n electric h e a t e r t h e r m o s t a t e d a t 150°C, w h i c h is
b e l o w t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h o r g a n i c m a t t e r is o x i d i z e d . T h e a c i d - t r e a t e d
p a c k i n g c a u s e s release o f C 0 f r o m i n o r g a n i c c a r b o n a t e s , a n d t h e w a t e r is
2
w h e r e s t e a m is c o n d e n s e d a n d r e m o v e d . B y p r e v i o u s r e p o s i t i o n i n g of a d u a l
c h a n n e l selector v a l v e , t h e C 0 is s w e p t i n t o t h e i n f r a r e d a n a l y z e r .
2
T h i s q u a n t i t y of C 0 is a l s o i n d i c a t e d o n t h e s t r i p c h a r t r e c o r d e r a s a
2
t r a n s i e n t p e a k . P e a k h e i g h t is a m e a s u r e of t h e C 0 p r e s e n t , w h i c h is p r o p o r
2
t i o n a l t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f i n o r g a n i c c a r b o n a t e s p l u s C 0 d i s s o l v e d in t h e
2
o r i g i n a l s a m p l e . B y u s i n g s t a n d a r d s o l u t i o n s , t h e c h a r t is c a l i b r a t e d in milli
g r a m s i n o r g a n i c c a r b o n p e r liter of s a m p l e . S u b t r a c t i n g r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d in
t h e s e c o n d o p e r a t i o n f r o m t h o s e in t h e first yields t o t a l o r g a n i c c a r b o n in
m i l l i g r a m s T O C p e r liter of s a m p l e .
3.3. OXYGEN D E M A N D - O R G A N I C C A R B O N
CORRELATION
T h e r a t i o T h O D / T h O C , w h i c h t h e o r e t i c a l l y is e q u a l t o t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c
ratio of oxygen t o c a r b o n for total oxidation of the organic c o m p o u n d u n d e r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n , r a n g e s in p r a c t i c e f r o m n e a r l y z e r o , w h e n t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r
is r e s i s t a n t t o d i c h r o m a t e o x i d a t i o n (e.g., p y r i d i n e ) , t o v a l u e s o f t h e o r d e r o f
6.33 for m e t h a n e o r e v e n slightly h i g h e r w h e n i n o r g a n i c r e d u c i n g a g e n t s a r e
p r e s e n t . T a b l e 2.2 p r e s e n t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n o x y g e n d e m a n d a n d t o t a l
c a r b o n for several o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s .
4. Mathematical Model for the B O D Curve 47
Table 2.2
Relationships between Oxygen Demand and
Total Carbon for Organic Compounds [3]
ThOD/ThOC COD/TOC
Substance (calculated) (measured)
C o r r e l a t i o n o f B O D w i t h T O C for i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s is difficult b e c a u s e
o f t h e i r c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n in c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n . F o r d o m e s t i c w a s t e
w a t e r s a r e l a t i v e l y g o o d c o r r e l a t i o n h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d , w h i c h is r e p r e s e n t e d
b y t h e s t r a i g h t line r e l a t i o n s h i p given b y E q . ( 2 . 2 2 ) .
BOD 2 = 1 . 8 7 ( T O C ) - 17 (2.22)
4. M a t h e m a t i c a l Model for t h e
BOD Curve
It is d e s i r a b l e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e B O D c u r v e ( F i g . 2.2) b y a m a t h e m a t i c a l
m o d e l . F r o m k i n e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 3), t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l
m o d e l utilized t o p o r t r a y t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n is t h a t o f a first-order
r e a c t i o n . F i g u r e 2.2 r e v e a l s t h a t t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n , given b y t h e
t a n g e n t t o t h e c u r v e a t a given i n c u b a t i o n t i m e , d e c r e a s e s a s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
organic matter remaining unoxidized becomes gradually smaller. Since there
is a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n a n d t h a t o f d e s t r u c
t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r b y b i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n , r a t e e q u a t i o n [ E q . ( 2 . 2 3 ) ] is
w r i t t e n in t e r m s o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( L ; m g / l i t e r ) .
dL/dt=-k L 1 (2.23)
w h e r e L is c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r ( m g / l i t e r ) a t t i m e t\ dL/dt r a t e o f
9
d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r b y a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n (dL/dt < 0 ) ;
r, t i m e o f i n c u b a t i o n ( d a y s ) ; a n d k r a t e c o n s t a n t ( d a y ) .
u
- 1
S e p a r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s L a n d /, a n d i n t e g r a t i n g f r o m t i m e z e r o c o r r e s p o n d i n g
t o initial c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r , L , t o a t i m e t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
0
C h a n g i n g t o d e c i m a l l o g a r i t h m s [ E q . (2.25)]
l o g ( L / L ) = - * i //2.303
0 (2.25)
L e t j b e t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r o x i d i z e d u p t o t i m e r, i.e.,
y = L 0 - L (2.28)
Conversely, y also measures the oxygen c o n s u m p t i o n u p to time i.e., t h e
o r d i n a t e o f t h e B O D c u r v e in F i g . 2.2 a t t i m e C o m b i n i n g E q s . (2.28) a n d
(2.27),
y = LoO-10-*') (2.29)
w h i c h is t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l for t h e B O D c u r v e . F r o m E q . (2.29) it
f o l l o w s t h a t f o r a v e r y l o n g o x i d a t i o n p e r i o d (i.e., t-> oo), y = L . 0 Therefore,
k and L 0 m e a s u r e , respectively, t h e r a t e of b i o c h e m i c a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n a n d t h e
total a m o u n t of putrescible m a t t e r present.
F r o m E q . (2.27)
l o g L = logLo - kt (2.30)
5. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of P a r a m e t e r s
k and L 0
I n a p p l i c a t i o n o f E q . (2.29) o n e u s u a l l y h a s a v a i l a b l e a series o f B O D
m e a s u r e m e n t s (y) a t a s e q u e n c e (n= 1,2, 3 , . . . ,x) d a y s . It is d e s i r e d t o d e t e r
m i n e t h e o p t i m u m v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s k a n d L w h i c h satisfy E q . (2.29) for
0
t h e set o f d a t a . T h u s , it is f u n d a m e n t a l l y a curve-fitting p r o b l e m .
Several m e t h o d s for c a l c u l a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s k a n d L h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d .
0
T h r e e o f t h e s e , r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r [ 3 ] , a r e (1) log-difference
m e t h o d , (2) m e t h o d o f m o m e n t s [ 1 0 ] , a n d (3) T h o m a s ' g r a p h i c a l m e t h o d .
5.1. L O G - D I F F E R E N C E M E T H O D
T h i s m e t h o d is b a s e d o n t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g E q .
(2.29) w i t h r e s p e c t t o / :
dyjdt = r = L ( - 1 0 - ) ( l n 10)(-A:)
0
ki
(2.31)
5. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of P a r a m e t e r s k a n d L 0 49
or
dy/dt = r = l.mLok · IO"*' (2.32)
w h e r e r is t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n . T a k i n g d e c i m a l l o g a r i t h m s
k = -(slope) (2.34)
Λ L 0 = intercept/(2.303A:) = i n t e r c e p t / ( 2 . 3 0 3 ) ( - s l o p e ) (2.36)
E x a m p l e 2.1
T h e d a t a in T a b l e 2.3 o n o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m B O D tests
of a w a s t e w a t e r .
O b t a i n t h e v a l u e s o f k a n d L in t h e B O D e q u a t i o n .
0
T A B L E 2.3
B O D Tests of Wastewater
/ (days) >> ( m g / l i t e r of B O D )
0 0.0
1 9.2
2 15.9
3 20.9
4 24.4
5 27.2
6 29.1
7 30.6
50 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
SOLUTION
Step 1. D a t a a r e p l o t t e d in F i g . 2 . 1 1 . T h e c u r v e is fairly s m o o t h a n d t h e
r a w d a t a a r e u s e d i n S t e p 2. If n e e d e d , s m o o t h i n g is d o n e b y t h e b e s t s t r a i g h t -
line fit.
Ο 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (days)
T A B L E 2.4
Log-Difference Values from Table 2.3
(J) (4)
U) (2) Ay (mg/liter) = Ay/At; Mid-interval
t (days) y (mg/liter) since Δ / = 1 values o f t
0 0 — —
1 9.2 9.2 0.5
2 15.9 6.7 1.5
3 20.9 5.0 2.5
4 24.4 3.5 3.5
5 27.2 2.8 4.5
6 29.1 1.9 5.5
7 30.6 1.5 6.5
5. Determination of Parameters k and L 0 51
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (days); [Column ® , table 2.4]
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e k a n d L . 0
Slope = ( l o g l 0 . 9 - l o g l . 2 ) / ( 0 - 7 ) = - 0 . 1 3 7
5.2. M E T H O D O F M O M E N T S [10]
T h i s m e t h o d is of s i m p l e a p p l i c a t i o n o n c e d i a g r a m s o f - ^ d v s a n
Σ y/Σ ty vs. k a r e c o n s t r u c t e d f o r a n « - d a y s e q u e n c e o f B O D m e a s u r e m e n t s .
E q u a t i o n s are derived next for c o n s t r u c t i o n of M o o r e ' s d i a g r a m s for a n «-day
s e q u e n c e o f B O D m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e s e e q u a t i o n s a r e a p p l i e d t o 7-, 5-, a n d
3-day sequences, yielding Figs. 2.13-2.15, respectively.
Consider B O D measurements taken over a n η-day sequence, as indicated
in T a b l e 2 . 5 . F i r s t , c a l c u l a t e r a t i o Σ y/^o- T h e s u m m a t i o n o f e n t r i e s in c o l u m n
(2) of T a b l e 2.5 is [ E q . (2.37)]
= L [ ( l + 1 + 1 + ··· + l ) - ( 1 0 - * + 1 0 -
0
2 f c
+10- 3 k
+ ·· -MO" *)] 1
(2.37)
or
= L [/i-(10- +10-
0
f c 2 k
+10- 3 f c
+..+10- n k
)] (2.38)
2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
T A B L E 2.5
B O D Measurements, /i-Day Sequence
(2)
Eq. (2.29);
U) / = 1,2,3,...,Λ; (J) = (7)x(2)
t (days) ^ = Lo(l-10-*0 ty
1 Lo(l-10-*) Lo(l-10-*)
2 Lo(l-10- ) 2 k
2L (l-10- )
0
2 f c
3 LoO-lO" *) 3
3L (l-10- )
0
3 f c
4 Lod-lO- *) 4
4L (l-10- )
o
4 k
5 LoO-lO" *) 5
5L (1-10- *)
0
5
6 LoO-lO" *) 6
6L (l-10- )
0
6 f c
7 Lo(l-10- *) 7
7L (l-10- )
0
7 k
L (l-10-
0
M f c
) nL (l-\0-" )
o
k
Zy/Zty|
0.240
0.235
0.230
0.225
k (day*) 1
Zy/Zty|
0.310
0.300
0.290
0.280
T h e t e r m s w i t h i n p a r e n t h e s e s in E q . (2.38) f o r m a g e o m e t r i c a l p r o g r e s s i o n
for w h i c h t h e s u m of t e r m s is [ E q . ( 2 . 3 9 ) ]
S = [ ( 1 0 - * ) ( 1 0 - * - 1 ) ] / ( 1 0 - * - 1)
n
(2.39)
Y^y/Lo = η — [10 - f c
(10 - n k
— l)/(10~ — 1)]fe
(2.40)
p l o t s a c u r v e of Σ y/L vs. k.
0
(2.41)
or
/ i = n i=n \
(2.42)
54 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
^y/L 0
0.440
0.434
T h e r e f o r e , f r o m E q s . (2.40) a n d (2.42), r a t i o Σ ^ / Σ ^ is
Λ-[ι0-*(10-"*-1)/(10-*-1)]
(2.43)
Σ!=ΐ''-Σί=ΐ''χ ιο-
F r o m E q . (2.43) it f o l l o w s t h a t f o r a g i v e n s e q u e n c e o f η d a y s , r a t i o Σ y/Έ ty
is o n l y a f u n c t i o n o f k. T h u s f o r a fixed n, o n e a s s u m e s v a l u e s o f k a n d p l o t s a
c u r v e o f Σ y/Σ ty v s . * f r o m E q . (2.43).
F o r specific c a s e s s u c h a s t h e 7 - d a y s e q u e n c e , E q s . (2.40) a n d (2.43) yield
E q . (2.44).
For η=7
Σγ/Lo = 7 - [10-*(10- *-l)/(10-*-l)]
7
(2.44)
i=7
X ι = Σ1=1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 = 28
5. Determination of Parameters k and L 0 55
and
£ ,· χ i o ~ ifc
= 10"* + 2 χ I O " * + 3 χ I O " * + 4 χ 1 0 " *
2 3 4
t= ι
+ 5 χ 10~ 5fc
+ 6 x IO" * + 7 χ 10"
6 7fc
i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 2.2.
Example 2.2
D e t e r m i n e values of k a n d L 0 f r o m t h e set o f B O D d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f
Example 2.1.
SOLUTION
Step L C o n s t r u c t T a b l e 2.6.
T A B L E 2.6
Application of Moore's Method (Example 2.2)
t (days) y (mg/liter B O D ) ty
0 0.0 0.0
1 9.2 9.2
2 15.9 31.8
3 20.9 62.7
4 24.4 97.6
5 27.2 136.0
6 29.1 174.6
7 30.6 214.2
Ey= 157.3 Σ 0> = 726.1
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e r a t i o Σ.ν/ΣΟ'·
YjfLty = 157.3/726.1 = 0.217
k = 0.140 d a y " 1
(Abscissa of lower curve)
X^/L 0 = 4.62
•'· o = L W -
L 4 6 2
= 157.3/4.62 = 34.05 mg/liter
56 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
w h i c h is a f a c t o r o f E q . (2.29), a n d t h e f u n c t i o n
2.3A:/[l + ( 2 . 3 / 6 ) t o ] - 3
(2.47)
T h i s s i m i l a r i t y is seen in t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e series e x p a n s i o n s , w h i c h a r e
(l-10- f c i
) = (2.3A:/)[l-(l/2)(2.3A:/) + ( l / 6 ) ( 2 . 3 A : 0 - ( l / 2 4 ) ( 2 . 3 / c r ) + ···]2 3
(2.48)
and
2.3A:/[l + ( 2 . 3 / 6 ) / c i ] - = (2.3kt)[l-(\/2)(23kt)
3
+ (\/6)(2.3kt) 2
-(l/21.6)(2.3A:r) + ···] 3
(2.49)
C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r s o f E q s . (2.48) a n d (2.49) r e v e a l s
t h a t t h e first t h r e e t e r m s in t h e t w o series w i t h i n b r a c k e t s a r e i d e n t i c a l , a n d
t h a t t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e f o u r t h t e r m s is s m a l l . R e p l a c i n g t h e f u n c t i o n
b e t w e e n p a r e n t h e s e s in E q . (2.29) b y its a p p r o x i m a t i o n given b y E q . (2.47)
yields E q . (2.50).
f r o m w h i c h , t a k i n g t h e inverse a n d r e a r r a n g i n g ,
T a k i n g t h e c u b e r o o t of b o t h m e m b e r s o f E q . (2.51) a n d r e a r r a n g i n g ,
Slope = Β = ( 2 . 3 A : ) / 6 L 2/3
0
1/3
(2.53)
Intercept = A = 1/(2.3A:L ) 0
1/3
(2.54)
L0 = \/(2.3kA ) 3
(2.56)
5. Determination of Parameters k and L 0 57
0.4
0.3
0 2 4 6 8
t (days)
Fig. 2.16. Application of Thomas' method [14].
A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s m e t h o d is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 2 . 3 .
t (days) y ( B O D , mg/liter)
0 0
1 32
2 57
4 84
6 106
8 111
SOLUTION
Step 1. C o n s t r u c t T a b l e 2.7.
T A B L E 2.7
Application of Thomas' Method (Example 2.3)
0 0
1 32 0.03125 0.315
2 57 0.03509 0.327
4 84 0.04762 0.362
6 106 0.05660 0.384
8 111 0.07207 0.416
58 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
Β = ( 0 . 4 1 6 - 0 . 3 0 0 ) / ( 8 . 0 - 0 . 0 ) = 0.0145 (slope)
Step 3. F r o m E q s . (2.55) a n d (2.56), o b t a i n k a n d L.
0
L Q = l / [ 2 . 3 x 0 . 1 3 ( 0 . 3 0 ) ] = 124 mg/liter
3
6. R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n k a n d
Ratio B O D / B O D „ 5
E q u a t i o n (2.29) is w r i t t e n a s in E q . (2.57) f o r / = 5 d a y s , l e t t i n g y = B O D 5
and L = BOD .
0 M
A s s u m i n g v a l u e s o f k, a c u r v e o f B O D / B O D vs. k is p l o t t e d f r o m E q .
5 M
F r o m E q . (2.58) f o r l a r g e v a l u e s o f k, B O D / B O D a p p r o a c h e s u n i t y . T h i s
5 M
m e a n s t h a t for a g i v e n s u b s t r a t e , if t h e r a t e o f b i o c h e m i c a l o x i d a t i o n is v e r y
h i g h , t h e v a l u e o f B O D is essentially e q u a l t o t h a t o f t h e u l t i m a t e B O D .
5
7. Environmental Effects on
t h e BOD T e s t
T h e B O D test is affected b y t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p H .
7.1. E F F E C T O F T E M P E R A T U R E
T h e r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t k is d i r e c t l y affected b y t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e t e m
p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e o f k is g i v e n b y t h e v a n ' t H o f f - A r r h e n i u s e q u a t i o n
[Eq. (2.59)].
d\nkldT= E/RT 2
(2.59)
w h e r e k is r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t ; Γ , a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e ; R u n i v e r s a l g a s
9
c o n s t a n t ; a n d E, a c t i v a t i o n e n e r g y f o r t h e r e a c t i o n ( c o m m o n v a l u e s f o r
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s a r e in t h e r a n g e o f 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 c a l / g m o l e ) .
I n t e g r a t i n g b e t w e e n limits [ E q . ( 2 . 6 0 ) ] :
T h e n [ E q . (2.61)]
ln(* /*,)= C(r -r ) 2 2 (2.61) x
k /k 2 1 = e ^~ c T l )
(2.62)
L e t e = θ = t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient. T h e n
c
k /k2 1 = Θ ~^(Τ2 Τ
(2.63)
w h e r e k is r e a c t i o n r a t e a t T°C; k , r e a c t i o n r a t e a t 20°C; a n d Γ, t e m p e r a
T 2 0
t u r e (°C). A l t h o u g h θ is a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t , it v a r i e s slightly w i t h t e m
p e r a t u r e a n d its a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d . V a l u e s g i v e n b e l o w a r e
those r e c o m m e n d e d b y Schroepfer [12].
θ = 1.135 (4°-20°C)
θ = 1.056 (20°-30°C)
F r o m E q . (2.64) it follows t h a t f o r a 10° rise in t e m p e r a t u r e t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e
nearly doubles.
7.2. E F F E C T O F p H
T h e s t a n d a r d B O D test specifies a p H o f 7.2. If t h e p H is n o t 7.2, v a l u e s o f
B O D o b t a i n e d a r e l o w e r . I t is r e c o m m e n d e d , t h e r e f o r e , t o a d j u s t t h e p H t o
5
7.2. A t y p i c a l c u r v e o f p e r c e n t a g e o f n o r m a l 5-day B O D v s . p H is p r e s e n t e d
b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 4 ] ; its m a x i m u m (100%) c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o p H 7.2.
8. Nitrification
E q u a t i o n (2.29) d e s c r i b e s t h e o x i d a t i o n o f c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t t e r . O x i d a t i o n
o f n i t r o g e n o u s m a t e r i a l a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s t o o x y g e n d e m a n d if i n c u b a t i o n is
c a r r i e d o u t f o r a sufficiently l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e . T h i s o x i d a t i o n (referred t o a s
nitrification) takes place in t w o steps:
1. A m m o n i u m i o n , N H , is o x i d i z e d t o n i t r i t e s in t h e p r e s e n c e o f
4
+
Nitrosomonas m i c r o o r g a n i s m s [ E q . (2.65)].
2NH + + 3 0
4 2
W
' " T 2 N 0 " + 2 H 0 + 4H+ 2 2 (2.65)
2. N i t r i t e s a r e t h e n o x i d i z e d t o n i t r a t e s in t h e p r e s e n c e o f Nitrobacter
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s [ E q . (2.66)].
γ=Ι_ο(Ι-Ι0- ) j Μ
/^Combined demand
. / curve-.(without
> l
n / suppression of
y
/ nitrification)
Ε f
" (Nitrification suppressed)
/^Carbonaceous!
/oxygen demand j
/ curve !
f ι
a d d i t i o n o f c e r t a i n c h e m i c a l s (e.g., m e t h y l e n e b l u e , t h i o u r e a ) . If t h i s is d o n e ,
the B O D curve thus obtained approaches a limiting ordinate L 0 (ultimate
c a r b o n a c e o u s d e m a n d ) , a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 2.17. B e y o n d t i m e f , t h e c a r c
b o n a c e o u s o x y g e n d e m a n d is e s s e n t i a l l y satisfied, s o t h e o r d i n a t e v a l u e
b e c o m e s c o n s t a n t a t L . If, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , n i t r i f i c a t i o n is n o t s u p p r e s s e d
0
b e y o n d t = t , t h e effect o f n i t r i f i c a t i o n is s u p e r i m p o s e d o n t h e c a r b o n a c e o u s
c
o x y g e n d e m a n d t o yield t h e c o m b i n e d o x y g e n d e m a n d c u r v e ( c a r b o n a c e o u s +
nitrification d e m a n d ) .
T h e c a r b o n a c e o u s o x y g e n d e m a n d c u r v e is d e s c r i b e d b y E q . (2.29). If a
t r a n s l a t i o n of c o o r d i n a t e a x e s is p e r f o r m e d s o t h a t t h e o r i g i n of t h e n e w s y s t e m
o f c o o r d i n a t e s c o i n c i d e s w i t h p o i n t C ( s y s t e m Ay v s . t'), t h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e
nitrification o x y g e n d e m a n d c u r v e [ E q . ( 2 . 6 7 ) ] is w r i t t e n a s
Ay = L (\-\0- )
N
kNt
(t>t )
c (2.67)
w h e r e t' = t - t . c Thus
= L^l-lO-*""-^] (2.68)
where k N is t h e r a t e c o n s t a n t f o r n i t r o g e n o u s d e m a n d a n d L N the ultimate
n i t r o g e n o u s d e m a n d . T h e a b s c i s s a axis of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m Ay v s . t'
essentially c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e c a r b o n a c e o u s o x y g e n d e m a n d c u r v e b e y o n d
t = t. c
9. Evaluation of Biological Treatment 61
y = L (l-10- 0
f c t
) (2.29)
For t > t c
y = L ( l - 1 0 - ) + L [1 - l()-*» -'<>]
fci (t
(2.69)
> for t > t ,
0 N
^
increment Ay
c
L ( l — IO *')
0
-
L 0 due to nitrogenous
demand
v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e n e w s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s [i.e., E q .
(2.68)].
9. Evaluation of Feasibility of
Biological T r e a t m e n t for an
Industrial W a s t e w a t e r
9.1. INTRODUCTION
F r e q u e n t l y , it is n e c e s s a r y t o c o n d u c t t r e a t a b i l i t y s t u d i e s f o r s t r e a m s o f
i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s , since t h e y m a y c o n t a i n t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s w h i c h h a v e
a n a d v e r s e effect o n b i o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s . T h e p r o b l e m o f a c c l i m a t i o n o f m i c r o
o r g a n i s m seed t o t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 2 . 3 . 1 . T w o t y p e s o f
t e s t s t o e v a l u a t e t h e feasibility o f b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t for i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e
w a t e r [ 4 ] a r e (1) m a n o m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e s (Warburg respirometer), a n d (2)
batch reactor evaluation.
9.2. W A R B U R G R E S P I R O M E T E R
A s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m o f t h e W a r b u r g r e s p i r o m e t e r is s h o w n i n F i g . 2 . 1 8 .
T h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n , w h i c h c o n s i s t s in r e s p i r i n g a w a s t e w a t e r s a m p l e in
a c l o s e d a i r a t m o s p h e r e a t c o n s t a n t t e m p e r a t u r e , is i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o f t h e B O D
m a n o m e t r i c a p p a r a t u s ( S e c t i o n 2.3.2). O x y g e n utilized is m e a s u r e d w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t i m e b y n o t i n g t h e d e c r e a s e in p r e s s u r e o f t h e s y s t e m a t c o n s t a n t
v o l u m e . T h e C 0 e v o l v e d is a b s o r b e d b y a s o l u t i o n o f K O H ; t h u s t h e d e c r e a s e
2
in p r e s s u r e is a m e a s u r e o f o x y g e n c o n s u m p t i o n o n l y .
S t e p s in t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e a r e g i v e n b e l o w [ 4 ] .
1. T h e w a s t e w a t e r s a m p l e is p l a c e d in t h e s a m p l e flask w i t h t h e r e q u i r e d
v o l u m e of b i o l o g i c a l seed. T h e s a m p l e flask is i m m e r s e d i n a c o n s t a n t t e m
perature bath and agitated by a shaking mechanism.
2. A 2 0 % s o l u t i o n o f K O H is p l a c e d i n t h e c e n t e r well ( a b o u t o n e - q u a r t e r
full). I n s e r t a s t r i p o f f o l d e d filter p a p e r i n s i d e t h e c e n t e r well t o e n h a n c e t h e
alkali a b s o r p t i o n of c a r b o n dioxide. T h e p a p e r soaks u p K O H solution a n d
in t h i s w a y a l a r g e r a l k a l i s u r f a c e b e c o m e s a v a i l a b l e f o r a b s o r p t i o n o f c a r b o n
dioxide.
62 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
* Shaking is necessary because a film with a depleted oxygen concentration forms at the
interface between the gas phase and the liquid sample if there is n o agitation. This slows
d o w n the rate o f oxygen utilization. Shaking provides for film renewal s o that the liquor is
always in contact with a gas phase rich in oxygen.
9. Evaluation of Biological Treatment 63
m a n o m e t e r a t t a c h e d t o t h e t h e r m o b a r o m e t e r flask rises, t h e r e h a s b e e n a
d e c r e a s e in a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , a n d t h e o b s e r v e d r e a d i n g m u s t b e a d d e d t o
t h e test v a l u e . If, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e fluid in t h e o u t e r a r m o f t h e m a n o
m e t e r falls, t h e r e h a s b e e n a n i n c r e a s e in a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , a n d the
o b s e r v e d r e a d i n g m u s t b e s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e test v a l u e .
w h e r e P is t h e v a l u e o f a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a t s t a r t o f e x p e r i m e n t . D u r i n g
at
a n e x p e r i m e n t if t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e ( P ) rises, t h e c a l c u l a t e d h [ E q .
a t
(2.70)] w o u l d b e h i g h e r t h a n t h e t r u e v a l u e u n l e s s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i o n
is s u b t r a c t e d .
7. O n c e t h e s u b s t r a t e h a s b e e n utilized, o x y g e n u p t a k e stabilizes a n d t h e
test series is t e r m i n a t e d .
T h e c u m u l a t i v e o x y g e n u p t a k e s ( m i l l i g r a m s o f o x y g e n p e r liter o f s o l u t i o n )
a r e t h e n p l o t t e d vs. t i m e ( h r ) . A t y p i c a l g r a p h o b t a i n e d for a t o x i c w a s t e w a t e r
s t r e a m is s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 1 9 . T h i s s t r e a m is a d d e d t o d o m e s t i c s e w a g e ( i n d i
c a t e d a s " s e e d " in F i g . 2.19) in i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n s .
Seed" H O % waste
"Seed"*5% waste
Seed"*2% waste
Seed only
Seed" • more
than 10% waste
Time (hours)
F i g u r e 2.19 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s specific w a s t e w a t e r is t o x i c o r i n h i b i t o r y w h e n
its c o n c e n t r a t i o n e x c e e d s 10% in v o l u m e , in w h i c h c a s e t h e o x y g e n u p t a k e
suffers a l a r g e d r o p .
w h e r e P is t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a t s t a r t o f e x p e r i m e n t ( c m o f B r o d i e ' s
x
fluid)*; Κ t h e g a s v o l u m e in c l o s e d s y s t e m ( m l ) ; Γ t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f c o n s t a n t
t e m p e r a t u r e b a t h ( ° K ) ; N t h e g m o l e s of a i r a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f e x p e r i m e n t
t
F r o m E q . (2.71) w e d e r i v e E q . (2.72).
Ni = Λ VIRT (2.72)
A t t h e t i m e a r e a d i n g (A) is t a k e n ( F i g . 2.18)
P V=N RT
2 2 (2.73)
w h e r e P is t h e s y s t e m p r e s s u r e (P < Λ ) ί f t h e v o l u m e o f g a s p h a s e in s y s t e m
2 2
g a s p h a s e in c l o s e d s y s t e m a t t i m e of r e a d i n g . F o r N < N d u e t o o x y g e n 2 l
absorption, then
N = Ν,- χ2 (2.74)
w h e r e χ is g m o l e s of 0 2 adsorbed.
F r o m E q . (2.73)
N 2 = P VIRT 2 (2.75)
χ = Νχ — (P VIRT) 2 (2.76)
x = (V!RT)(P -P ) Y 2 (2.77)
m g / l i t e r is
(V x
s 1 0 - ) liter
3
3 2 g
x l O ^
gmole0 2 " g
* Specific gravity of Brodie's fluid is 1.001 at 0°C (with respect to water at 4°C). There
fore, normal atmospheric pressure is equivalent to a column of Brodie's fluid (at 0°C) of
height equal to
76.0 cm Hg χ 13.6 cm water/cm Hg χ cm Brodie's fluid/1.001 cm water
= (76.0 x 13.6)/(1.001) = 1032.6 cm Brodie's fluid at 0°C
(1032.6 cm Brodie) (22,412 ml/g mole)
t R = PoVolT =
273.2°K
0
or
Oxygen utilization = 32 χ \0 (VIV )(hlRT) 6
s (mg/liter) (2.79)
w h e r e Κ is t h e g a s v o l u m e in c l o s e d s y s t e m ( m l ) ; V t h e v o l u m e o f w a s t e w a t e r
s
s a m p l e ( m l ) ; h t h e r e a d i n g ( c m o f B r o d i e ' s fluid) ( F i g . 2 . 1 8 ) ; R t h e u n i v e r s a l
gas c o n s t a n t [84,709 (cm Brodie)(ml)/(g m o l e ) ( ° K ) ] ; a n d Τ the t e m p e r a t u r e
of b a t h (°K).
10. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
Municipal S e w a g e
M u n i c i p a l s e w a g e is c o m p o s e d m a i n l y o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r , e i t h e r in s o l u b l e
o r c o l l o i d a l f o r m o r a s s u s p e n d e d solids. E c k e n f e l d e r [ 3 ] r e p o r t s o f a n a l y s i s
o f d a t a o n m u n i c i p a l s e w a g e for a s u r v e y w h i c h i n c l u d e d 73 cities in 2 7 s t a t e s
of the United States. S o m e average per capita values from this survey are
F o r a city of o n e m i l l i o n p e o p l e , t h e f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s a r e o b t a i n e d b y p r o r a t i n g
this per capita data.
B O D : 200,000 lb/day
5
o r in t e r m s o f m g / l i t e r
P r e s e n c e o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s in a m u n i c i p a l s e w a g e s y s t e m m a y c h a n g e t h e s e
values considerably.
1 1 . Industrial W a s t e w a t e r S u r v e y s
T h e p r o c e d u r e t o b e f o l l o w e d in i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s u r v e y s h a s b e e n
d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 1 ( S e c t i o n 2.5.2, S t e p 1). A c o m p l e t e s e w e r m a p o f t h e
p l a n t is d e v e l o p e d . F o r a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i s objective, s a m p l i n g a n d m e a s u r i n g
s t a t i o n s a r e l o c a t e d in t h e p l a n t , i n c l u d i n g all significant s o u r c e s o f w a s t e
w a t e r s . A n a l y s e s t o b e r u n a r e selected a n d s a m p l i n g a n d a n a l y s e s s c h e d u l e s
carefully p l a n n e d . M a t e r i a l b a l a n c e s , i n c l u d i n g b o t h p r o c e s s a n d s e w e r lines,
are written.
S t a t i s t i c a l p l o t s f o r all significant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e p r e p a r e d . W h e n e v e r
p o s s i b l e , t h e s e statistical p l o t s a r e r e l a t e d t o p r o d u c t i o n , t h a t is, g a l / t o n o f
p r o d u c t or lb B O D / t o n of product. This permits extrapolation to other
p r o d u c t i o n schedules. Sources for wastewater segregation, reuse, a n d re
c i r c u l a t i o n a r e identified.
F l o w measurements of wastewater streams are performed by a variety of
methods, which are summarized by Eckenfelder [ 3 ] .
1. I n s t a l l a t i o n o f w e i r s for flow in o p e n c h a n n e l s a n d p a r t i a l l y filled s e w e r s
2. B u c k e t a n d s t o p w a t c h m e t h o d , s u i t a b l e f o r l o w flow r a t e s a n d / o r
i n t e r m i t t e n t d i s c h a r g e s . I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e , flow r a t e a n d d u r a t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n
are determined
3. P u m p i n g d u r a t i o n a n d r a t e . F l o w is e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
c u r v e s of t h e p u m p
4. T i m i n g a floating o b j e c t b e t w e e n t w o fixed p o i n t s a l o n g t h e c o u r s e .
T h i s m e t h o d is a p p l i e d t o p a r t i a l l y filled s e w e r s . D e p t h of flow in t h e s e w e r is
a l s o m e a s u r e d . A v e r a g e velocity is e s t i m a t e d f r o m s u r f a c e velocity, w h i c h is
t h e o n e directly m e a s u r e d . F o r l a m i n a r flow t h e a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y is a p p r o x i
m a t e l y 0.8 t i m e s t h e s u r f a c e velocity. F l o w is t h e n e v a l u a t e d f r o m t h e
k n o w l e d g e of t h i s a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y
5. E x a m i n a t i o n o f p l a n t w a t e r u s e r e c o r d s . T a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t w a t e r
losses in p r o d u c t o r d u e t o e v a p o r a t i o n , t h i s m e t h o d l e a d s t o a p p r o x i m a t e
estimates
6. T i m i n g c h a n g e o f level in t a n k s o r r e a c t o r s , u s e d p r i m a r i l y for b a t c h
operation discharges
12. S t a t i s t i c a l C o r r e l a t i o n of
Industrial W a s t e S u r v e y Data
I n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e s a r e h i g h l y v a r i a b l e in v o l u m e a n d c o m
p o s i t i o n a n d a r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y t r e a t e d b y statistical a n a l y s i s . P r o b a b i l i t y
p l o t s a r e u s e d w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h statistics of e v e n t s w h i c h fall i n t o t h e b e l l -
shaped probability curve so familiar t o statisticians. A plot of d a t a o n p r o b -
12. Correlation of Industrial Waste Survey Data 67
20001 1 1 j j—ι—|—|—ι 1 1 1 1
I000-
- 8 0 0 1
Ξ 600-
£ 400 Γ
Q
Ο
CD
200 [
1001 I I I I ι 1 1 I I I I ι
2 5 10 30 50 70 90 95 98
% of time that BOD value is equal to or less than the one
indicated at ordinate
Fig. 2.20. Probability plot for Example 2.4 (Method f).
T w o m e t h o d s f o r statistical c o r r e l a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s u r v e y d a t a a r e
r e c o m m e n d e d by Eckenfelder [ 3 ] .
M e t h o d (1) is r e c o m m e n d e d for s m a l l a m o u n t s of d a t a (i.e., less t h a n 2 0
d a t u m points).
Step 1. A r r a n g e d a t a in i n c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e .
Step 2. L e t η b e t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f p o i n t s a n d m t h e a s s i g n e d serial
n u m b e r f r o m 1 t o n. T a b u l a t e d a t a (in i n c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e ) vs. m.
Step 3. P l o t t i n g p o s i t i o n s ( a b s c i s s a s o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y p l o t ) a r e d e t e r
mined from
Frequency = (100//*) ( w - 0 . 5 )
T h i s q u a n t i t y is e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e p e r c e n t o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e v a l u e p l o t t e d in
t h e o r d i n a t e , i.e., p e r c e n t o f t i m e t h a t t h e v a l u e in q u e s t i o n is e q u a l t o o r less
t h a n t h e r e a d i n g o f t h e o r d i n a t e . T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e best-fit line is j u d g e d b y
eye o r t h e l e a s t - s q u a r e s m e t h o d is u s e d . A p p l i c a t i o n o f m e t h o d (1) is i l l u s t r a t e d
b y E x a m p l e 2.4.
Example 2.4
T h e f o l l o w i n g B O D d a t a ( m g / l i t e r ) a r r a n g e d in i n c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f m a g n i
t u d e w a s o b t a i n e d for a n i n d u s t r i a l s t r e a m [ c o l u m n ( / ) o f T a b l e 2 . 8 ] . P l o t
H e n r y ' s line b y t h e m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d .
68 2. Characterization of D o m e s t i c and Industrial W a s t e w a t e r s
T A B L E 2.8
Calculations for Example 2.4
(2)
U) Step 2 (3)
Step 1, (/i = 8 , m = l , 2 , . . . , 8 ) , Frequency = ( 1 0 0 / / i ) ( m - 0 . 5 ) ,
B O D (mg/liter) values o f m % time equal to or less than
400 1 6.25
450 2 18.75
520 3 31.25
630 4 43.75
700 5 56.25
730 6 68.75
860 7 81.25
1100 8 93.75
SOLUTION The procedure is indicated in Table 2.8 and Fig. 2.20. The
probability of occurrence of any value is now estimated. For example,
from Fig. 2.20 the BOD is equal to or less than 1000 mg/liter 90% of
the time.
A statistical analysis of the various waste characteristics provides a basis
for choice of design values. For example, the hydraulic capacity of a plant is
selected in excess of the 99% frequency (here the ordinate is flow rate). On the
other hand, sludge-handling facilities are usually designed on the basis of
the 50% frequency.
Method (2) is employed when a large number of data (more than 20
datum points) have to be analyzed. Calculate the plotting position [column
(5) of Table 2.8] from
Frequency = m/(n+\)
Problems
I. T h e following B O D data are given:
t (days) B O D (mg/liter)
1 6.5
2 11.0
3 15.0
4 18.0
5 20.0
6 22.0
7 23.0
8 24.0
9 25.0
10 26.0
References 69
References
1. Beckman Instruments Inc., Process Instruments Bull. 4 0 8 2 - D for M o d e l 9 1 5 - A ' T o t a l
Organic Carbon Analyzer." Beckman Instrum. Inc., Fullerton, California, 1975.
2. D o b b i n s , W . E., / . Sanit. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 9 0 , S A S , 53 (1964).
3. Eckenfelder, W . W . , Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes
& N o b l e , N e w York, 1970.
4. Eckenfelder, W . W . , Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
Austin and N e w York, 1970.
5. Gaudy, A . F . , and Ramanathan, M . , / . Water Pollut. Control Fed. 3 6 , 1470 (1964).
6. Goldstein, A . L., Katz, W . E . , Meller, F. H . , and Murdoch, D . M . , Pap., Div. Water,
Air Waste Chem., Am. Chem. Soc, Atlantic City, N.J., 1968.
1. H a c h Chemical Company, Laboratory Instrumentation M a n . 1M-12-1-72 for M o d e l
2173 "Manometric B O D Apparatus." H a c h C h e m . C o . , A m e s , I o w a , 1973.
8. H a c h Chemical C o m p a n y , "Procedures for Water and Wastewater Analysis," Manual,
2nd ed., p. 288. H a c h Chem. C o . , A m e s , I o w a , 1975.
9. Ionics Incorporated, "Total Oxygen Analyzer," Brochure for Ionics M o d e l 225. Ionics
Inc., Watertown, Massachusetts.
10. M o o r e , E . W . , T h o m a s , Η . Α . , Jr., and S n o w , W . B., Sewage Ind. Wastes 22,1343 (1950).
11. Precision Scientific Instruments, Precision A q u a R a t o r Bull. 644A. Precision Sci.
Instrum., Chicago, Illinois.
12. Schroepfer, G. S. et al, "Advances in Water Pollution Control," Vol. 2. Pergamon,
Oxford, 1964.
13. "Standard Methods for the Examination o f Water and Wastewater," 13th ed. A m .
Public Health Assoc., Yearbook Publ., Chicago, Illinois, 1971.
14. Stenger, V. Α . , and V a n Hall, C. E . , 21st Ann. ISA Conf., 1966 Reprint 53-4-66 (1966).
15. Stenger, V. Α . , and V a n Hall, C . E . , Anal. Chem. 3 9 , 206 (1967).
16. T h o m a s , Η . Α . , Water Sewage Works 9 7 , 1 2 3 (1950).
17. W o o d , E. D . , Perry, A . E . , Hitchcock, M . C , and Sadlier, Μ . E., Pap. 159th Am. Chem.
Soc. Meet., Houston, Texas, 1970.
3
Pretreatment and Primary
Treatment
1. Introduction 70
2. Screening 71
3. Sedimentation 71
3.1. Introduction 71
3.2. Types of Settling 71
3.3. Theory of Discrete Settling 72
3.4. The Ideal Sedimentation Tank Concept 76
3.5. Flocculent Settling 84
3.6. Zone Settling 98
3.7. Types of Clarifiers 105
4. Flotation 107
4.1. Introduction 107
4.2. Evaluation of Flotation Variables for Process Design 108
4.3. Design Procedure for Flotation Units without and with Recycle 112
5. Neutralization (and Equalization) 114
5.1. Neutralization in the Field of Wastewater Treatment 114
5.2. Methods for Neutralization of Wastewaters 114
5.3. Equalization 114
5.4. Direct pH Control M e t h o d s : Neutralization of Acidic Wastes
by Direct pH Control Methods 116
5.5. Limestone Beds 116
5.6. Slurried Lime Treatment 120
5.7. Neutralization of Alkaline Wastes 123
Problems 123
References 125
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
Selection of a wastewater t r e a t m e n t process or sequence of processes
d e p e n d s o n a n u m b e r o f f a c t o r s , i.e., (1) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r ,
e.g., B O D , % of s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , p H , p r e s e n c e o f t o x i c m a t e r i a l s ; (2) r e q u i r e d
effluent q u a l i t y ; (3) c o s t a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f l a n d , e.g., c e r t a i n b i o l o g i c a l
p r o c e s s e s ( s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s ) a r e o n l y e c o n o m i c a l l y feasible if l o w c o s t
l a n d is a v a i l a b l e ; a n d (4) c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a p o s s i b l e f u t u r e u p g r a d i n g o f w a t e r
quality s t a n d a r d s , necessitating design of a m o r e sophisticated type of treat
m e n t for future use.
P r e t r e a t m e n t of w a s t e w a t e r i m p l i e s r e m o v a l o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s o r c o n -
70
3. Sedimentation 71
d i t i o n i n g o f w a s t e w a t e r for d i s c h a r g e i n t o e i t h e r a r e c e i v i n g b o d y o f w a t e r o r
a s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t facility t h r o u g h n e u t r a l i z a t i o n a n d / o r equalization.
T y p e s o f p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t d i s c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p t e r a r e (1) s c r e e n i n g , (2)
s e d i m e n t a t i o n , (3) flotation, a n d (4) n e u t r a l i z a t i o n a n d e q u a l i z a t i o n .
2. S c r e e n i n g
S c r e e n i n g is e m p l o y e d for r e m o v a l o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s o f v a r i o u s sizes.
S c r e e n o p e n i n g s r a n g e in size d e p e n d i n g o n t h e i r p u r p o s e , a n d c l e a n i n g o f
screens is d o n e e i t h e r m a n u a l l y o r m e c h a n i c a l l y . S c r e e n i n g s a r e d i s p o s e d o f
b y b u r i a l , i n c i n e r a t i o n , o r a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n . S c r e e n s a r e classified a s fine
and coarse.
F i n e s c r e e n s h a v e o p e n i n g s of 3/16 i n . o r s m a l l e r . T h e y a r e u s u a l l y m a d e o f
steel m e s h o r p e r f o r a t e d steel p l a t e s a n d s o m e t i m e s u s e d i n s t e a d o f s e d i m e n t a
tion tanks. However, whereas they r e m o v e from 5 to 2 5 % of suspended solids,
4 0 - 6 0 % is r e m o v e d b y s e d i m e n t a t i o n . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , a n d a l s o b e c a u s e
c l o g g i n g is f r e q u e n t l y a p r o b l e m , u s e o f fine s c r e e n s is n o t v e r y c o m m o n .
C o a r s e s c r e e n s h a v e o p e n i n g s r a n g i n g f r o m 1.5 t o 3.0 in. T h e y a r e u s e d a s
p r o t e c t i n g devices s o t h a t l a r g e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s d o n o t d a m a g e p u m p s a n d
other equipment.
S o m e t i m e s shredders are used instead of coarse screens. These devices tear
d o w n suspended solids, which are then r e m o v e d by sedimentation.
3. S e d i m e n t a t i o n
3.1. INTRODUCTION
S e d i m e n t a t i o n is u t i l i z e d in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t t o s e p a r a t e s u s p e n d e d
solids f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s . R e m o v a l b y s e d i m e n t a t i o n is b a s e d o n t h e difference
in specific g r a v i t y b e t w e e n solid p a r t i c l e s a n d t h e b u l k o f t h e l i q u i d , w h i c h
r e s u l t s in s e t t l i n g o f s u s p e n d e d solids.
I n s o m e c a s e s , s e d i m e n t a t i o n is t h e o n l y t r e a t m e n t t o w h i c h t h e w a s t e w a t e r
is s u b j e c t e d . S e d i m e n t a t i o n is a l s o utilized i n o n e o r m o r e s t e p s o f a t r e a t m e n t
s e q u e n c e . I n a t y p i c a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t , s e d i m e n t a t i o n is utilized in t h r e e
of t h e t r e a t m e n t s t e p s : (1) in grit c h a m b e r s , in w h i c h i n o r g a n i c m a t t e r (e.g.,
s a n d ) is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e w a s t e w a t e r ; (2) i n t h e p r i m a r y clarifier, w h i c h
p r e c e d e s t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r , solids ( o r g a n i c a n d o t h e r s ) a r e s e p a r a t e d ; a n d
(3) in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier, w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r , t h e b i o l o g i c a l
s l u d g e is s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e t r e a t e d effluent.
3.2. T Y P E S O F S E T T L I N G
T h r e e t y p e s o f settling a r e r e c o g n i z e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n a t u r e o f s o l i d s
p r e s e n t in t h e s u s p e n s i o n .
72 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
3.3. T H E O R Y O F D I S C R E T E S E T T L I N G
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p for s e t t l i n g of d i s c r e t e p a r t i c l e s is N e w t o n ' s
l a w , w h i c h is b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t p a r t i c l e s a r e s p h e r i c a l w i t h a
u n i f o r m d i a m e t e r . W h e n a p a r t i c l e settles, it a c c e l e r a t e s u n t i l t h e forces
p r o m o t i n g settling, i.e., t h e p a r t i c l e effective w e i g h t , a r e b a l a n c e d b y t h e d r a g
o r f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e l i q u i d . W h e n t h i s e q u a l i t y is a c h i e v e d , t h e
particle reaches a c o n s t a n t settling velocity called the terminal o r settling
velocity of the particle.*
C o n s i d e r t h e p a r t i c l e in F i g . 3 . 1 , w h i c h h a s r e a c h e d its t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y ,
a n d write the a p p r o p r i a t e force balance. T h e force p r o m o t i n g sedimentation,
i.e., t h e effective w e i g h t of t h e p a r t i c l e , is t h e difference b e t w e e n its a c t u a l
w e i g h t a n d t h e h y d r o s t a t i c lift:
F S = vp g s - vp gL = (ps-pdgv (3.1)
FD — C A(p V /2)
D L
2
(3.2)
where F D is t h e d r a g f o r c e ; C D t h e d r a g coefficient; A t h e p r o j e c t e d a r e a o f
t h e p a r t i c l e , A = \nd ; 2
a n d V t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y b e t w e e n p a r t i c l e a n d fluid.
F o r t h e c o n d i t i o n defining t h e t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y , e q u a t e E q s . (3.1) a n d (3.2).
(Ps-p )gv
L = C A(p Vs /2)
D L
2
where
V = v s = settling velocity
* This results from force = (mass) (acceleration). Thus zero acceleration corresponds t o
a net force of zero, i.e., a perfect balance o f forces.
3. Sedimentation 73
S u b s t i t u t i n g ν = \nd , 3
A = bnd , 2
a n d solving for the t e r m i n a l velocity, V s
[Eq.(3.3)]:
1/2
Vs = (3.3)
PL
w h i c h is N e w t o n ' s l a w .
F o r s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e s , t h e d r a g coefficient C D is r e l a t e d t o t h e R e y n o l d s
n u m b e r N defined in E q . (3.4).
R
N R = dVsp /p L L (3.4)
w h e r e d is t h e d i a m e t e r of s p h e r e , V t h e t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y ( s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y ) ,
s
and p L and p L t h e d e n s i t y a n d v i s c o s i t y of l i q u i d . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p is s h o w n
in F i g . 3.2.*
10'
Sto ies* Trc nsition 1 Newtc n's
\ l a w i egion re^ |ion regior
io-
C =I8
D
iC =0 4 D
N
R = d
W ^ L
* For nonspherical particles Fig. 3.2 is plotted as a family o f curves, each curve corre
sponding to specified value o f a parameter defined as sphericity [sphericity, φ = (surface
area o f a sphere having same v o l u m e as particle)/(surface area o f particle)]. See Waddel [8].
74 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
I n g e n e r a l , t h e d r a g coefficient C D is a p p r o x i m a t e d b y
C D = b/N R
n
(3.5)
T A B L E 3.1
Drag Coefficient C i
Region b η CD = b/N R
n
Stokes' law
N <2
R 24 1.0 CD = 24/N R
Transition
2 < N R < 500 18.5 0.6 C =\$.5/N
D R
06
Newton's
N>R 500 0.4 0.0 C D = 0.4
:. l o g C D = - l o g J V * + log 24
T h u s t h e c u r v e in F i g . 3.2 is a p p r o x i m a t e l y r e p l a c e d b y t h r e e s e g m e n t s o f
s t r a i g h t line w i t h s l o p e s of, respectively, — 1, —0.6, a n d 0.0.
M a n y sedimentation p r o b l e m s i n w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t o c c u r in S t o k e s '
region. Substituting C D = 24/N R = 24p /dV p L in E q . (3.3) a n d s i m p l i f y i n g ,
s L
S t o k e s ' l a w is o b t a i n e d .
V s = 1/18- -±^-gd P 2
(3.6)
ML
Vs = Kd 2
(3.7)
( w h e r e AT is a c o n s t a n t ) , w h i c h i n l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m b e c o m e s [ E q . ( 3 . 8 ) ]
Vs = K'd 1/2
(3.9)
( w h e r e K' — a c o n s t a n t ) w h i c h in l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m b e c o m e s E q . (3.10).
where C is a c o n s t a n t . T h u s , a l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t of V v s . d y i e l d s a s t r a i g h t
s
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s v a l u e i n E q . (3.3) a n d s i m p l i f y i n g , o n e o b t a i n s E q . (3.11).
Vs = [ ( 4 ^ / 5 5 . 5 ) ( / 7 - / / / - ) ( / - / ) / / > J ^
L
0 6
L
0 6
? s ? L
1 1 1 4 3
= K*d l 1 4 3
(3.11)
w h e r e K" is a c o n s t a n t . I n l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m t h i s b e c o m e s [ E q . ( 3 . 1 2 ) ]
w h e r e C " is a c o n s t a n t . T h u s , a l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f V vs. d y i e l d s a s t r a i g h t s
for t h e t h r e e r e g i o n s is s h o w n in F i g . 3 . 3 . E v e n in t h e c a s e o f g r i t c h a m b e r s ,
t h e t h e o r y j u s t o u t l i n e d suffers f r o m t w o s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s : (1) g r i t p a r t i c l e s
a r e s e l d o m s p h e r i c a l , a n d (2) grit p a r t i c l e s d o n o t h a v e u n i f o r m d e n s i t y .
A g r a p h c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o E q . (3.3) is p l o t t e d in F i g . 3.4, g i v i n g t h e r e l a t i o n
ship between particle d i a m e t e r a n d velocity V . s P a r t i c l e s o f specific g r a v i t i e s
1.001, 1.01, a n d 2.65 a r e c o n s i d e r e d in p l o t t i n g F i g . 3.4. V a l u e 2.65 c o r r e s p o n d s
t o t h e specific g r a v i t y of t y p i c a l s a n d . T h e l i q u i d u s e d is w a t e r a t t e m p e r a t u r e s
indicated, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to respective values of p , μ . Values of C L £ D are
o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g . 3.2 b y a trial a n d e r r o r p r o c e d u r e : (1) f o r specified p a r t i c l e
log d
10 10"' K) 10
Velocity of fall, c m / s e c
Fig. 3.4. Relation between settling velocity and particle diameter [4].
d i a m e t e r a n d t e m p e r a t u r e (p a n d p fixed) a s s u m e a s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V ;
L L s
C ; a n d (4) F r o m E q . 3.3 r e c a l c u l a t e V . If it a g r e e s w i t h t h e v a l u e a s s u m e d
D s
in (1) c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c o n s i s t e n t . O t h e r w i s e , i t e r a t i o n is c o n t i n u e d u n t i l
a g r e e m e n t is o b t a i n e d .
F i g u r e 3.4 is c o n s t r u c t e d in t h i s m a n n e r . S i n c e c o n s t r u c t i o n is b a s e d u p o n
t h e a c t u a l c u r v e o f C vs. N (i.e., F i g . 3.2), t h e lines in F i g . 3.4 e x h i b i t s o m e
D R
c u r v a t u r e , b y c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e t h r e e s t r a i g h t line s e g m e n t s in F i g . 3.3 [ c o n
s t r u c t i o n o f w h i c h is b a s e d o n t h e a p p r o x i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s given b y E q s .
(3.8), (3.10), a n d ( 3 . 1 2 ) ] . A s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n , h o w e v e r , c u r v e s in F i g . 3.4
a r e r e p l a c e a b l e b y t h r e e s t r a i g h t line s e g m e n t s .
3.4. T H E I D E A L S E D I M E N T A T I O N T A N K C O N C E P T
T h i s c o n c e p t , d e v e l o p e d b y H a z e n [ 5 ] a n d C a m p [ 1 ] , is t h e b a s i s f o r
a r r i v i n g a t r e l a t i o n s h i p s utilized in t h e d e s i g n o f s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k s . T h e
m o d e l c h o s e n f o r a s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k c o n s i s t s o f f o u r z o n e s ( F i g s . 3.5 a n d
3.6).
1. I n l e t z o n e . H e r e t h e flow b e c o m e s q u i e s c e n t . I t is a s s u m e d t h a t a t t h e
l i m i t of t h i s z o n e (i.e., a l o n g v e r t i c a l line xt) p a r t i c l e s a r e u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d
a c r o s s t h e influent c r o s s s e c t i o n .
2. S e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e . A p a r t i c l e is a s s u m e d t o b e r e m o v e d f r o m s u s
p e n s i o n o n c e it h i t s t h e b o t t o m o f t h i s z o n e ( h o r i z o n t a l line ty).
3. Sedimentation 77
t=0
x.
.
π
zone ^ ^ - ^ V zone
Sedimentation z o n e ^ - i ^ ^ Case
Case^ *-^. 1
t_
Sludge zone
_.
Η L ,
Fig. 3.5. Model of a sedimentation tank with discrete settling particles
(Cases 1 and 2).
|t=0
!x_ % /
Inlet j ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^
zone |
!
!
_
Sedimentation zone
'
sj ·
^^"""""•"•••^
V
V, ^ C a s e 3
^^^^^^
^Case 4
ΊI
^ t
Outlet
zone
y"
It y_
! Sludge zone
p- L *
3. O u t l e t z o n e . W a s t e w a t e r is c o l l e c t e d h e r e p r i o r t o t r a n s f e r t o t h e n e x t
treatment.
4. S l u d g e z o n e . T h i s z o n e is p r o v i d e d f o r s l u d g e r e m o v a l .
S e t t l i n g p a t h s of p a r t i c l e s e n t e r i n g t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e a t p o i n t s χ a n d
x' f o r d i s c r e t e s e t t l i n g a r e i n d i c a t e d b y lines xy a n d x'y' i n F i g . 3.5 a n d lines
xy" a n d x'y in F i g . 3.6. T h e s e settling p a t h s a r e t h e n e t r e s u l t o f t w o v e l o c i t y
vector c o m p o n e n t s :
1. F l o w - t h r o u g h velocity V [ E q . (3.13)]
v e r t i c a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f s e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e , n a m e l y A' = WH ( f t ) 2
3.6, respectively.
F o r d i s c r e t e s e t t l i n g t h e settling velocity is c o n s t a n t f o r a n y specific s e t t l i n g
78 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
path, i.e., V and V do not vary along their respective paths. This is due to the
s t
Sludge zone
with neighboring particles takes place, the effective diameter of the particle
increases, and thus its settling velocity V also increases. The net result is that
s
settling paths are curved in contrast with straight line paths for discrete
settling.
Consider the following cases with reference to Figs. 3.5 and 3.6, keeping
in mind that a particle is assumed to be removed from the suspension once it
hits the bottom of the sedimentation zone.
Case 1 (Fig. 3.5). A particle which at time zero (r = 0) is located at point
χ and possesses a settling velocity V (and diameter d read from Fig. 3.4).
s s
vertical line as χ but below x, and has a settling velocity V (or greater than V ).s s
This particle is also removed since it hits the bottom of the sedimentation zone
3. Sedimentation 79
t o t h e left o f p o i n t y ( a t / ) - If t h e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y is g r e a t e r t h a n V t h e p a r t i c l e
s
T h e s e p a r t i c l e s a r e s h o w n s e p a r a t e l y in F i g . 3.6 s i m p l y t o a v o i d o v e r c r o w d i n g
o f t h e d i a g r a m . I n fact t h e y a r e t o g e t h e r in t h e s l u r r y w i t h p a r t i c l e s o f s e t t l i n g
velocity V. s
Case 3 ( F i g . 3.6). A p a r t i c l e w h i c h a t t = 0 is l o c a t e d a t χ a n d h a s a
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V ( w h e r e V < V ). T h i s p a r t i c l e is n o t r e m o v e d since it d o e s
x t s
s i t u a t e d a t x' a t t = 0. T h i s p a r t i c l e is r e m o v e d ( s e d i m e n t a t i o n p a t h x'y).
C o n s i d e r n o w t h e settling velocity V . F r o m E q . (3.13)
s
F r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s i m i l a r t r i a n g l e s in F i g . 3.5
V= Vs(L/H) (3.15)
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f E q . (3.15) in E q . (3.14) a n d s i m p l i f i c a t i o n l e a d s t o
Q = V LW S = VA
S (3.16)
F r o m E q . (3.16)
r e m o v e d i n a p r o p o r t i o n given b y t h e r a t i o VJV . S
F r o m g e o m e t r i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e p a t h ( F i g s . 3.5 a n d 3.6)
t o u c h i n g point y at the b o t t o m of the sedimentation t a n k (particles with
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V in F i g . 3.5 f o l l o w i n g p a t h xy, a n d p a r t i c l e s w i t h s e t t l i n g
s
v e l o c i t y K i n F i g . 3.6 f o l l o w i n g p a t h x'y), o n e w r i t e s [ E q . ( 3 . 1 8 ) ]
x
o r 7 5 % o f t h e p a r t i c l e s w i t h a s e t t l i n g velocity V x a r e r e m o v e d , i.e., t h o s e
w h i c h a t t i m e t = 0 a r e a t a h e i g h t x' o r b e l o w . T h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t i c l e s w i t h
settling velocity V u i.e., t h o s e s i t u a t e d b e t w e e n χ a n d x' a t t i m e / = 0, a r e
not r e m o v e d .
T h e overflow r a t e defined a s
QjA = f t / ( f t ) ( h r ) = ft/hr
3 2
e x a c t l y e q u a l t o t h e effective d e p t h of t h e t a n k d u r i n g t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d e t e n t i o n
p e r i o d . T h i s r e s u l t s f r o m t h e definition o f d e t e n t i o n p e r i o d :
w h i c h is E q . (3.17).
T h e scour velocity V is t h e v a l u e o f t h e
c flow-through velocity V [ E q . ( 3 . 2 0 ) ] ,
* T h e words "previously settled" are placed in quotes because a particle which is scoured
away never actually settles. Mentally o n e separates the processes of settling and scouring
and imagines that a particle settles and subsequently is scoured away. This reasoning is
compatible with the hypothetical resolution of the velocity trajectory into vectors V (flow-
through velocity) and V (settling velocity).
s
3. Sedimentation 81
T h e s c o u r v e l o c i t y is e s t i m a t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n [ E q .
(3.21)] [ 1 ] :
V c = [8/fr</(5-l)//] 1 / 2
(3.21)
w h e r e V is t h e v e l o c i t y o f s c o u r ( m m / s e c ) ; i.e.,
c flow-through velocity required
t o s c o u r all p a r t i c l e s o f d i a m e t e r d o r s m a l l e r ; β t h e c o n s t a n t (0.04 f o r u n i -
g r a n u l a r s a n d , 0 . 0 6 for n o n u n i f o r m s t i c k y m a t e r i a l ) ; / t h e W e i s b a c h - D ' A r c y
f r i c t i o n f a c t o r (0.03 f o r c o n c r e t e ) ; g t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f g r a v i t y ( m m / s e c ) 2
( n o r m a l : 9 8 0 0 m m / s e c ) ; dthe
2
particle diameter ( m m ) (particles with diameter
d o r less t h a n d a r e s c o u r e d a w a y ) ; a n d s t h e specific g r a v i t y o f p a r t i c l e .
Example 3 . 1
C o n s i d e r a s u s p e n s i o n of s a n d (s = 2.65) i n w a t e r a t 2 0 ° C w i t h a u n i f o r m
p a r t i c l e size (d = 0.07 m m ) . F l o w is 1.0 M g a l / d a y .
1. C a l c u l a t e t h e s e t t l i n g t a n k s u r f a c e ( h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s s e c t i o n ) for
obtaining removal of 70% of the particles.
2. S u p p o s e t h a t i n s t e a d of a u n i f o r m p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r , t h e r e is, b e s i d e s
p a r t i c l e s ofd= 0.07 m m , a n o t h e r set w i t h a u n i f o r m l y l a r g e r d i a m e t e r , w h i c h
are completely r e m o v e d in the settling t a n k designed for 7 0 % r e m o v a l of the
p a r t i c l e s w i t h d = 0.07 m m . D e t e r m i n e w h a t is t h e m i n i m u m p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r
for total removal.
3. F o r c a s e (2), d e t e r m i n e t h e flow-though v e l o c i t y V s o t h a t all p a r t i c l e s
c
S O L U T I O N : Part 1
Vs = 0.45 cm/sec
or
T h e overflow r a t e i n g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) is 2
Λ V = 9533 gal/(day)(ft )
s
2
Step 2. T h e h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is (for 1 0 0 % r e m o v a l )
1,000,000 gal/day
A
= Q' * V
= 9533 gal/(day)(ft ) 2 = 1 0 5
*
82 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
W i t h t h i s a r e a , 1 0 0 % r e m o v a l is o b t a i n e d . F o r 7 0 % r e m o v a l t h e r e s i d e n c e
t i m e ( a n d t h u s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a ) is r e d u c e d b y 3 0 % . T h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
a r e a is
A = 105 χ 0.7 = 73.5 ft 2
U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e settling v e l o c i t y for 1 0 0 % r e m o v a l is
Note: C h e c k o n p e r c e n t r e m o v a l . S i n c e t h e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y is 9 5 3 3
g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) , fixed b y t h e p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r a s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m F i g . 3.4,
2
p e r c e n t a g e r e m o v a l is 9 5 3 3 / 1 3 , 6 0 5 = 0.70 ( 7 0 % ) . R e f e r r i n g t o F i g . 3.6 t h e
p a r t i c l e s r e m o v e d a r e t h o s e w h i c h a t t h e e n d o f inlet z o n e , a l o n g v e r t i c a l line
xt, a r e a l r e a d y a t d i s t a n c e h ( o r less t h a n h) f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f t h e s e d i m e n
tation zone, where [from E q . (3.18)]
V s = 13,605 gal/(day)(ft ) 2
(100% removal)
Vi = 9533 gal/(day)(ft ) 2
(70% removal)
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 If t h e r e is a d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s i n s t e a d
o f u n i f o r m d i a m e t e r d = 0.07 m m , o n e r e a d s f r o m F i g . 3.4 t h e d i a m e t e r ,
w h i c h is l a r g e r t h a n 0.07 m m , for w h i c h t h e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y c o r r e s p o n d s
t o 13,605 g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) . T h e r e f o r e , t h e a b s c i s s a i n F i g . 3.4 is
2
m m ( 1 0 0 % r e m o v a l ) . If d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r in t h e i n f l u e n t is
k n o w n , one can calculate the % removal corresponding to each g r o u p of
p a r t i c l e s for a g i v e n d i a m e t e r ( E x a m p l e 3.2).
S O L U T I O N : Part 3 T h e s c o u r v e l o c i t y t o s w e e p all p a r t i c l e s o f l o w e r
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y t h a n t h o s e t o b e c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
E q . (3.21).
T h e v e r t i c a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (3.13).
__ 1,000,000 gal/day χ day/86,400 sec χ ft /7.48 gal 3
= 4 3 ft2
0.36 ft/sec
3. Sedimentation 83
A n y p r a c t i c a l c o m b i n a t i o n o f l e n g t h , w i d t h , a n d d e p t h is u s e d t o satisfy t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t s A = 73.5 f t 2
= LW a n d A' = 4 . 3 f t 2
= WH.
Example 3.2
(2) (3)
lb o f each Particle size,
Group no. particle size d (mm)
1 50 0.085
2 20 0.070
3 20 0.060
4 10 0.050
TOO
T A B L E 3.2
Calculations for Example 3.2
(2)
lb o f (3) (6)
(/) each Particle (4) (5) Fraction (7)
G r o u p particle size, d V removed = lb r e m o v e d
x 100
s
w e i g h t of s a n d r e m o v e d b y settling for e a c h g r o u p o f p a r t i c l e s is c o m p u t e d in
c o l u m n ( 7 ) . T h e r e f o r e 7 8 . 3 % o f t h e w e i g h t o f t h e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c l e s is r e m o v e d
b y settling.
84 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
I n t h i s e x a m p l e , if t h e v e r t i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n A' is t a k e n e q u a l t o 4.3 f t ( v a l u e
2
This corresponds to
S i n c e f r o m E q . (3.21), V is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o d
c
l / 2
, it f o l l o w s t h a t d is 0 . 0 7 / 4 =
0.0175 m m , s o a s t o yield V = 55 m m / s e c ( h a l f o f 110.0 m m / s e c ) . T h e r e f o r e ,
c
o n l y p a r t i c l e s w i t h d = 0.0175 m m o r s m a l l e r a r e r e m o v e d b y s c o u r i n g . S i n c e
for t h e given d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e s m a l l e s t p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r is 0.05 m m , t h e r e is
n o r e m o v a l by s c o u r i n g . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e n e t r e m o v a l is 78.3 lb f r o m e v e r y
100 lb of s a n d , o r 7 8 . 3 % b y w e i g h t .
If t h i s v a l u e is a d o p t e d ,
A = 73.5 ft 2
= LW
A' = 8.6 ft 2
= WH
S e l e c t i n g Η = 4 ft, t h e n
W = 8.6/4 = 2.15 ft
L = 73.5/2.15 = 34.2 ft
3.5. F L O C C U L E N T S E T T L I N G
F l o c c u l e n t s e t t l i n g t a k e s p l a c e w h e n s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y of t h e p a r t i c l e s in
c r e a s e s d u e t o c o a l e s c e n c e w i t h o t h e r p a r t i c l e s . A d i a g r a m o f flocculent
s e d i m e n t a t i o n profiles is s h o w n in F i g . 3.8. T h e s e t t l i n g p a t h s o f t h e p a r t i c l e s
a r e c u r v e s , r a t h e r t h a n s t r a i g h t lines a s for d i s c r e t e settling.
D e s i g n c r i t e r i a for s y s t e m s e x h i b i t i n g flocculent settling a r e e s t a b l i s h e d b y
a l a b o r a t o r y settling a n a l y s i s . A t y p i c a l l a b o r a t o r y settling c o l u m n is s h o w n
in F i g . 3.9.
C o n c e n t r a t i o n of s u s p e n d e d solids is k e p t u n i f o r m t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o l u m n
a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t e s t b y m e a n s of a p o r t a b l e stirrer. T h e d e p t h o f t h e
c o l u m n is a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e a s t h a t o f t h e settling t a n k t o b e d e s i g n e d .
T e m p e r a t u r e is k e p t c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h e test. A p r a c t i c a l d e s i g n o f a s e t t l i n g
c o l u m n ( F i g . 3.9) is 8 ft d e e p , w i t h s a m p l i n g p o r t s a t d e p t h s o f 2, 4, 6, a n d 8 ft.
3. Sedimentation 85
ι
r—ID—{
! 5-1/2" j
2'-0"
Depths
counted
in this
2'-0" direction
2'-0" Testing
..ajjap3 cylinder
(plexiglass)
Example 3.3
T h e s u s p e n s i o n b e i n g t e s t e d h a s a n initial s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f 4 3 0 m g / l i t e r ( S S ) . T h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ( h e n c e a b b r e v i a t e d a s SS) c o n
0
c e n t r a t i o n s in T a b l e 3.3 a r e m e a s u r e d a t t h e i n d i c a t e d t i m e s a t t h e 2-, 4 - , a n d
6-ft s a m p l i n g p o r t s . P e r f o r m t r e a t m e n t o f t h e d a t a a r r i v i n g a t c u r v e s for
(a) % SS r e m o v a l vs. d e t e n t i o n t i m e ( m i n ) , (b) % SS r e m o v a l vs. o v e r f l o w r a t e
[ g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ] , a n d (c) % S S r e m a i n i n g ( f r a c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s w i t h less t h a n
2
s t a t e d velocity) vs. s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y ( f t / h r ) .
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e f r a c t i o n o f solids r e m a i n i n g in s u s p e n s i o n for e a c h
sample [Eq. (3.22)].
χ = SS/SSo
orin%
y = SS/SSo x 100 (3.22)
86 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
T A B L E 3.3
Laboratory Sedimentation Data (Example 3.3)
SS concentrations
at indicated depths
Time 2 ft 4 ft 6 ft
(min) (Tap 1) (Tap 2) (Tap 3)
1 - x
o r in %
ζ = 100 - y (3.23)
T A B L E 3.4
Calculation of Fraction of Solids Remaining and Removed for a 2-ft Depth
(2)
ω SS remaining (3) (4)
Time (mg/liter) Solids remaining (%) Solids removed (%)
(min) (Table 3.3) y = (SS/SSo) x 100 ζ = 100->>
Step 2. I n o r d e r t o s m o o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a c o n s t r u c t a g r a p h o f
% SS r e m o v e d v s . t i m e . T h i s p l o t is s h o w n in F i g . 3.10 for t h e 2-, 4 - , a n d 6-ft
depths.
3. Sedimentation 87
90
80
ο 11*
70
Iο
60!
Ε
;so
)
ϊ
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
t (min)
Before t h e p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e is fully u n d e r s t o o d , s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m u s t b e m a d e . A n effective s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V is defined a s t h e
s
effective d e p t h (6 ft in t h i s e x a m p l e ) d i v i d e d b y t h e t i m e ( d e t e n t i o n t i m e , t)
r e q u i r e d for a given p a r t i c l e t o t r a v e l t h i s d i s t a n c e , i.e. [ E q . ( 3 . 2 4 ) ] ,
Vs = Hit (3.24)
If a s u s p e n s i o n c o n t a i n s p a r t i c l e s w i t h different s e t t l i n g velocities, t h e
efficiency of r e m o v a l b y s e d i m e n t a t i o n is o b t a i n e d b y p e r f o r m i n g a s e t t l i n g
c o l u m n t e s t a s j u s t d e s c r i b e d . L e t SS b e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l i d s r e m a i n i n g
for o n e specific s a m p l e a n d t i m e . T h u s
and
40 60 80
t (minutes)
Fig. 3.11. Settling profile. Encircled numbers are % SS removed.
T A B L E 3.5
Values for Plotting Fig. 3.11
/ (min)
%SS
removed 2 ft 4 ft 6ft
P a r t i c l e s w i t h a s e t t l i n g velocity V o r h i g h e r ( w h e r e V = H/t) a r e c o m
s s
r e m o v e d a t a r a t i o g i v e n b y E q . (3.18).
A t y p i c a l g r a p h like t h e o n e in F i g . 3.12 is p l o t t e d b y a n a l y s i s o f d a t a
o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c o l u m n . T h e d e t a i l s for c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s u c h
3. Sedimentation 89
o f p a r t i c l e s not c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d . F o r e x a m p l e , if 4 0 % o f t h e p a r t i c l e s in
a specific c a s e a r e c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d , t h e n x = 0.6 is t h e o r d i n a t e c o r r e
0
s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e t t l i n g velocity V = Hjt. s
T h e o v e r a l l r e m o v a l o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s is
Overall removal = (1 - x ) + 0 J
'V/
P
i s) dx (3.25)
c u r v e in F i g . 3.12. T e r m (1 — x ) is t h e f r a c t i o n c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d , c o r r e
0
(KIVs)dx=i/Vs\ Kdx
ο Jo
90 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
w h i c h is t h e f r a c t i o n o f r e m o v a l c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o p a r t i c l e s w i t h velocities less
t h a n V (calculated by graphical integration as indicated by the hatched a r e a
s
J
m
xo fxo
(Vi/Vs) dx = (1 - jc ) + (l/Vs)
0 Vi dx
0 Jo
= (l-*o) + J \h/H)dx
X
(3.26)
A f t e r t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e t u r n t o d i s c u s s i o n o f S t e p 4.
Step 4(a). F r o m F i g . 3.11 f o r a d e p t h o f 6 ft r e a d t h e v a l u e s t ( m i n )
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 5, 10, 2 0 , 30, 4 0 , 50, a n d 6 0 % r e m o v a l , a n d c a l c u l a t e t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e t t l i n g velocities V s (ft/hr). T h e s e v a l u e s a r e t a b u l a t e d in
T a b l e 3.6.
T A B L E 3.6
Settling Velocities (H = 6 ft)
Constant
% t (min) Settling velocity (ft/hr)
removal i / = 6 ft V = Hjt = 6/(//60) = 3 6 0 / /
s
5 3.7 97.2
10 6.5 55.2
20 14.5 24.8
30 25.0 14.4
40 39.0 9.2
50 56.5 6.35
60 77.5 4.64
Step 4(b). C a l c u l a t e % r e m o v a l o f S S . C a l c u l a t i o n s f o r % r e m o v a l o f S S
a n d overflow r a t e for a 2 5 - m i n s e t t l i n g t i m e ( f o u r t h e n t r i e s i n T a b l e 3.6) a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d n e x t . S i m i l a r c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e a l s o p e r f o r m e d for t h e o t h e r s e t t l i n g
t i m e s listed in t h e s e c o n d c o l u m n o f T a b l e 3.6. F o r t = 2 5 m i n f o r t h e s e t t l i n g
d e p t h Η = 6 ft, 3 0 % o f t h e s u s p e n d e d solids a r e c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d . C o n
s i d e r n e x t t h e p a r t i c l e s i n e a c h a d d i t i o n a l 1 0 % r a n g e . S t a r t w i t h t h o s e in t h e
r a n g e 3 0 - 4 0 % r e m o v a l i n F i g . 3 . 1 1 . P a r t i c l e s i n t h i s r a n g e a r e r e m o v e d in t h e
p r o p o r t i o n VJV o r in t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f a v e r a g e settled d e p t h ( A ) t o t h e t o t a l
S t
i n t e r p o l a t i o n ) a c u r v e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 3 5 % c o n s t a n t r e m o v a l in F i g . 3 . 1 1 ,
a n d r e a d i n g f r o m it t h e d e p t h h c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t = 2 5 m i n . T h e r e f o r e f o r
l
B e y o n d t h e fifth i n t e r v a l t h e % r e m o v a l s a r e n e g l i g i b l e , s o c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e
s t o p p e d a t t h a t p o i n t . I n g e n e r a l , if 1 0 % i n t e r v a l s a r e selected, t h e t o t a l %
r e m o v a l is given b y
(/) (2)
t (min) % SS r e m o v a l
3.7 13.4
6.5 20.1
14.5 33.9
25.0 45.2
39.0 55.0
56.5 64.3
577.5 71.1
92 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
F r o m T a b l e 3.7 a g r a p h of % SS r e m o v e d vs. d e t e n t i o n t i m e is p r e p a r e d ( F i g .
3.13).
Step 4(c). P r e p a r e a p l o t of % SS r e m o v e d v s . overflow r a t e . C a l c u l a t i o n s
n e e d e d t o p r e p a r e t h i s p l o t a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 3.8.
80
70
ro
O) 60
.Ω
Ο
θ 50
C
Ε
Ο 40
,Ο,
oval
30
ε
α>
CO 20
CO
J
/\f
δ*
10
τ- H.5 mir
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Detention time (min) [Column®,table 3.7]
T A B L E 3.8
S S {%) Removed vs. Overflow Rate
(3)
gal
Overflow rate
(day)(ft ) 2
(2)
Settling _, Γ ft 24 hr 7.48 gal {4)
velocity, V s
F
4 h r X
day
*
X
ft 3
% SS removal
(ft/hr) [column (2) o f
t (min) (Table 3.6) Vs x 24 χ 7.48 = 179.5 V s
Table 3.7]
90
ι
ile 3.8] 80
ο
-Ο
O
"-60 \V
©
| 50
ο
8
Ε
£ 30
</)
3*20
10
Fig. 3.14. Suspended solids removal (% SS) vs. overt low rate.
t (min)
Fig. 3.15. Suspended solids removal (% SS) vs. detention time for different
initial SS concentrations.
94 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
o f 4 3 0 m g / l i t e r . If s i m i l a r c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p e r f o r m e d for o t h e r v a l u e s o f t h e s e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (Cl9 C , C , . . . ) , t h e d a t a p l o t t e d in F i g s . 3.13 a n d 3.14 yield
2 3
σ
remo>
en
«^1
c, <c <c 2 3
Overflow rate;gal/(day)(ft ) 2
Fig. 3.16. Suspended solids removal (% SS) vs. overflow rate for different
initial SS concentrations.
Fig. 3.17. Percentage of particles with less than stated velocity vs. settling
velocity.
3. Sedimentation 95
TABLE 3.9
Percentage of Particles with Less Than Stated Velocity
vs. Settling Velocity
(3) (4)
ω
(2)
Vs (ft/hr)
%ss Percentage
not r e m o v e d :
t (min) (Table 3.6) removal 1 0 0 - ( % SS removal)
(Table 3.7)
T A B L E 3.10
Design Values (Primary Clarifiers)
D e p t h : 7 - 1 2 ft
Detention time: 1-2 hr
Flow-through velocity, V= 1-5 ft/min
Overflow rate: 9 0 0 - 1 2 0 0 gal/(day)(ft ) 2
Efficiencies
SS removal: 4 0 - 6 0 %
B O D removal: 3 0 - 5 0 %
96 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
D e s i g n p r o c e d u r e o f a p r i m a r y clarifier is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 3.4.
E x a m p l e 3.4
I t is d e t e r m i n e d b y field o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t a r a w w a s t e w a t e r h a s a n a v e r a g e
o f 4 3 0 m g / l i t e r s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s a t a flow o f 1.0 M g a l / d a y . D a t a s h o w n in
T a b l e 3.3 a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m l a b o r a t o r y s e t t l i n g t e s t s .
1. D e s i g n a s e t t l i n g t a n k o f c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n , i.e., c a l c u l a t e its d i a m
e t e r a n d effective d e p t h , t o r e m o v e 5 0 % o f t h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s a t t h e flow
r a t e o f 1.0 M g a l / d a y .
2. F o r t h e t a n k d e s i g n e d in (1), w h a t is t h e r e m o v a l if flow is d o u b l e d
t o 2.0 M g a l / d a y ?
3. F o r t h e flow o f 1.0 M g a l / d a y , c a l c u l a t e t h e d a i l y a c c u m u l a t i o n o f
s l u d g e in l b / d a y a n d t h e a v e r a g e p u m p i n g r a t e in g a l / m i n . S l u d g e c o n c e n t r a
t i o n is e s t i m a t e d a s 1.5% solids f r o m tests m a d e w i t h s a m p l e s w i t h d r a w n
f r o m T a p 4 of t h e l a b o r a t o r y settling c o l u m n ( F i g . 3.9). A p l o t o f % s o l i d s
for t h e c o m p a c t e d s l u d g e v s . settling t i m e is c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m d a t a o b t a i n e d
f r o m s a m p l e s w i t h d r a w n f r o m T a p 4 ( F i g . 3.9). A t y p i c a l p l o t o f t h i s t y p e is
s h o w n in F i g . 3.18.
Fig. 3.18. Typical plot of % so/ids in the sludge vs. detention time.
S O L U T I O N : Part 1
f a c t o r , t a k e a d e s i g n overflow r a t e o f 2 0 0 0 / 1 . 7 5 = 1143 g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) . 2
3. Sedimentation 97
Influent: Effluent:
S e t t l i n g tank
S S = 4 3 0 mg/liter SS=2I5 mg/liter
j R e m o v a l of S S = 2 I 5 m g / l i t e r
Step 3. D e t e r m i n e t h e d e t e n t i o n t i m e . F r o m F i g . 3.13 r e a d d e t e n t i o n
t i m e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a 5 0 % r e m o v a l v a l u e , t = 3 1 . 5 m i n . * U s i n g a 1.75
s c a l e - u p f a c t o r , t a k e t = (31.5)(1.75) = 55.1 m i n o r t = 5 5 . 1 / 6 0 = 0 . 9 2 h r .
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s s e c t i o n o f clarifier a n d its
d i a m e t e r . H o r i z o n t a l c r o s s s e c t i o n o f clarifier is
1 x 1 0 * gal/day _
1143gal/(day)(ft ) 2
a n d d i a m e t e r is
D = (4Λ/π) 1 / 2
= (874.9/0.785) 1/2
= 33.4 ft
Η = volume/^ = Qt/A
H =
874^fV = 5
' 9 f t
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 R e m o v a l f o r a flow r a t e o f 2 M G D w i t h t h e s a m e
clarifier
T h i s a m o u n t s t o d o u b l i n g t h e d e s i g n o v e r f l o w r a t e , i.e.,
F r o m F i g . 3.14 t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a r e m o v a l o f 4 7 . 5 % o f t h e s u s p e n d e d
solids.
Step 1. D e t e r m i n e t h e d a i l y a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s l u d g e .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e d a i l y a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s l u d g e i n l b / d a y is
= 1793 lb SS/day
* From this value of the residence time (/ = 31.5 min), the % solids in the sludge is estimated
as 1.5% from a curve of the type in Fig. 3.19.
98 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e t h e a v e r a g e p u m p i n g r a t e . N o t i c e t h a t 1.5% s o l i d s
c o r r e s p o n d s t o 1.5 g S S / 1 0 0 g o f l i q u o r = 15 g S S / 1 0 0 0 g o f l i q u o r « 15 g S S /
liter = 15,000 m g / l i t e r = p p m = 15,000 χ 1 0 " l b S S / l b l i q u o r = 15,000 χ 8.34
6
χ 10" 6
l b S S / g a l l i q u o r . S i n c e a c c u m u l a t i o n is 1793 l b S S / d a y , p u m p i n g r a t e
in g a l / d a y is
1793 lb SS/day
= 0.0143 χ 1 0 gal/day 6
or
(0.0143 χ 10 )/(24 χ 60) = 9.93 gal/min
6
Since p u m p i n g r a t e is l o w , i n t e r m i t t e n t p u m p i n g is u s e d .
3.6. Z O N E S E T T L I N G
Z o n e settling o c c u r s i n clarifiers o f a c t i v a t e d o r c h e m i c a l l y c o a g u l a t e d
s l u d g e w h e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n e x c e e d s 500 m g / l i t e r . T h e s l u d g e blanket
e x h i b i t s several d i s t i n c t z o n e s . E a c h z o n e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a specific s l u d g e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d s e t t l i n g velocity. C o n s i d e r w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n a s u s p e n s i o n
w h i c h initially h a s a u n i f o r m s l u d g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n C 0 ( m g / l i t e r ) is p l a c e d i n a
settling c y l i n d e r ( F i g . 3.20).
S l u d g e b e g i n s t o settle o u t a n d a n i n t e r f a c e ( i n t e r f a c e 1) is e s t a b l i s h e d
b e t w e e n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e b l a n k e t o f s e t t l i n g s l u d g e a n d t h e clarified l i q u i d
a b o v e . T h e z o n e b e l o w t h e clarified l i q u i d is c a l l e d t h e i n t e r f a c i a l z o n e . C o n
c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e s l u d g e in t h i s z o n e is u n i f o r m , a n d it settles a s a b l a n k e t
w i t h a c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y (V ). s Simultaneously with formation of interface 1
Clarified
Iwater zone
Interface I- Clarified Clarified
water zone water zone
4ftfer-focial Coalescence
- zaoe_. |of interfaces!
I and 2
TfonsEQon
-—zone
[Interface 2-fy~~ —,
l^mpactEn
t =0 t >t>0 2 t =t 2
v e l o c i t y V. E v e n t u a l l y , i n t e r f a c i a l a n d c o m p a c t i o n z o n e s m e e t , a t w h i c h t i m e
( r ) the transition z o n e fades a w a y [ F i g . 3.20(c)]. A t this time, the settled
2
t o t h e s e t t l i n g c u r v e a t C , a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 3.21 w h e r e V
2 2 < V.s
P r o c e d u r e f o r d e s i g n i n g clarifiers o p e r a t i n g u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f zone
settling:
1. C a l c u l a t e t h e m i n i m u m s u r f a c e a r e a r e q u i r e d t o a l l o w for c l a r i f i c a t i o n
of sludge.
2. C a l c u l a t e t h e m i n i m u m s u r f a c e a r e a r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e f o r t h i c k e n i n g
of s l u d g e t o t h e d e s i r e d u n d e r f l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
3. T a k e t h e l a r g e r o f t h e s e t w o a r e a s a s t h e d e s i g n a r e a f o r t h e clarifier.
t, Β t 2
3.6.1. Laboratory M e a s u r e m e n t s
T o o b t a i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s n e c e s s a r y for d e s i g n o f t h e clarifier, a s e t t l i n g
t e s t f o r t h e s l u d g e is p e r f o r m e d in t h e l a b o r a t o r y u s i n g a 1000-ml g r a d u a t e d
c y l i n d e r (a s t a n d a r d g r a d u a t e c y l i n d e r h a s a h e i g h t o f 1.12 ft). T h e c y l i n d e r is
filled w i t h t h e s l u r r y t o b e s t u d i e d . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t (/ = 0 ) ,
s l u r r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n is u n i f o r m t h r o u g h o u t t h e c y l i n d e r . H e i g h t o f i n t e r f a c e 1
is r e c o r d e d a t selected t i m e i n t e r v a l s . T h i s yields t h e t y p e o f s e t t l i n g c u r v e
s h o w n in F i g . 3 . 2 1 .
I t is i m p o r t a n t t o stir t h e s u s p e n s i o n a t a r a t e of a b o u t 5 r p h . T h i s s t i r r i n g
s i m u l a t e s t h e a c t i o n of t h e m e c h a n i c a l r a k e s utilized i n s l u d g e r e m o v a l a n d
p r e v e n t s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of t h e s l u d g e .
F i g u r e 3.21 s h o w s t h a t f r o m t h e s t a r t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t u p t o a t i m e t l 9
w h i c h essentially c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e s e t t l i n g c u r v e f r o m t = 0 t o t = t v After
t = t x t h i s velocity d e c r e a s e s a p p r e c i a b l y . A t t i m e / = r , t h e velocity is V
2 2
b y t h e s l o p e o f t h e t a n g e n t A B in F i g . 3.21 [ E q . ( 3 . 2 8 ) ] .
V s = O A / O B = H jt Q = 1.12ft/min (3.28)
d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t o f t h e i d e a l s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k [ S e c t i o n 3.4,
E q s . (3.17) a n d ( 3 . 1 9 ) ] .
Therefore,
Ac = QIV S (3.29)
T h e v a l u e o f t h e z o n e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m F i g . 3.21 a n d
s
A| 1
o f s e t t l i n g V for t h e i n t e r f a c i a l z o n e ( z o n e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y , Z S V ) , a n d t a n g e n t
s
( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t i m e t ) is o b t a i n e d b y b i s e c t i n g t h e a n g l e f o r m e d b y t a n g e n t s
2
A B a n d C D . T h e a b s c i s s a o f t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e b i s e c t i n g line c u t s t h e s e t t l i n g
curve c o r r e s p o n d s t o the desired value of t . 2
s l u d g e z o n e , C ; h e i g h t of s l u d g e z o n e ,
2 H.2
2. E n d of t h i c k e n i n g [ F i g . 3 . 2 0 ( d ) ] . T h e c o m p a c t e d s l u d g e reaches
desired underflow concentration C . u T h e t i m e a t w h i c h t h i s o c c u r s is d e s i g
n a t e d a s t . H e i g h t of t h e s l u d g e z o n e is
u H. u
{—Volume
i of water
squeezed out
H u
J
at t = t 2 M
at, .t = ,t„ u
f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n [ E q . ( 3 . 3 0 ) ] is w r i t t e n , n e g l e c t i n g t h e
a m o u n t o f s u s p e n d e d solids in t h e clarified w a t e r z o n e .
C 0 A H 0 = C 2 A H 2 = C U A H U (3.30)
or
CQHQ = C 2 H 2 — C U H U (3.31)
C o n s i d e r F i g . 3.23. T h e v o l u m e o f w a t e r w h i c h is s q u e e z e d o u t a n d d i s
c h a r g e d o v e r t h e o v e r f l o w w e i r is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (3.32).
V = A ( H 2 - H U ) (3.32)
T h e t i m e i n t e r v a l r e q u i r e d t o d i s c h a r g e t h i s v o l u m e o f w a t e r is t — t . u 2
C o n s i d e r n o w t h e settling c u r v e a n d d e t e r m i n e g r a p h i c a l l y t h e s e t t l i n g
velocity V at time t
2 2 ( t a n g e n t a t p o i n t C ) . T h i s is s h o w n in F i g . 3.24.
2
L e t H± b e t h e i n t e r c e p t o f t h i s t a n g e n t . S e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y a t t 2 is s h o w n in
E q . (3.35).
V 2 = t a n a = {H -H )lt Y 2 2 (3.35)
ι
S
r
H,-H 2
s J.. r
'2
Settling time (min)
U n d e r c o n t i n u o u s flow c o n d i t i o n s t h e velocity o f t h e l i q u o r o v e r t h e w e i r
c a n n o t b e g r e a t e r t h a n V if t h i c k e n i n g is t o t a k e p l a c e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
2 flow
r a t e Q' a t t i m e t w h e n t h i c k e n i n g s t a r t s is
2
(H - H )l(t
2 u u -1 )
2 = (H, - H )/t 2 2 (3.37)
T h i s e q u a t i o n is t h e b a s i s for t h e g r a p h i c a l p r o c e d u r e for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t u
i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 3.25.
T o s u m m a r i z e t h e s t e p s in t h e g r a p h i c a l p r o c e d u r e for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t : u
1. D r a w t h e t a n g e n t t o t h e settling c u r v e a t C . 2
2. F r o m m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e [ E q . ( 3 . 3 1 ) ]
Hu = HoColC u (3.38)
C a l c u l a t e H f r o m E q . (3.38).
u
3. M a r k d i s t a n c e H o n t h e o r d i n a t e axis o f F i g . 3.25. D r a w t h e
u
h o r i z o n t a l d o t t e d line f r o m H u n t i l its i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e t a n g e n t t o C .
u 2
T h e a b s c i s s a o f t h i s i n t e r s e c t i o n is t h e v a l u e o f t . T h i s c a n b e s e e n b y i n s p e c t i o n
u
of E q . (3.37) a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e t w o c r o s s - h a t c h e d s i m i l a r t r i a n g l e s in
F i g . 3.25.
M i n i m u m s u r f a c e a r e a r e q u i r e d for t h i c k e n i n g (A ) is o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e t
C H A /t u u t u (3.39)
104 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
Co Ho A /t t u (3.40)
U n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f c o n t i n u o u s flow a n d s t e a d y s t a t e , t h e r a t e a t w h i c h t h e
l a y e r o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n C is f o r m e d m u s t e q u a l t h a t a t w h i c h s u s p e n d e d solids
u
QCo = C H A /t 0 0 t u (3.41)
Solving for A t
A t = QtJHo (3.42)
w h e r e i / = 1.12 ft.
0
T h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e f o r clarifiers u n d e r z o n e s e t t l i n g c o n d i t i o n s is illus
t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 3.5.
Example 3.5
D e s i g n a s e c o n d a r y settling t a n k t o p r o d u c e a n u n d e r f l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f 10,900 m g / l i t e r f r o m a n influent c o n t a i n i n g 2 5 1 0 m g / l i t e r o f s u s p e n d e d
solids. W a s t e w a t e r flow is 1.2 M G D . C a l c u l a t e t h e clarifier a r e a r e q u i r e d .
T h e d a t a t a b u l a t e d b e l o w a r e o b t a i n e d in a l a b o r a t o r y test o f t h e s l u r r y .
Interface height
/ (min) Η (ml)
0 1000
1 850
2 725
3 600
5 450
8 350
12 280
16 240
20 220
25 210
SOLUTION
Step 7. S e t t l i n g c u r v e is p l o t t e d f r o m a v a i l a b l e d a t a ( F i g . 3.26).
Step 2. M i n i m u m surface a r e a r e q u i r e d f o r clarification (A ) is d e t e r m i n e d .
c
1. D r a w t a n g e n t A B . R e a d t = 7.5 m i n . T h e n V = H /t s 0 = 1.12/7.5 =
0.149 f t / m i n .
2. A r e a r e q u i r e d f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n :
3. Sedimentation 105
ιοοο
\
900 \\
\
\\
800
_ 700
Ε \
- 600 /
CP /
v\
ω 500 /
\
/
•o
S> 400
'2
ω 300 )n \\
200
Η Τ
" V
!
100 \\ ι i
t =f. b nir t 2
h tu nr im
5 Β ΙΟ 15 20 25
Settling time (min)
Fig. 3.26. Graph for Example 3.5.
Step 3. M i n i m u m surface a r e a r e q u i r e d f o r t h i c k e n i n g (A ) is c a l c u l a t e d . t
1. D e t e r m i n e t b y t h e g r a p h i c a l p r o c e d u r e s t u d i e d . F r o m F i g . 3.26
2
read t = 2 8.0 m i n .
2. D e t e r m i n e t i m e t . D r a w t h e t a n g e n t t o t h e settling c u r v e a t C a n d
u 2
calculate H f r o m E q . (3.28).
u
H = (1000x2510)/10,900 = 230 ml
u
3. D e t e r m i n e t b y t h e g r a p h i c a l p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d . F r o m
u Fig.
(3.26) r e a d t = 13 m i n .
u
4. C a l c u l a t e A f r o m E q . (3.42).
t
At = = 1293 ft 2
1.12 ft
t a n k of c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n is
d = (4Α/π) ί/2
= (1293/0.785) 1/2
= 40.6 ft
3.7. T Y P E S O F C L A R I F I E R S
Clarifiers a r e classified a c c o r d i n g t o g e o m e t r y o f t h e i r h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s
section a s (1) r e c t a n g u l a r a n d (2) c i r c u l a r : (a) c e n t e r a n d (b) p e r i p h e r a l feed.
S k e t c h e s of t y p i c a l clarifiers a r e s h o w n in F i g s . 3 . 2 7 ( a ) , ( b ) , a n d (c).
106 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
|^J>*-Influent
T
— Clear zone
Baffle
Clear
solution Discharge of
overflow thickened
—sludge
(a) Rectangular clarifier
^Rotating mechanism
Feed Overflow
piping h-Baffle / weir
Blade
Plow-type
Discharge of thickened sludge
scraping mechanism
m
Clear solution • R o t a t i n g mechanism
outlet
" " " " L l ^ A S i l L ^ ^ ^ C o l l e c t i n g channel
Influent
Plow-type
scraping
mechanism
1. R e c t a n g u l a r clarifier [ F i g . 3 . 2 7 ( a ) ]
I n t h e t y p e s h o w n in F i g . 3 . 2 7 ( a ) , s c r a p e d s l u d g e is m o v e d t o w a r d t h e
inlet e n d o f t h e t a n k . S o m e o t h e r d e s i g n s m o v e s l u d g e t o w a r d t h e effluent
end of the tank.
S c r a p i n g m e c h a n i s m s h o w n is o f r o t a r y - h o e t y p e , c o n s i s t i n g o f a series o f
short scrapers m o u n t e d on a n endless chain, which m a k e contact with the
b o t t o m of t h e t a n k . I t m o v e s slowly a t s p e e d s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 f t / m i n .
2 a . C i r c u l a r clarifier w i t h c e n t e r feed [ F i g . 3 . 2 7 ( b ) ]
F e e d is a t t h e c e n t e r a n d c l e a r s o l u t i o n o v e r f l o w s t o a c o l l e c t i n g c h a n n e l a t
t h e p e r i p h e r y . T h e b o t t o m o f t h e clarifier h a s a m i n i m u m s l o p e o f 1 in./ft.
S c r a p i n g m e c h a n i s m is o f p l o w t y p e t o o v e r c o m e i n e r t i a a n d p r e v e n t a d h e r e n c e
o f s l u d g e t o t h e b o t t o m of t h e t a n k .
2 b . C i r c u l a r clarifier w i t h p e r i p h e r a l feed [ F i g . 3 . 2 7 ( c ) ]
T h e feed is a t t h e p e r i p h e r y a n d t h e c l e a r s o l u t i o n overflows t o a c o l l e c t i n g
c h a n n e l a t t h e c e n t e r . T h e o t h e r d e t a i l s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e for t h e t y p e s h o w n
in F i g . 3 . 2 7 ( b ) .
T h e inlet s e c t i o n s h o u l d b e carefully d e s i g n e d for a u n i f o r m flow d i s t r i b u t i o n
across the width a n d d e p t h of the t a n k . Similarly, the outlet section should be
d e s i g n e d t o collect t h e effluent u n i f o r m l y .
A g o o d d e s i g n of inlet a n d o u t l e t s e c t i o n s r e d u c e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f flow s h o r t
c i r c u i t i n g , w h i c h l e a d t o p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e clarifier. P r o p e r p o s i t i o n i n g
of weirs a n d baffles, a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 3.27, p r e v e n t s s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g .
4. Flotation
4.1. INTRODUCTION
F l o t a t i o n is a p r o c e s s for s e p a r a t i n g l o w d e n s i t y solids o r l i q u i d p a r t i c l e s
f r o m a l i q u i d p h a s e . S e p a r a t i o n is b r o u g h t a b o u t b y i n t r o d u c t i o n o f g a s
( u s u a l l y a i r ) b u b b l e s i n t o t h e l i q u i d p h a s e . T h e l i q u i d p h a s e is p r e s s u r i z e d t o
a n o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e r a n g i n g f r o m 30 t o 6 0 p s i a ( 2 - 4 a t m ) in p r e s e n c e o f
sufficient a i r t o p r o m o t e s a t u r a t i o n o f a i r in t h e w a t e r . T h e n , t h i s a i r - s a t u r a t e d
liquid is d e p r e s s u r i z e d t o a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e b y p a s s a g e t h r o u g h a p r e s s u r e -
reducing valve. M i n u t e air bubbles are released from the solution because of
d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n . S u s p e n d e d s o l i d s o r l i q u i d p a r t i c l e s , e.g., oil, a r e floated b y
t h e s e m i n u t e a i r b u b b l e s , c a u s i n g t h e m t o rise t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e t a n k . C o n
c e n t r a t e d s u s p e n d e d solids a r e s k i m m e d off b y m e c h a n i c a l m e a n s f r o m t h e
t a n k surface. Clarified l i q u o r is w i t h d r a w n n e a r t h e b o t t o m , a n d p a r t o f it
m a y b e recycled [ F i g . 3 . 2 8 ( b ) ] . A flotation s y s t e m w i t h o u t recycle is s h o w n
d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 3 . 2 8 ( a ) .
In t h e field o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t , flotation is u s e d for t h e f o l l o w i n g
p u r p o s e s : (1) s e p a r a t i o n o f g r e a s e s , oils, fibers, a n d o t h e r l o w d e n s i t y s o l i d s
f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s ; (2) t h i c k e n i n g o f t h e s l u d g e f r o m t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e
108 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
Or
Pressurizing Thickened
pump Pressure sludge
Q.MGD reducing (negligible
Influent valve volume)
(wastewater) (C|,mg/liter
of dissolved air)
Q,MGD
Effluent
( C , m g / l i t e r of dissolved air)
2
Air injection
Thickened
sludge
(negligible volume)
Gross effluent
(Q+R), MGD
Net effluent
Q, MGD
R; MGD
( C , mg/liter
2
of dissolved air)
p r o c e s s ; a n d (3) t h i c k e n i n g of flocculated c h e m i c a l s l u d g e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m
c h e m i c a l c o a g u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t . S u p e r i o r effluent q u a l i t y , i.e., effluent c o n
t a i n i n g l o w e r p e r c e n t a g e o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , a n d e c o n o m y in p o w e r a r e
a c h i e v e d b y flotation s y s t e m s w i t h recycle.
Basic c o m p o n e n t s of a flotation s y s t e m a r e (1) p r e s s u r i z i n g p u m p ; (2) a i r
i n j e c t i o n facilities; (3) r e t e n t i o n t a n k ( t o p r o v i d e a i r - l i q u i d c o n t a c t ) ; (4)
p r e s s u r e - r e d u c i n g v a l v e ; a n d (5) flotation tank.
4.2. E V A L U A T I O N O F F L O T A T I O N V A R I A B L E S
FOR P R O C E S S D E S I G N
4.2.1. Parameter A / S
F o r d e s i g n of flotation systems, a fundamental parameter commonly
utilized is a d i m e n s i o n l e s s a i r t o s o l i d s r a t i o (A/S) defined b y E q . (3.43).
T h i s p a r a m e t e r is e s t i m a t e d f r o m s t u d i e s w i t h a l a b o r a t o r y - s c a l e flotation
cell o f p i l o t - p l a n t d a t a . T h e v a l u e o f A is o b t a i n e d f r o m d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f
d i s s o l v e d a i r ( m g / l i t e r ) a t s a m p l i n g l o c a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d a s (1) a n d (2) i n F i g .
3 . 2 8 ( a ) a n d (b). T h u s [ E q . (3.44)]
A = A, - A 2 (3.44)
w h e r e A is t h e l b / d a y o f a i r r e l e a s e d b y d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n ; A x t h e l b / d a y of
d i s s o l v e d a i r a t (1) [ F i g . 3 . 2 8 ( a ) a n d ( b ) ] ; a n d A 2 the lb/day of dissolved air
a t (2) [ F i g . 3 . 2 8 ( a ) a n d ( b ) ] .
For flotation s y s t e m s w i t h o u t recycle [ E q . ( 3 . 4 5 ) ] , *
Therefore
F o r flotation s y s t e m s w i t h recycle t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e q u a t i o n is
v a l u e o f S [ d e n o m i n a t o r o f E q . ( 3 . 4 3 ) ] is
A/S=(C -C )/S
l 2 l (3.50)
0.06
I ! ι I
0 50 I00
m g / l i t e r of S S in e f f l u e n t
Fig. 3.29. Typical correlation of parameter A/S vs. concentration of SS in
effluent.
For a given influent, the lb/day of suspended solids (term S in ratio A/S)
is fixed. Ratio A/S increases by operating at higher air rates, which results in
increase of air released (A). From Fig. 3.29 it follows that a higher quality
effluent is obtained.
Graphs like Fig. 3.29 permit selection of the A/S ratio for a required degree
of effluent clarification. These curves indicate that increasing the A/S ratio
beyond an optimum value does not result in substantial reduction in effluent
suspended solids.
Judicious selection of the A/S ratio involves an economical balance between
equipment and maintenance costs and desired effluent quality. Typical range
of A/S ratios for thickening of sludges in wastewater treatment is 0.005-
0.060.
water. It is assumed that conditions at (2) [Figs. 28(a) and (b)] are atmos
pheric pressure and ambient temperature. Solubility of air in water in c m of 3
T A B L E 3.11
Solubility of Air in Water at Atmospheric
Pressure at Several Temperatures [6]
0 29.2
10 22.8
20 18.7
30 15.7
U t i l i z e for t h e d e n s i t y o f a i r p 2l m e a n v a l u e o f 1.2 m g / c m . ( T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s
a
3
C 2 = \2S a (3.53)
C o n s i d e r n o w E q . (3.45), w h e r e C l is t h e s o l u b i l i t y o f a i r in m g / l i t e r . T h e
cm 3
o f a i r / l i t e r o f w a t e r a t t h e r e t e n t i o n t a n k [ p o i n t ( 1 ) ] is s h o w n i n E q . (3.54).
w h e r e φ is t h e r a t i o o f s o l u b i l i t y o f a i r in w a t e r a t t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e r e t e n t i o n
t a n k [ a t ( 1 ) ] t o t h e s o l u b i l i t y a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e [ a t (2) in F i g s . 2 8 ( a ) a n d
(b)] [Eq. (3.55)].
I t is f o u n d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t for a specific d e s i g n of t h e r e t e n t i o n t a n k ,
a n d w i t h i n o r d i n a r y p r e s s u r e r a n g e s u t i l i z e d in flotation o p e r a t i o n s , r a t i o φ is
proportional to the pressure
<P=fP (3.56)
w h e r e / is t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r a n d Ρ t h e p r e s s u r e in r e t e n t i o n t a n k i n
atmospheres.
A t 2 0 ° C f o r p r e s s u r e r a n g e 3 0 - 6 0 p s i a u t i l i z e d in m o s t flotation s y s t e m s a n d
f o r baffled r e t e n t i o n t a n k s , t h e v a l u e o f / i n E q . (3.56) is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 . 5 .
Consequently, values of φ vary from
Ci = φ€ 2 (3.57)
112 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
d = fP(\2S ) a (3.58)
4.3. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R F L O T A T I O N
UNITS WITHOUT A N D WITH RECYCLE
a m o u n t s t o specification of o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e P, w h i c h is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
E q . (3.59) a s
D e s i g n o f flotation s y s t e m s w i t h o u t recycle i n v o l v e s c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r e q u i r e d
o p e r a t i n g pressure [ E q . (3.61)] a n d d e t e r m i n i n g the cross-sectional area of the
flotation u n i t . T h i s a r e a is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m a selected v a l u e of t h e o v e r f l o w
r a t e , u s u a l l y a v a l u e b e t w e e n 2 a n d 4 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ( E x a m p l e 3.6).
2
Example 3.6
L a b o r a t o r y flotation tests for a given w a s t e w a t e r i n d i c a t e o p t i m u m air/
s o l i d s r a t i o (A/S) a s 0.04 l b a i r / l b solids. F l o w of w a s t e w a t e r is 1.0 M G D a n d
it c o n t a i n s 2 5 0 m g / l i t e r o f s u s p e n d e d solids. L a b o r a t o r y flotation tests ( w i t h o u t
recycle) i n d i c a t e for a r a t i o A/S = 0.04 a n o p t i m u m effluent c o n t a i n i n g 2 5
mg/liter of suspended solids. T a k e / = 0.50 for retention t a n k a n d a n o p e r a t i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e o f 2 0 ° C . D e s i g n a flotation s y s t e m w i t h o u t recycle f o r t h i s service.
SOLUTION
Step 1. Select A/S = 0.04, a s s t a t e d .
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e Ρ f r o m E q . (3.61).
OR = 3 gal/(min)(ft ) 2
4. Flotation 113
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d s u r f a c e a r e a ,
Q = 1.0 M G D
or
Q = 1,000,000 gal/day χ day/24 hr χ hr/60 min = 695 gal/min
t h e o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e Ρ b e c o m e s fixed. T h e u s u a l p r o c e d u r e is t o specify
a n o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e Ρ a n d a n A/S r a t i o a n d c a l c u l a t e t h e r e q u i r e d recycle
f r o m E q . (3.60), w h i c h s o l v e d for R y i e l d s E q . (3.62).
Example 3.7
F o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n in E x a m p l e 3.6 d e s i g n a flotation system with recycle,
t a k i n g a n o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e o f 2.9 a t m .
SOLUTION
T h i s m e a n s t h a t recycle r a t i o R/Q is a p p r o x i m a t e l y u n i t y .
Step 3. Select a n overflow r a t e
OR = 3 gal/(min)(ft ) 2
Step 4. R e q u i r e d s u r f a c e a r e a is defined a s
Q + R « 2.0 M G D
or
S u r f a c e a r e a is t w i c e a s l a r g e a s for t h e u n i t w i t h o u t r e c y c l e . H o w e v e r , a n
effluent o f s u p e r i o r q u a l i t y (i.e., SS < 2 5 m g / l i t e r ) is o b t a i n e d .
114 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
b i c a r b o n a t e s in s o l u t i o n . T h e d e g r e e o f p r e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r b i o
l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t d e p e n d s o n t w o f a c t o r s : (1) t h e a l k a l i n i t y o r a c i d i t y p r e s e n t
i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r a n d (2) t h e m g / l i t e r B O D t o b e r e m o v e d in t h e b i o l o g i c a l
t r e a t m e n t . T h e l a t t e r is r e l a t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f C 0 , w h i c h m a y p r o v i d e
2
5.2. M E T H O D S F O R N E U T R A L I Z A T I O N
OF W A S T E W A T E R S
M e t h o d s f o r n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r s i n c l u d e (1) e q u a l i z a t i o n , w h i c h
c o n s i s t s o f m i x i n g a c i d i c a n d a l k a l i n e w a s t e s t r e a m s a v a i l a b l e in t h e p l a n t a n d
(2) d i r e c t p H c o n t r o l m e t h o d s , w h i c h c o n s i s t o f a d d i t i o n o f a c i d s ( o r b a s e s )
for neutralization of alkaline (or acidic) wastewater streams.
5.3. EQUALIZATION
W h e n utilized for p u r p o s e o f n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , e q u a l i z a t i o n i n v o l v e s m i x i n g
w a s t e w a t e r s t r e a m s o f a c i d i c a n d a l k a l i n e n a t u r e in a n e q u a l i z a t i o n b a s i n .
E q u a l i z a t i o n is often u s e d f o r p u r p o s e s o t h e r t h a n n e u t r a l i z a t i o n s u c h a s
(1) t o s m o o t h o u t i n d i v i d u a l w a s t e w a t e r s t r e a m flow v a r i a t i o n s , s o t h a t a
c o m p o s i t e s t r e a m o f relatively c o n s t a n t flow r a t e is fed t o t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t ;
a n d (2) t o s m o o t h o u t v a r i a t i o n s in influent B O D t o t h e t r e a t m e n t facilities.
C o n s t a n t a n d v a r i a b l e level e q u a l i z a t i o n b a s i n s a r e utilized.
1. Constant level equalization basins. T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t is i l l u s t r a t e d in
F i g . 3.30. T h e level in t h e e q u a l i z a t i o n b a s i n is h e l d c o n s t a n t . T h e r e f o r e a s
5. Neutralization (and Equalization) 115
Influent Effluent
Qi = f(t)
Influent Effluent
Γ
Τ
ΤΤ
Q, - f(t)
Influent
Excess
Holding pond
Bleed stream
Equalization tank
I
Fig. 3.32. "Holding pond" method of equalization.
116 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
A n o t h e r m e t h o d of e q u a l i z a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f d i v e r t i n g t h e " e x c e s s " o f t h e
i n c o m i n g s t r e a m t o a h o l d i n g p o n d , f r o m w h i c h a b l e e d s t r e a m is fed t o t h e
e q u a l i z a t i o n t a n k . T h i s m e t h o d is n o t u s e d for n e u t r a l i z a t i o n p u r p o s e s , b u t
o n l y for e q u a l i z a t i o n o f B O D c o n t e n t o r flow r a t e . T h i s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g .
3.32.
5.4. D I R E C T p H C O N T R O L M E T H O D S :
NEUTRALIZATION OF A C I D I C W A S T E S BY
D I R E C T pH C O N T R O L M E T H O D S
T h e f o l l o w i n g m e t h o d s o f d i r e c t n e u t r a l i z a t i o n of a c i d i c w a s t e s a r e t h e
m o s t c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d : (1) l i m e s t o n e b e d s , (2) s l u r r i e d l i m e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n ,
(3) c a u s t i c s o d a ( N a O H ) n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , (4) s o d i u m c a r b o n a t e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n ,
a n d (5) a m m o n i a n e u t r a l i z a t i o n .
A few specific c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e s e m e t h o d s a r e a s f o l l o w s :
S l u r r i e d l i m e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n is t h e m o s t c o m m o n m e t h o d a n d is d i s c u s s e d
in S e c t i o n 5.6. D e s i g n of l i m e s t o n e b e d s is d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 5.5.
C a u s t i c s o d a ( N a O H ) is m o r e e x p e n s i v e t h a n l i m e . It offers a n a d v a n t a g e
with respect t o uniformity of the reagent, ease of storage a n d feeding, r a p i d
r e a c t i o n r a t e , a n d t h e fact t h a t t h e e n d p r o d u c t s o f n e u t r a l i z a t i o n ( s o d i u m
salts) a r e s o l u b l e .
S o d i u m c a r b o n a t e ( N a C 0 ) is n o t a s r e a c t i v e a s c a u s t i c s o d a
2 3 and
presents frothing problems owing to release of c a r b o n dioxide.
A m m o n i a ( N H O H ) p r e s e n t s t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of b e i n g a c o n t a m i n a n t ;
4
c o n s e q u e n t l y its u s e m a y b e r u l e d o u t b y p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l s t a n d a r d s .
F a c t o r s g u i d i n g selection of a n e u t r a l i z a t i o n r e a g e n t a r e (1) p u r c h a s e c o s t ,
(2) n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c a p a c i t y , (3) r e a c t i o n r a t e , a n d (4) s t o r a g e a n d d i s p o s a l o f
neutralization products.
5.5. L I M E S T O N E B E D S
5.5.1. Types of Equipment
B o t h upflow a n d downflow types of limestone beds are employed. F o r
w a s t e w a t e r s c o n t a i n i n g H S 0 , l i m e s t o n e b e d s s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d if c o n
2 4
c e n t r a t i o n o f H S 0 e x c e e d s 0 . 6 % . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s l i m i t a t i o n is t h a t t h e
2 4
l i m e s t o n e b e c o m e s c o v e r e d w i t h a n i n s o l u b l e c o a t o f C a S 0 , r e n d e r i n g it
4
ineffective. I n a d d i t i o n , e v o l u t i o n o f C 0 c a u s e s f r o t h i n g p r o b l e m s .
2
U p f l o w t y p e a r r a n g e m e n t is p r e f e r a b l e t o d o w n f l o w t y p e since in u p f l o w
u n i t s , C a S 0 t e n d s t o b e flushed o u t b e f o r e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o n t h e l i m e s t o n e .
4
A l s o , e s c a p e o f C 0 g e n e r a t e d b y t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n r e a c t i o n is e a s i e r in
2
u p f l o w t y p e u n i t s . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , m a x i m u m h y d r a u l i c r a t e for d o w n f l o w
s y s t e m s is l i m i t e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) .2
P r e s e n c e o f m e t a l l i c i o n s (e.g., A l 3 +
, Fe 3 +
) in t h e w a s t e w a t e r reduces
5. Neutralization (and Equalization) 117
effectiveness o f t h e l i m e s t o n e b e d o w i n g t o c o a t i n g o f l i m e s t o n e w i t h p r e c i p i
t a t e d h y d r o x i d e s . F i n a l l y , if d i l u t i o n of t h e a c i d i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r is i n c r e a s e d ,
higher residence times are required for neutralization.
operation.
e a c h d e p t h o f l i m e s t o n e . A t y p i c a l p l o t o f t h i s t y p e is s h o w n i n F i g . 3.34.
P u r p o s e s o f t h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e a r e (1) t o select t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l
h e i g h t o f c o l u m n for a specified p H o f t h e effluent. T h i s is t h e c o l u m n h e i g h t
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e flow r a t e , e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f
v o l u m e of l i m e s t o n e utilized, i.e., g a l o f l i q u o r / ( h r ) ( f t o f l i m e s t o n e ) ; a n d
3
(2) t o c a l c u l a t e a n n u a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f l i m e s t o n e u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ,
which corresponds to a m i n i m u m requirement of limestone.
118 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
II
IO
PH
9
4
Ο 500 I000 I500
Example 3.8
I t is d e s i r e d t o n e u t r a l i z e a w a s t e w a t e r a c i d s t r e a m c o n t a i n i n g 0.1 Ν H C I
t o a p H o f 7.0 t h r o u g h a l i m e s t o n e b e d . L a b o r a t o r y tests w i t h t h e w a s t e w a t e r
yield d a t a p l o t t e d i n F i g . 3.34. D e s i g n a n e u t r a l i z a t i o n s y s t e m f o r 100 g a l / m i n
(6000 gal/hr) of wastewater a n d estimate a n n u a l limestone r e q u i r e m e n t for
the most economical operation.
SOLUTION
T A B L E 3.12
Calculations for Example 3.8
(2) (5)
F l o w rate (3) (4) F l o w rate
ω [gal/(hr)(ft )] 2
Cross section Volume o f [gal/(hr)(ft )]
3
6000 gal/hr
3.34 for p H 7 ] { )
~ (2) (4) = ( / ) x ( 5 ) ( )
~ (4)
(ft)
300
t 8; I)
•<
c
ο s
tn / ft 62 )
/ft w< >
I 250
>)
i/E Λ
Tt 7
/t
f/
to
Β 200
1
ο
ι
. o>.
φ I
o f
5 150 I
ο
©
LL
ι
L Hi )
I00
2 3
© D e p t h (ft)
d e p t h s [ c o l u m n ( 7 ) ] . T h i s p l o t is s h o w n in F i g . 3.35 a n d i n d i c a t e s t h a t a 3-ft
l i m e s t o n e b e d is t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a m a x i m u m o n t h e
c u r v e . T h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a in t h i s c a s e (see T a b l e 3.12 for a d e p t h o f 3.0 ft)
is 7.1 f t , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a d i a m e t e r o f 3.0 ft.
2
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e t h e lb o f a c i d t o b e n e u t r a l i z e d p e r d a y ( a c i d c o n t a i n e d
in t h e 6 0 0 0 g a l / h r o f t h e 0.1 Ν s o l u t i o n o f H C I ) . S i n c e t h i s is a d i l u t e a c i d
s o l u t i o n , c a l c u l a t i o n is b a s e d o n t h e d e n s i t y o f w a t e r , t a k e n a s 8.34 l b / g a l .
A 0.1 Ν s o l u t i o n o f H C I c o n t a i n s 3.65 g/liter o f H C I , o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3.65 lb
o f a c i d p e r 1000 l b o f s o l u t i o n . T h e r e f o r e
2HC1 + C a C 0 -» C a C l + C 0 3 2 2 + H 0 2
T h e r e f o r e l i m e s t o n e r e q u i r e d is
T h i s is t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a m o u n t o f l i m e s t o n e a s s u m i n g 1 0 0 % r e a c t i v i t y . F o r
d e s i g n p u r p o s e s , a s s u m e a n 8 0 % r e a c t i v i t y . L i m e s t o n e r e q u i r e d is t h e n
5.6. S L U R R I E D L I M E T R E A T M E N T
By-pass line
Alkaline wastewater
S t e p w i s e a d d i t i o n of l i m e is r e c o m m e n d e d . F o r h i g h l y a c i d i c w a s t e s a
m i n i m u m o f t w o stages is d e s i r a b l e , t h e first ( b u l k n e u t r a l i z a t i o n ) t o r a i s e p H
t o a v a l u e o f 3 . 0 - 3 . 5 , a n d t h e s e c o n d (fine t u n i n g ) t o a d j u s t p H t o d e s i r e d
effluent v a l u e . S o m e t i m e s a t h i r d s t a g e is d e s i r a b l e .
A u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l o f t h i s p r o c e s s is n o t s i m p l e b e c a u s e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n p H a n d a m o u n t o f l i m e a d d e d is h i g h l y n o n l i n e a r , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e
vicinity o f t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n p o i n t ( p H 7). T h i s is a p p r e c i a t e d b y i n s p e c t i o n o f
a t y p i c a l n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c u r v e o f a n i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r , s h o w n in F i g .
3.37.
I n t h e vicinity of t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n p o i n t , t h e p H b e c o m e s e x c e e d i n g l y
sensitive t o s m a l l a d d i t i o n s o f l i m e , v a r y i n g in a n o r d i n a r y o p e r a t i o n o f s l u r
r i e d l i m e s y s t e m s a t a r a t e a s fast a s o n e p H u n i t p e r m i n u t e . A l s o , fluctuation
in flow r a t e o f influent c o m p l i c a t e s o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s . U s e o f a n e q u a l
i z a t i o n t a n k is i n d i c a t e d t o d a m p e n fluctuations, a s s h o w n in F i g . 3.36. A
relatively s m a l l a m o u n t o f r e a g e n t is t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d w i t h a l a r g e l i q u i d
v o l u m e in a s h o r t t i m e i n t e r v a l . M e c h a n i c a l m i x e r s a r e p r o v i d e d f o r t h i s
purpose.
5. Neutralization (and Equalization) 121
14
PH
12
10
8 7
6
I
1
1
2 1 --3,600
Ο 2,000 V
4,000 6,000
mg of lime/liter of wastewater
Fig. 3.37. Typical neutralization curve for an industrial wastewater.
Example 3 . 9
2 0 0 g a l / m i n of a n a c i d i c i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r a r e n e u t r a l i z e d t o p H 7.0.
F r o m l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s , t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c u r v e is p l o t t e d ( F i g . 3.37). A l s o , a
c u r v e of level o f a g i t a t i o n vs. d e t e n t i o n t i m e is o b t a i n e d f o r t h i s n e u t r a l i z a t i o n
( F i g . 3.38). D e s i g n a l i m e s l u r r y n e u t r a l i z a t i o n s y s t e m .
SOLUTION
Step 1. F r o m t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c u r v e in F i g . 3.37, l i m e s l u r r y r e q u i r e
m e n t for n e u t r a l i z i n g t h e w a s t e w a t e r t o a p H o f 7 is r e a d a s 3 6 0 0 m g / l i t e r .
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e l i m e s l u r r y r e q u i r e m e n t f o r 2 0 0 g a l / m i n w a s t e w a t e r
flow. S i n c e
I.Or
~"Ί. 5 IO 50 I00
Residence time (min)
then
200 gal waste/min χ 60 m i n / h r χ 24 h r / d a y χ 8.34 lb waste/gal waste
Step 3. N e u t r a l i z e a c i d in t w o s t e p s a s i n d i c a t e d b y flow d i a g r a m in F i g .
3.36, t h e first s t a g e f o r b u l k n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e s e c o n d for fine t u n i n g .
Step 4. Select a d e t e n t i o n t i m e a n d size t h e r e a c t o r s .
S e l e c t i o n o f t h e o p t i m u m d e t e n t i o n t i m e is a r r i v e d a t b y a n economical
balance.
1. A s s u m e a r e s i d e n c e t i m e ( u s u a l l y a v a l u e b e t w e e n 5 a n d 10 m i n ) .
2. Size t h e r e a c t o r [ E q . ( 3 . 6 3 ) ] .
3. F r o m F i g . 3.38 f o r t h e a s s u m e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e , d e t e r m i n e power
level r e q u i r e d .
4 . Select m i x e r s (as s h o w n i n S t e p 5) f r o m k n o w l e d g e o f p o w e r level
[item (3)].
5. E s t i m a t e t o t a l c o s t s ( c a p i t a l a n d o p e r a t i n g ) c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s
a s s u m e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e . M a i n i t e m s in t h e c o l u m n of c a p i t a l c o s t s a r e t h e
reactors themselves (and auxiliary equipment) a n d the mixers. Energy require
m e n t is t h e v a r i a b l e i t e m a m o n g o p e r a t i n g c o s t s .
Problems 123
6. R e p e a t i n g s t e p s ( l ) - ( 5 ) , a c u r v e o f t o t a l c o s t p e r y e a r v s . a series o f
selected r e s i d e n c e t i m e s is p l o t t e d . T h i s c u r v e p a s s e s t h r o u g h a m i n i m u m
which corresponds to the o p t i m u m detention time. Capital costs are expressed
o n a y e a r l y b a s i s b y e s t i m a t i n g e q u i p m e n t life a n d u t i l i z i n g t h e c u r r e n t v a l u e
for interest rate.
A s s u m e for E x a m p l e 3.9 t h a t o p t i m u m r e s i d e n c e t i m e is e s t i m a t e d b y t h i s
procedure as 5 min. Then
Volume of each reactor (gal) = 200 gal/min χ 5 m i n = 1000 gal
or
1000 gal χ ft /7.48 gal = 134 f t
3 3
S e l e c t i n g a r e a c t o r d e p t h o f 5 ft, r e q u i r e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is
A r e a = 1 3 4 f t / 5 ft = 26.8 ft
3 2
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a d i a m e t e r o f 5.84 ft.
Step 5. Select m i x e r s . F r o m F i g . 3.38, p o w e r level r e q u i r e d for 5 - m i n
d e t e n t i o n t i m e is
0.15 HP/1000 gal
Since e a c h t a n k h a s a v o l u m e o f 1000 g a l , specify o n e 0 . 1 5 - H P m i x e r for e a c h
tank.
Problems
I. Sedimentation {discrete settling). A particle size distribution is obtained from a sieve
analysis of sand particles. For each weight fraction an average settling velocity is calculated.
D a t a [6] are presented in the following tabulation.
10.0 0.55
5.0 0.46
2.0 0.35
1.0 0.21
0.75 0.11
0.50 0.03
124 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
1. Prepare a plot o f fraction of particles with less than stated velocity vs. settling velocity
(ft/min).
2. F o r an overflow rate of 100,000 gal/(day)(ft ), calculate overall removal utilizing
2
Eq. (3.26).
II. Sedimentation (flocculent settling). A laboratory settling analysis gave the results tab
ulated below.
T i m e (min) 2 ft 4 ft 6 ft
10 40 25 16
20 54 37 28
30 62 47 37
45 71 56 46
60 76 65 53
1. Perform analysis of the data and arrive at curves for % SS removal vs. detention time
(min), and % SS removal vs. overflow rate [ g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ] .
2
2. If the initial concentration of the slurry is 430 p p m , design a settling tank (i.e., calculate
diameter and effective depth o f the tank) to remove 70% o f the suspended solids for a
1 Mgal/day flow.
3. What removal is attained if flow if increased to 2 M g a l / d a y ?
4. F o r the flow o f 1 Mgal/day calculate daily accumulation o f sludge in lb/day and
average pumping rate in gal/min. A s s u m e sludge concentration to be 1.5% solids
( « 1 5 , 0 0 0 mg/liter).
III. Sedimentation (zone settling). It is desired to design a secondary settling tank to produce
an underflow concentration o f 15,000 mg/liter from a mixed liquor solids content of 3750
mg/liter in the influent. Wastewater flow is 2.0 Mgal/day. Calculate clarifier area re
quired. D a t a below are obtained in a laboratory test o f the slurry.
0 1000
2 920
4 840
6 760
8 690
10 600
15 400
20 300
25 280
30 270
References
1. C a m p , T. R., Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. I l l , 909 (1946).
2. Eckenfelder, W. W . , Jr., "Industrial Water Pollution Control." McGraw-Hill, N e w
Y o r k , 1966.
3. Eckenfelder, W. W . , Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
Austin and N e w Y o r k , 1970.
4. Eckenfelder, W . W . , Jr., and O'Connor, D . J., "Biological Waste Treatment." P e r g a m o n ,
Oxford, 1961.
5. H a z e n , Α . , Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 5 3 , 45 (1904).
6. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., "Wastewater Engineering." McGraw-Hill, N e w Y o r k , 1972.
7. Talmadge, W . P., and Fitch, Ε. B., Ind. Eng. Chem. 47, 38 (1955).
8. Waddel, H., J. Franklin Inst. 2 7 , 4 5 9 ^ 1 9 0 (1934).
4
Theory and Practice of Aeration
in Wastewater Treatment
1. Introduction 127
2. Steps Involved in the Oxygen-Transfer Process 128
3. Oxygen-Transfer Rate Equation 128
4. Determination of the Overall Mass-Transfer Coefficient K a L by
Unsteady State Aeration of Tap Water 129
5. Integration of the Differential Equation for Oxygen Transfer
between Limits 133
6. Unsteady State Aeration of Activated Sludge Liquor 133
7. Steady State Determination of K a for the Activated Sludge Liquor
L 134
8. Oxygenation Capacity (OC) 135
9. Corrections for K a and Oxygenation Capacity ( O C ) with Temper
L
126
1. Introduction 127
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
T h i s c h a p t e r is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e t r a n s f e r o f o x y g e n f r o m a i r t o a w a s t e
water subjected to biological aerobic t r e a t m e n t . K n o w l e d g e of the rate of
o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is essential for specification of a e r a t o r s t o b e utilized in t h e
p r o c e s s . T h e o r y for o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is d i s c u s s e d , a n d t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
t r a n s f e r coefficients f r o m l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s d e s c r i b e d . C o m m o n t y p e s
o f a e r a t o r s a n d t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r specifying a e r a t o r s y s t e m s for aerobic
wastewater treatment processes are also described.
T h e b e s t k n o w n e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e m e c h a n i s m of g a s t r a n s f e r t o a l i q u i d
is g i v e n b y t h e two-film t h e o r y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t h e o r y , it is t h e p r e s e n c e o f
t w o films, o n e liquid a n d o n e g a s , a t t h e g a s - l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e w h i c h p r o v i d e s
the resistance to the passage of gas molecules from the bulk of the gas p h a s e
t o t h a t of t h e l i q u i d p h a s e .
F o r gases of h i g h s o l u b i l i t y in t h e l i q u i d p h a s e , e.g., a b s o r p t i o n of S 0 2 by
w a t e r , t h e m a j o r r e s i s t a n c e t o a b s o r p t i o n is t h a t offered b y t h e g a s film. F o r
g a s e s o f l o w solubility in t h e l i q u i d p h a s e , e.g., a b s o r p t i o n o f o x y g e n b y a n
a q u e o u s l i q u o r , t h e c o n t r o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c e resides in t h e l i q u i d film. F o r i n t e r
m e d i a t e solubilities, b o t h films offer significant r e s i s t a n c e .
O x y g e n s a t u r a t i o n v a l u e s ( C ) for distilled w a t e r a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s
s
(1 a t m ) a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 4 . 1 . F o r a m o r e c o m p l e t e t a b l e w i t h 1°C
i n c r e m e n t s , c o n s u l t Ref. [ 7 ] .
T A B L E 4.1
Oxygen Saturation Values ( C ) for Distilled $
Temperature Temperature o 2
(°Q (°F) (mg/liter)
0 32.0 14.6
5 41.0 12.8
10 50.0 11.3
15 59.0 10.2
20 68.0 9.2
25 77.0 8.4
30 86.0 7.6
35 95.0 7.1
40 104.0 6.6
45 113.0 6.1
50 122.0 5.6
128 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
2. S t e p s Involved in t h e
Oxygen-Transfer Process
T h e p r o c e s s of o x y g e n t r a n s f e r f r o m a g a s e o u s t o a n a q u e o u s p h a s e o c c u r s
in t h r e e s t e p s .
Step 1. S a t u r a t i o n of t h e l i q u i d s u r f a c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o p h a s e s (let C b e s
t h i s s a t u r a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o x y g e n ) . T h i s r a t e o f o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is v e r y
r a p i d since t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e g a s film is negligible, a n d t h u s S t e p 1 is n e v e r
the controlling one.
Step 2. P a s s a g e o f t h e o x y g e n m o l e c u l e s t h r o u g h t h e l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e
film b y m o l e c u l a r diffusion. A t v e r y l o w m i x i n g levels t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n
a b s o r p t i o n is c o n t r o l l e d b y S t e p 2. A t h i g h e r t u r b u l e n c e levels, t h e i n t e r f a c e
film is b r o k e n u p a n d t h e r a t e o f r e n e w a l o f t h e film c o n t r o l s t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f
o x y g e n . S u r f a c e r e n e w a l r a t e is t h e f r e q u e n c y a t w h i c h l i q u i d w i t h a n o x y g e n
concentration C L ( o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e b u l k o f t h e l i q u i d p h a s e )
replaces t h a t from the interface with a n oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n equal t o C. s
Step 3. O x y g e n is t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b u l k of t h e l i q u i d b y diffusion a n d
convection.
3. O x y g e n - T r a n s f e r R a t e Equation
T h e b a s i c e q u a t i o n for o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r r a t e is
N= K A(C -C )
L S L (4.1)
w h e r e Ν is t h e m a s s o f o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d p e r u n i t t i m e ( l b 0 / d a y ) ; K 2 L the
l i q u i d film coefficient [ l b 0 / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( u n i t A C ) ] ; A t h e interfacial a r e a for
2
2
o v e r a l l coefficient o f o x y g e n t r a n s f e r [ l b 0 / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( u n i t A C ) ] .
2
3
I n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e m a s s - t r a n s f e r coefficient, t h e o v e r a l l coefficient
K a is o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t a t t e m p t i n g t o s e p a r a t e t h e f a c t o r s K a n d a. I t is
L L
a d m i t t e d l y i m p o s s i b l e t o m e a s u r e t h e interfacial a r e a A.
T h e difference (C — C ) b e t w e e n s a t u r a t i o n v a l u e a n d a c t u a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n
S L
of o x y g e n ( C ) in t h e b o d y o f t h e l i q u i d p h a s e is called o x y g e n deficit ( h e n c e
L
d e n o t e d a s O D ) . F o r a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s d e s i g n e d for r e m o v a l o f
o r g a n i c B O D , t h e r a n g e for o p e r a t i n g d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n level C is b e t w e e n L
4. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e Overall
M a s s - T r a n s f e r Coefficient K a L
by U n s t e a d y S t a t e A e r a t i o n of
Tap W a t e r
S t u d i e s o f t h e t r a n s f e r coefficient a r e u s u a l l y m a d e o n t a p w a t e r a n d t h e n
c o r r e c t e d for t h e w a s t e w a t e r , a s d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 11 of t h i s c h a p t e r . T h e
p r o c e d u r e m o r e c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f K a is t h e u n s t e a d y L
s t a t e a e r a t i o n o f t a p w a t e r . T h e f o u r s t e p s i n v o l v e d in t h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n a r e
given below.
Step 1. D e o x y g e n a t e t h e w a t e r t o a n e s s e n t i a l l y z e r o c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n . T h i s is d o n e b y a d d i t i o n o f d e o x y g e n a t i o n c h e m i c a l s , t h e
m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d b e i n g s o d i u m sulfite ( N a S 0 ) . C o b a l t c h l o r i d e ( C o C l )
2 3 2
is a d d e d as a c a t a l y s t for t h e d e o x y g e n a t i o n r e a c t i o n .
coci 2
Na S0 2 3 + i02 > Na S0 2 4
T h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c r a t i o is
1 p p m o f D O . B a s e d o n t h e D O o f t h e test t a p w a t e r , t h e a p p r o x i m a t e N a S 0 2 3
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e e s t i m a t e d (a 1 0 - 2 0 % excess is u s e d ) . Sufficient c o b a l t
c h l o r i d e is a d d e d t o p r o v i d e a m i n i m u m C o c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 1.5 p p m . A n
2 +
T h i s yields a t o t a l o f 12 s a m p l i n g p o i n t s , a s i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 4 . 2 . S a m p l e s
f r o m v a r i o u s test l o c a t i o n s a r e a n a l y z e d for D O , a n d t h e r e s u l t s a r e a v e r a g e d
a n d recorded for the particular sampling time.
Aeration
device
Baffles
Step 3. R e s u l t s a r e t a b u l a t e d a s s h o w n b y s a m p l e d a t a in T a b l e 4 . 2 .
T A B L E 4.2
Data for Example 4.1
w (2) (3)
Test time (min) CL (mg/liter) C -C (mg/liter)
s L
e
0 0.2 10.0
10 2.6 7.6
20 4.8 5.4
30 6.0 4.2
40 7.1 3.1
50 7.8 2.4
60 8.5 1.7
α
C = 10.2 mg/liter.
s
4. Determination of Mass-Transfer Coefficient K a L 131
In ( C - C ) = - K at + const.
s L L (4.3)
T h e p l o t o f l n ( C - C ) vs. t i m e is s h o w n i n F i g . 4 . 3 f o r d a t a i n T a b l e 4 . 2 . F o r
s L
a c c u r a c y t h e s t r a i g h t line is p l o t t e d b y t h e l e a s t - s q u a r e s m e t h o d .
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e o v e r a l l m a s s - t r a n s f e r coefficient K a b y t h e m e t h o d
L
o f u n s t e a d y s t a t e a e r a t i o n o f t a p w a t e r is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 4 . 1 .
0 20 40 60
Time (min)
Example 4.1
W a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e : 15°C
T e s t w a t e r is d e o x y g e n a t e d u s i n g s o d i u m sulfite a n d a c o b a l t c a t a l y s t .
Calculate
1. C h e m i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s (lb N a S 0 / l b l i q u o r ) t o d e o x y g e n a t e
2 3 test
w a t e r w i t h 9 p p m of D O a n d t o t a l l b N a S 0 2 3
2 . C o C l r e q u i r e m e n t s (lb)
2
3. V a l u e of K a l b 0 / ( h r ) ( f t ) Δ ( m g / l i t e r )
L 2
3
SOLUTION
Step 1. E s t a b l i s h t h e c h e m i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , 7.9 p p m o f
Na S0 2 3 are required to remove 1 p p m D O . Thus
U t i l i z i n g a 2 0 % excess
Requirements
Theoretical 71.1 p p m
Excess 15.0 p p m
86.1 p p m o f N a S 0 2 3
Step 2. D e t e r m i n e t h e C o C l r e q u i r e m e n t s ( l b ) .
2
Basis: 1.5 p p m of C o 2 +
A t o m i c weight of C o : 59
Thus
1.5 p p m C o 2 +
or 1.5 χ 130/59 = 3.3 p p m C o C l 2 = 3.3 χ 1 0 " lb C o C l / l b liquor
6
2
6. Unsteady State Aeration 133
T h e r e f o r e , t h e l b of C o C l 2 required are
= 4.13 lb C o C l 2 (minimum)
T a k e 5 lb C o C l . 2
Step 3. A s c e r t a i n t h e v a l u e of K a(hr~ ). L
l
By p l o t t i n g i n s e m i l o g scale
g r a p h c o l u m n (5) vs. c o l u m n (1) of T a b l e 4 . 2 o n e o b t a i n s F i g . 4 . 3 . T h e n a t 15°C
KaL = - ( s l o p e ) = - 2 . 3 0 3 [ ( l o g 1 0 - l o g 3 . 1 ) / ( 0 - 4 0 ) ] χ 60
= 1.761b0 /(hr)(ft )A(mg/liter)
2
3
5. I n t e g r a t i o n of t h e Differential
E q u a t i o n for Oxygen T r a n s f e r
b e t w e e n Limits
I n t e g r a t i o n o f E q . (4.2) b e t w e e n t i m e s t l and t , corresponding to
2 DO
concentrations C L > 1 and C L 2 , yields
or
Ka L = 2.303 l a g [ ( C . - C L i l )/(C -C s L i 2 )]/(/ -/ ) 2 1 (4.4)
F r o m E q . (4.4) t h e v a l u e o f K a L is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m o n l y t w o e x p e r i m e n t a l
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f D O . H o w e v e r , it is p r e f e r a b l e t o utilize t h e s e m i l o g l i n e a r
p l o t m e t h o d with several experimental p o i n t s , since this p e r m i t s statistical
averaging of errors.
6. U n s t e a d y S t a t e A e r a t i o n of
A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e Liquor
In aeration of activated sludge liquor, oxygen utilization (respiration rate)
b y t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s is t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . E q u a t i o n (4.2) is m o d i f i e d a s
follows:
dCJdt = K a(C L sw -C )-r
L (4.5)
w h e r e r is t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n b y t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s ; C s w the
s a t u r a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f o x y g e n for t h e w a s t e w a t e r ; a n d C L the operating
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n i n t h e a e r a t o r l i q u o r . V a l u e s o f dCJdt are
obtained by plotting C L ( m e a s u r e d by D O tests) vs. t i m e a n d d e t e r m i n i n g
slopes at selected t i m e intervals (Fig. 4.4).
E q u a t i o n (4.5) is r e a r r a n g e d t o yield
dCJdt = (K aC -r)
L sw - K aCL L
(4.6)
134 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
Time (t)
Fig. 4.4. Determination of dCJdt.
7. S t e a d y S t a t e D e t e r m i n a t i o n
of K a for t h e A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e
L
Liquor
A c t i v a t e d s l u d g e l i q u o r is a e r a t e d a t a r a t e j u s t sufficient t o s u p p l y t h e
oxygen required for respiration of the microorganisms. In Eq. (4.5)
dCJdt = 0, a n d t h e r e f o r e
Ka L = rl(Csw-C ) L (4.7)
9. Corrections for K a and O C
L 135
R e s p i r a t i o n r a t e is m e a s u r e d (e.g., b y t h e W a r b u r g r e s p i r o m e t e r ) w h e n t h e
d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e c o m e s s t a b i l i z e d . E q u a t i o n (4.7) yields K a.
L
8. O x y g e n a t i o n C a p a c i t y (OC)
I n e v a l u a t i o n o f a n a e r a t o r t h e o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d is e s t i m a t e d under
s t a n d a r d conditions (SC), c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a t e m p e r a t u r e of 20°C a n d stan
d a r d a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . R a t e o f o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d b y t h e a e r a t o r is
r e p o r t e d a s its o x y g e n a t i o n c a p a c i t y ( O C ) , w h i c h is defined a s t h e r a t e o f
o x y g e n t r a n s f e r dCjdt a t a n initial o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n C L = 0 and standard
c o n d i t i o n s . F r o m E q . (4.2)
(4.8)
o r if V is t h e v o l u m e o f a e r a t i o n b a s i n ,
O C (lb 0 / h r ) = (K a) °c
2 L 20 C V 5 (4.9)
S i n c e t h e t e s t is p e r f o r m e d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o t h e r t h a n s t a n d a r d , t h e v a l u e o f
Ka
L o b t a i n e d is c o r r e c t e d for t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p r e s s u r e b e f o r e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
E q . (4.9). T h e s e c o r r e c t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 9.
9. C o r r e c t i o n s for K a a n d L
O x y g e n a t i o n C a p a c i t y (OC) w i t h
Temperature and Pressure
9.1. T E M P E R A T U R E C O R R E C T I O N
T h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r coefficient K a L i n c r e a s e s w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e fol
l o w i n g t e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e c t i o n is u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e K a L at 20°C:
KaL iT) = Ka °
L i20 C) x 1.024 - > (T 2O
(4.10)
w h e r e Τ is t h e t e m p e r a t u r e in ° C .
9.2. P R E S S U R E C O R R E C T I O N
A b a r o m e t r i c c o r r e c t i o n for o x y g e n s a t u r a t i o n v a l u e C s in E q . (4.8) o r
(4.9) is a p p l i e d a s i n d i c a t e d b y E q . (4.11), w h i c h a s s u m e s t h a t C is d i r e c t l y s
S i n c e o x y g e n s a t u r a t i o n is r e l a t e d t o p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o f o x y g e n i n t h e g a s
p h a s e ( H e n r y ' s l a w ) , a c o r r e c t i o n is m a d e for s a t u r a t i o n in s u b m e r g e d a e r a t i o n
136 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
C ,
s w = C , . , [ ( f t / 2 9 . 4 ) + (O /42)] f (4.12)
where C s m is t h e s a t u r a t i o n o f o x y g e n a t a e r a t i o n t a n k m i d - d e p t h ( m g / l i t e r ) ;
C S5 the saturation of oxygen at standard conditions (mg/liter); P the pressure b
( p s i a ) a t t h e d e p t h o f a i r r e l e a s e ; a n d O t h e o x y g e n i n exit g a s ( % ) . t
F o r a e r a t i o n , O = 2 1 % o f 0 , a n d E q . (4.12) yields
t 2
O C = (K a) °c L 20 x C (corrected) χ V
s (4.14)
w h e r e (K a) °c
L 20 is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.10), a n d C ( c o r r e c t e d ) is g i v e n b y s
E q . (4.11). T h e r e f o r e , f o r s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s
w h e r e (K a) <>c
L 20 is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.10) a n d C 5S f r o m E q . (4.12) [ o r
Eq. (4.13)]. Therefore, for bubble aerators
Example 4.2
F o r t h e surface a e r a t o r in E x a m p l e 4 . 1 , calculate
1. V a l u e o f K a c o r r e c t e d t o 2 0 ° C
L
2. V a l u e o f C c o r r e c t e d t o n o r m a l a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e
s
SOLUTION
Step 1. (K a) o
L 20 C is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.10).
(K a) « L 20 c = 1.76 x ( 1 . 0 2 4 ) ( 2 0
- 1 5 )
= 1.98 h r " 1
Step 2. C ( c o r r e c t e d ) is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.11).
s
Step 3. O x y g e n a t i o n c a p a c i t y is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.14).
O C = 1.98 1/hr χ 10.9 χ 1 0 " lb 0 / l b liquor χ 150,000 gal χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal
6
2
= 27.0 lb 0 / h r 2
10. T r a n s f e r Efficiency of
Aeration Units
T r a n s f e r efficiency ( T E ) of a e r a t i o n u n i t s is c o m m o n l y e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s
o f m a s s of o x y g e n a c t u a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d p e r ( H P χ h r ) of w o r k e x p e n d i t u r e , i.e.
[ E q . (4.18)],
T E = lb 0 2 transferred/(HP χ hr) (4.18)
S o m e t i m e s , n o m i n a l H P ( n a m e p l a t e H P ) of t h e a e r a t o r is utilized for
s i m p l i c i t y in e v a l u a t i n g T E . I t is m o r e a c c u r a t e t o b a s e c a l c u l a t i o n upon
actual H P (blade H P ) m e a s u r e d d u r i n g the test b y a w a t t meter o r a n energy
c o u n t e r . W h e n t h e p o w e r f a c t o r (cos P F ) is k n o w n , b l a d e H P is c a l c u l a t e d
f r o m E q . (4.19) [ 2 ] .
Blade H P = (line voltage) χ (line amperage) χ [cos P F ( 3 ) J 1/2
(4.19)
χ (1/746) χ ( m o t o r efficiency) χ (gear efficiency)
w h e r e 1/746 is t h e c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r H P / W . V a l u e s o f T E u p t o 7 l b 0 / 2
( H P χ h r ) a r e r e p o r t e d for surface a e r a t o r s , a l t h o u g h f o r m o s t u n i t s t h e v a l u e s
o f T E r a n g e f r o m 2 t o 4 lb 0 / ( Η Ρ χ h r ) . F o r t u r b i n e a e r a t o r s t h e u s u a l r a n g e
2
is 2 - 3 l b 0 / ( H P x h r ) .
2
E x a m p l e 4.3
F o r t h e a e r a t o r in E x a m p l e s 4.1 a n d 4 . 2 , r e p o r t a e r a t o r efficiency in t e r m s
of n a m e p l a t e H P a n d b l a d e H P . T h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e in a d d i t i o n
t o t h o s e f r o m E x a m p l e s 4.1 a n d 4 . 2 :
D r a w n voltage: 225 V (average)
A m p e r a g e : 20 A (average)
cos P F (measured): 0.85
M o t o r efficiency (estimated): 90%
G e a r efficiency (estimated): 90%
SOLUTION O x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d h a d b e e n d e t e r m i n e d in E x a m p l e 4 . 2 a s
27.0 lb 0 / h r . Therefore
2
1 1 . Effect of W a s t e w a t e r
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on Oxygen T r a n s f e r
W h e n o x y g e n is s u p p l i e d for a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r ,
it is n e c e s s a r y t o define a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r w h i c h r e l a t e s o x y g e n t r a n s f e r t o
t h e n a t u r e of t h e w a s t e . T h i s c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r α r e l a t e s t h e o v e r a l l m a s s -
t r a n s f e r coefficient (K a) o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r t o t h a t o f t h e t a p w a t e r [ E q . ( 4 . 2 0 ) ] .
L
α = K a ( w a s t e w a t e r ) / ^ a (tap water)
L (4.20)
T h e r e a r e m a n y v a r i a b l e s w h i c h affect t h e m a g n i t u d e of oc. T h e s e i n c l u d e
(1) t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e m i x e d l i q u o r ; (2) n a t u r e o f t h e d i s s o l v e d o r g a n i c a n d
m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s ; (3) level o f a g i t a t i o n o f a e r a t i o n b a s i n , u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d
in t e r m s of H P p e r 1000 gal of b a s i n v o l u m e ; (4) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e a e r a t i o n
e q u i p m e n t ; a n d (5) l i q u i d d e p t h a n d g e o m e t r y o f a e r a t i o n b a s i n .
T h e t e m p e r a t u r e effect is a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e
l i q u i d film coefficient K . F i g u r e 4.8 i l l u s t r a t e s t y p i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e effect o n
L
v a l u e s o f a.
Since t h e n a t u r e o f d i s s o l v e d o r g a n i c a n d m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s affects a,
its v a l u e is e x p e c t e d t o i n c r e a s e d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of b i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n ,
b e c a u s e d i s s o l v e d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s affecting t h e t r a n s f e r r a t e a r e r e m o v e d i n
t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s . A t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n is s h o w n in F i g . 4.6. A s t h e final
effluent a p p r o a c h e s p u r i t y o f t a p w a t e r , t h e v a l u e o f α a p p r o a c h e s u n i t y
asymptotically.
Effect o f m i x i n g i n t e n s i t y in a e r a t i o n b a s i n ( u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f
H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l ) is i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 4 . 7 , w h i c h is a t y p i c a l c u r v e for a w a s t e
w a t e r c o n t a i n i n g s u r f a c e - a c t i v e a g e n t s . A s e x p l a i n e d in S e c t i o n 2, a t l o w
m i x i n g i n t e n s i t i e s t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e p a s s a g e o f
t h e o x y g e n m o l e c u l e s t h r o u g h t h e l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e film b y m o l e c u l a r diffusion.
T h e p r e s e n c e of s u r f a c e - a c t i v e a g e n t s i n h i b i t s m o l e c u l a r diffusion t h r o u g h
1.0
0.5
0 % B O D removed 100%
Raw waste
0.5
H P / I O O O gal
Fig. 4.7. Plot of a vs. mixing intensity.
I.O
0.9
α
0.8
0.7
0.6
Fig. 4.8. Plot of a vs. power level at two different temperatures [3].
A n i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e effect o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a e r a t i o n e q u i p
m e n t o n t h e v a l u e of α is b u b b l e a e r a t i o n (air diffusion o r t u r b i n e u n i t s ) in t h e
presence of surface-active agents. Presence of these agents decreases b u b b l e
size, a n d t h u s i n c r e a s e s interfacial a r e a p e r u n i t v o l u m e . * U n d e r t h e s e c o n
d i t i o n s t h e K a v a l u e o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r u s u a l l y i n c r e a s e s , b e c a u s e i n c r e a s e in
L
a e x c e e d s d e c r e a s e of K c a u s e d b y t h e s u r f a c e b a r r i e r . T h i s i n c r e a s e in K a
L L
of t h e w a s t e w a t e r r e s u l t s in a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e o f α [ E q . ( 4 . 2 0 ) ] .
* Since a — A/V= kir /k r 2
2
3
= K(\/r), thus as radius (r) o f the bubble decreases, a (and
therefore K a) increases.
L
140 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
12. L a b o r a t o r y D e t e r m i n a t i o n
of O x y g e n - T r a n s f e r Coefficient α
T h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n is b a s e d d i r e c t l y o n t h e definition o f α g i v e n b y E q .
(4.20). V a l u e s o f K a o f w a s t e w a t e r a n d t a p w a t e r a r e d e t e r m i n e d a s d e s c r i b e d
L
in S e c t i o n 4. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o m a k e p a r a l l e l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s for w a s t e w a t e r
a n d t a p w a t e r a t different m i x i n g i n t e n s i t i e s a n d a t different t e m p e r a t u r e s ,
in o r d e r t o o b t a i n c u r v e s s u c h a s t h e o n e s s h o w n in F i g . 4 . 8 .
13. Classification of A e r a t i o n
E q u i p m e n t — O x y g e n - T r a n s f e r Efficiency
A e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t is
classified i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : (1) a i r diffusion u n i t s , (2) t u r b i n e a e r a t i o n
u n i t s , a n d (3) surface a e r a t i o n u n i t s . W h e n c o m p a r i n g a e r a t i o n devices o r
e v a l u a t i n g a b s o r p t i o n of o x y g e n in v a r i o u s w a s t e w a t e r s , it is useful t o c o n
sider t h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency, w h i c h is defined a s [ E q . (4.21)]
e = — , . .— x 1 0 0
(4.21)
weight of <J supplied/unit time
2
T h i s definition is n o t a p p l i c a b l e t o s u r f a c e a e r a t i o n u n i t s since t h e o x y g e n
s u p p l i e d c o m e s f r o m s u r r o u n d i n g air, a n d t h u s it is n o t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e
the weight of oxygen supplied per unit time. In aerobic biological processes,
a e r a t o r s p e r f o r m t w o b a s i c f u n c t i o n s : (1) p r o v i s i o n o f t h e r e q u i r e d o x y g e n
t r a n s f e r n e e d e d for o x i d a t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r ; a n d (2)
m a i n t e n a n c e of a n a d e q u a t e level o f a g i t a t i o n in t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r , in
o r d e r t o yield relatively u n i f o r m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n a n d
biological mass t h r o u g h o u t .
F o r the activated sludge process, m o s t of the p o w e r expenditure by the
a e r a t o r s is for t h e p u r p o s e o f p r o v i d i n g o x y g e n t r a n s f e r . F o r l a r g e v o l u m e
b i o l o g i c a l u n i t s ( n a m e l y , a e r a t e d l a g o o n s ) , t h e l a r g e r s h a r e of t h e p o w e r
e x p e n d i t u r e is f o r m a i n t e n a n c e o f a n a d e q u a t e level o f a g i t a t i o n . C h a r a c t e r
istics a n d specifications f o r t h e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t a r e
d i s c u s s e d i n d i v i d u a l l y in t h e n e x t t h r e e s e c t i o n s .
in a p o r o u s m a s s w i t h a c e r a m i c b i n d e r . O t h e r u n i t s e m p l o y e d c o n s i s t o f
Saran, Dacron, or nylon-wrapped tubes.
14. Air Diffusion Units 141
Fig. 4.9. Sketch of a fine bubble air diffusion system consisting of a series
of porous ceramic diffusers.
14.2. T Y P E 2. L A R G E B U B B L E D I F F U S E R S
T h e s e u n i t s e m p l o y l a r g e orifice o r h y d r a u l i c s h e a r devices. L a r g e b u b b l e
u n i t s h a v e l o w e r o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency t h a n fine b u b b l e u n i t s , since t h e
interfacial a r e a for o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is c o n s i d e r a b l y less. T h e y h a v e t h e a d v a n
tage, however, of n o t requiring air filters a n d o f g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r i n g less
m a i n t e n a n c e . S k e t c h e s o f t w o t y p i c a l l a r g e b u b b l e a i r diffuser u n i t s a r e s h o w n
in F i g . 4.10.
Air
Fig. 4.10. Sketches of typical large bubble diffuser units.
142 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
14.3. P E R F O R M A N C E O F A I R D I F F U S I O N U N I T S
P e r f o r m a n c e d a t a for a i r diffusion u n i t s a r e a v a i l a b l e a s g r a p h s f o r t h e l b
of 0 2 t r a n s f e r r e d / h r p e r a e r a t i o n u n i t v s . t h e a i r flow p e r u n i t . A s a m p l e o f
t y p i c a l d a t a f o r a S a r a n - w r a p p e d t u b e ( s m a l l b u b b l e ) is s h o w n i n F i g . 4 . 1 1 .
2 5 10 20
Air f l o w / u n i t ( S C F M )
Fig. 4.11. Oxygen-transfer data from Saran tubes in water [2]. {Reprinted
with permission, copyright by the University of Texas Press.)
Ν = CG^- (H IW ){C -C )
n) m p
sw L χ 1.024 - > χ a (Γ 20
(4.22)
N= K aV(C w-C )
L S L (4.23)
B y c o m p a r i n g E q s . (4.22) a n d (4.23) t h e r e s u l t is
K aV
L = CG< - \H IW )
1 n m p
χ 1.024 - ( Γ 2 0 )
χ α (ft /hr)
3
(4.24)
If (C sw —C) L is g i v e n in m g / l i t e r it is m u l t i p l i e d b y a c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r t o
e x p r e s s it i n l b / f t , s o t h a t Ν is o b t a i n e d i n l b / h r .
3
14. Air Diffusion Units 143
(C w-C )
S L χ 6.23 χ I O " 5
= lb/ft 3
F a c t o r 6.23 χ 1 0 " 5
is c o n v e n i e n t l y i n c l u d e d in c o n s t a n t C in E q . (4.22), s o
t h a t (C SW — C ) e n t e r s t h e e q u a t i o n d i r e c t l y in m g / l i t e r , a n d Ν is o b t a i n e d in
L
lb/hr.
14.4. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A E R A T I O N
S Y S T E M S UTILIZING AIR D I F F U S I O N U N I T S
F u n d a m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d is a s f o l l o w s :
1. V o l u m e o f a e r a t i o n t a n k (V), c a l c u l a t e d f r o m b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r
r e q u i r e m e n t s ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 7)
2. O x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s (lb 0 / h r ) , a l s o c a l c u l a t e d f r o m b i o l o g i c a l
2
r e a c t o r r e q u i r e m e n t s ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 7)
3. O p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e
4. Operating D O ( C , mg/liter), usually 0.5-1.5 mg/liter except
L for
nitrification u n i t s , w h e n v a l u e s a b o v e 2 m g / l i t e r a r e e m p l o y e d
5. O x y g e n - t r a n s f e r coefficient α
6. P e r f o r m a n c e d a t a for t h e a i r diffuser u n i t s [ a v a i l a b l e a s g r a p h s , see
F i g . 4 . 1 1 , o r e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of v a l u e s f o r c o n s t a n t s C, n, m, a n d ρ in E q .
(4.22)]
Step I. Select a t a n k d e p t h Η u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 10 a n d 15 ft.
Step 2. C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is t h e n A = VjH.
Step 3. F o r a e r a t i o n t a n k s w i t h r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n , select a w i d t h
W o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y twice t h e t a n k d e p t h . T h i s is n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r t o m a i n
t a i n a d e q u a t e m i x i n g . T h e n t a n k l e n g t h L = A\W. F o r a e r a t i o n t a n k s w i t h
circular cross section, calculate diameter from D = (4Α/π) . ί/2
o f G is 4 - 8 S C F M / u n i t a n d 4 - 1 6 S C F M / u n i t for fine a n d l a r g e b u b b l e
s
diffusers, respectively.
Step 5. V a l u e C [ u s e d in E q . ( 4 . 2 2 ) ] is c o m p u t e d a t t a n k m i d - d e p t h
s w
S e c t i o n 7 a n d v a l u e o f Ν c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p 6, c a l c u l a t e t h e n u m b e r o f a e r a t i o n
u n i t s r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s f e r r e q u i r e d a m o u n t of o x y g e n .
lb 0 / h r (required)
2
N o . of units =
Ν
Step 8. P r e p a r e a l a y o u t of t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e s p a c i n g
b e t w e e n t h e a e r a t i o n u n i t s . M i n i m u m s p a c i n g is a b o u t 6 in. a n d m a x i m u m
144 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
b e t w e e n 2 4 a n d 3 0 in. T h i s is n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n s o l i d s i n s u s p e n
s i o n a n d t o m i n i m i z e c o a l e s c e n c e of a i r b u b b l e s . If s p a c i n g s c a l c u l a t e d fall
o u t s i d e t h i s r a n g e , d o u b l e r o w s o r a d j u s t m e n t in t h e n u m b e r o f u n i t s (selection
o f different a i r flow r a t e G ) a r e m a d e .
s
Step 9. C o m p u t e t o t a l a i r flow.
Step 10. C o m p u t e r e q u i r e d h o r s e p o w e r o f t h e b l o w e r .
o f a i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o G ). T h e w e i g h t o f a i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o G is c a l c u l a t e d
s s
w h e r e m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t = 29 l b / l b m o l e ( a v e r a g e m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t o f a i r )
Ρ = 1 a t m , V= G S9 R = 0 . 7 3 ( a t m ) ( f t ) / ( l b m o l e ) ( ° R ) , a n d T=
3
520°R (60°F).
Therefore
a n d [ E q . (4.25)]
Weight of 0 / m i n = 0.232 χ 0.076G, = 0.0176G,
2 (4.25)
15. T u r b i n e A e r a t i o n Units
15.1. D E S C R I P T I O N O F U N I T
A s k e t c h of a t y p i c a l t u r b i n e a e r a t i o n u n i t is s h o w n in F i g . 4 . 1 2 . T h e s e u n i t s
entrain a t m o s p h e r i c oxygen by surface aeration a n d disperse compressed air
by a shearing action employing a rotating turbine or agitator. Air bubbles
discharged from a pipe or sparger below the agitator are broken d o w n by the
shearing action of the high speed rotating blades of the agitator. F o r systems
of l o w o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e , o x y g e n is s u p p l i e d b y t h e flow of a i r self-
i n d u c e d f r o m a n e g a t i v e h e a d p r o d u c e d b y t h e r o t o r ( s u c t i o n effect). F o r
s y s t e m s o f h i g h e r o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e a b l o w e r o r c o m p r e s s o r is n e e d e d .
15. Turbine Aeration Units 145
Bottom
15.2. P E R F O R M A N C E O F T U R B I N E A E R A T I O N
UNITS
M a i n v a r i a b l e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a r e a i r flow, d i a m e t e r (D), a n d s p e e d o f
i m p e l l e r . T h e s e v a r i a b l e s d e t e r m i n e b u b b l e size a n d d e g r e e o f a g i t a t i o n i n
t h e t a n k , t h u s affecting t h e o v e r a l l o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r coefficient K a. L Perform
ance data for turbine aeration units are available from manufacturer's
information taking these variables into consideration. Eckenfelder [1]
r e c o m m e n d s t h e following empirical equation for correlating p e r f o r m a n c e
of turbine aeration u n i t s :
Ν = CG S D (C
s
n x y
sw - C ) 1.024 "
L
(r 2 0 )
a (4.26)
w h e r e Ν is t h e l b 0 2 t r a n s f e r r e d / ( h r ) ( a e r a t i o n u n i t ) ; G t h e a i r flow ( S C F M /
s
K aV L = CG S Ds
n x y
χ 1.024 - ( Γ 2 0 )
α (ft /hr) 3
(4.27)
f a c t o r 6.23 χ 1 0 " t o o b t a i n Ν i n l b / h r , a s s h o w n i n S e c t i o n 1 4 . 3 .
5
C , m, a n d ρ a r e c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e a e r a t i o n d ev i ce. A c t u a l d r a w n
h o r s e p o w e r d e c r e a s e s a s a i r flow is i n c r e a s e d u n d e r t h e i m p e l l e r d u e to
d e c r e a s e d d e n s i t y of t h e a e r a t e d m i x t u r e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , h o r s e p o w e r c a l c u
l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.28) is r e f e r r e d t o a s u n g a s s e d h o r s e p o w e r . E q u a t i o n (4.28)
is r e w r i t t e n a s
HP r = C"D n*m
(4.29)
w h e r e η is e x p r e s s e d i n r e v o l u t i o n s / s e c . S i n c e S is t h e p e r i p h e r a l s p e e d i n
ft/sec, η a n d S a r e r e l a t e d a s [ E q . ( 4 . 3 0 ) ]
w h e r e %D is t h e p e r i m e t e r of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e r o t a t i o n of
the impeller.
Typical values of exponents m a n d ρ are [4]
4.8 ^ m ^ 5.3
2.0 < ρ ^ 2.5
U n g a s s e d h o r s e p o w e r is c o r r e l a t e d t o a c t u a l h o r s e p o w e r . A c o r r e l a t i o n is
p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 4 . 1 3 . P o w e r d r a w n b y t h e c o m p r e s s o r is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
w h e r e s is t h e e s t i m a t e d t u r b i n e efficiency.
m
Legend
HP a : actual HP
HP : ungassed HP
r
[equations (4.28),(4.29)]
G s : air flow, S C F M
0 20 40 60 80 100
G /AS R
N e x t d e t e r m i n e t h e o p t i m u m p o w e r split b e t w e e n r o t o r a n d c o m p r e s s o r .
A c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency [ e x p r e s s e d a s ( l b 0 2 trans
f e r r e d ) / ^ χ h r ) ] a n d a f a c t o r P defined a s [ E q . ( 4 . 3 2 ) ]
d
Pd = HP IHP
r c (4.32)
15. Turbine Aeration Units 147
h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y Q u i r k [ 6 ] , a n d its u t i l i z a t i o n is s u m m a r i z e d by
E c k e n f e l d e r [ 1 ] . P r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o w e r split b e t w e e n r o t o r a n d c o m p r e s s o r .
d
A t y p i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n c u r v e is s h o w n in F i g . 4.14.
Maximum
(Optimum split)
Γ Ρ3 = ..Ο
P =HP /HP
d r c
Fig. 4.14. Correlation for power split for turbine aeration units.
T h e v a l u e i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 4.14 as P * is t h e o p t i m u m p o w e r s p l i t c o r r e
d
s p o n d i n g t o t h e m a x i m u m o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency. I n m o s t c a s e s P* is
approximately unity, this implying a n equal p o w e r expenditure by the turbine
a n d t h e c o m p r e s s o r . A t e x t r e m e l y h i g h a i r r a t e s ( h i g h v a l u e s o f HP ) valuesC 9
h o r s e p o w e r is s p e n t in m i x i n g t h e l i q u o r .
15.4. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A E R A T I O N
S Y S T E M S UTILIZING T U R B I N E A E R A T I O N
UNITS
F o r f u n d a m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d see i t e m s 1-5 for a i r diffusion u n i t s
( S e c t i o n 14.4), t h e n o b t a i n p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a for t h e t u r b i n e a e r a t i o n u n i t s
a v a i l a b l e f r o m m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s i n f o r m a t i o n , o r e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f v a l u e s
for t h e c o n s t a n t s in E q . (4.26).
Step I. Select a t a n k d e p t h / / , u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 15 a n d 2 0 ft. I n s o m e c a s e s
d e e p e r liquid d e p t h s a r e e m p l o y e d .
Step 2. C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is t h e n A = V/H.
Step 3. Select a r a t i o r = D/T, w h e r e D is d i a m e t e r of t h e t u r b i n e a n d Τ
t h e " d i a m e t e r " o f t h e t a n k . F o r t a n k s o f c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n , t h e m e a n i n g of
r a t i o D/T is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . F o r t a n k s w i t h r e c t a n g u l a r o r s q u a r e c r o s s
s e c t i o n s , select a v a l u e for Τ b a s e d o n g e o m e t r y o f t h e s y s t e m . S e l e c t i o n o f Τ
148 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r t a n k w i t h t w o t u r b i n e a e r a t o r s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 4 . 1 5
(T e q u a l s t h e d i a m e t e r o f influence o f t h e a e r a t i o n u n i t ) . T y p i c a l D/T r a t i o s
are 0.1-0.2.
ι ι
ι I
Fig. 4.15. Ratio r = D/T for a rectangular tank with two turbine aerators.
v a l u e s a r e b e t w e e n 2 0 0 a n d 1500 S C F M .
Step 7. V a l u e C [ t o b e u s e d i n E q . (4.26)] is c o m p u t e d a t t a n k m i d -
s w
Step 8. O x y g e n a t i o n c a p a c i t y p e r a e r a t i o n u n i t [N = lb 0 transferred/
2
( h r ) ( u n i t ) ] is e s t i m a t e d f r o m m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s d a t a o r c o m p u t e d f r o m E q . (4.26).
Step 9. F r o m o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s ( l b 0 / h r ) c a l c u l a t e d in C h a p t e r 5,
2
S e c t i o n 7 a n d v a l u e o f Ν c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 8, c a l c u l a t e t h e n u m b e r o f a e r a t i o n
units needed t o transfer required a m o u n t of oxygen.
N o . of units = lb 0 / h r ( r e q u i r e d ) / ^
2
T h e r e s h o u l d b e o n e t u r b i n e u n i t for e v e r y 9 0 0 - 2 5 0 0 f t . By v a r y i n g a i r r a t e
2
p e r u n i t G , o n e a d j u s t s c a l c u l a t i o n s s o t h a t s p a c i n g falls w i t h i n t h i s r a n g e .
s
16. S u r f a c e A e r a t i o n U n i t s
16.1. D E S C R I P T I O N O F U N I T
S u r f a c e a e r a t i o n u n i t s a r e b a s e d solely o n e n t r a i n m e n t o f o x y g e n from
a t m o s p h e r i c air. U n l i k e a i r diffusion a n d t u r b i n e a e r a t o r s t h e r e is no s t r e a m
o f a i r i n v o l v e d in t h i s s y s t e m .
I m p r o v e d d e s i g n o f s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s h a s r e s u l t e d in i m p r o v e m e n t o f o x y g e n -
t r a n s f e r c a p a c i t y , a n d t h e i r u s e h a s i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y in t h e p a s t few y e a r s .
T h e y a r e w i d e l y u s e d in a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t s a n d a e r a t e d l a g o o n s .
T h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n of s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e s k e t c h i n
F i g . 4.16. L i q u i d is d r a w n f r o m u n d e r n e a t h t h e u n i t a n d s p r a y e d u p w a r d a n d
o u t w a r d by a propeller inside a vertical t u b e .
M o s t c o n v e n t i o n a l s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s a r e fixed t o p i e r s m o u n t e d a c r o s s t h e
aerating tanks. Floating units are also available, the whole unit being sup
p o r t e d o n a r e i n f o r c e d fiberglass float filled w i t h p l a s t i c f o a m t o m a k e it
unsinkable.
O x y g e n t r a n s f e r in s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s o c c u r s a c c o r d i n g t o t w o m e c h a n i s m s :
(1) t r a n s f e r a t t h e t u r b u l e n t l i q u i d s u r f a c e , a n d (2) t r a n s f e r t o d r o p l e t s s p r a y e d
b y t h e b l a d e s of t h e u n i t .
16.2. C O R R E L A T I O N B E T W E E N T R A N S F E R
EFFICIENCY A N D LEVEL OF A G I T A T I O N
A c o r r e l a t i o n h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d [ 1 ] b e t w e e n t r a n s f e r efficiency [ e x p r e s s e d
a s lb o f Ο t r a n s f e r r e d / ( H P χ h r ) ] a n d level o f a g i t a t i o n o f t h e b a s i n (in
2
H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l b a s i n ) . T h e r e is a n a p p r o x i m a t e l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
t h e s e t w o p a r a m e t e r s , a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e s t r a i g h t line in F i g . 4 . 1 7 , w h i c h is a
150 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
t y p i c a l e x a m p l e o f t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n for a specific s u r f a c e a e r a t o r u n i t . C o r r e
l a t i o n b e t w e e n d i a m e t e r o f influence a n d u n i t h o r s e p o w e r , w h i c h is a l s o p l o t t e d
in F i g . 4 . 1 7 , is d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . O r d i n a t e N 0 equals the lb of 0 2
d i t i o n s p e r u n i t [ l b 0 / ( H P x h r ) ] ; P t h e H P p e r 1000 g a l o f b a s i n l i q u i d ;
2 v
w a t e r a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s p e r u n i t h o r s e p o w e r χ h r a t z e r o t u r b u l e n c e (in
F i g . 4.17 t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o o r d i n a t e o f t h e s t r a i g h t line a t t h e o r i g i n ) .
I n E q . (4.33), N c o r r e s p o n d s t o o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s
s
(N ) for c o n d i t i o n s o f z e r o t u r b u l e n c e (i.e., P = 0 ) . F o r a g i v e n a e r a t o r t h i s
0 v
• F o r the specific surface aerator unit corresponding to Fig. 4.17, this relationship is
# 0 = 3APV + 2.65
16. Surface Aeration Units 151
o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g . 4 . 1 7 , for e x a m p l e , is c o r r e c t e d f o r a c t u a l w a s t e w a t e r
c o n d i t i o n s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s is d o n e b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g
relationship [ 1 ] :
Ν = N 0
C s w C l
χ 1.024 - al (T 20)
(4.34)
9.2
w h e r e Ν is t h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency u n d e r field c o n d i t i o n s [ l b 0 / 2
(HPxhr)]; t h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s [ t a p
w a t e r a t 2 0 ° C w i t h initial z e r o d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e ;
lb 0 / ( Η Ρ χ h r ) ] ; C
2 t h e s a t u r a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n in
s w
t h e w a s t e w a t e r ; C t h e o p e r a t i n g D O level in a e r a t i o n b a s i n ; Γ t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
L
of t h e b a s i n ( ° C ) ; a n d α = K a (wastewater)/AT a ( t a p w a t e r ) .
L L
field c o n d i t i o n s . D r i v i n g force a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n i t i a l z e r o d i s
s o l v e d o x y g e n is 9 . 2 — 0 . 0 = 9.2, w h e r e 9.2 is t h e o x y g e n s a t u r a t i o n v a l u e a t
2 0 ° C in m g / l i t e r ( T a b l e 4.1). T h u s , in E q . (4.34) a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y b e t w e e n Ν
a n d N a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d r i v i n g forces is a s s u m e d .
0
16.3. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A E R A T I O N
S Y S T E M S UTILIZING S U R F A C E
AERATION UNITS
F o r f u n d a m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d see i t e m s 1-5 for a i r diffusion u n i t s
( S e c t i o n 14.4). O b t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s for t h e a e r a t o r . T h i s i n c l u d e s (1) c o r r e
l a t i o n o f N o v s . H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l , a n d (2) c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n u n i t h o r s e p o w e r
a n d d i a m e t e r o f influence for s o l i d s in s u s p e n s i o n (ft).
F o r t h e specific d e s i g n i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 4 . 5 , t h e s e t w o c o r r e l a t i o n s
a r e p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 4 . 1 7 . D e p t h s o f a e r a t o r b a s i n s f o r s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s
a r e u s u a l l y l o w e r t h a n for diffusion o r t u r b i n e a e r a t i o n , r a n g i n g f r o m 8 t o
12 ft.
Step 1. T a k e E q . (4.34) a n d c a l c u l a t e t h e t e r m b e t w e e n b r a c k e t s for s u m
m e r a n d w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h is the controlling one. N o t e
that [ C ] S f r < [C ]
s u m m e r [ t h u s (C -C )
S f r w i n t e r SW L is l a r g e r for t h e w i n t e r
conditions] whereas T > T s u m m e r[thus 1 . 0 2 4
w i n t e r
( r
~ is l a r g e r f o r s u m m e r
2 0 )
152 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
Ν = K &ummcr χ N 0 (4.35)
N= tfwinter χ N0 (4.36)
(3) C a l c u l a t e Ν f r o m E q . (4.35) [ o r E q . ( 4 . 3 6 ) ] , w h i c h e v e r is t h e c o n
trolling one.
(4) P o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e c a l c u l a t e d for a s s u m e d p o w e r level f r o m
0 required (lb 0 / h r )
2 2
Power requirements = — ^ ——— = HP
JV(lb0 /HPxhr) 2
where the oxygen requirement has been previously calculated from biological
reactor requirements (item 2 o n "Fundamental information required,"
S e c t i o n 14.4)
(5) Select H P p e r u n i t a n d c a l c u l a t e n u m b e r o f u n i t s .
(6) R e c a l c u l a t e p o w e r level.
w h e r e v o l u m e o f t h e a e r a t i o n b a s i n is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r
r e q u i r e m e n t s ( i t e m 1 o n " F u n d a m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d , " S e c t i o n 14.4).
E x p r e s s r e c a l c u l a t e d p o w e r level in t e r m s of H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l a n d c o m p a r e it
w i t h t h e v a l u e a s s u m e d in S t e p 2 ( 1 ) . If a g r e e m e n t is w i t h i n 5 % , c a l c u l a t i o n s
a r e s t o p p e d . O t h e r w i s e , i t e r a t e S t e p s 2(1)—(6) u n t i l a g r e e m e n t is o b t a i n e d .
Step 3. S p a c i n g b e t w e e n a g i t a t o r s is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 4.17. T h e p r o c e d u r e for t h e a e r a t o r b a s i n l a y o u t is i l l u s t r a t e d
in E x a m p l e 4 . 5 .
Example 4.5
S u r f a c e a e r a t o r s a r e specified for a n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t t r e a t i n g a n
i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r . O x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d v o l u m e of t h e b i o l o g i c a l
r e a c t o r a r e c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 7
( E x a m p l e 5.7), y i e l d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s .
T h e f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e .
SOLUTION
Step 1. U t i l i z e E q . (4.34).
S u m m e r : t = 30°C, C sw = 7.4 mg/liter
W i n t e r : / = 18°C, C sw = 10.3 mg/liter
T h u s for s u m m e r c o n d i t i o n s
a n d for w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s
T h e r e f o r e , s u m m e r c o n d i t i o n s c o n t r o l d e s i g n (lower o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency).
Step 2.
(1) A s s u m e a p o w e r level, e.g., 0.25 H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l .
(2) F r o m F i g . 4.17 r e a d N = 3.5 l b 0 / ( Η Ρ χ h r ) .
0 2
(4) P o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t h e n c a l c u l a t e d .
w h i c h a g r e e s w i t h a s s u m e d v a l u e . T h u s d e s i g n is s a t i s f a c t o r y .
Step 3. D i a m e t e r o f influence f o r 50 H P u n i t s (see F i g . 4.17) is 6 0 ft ( o r
r a d i u s of influence o f 3 0 ft). S p a c i n g d i s t a n c e o f 56 ft is selected t o p r o v i d e a
m i n i m u m o v e r l a p . A r r a n g e a e r a t o r s a c c o r d i n g t o l a y o u t in F i g . 4 . 1 8 .
C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of t h e b a s i n is 168 χ 112 = 18,816 f t , a n d its v o l u m e
2
in f t is
3
T h e r e f o r e d e p t h is
161,000/18,816 = 8.6 ft
154 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
U 1|2'-0"
K28'-o~—56'-0"—~28'-ο'^
" T "
28'-0"
- Φ <£"
56'-0"
lee'-o" -Φ
56'-0"
-4>-
1
Ο Aerators
Problems
I. T h e following results are obtained in an unsteady state aeration test utilizing a 5 - H P
surface aerator. C = 9.2 p p m (measured at 2 0 ° C ; Ρ = 27 in H g ) . Aerator is a 100,000-gal
5
T i m e (min) C L (ppm)
0 0
12 2.6
24 4.5
36 5.8
48 6.7
60 7.4
Calculate
1. Chemical requirements (lb N a S 0 / l b liquor) for deoxygenation o f test water with
2 3
8 p p m of D O
2. Value o f ^ ( h r " ) 1
3. If aeration tank has a capacity o f 100,000 gal, calculate the lb/hr o f oxygen transferred
at standard conditions
Problems 155
4. If a e r a t o r h a s a n o m i n a l H P of 5, r e p o r t a e r a t o r efficiency [lb 0 / ( h r ) ( H P ) ] in t e r m s
2
of n a m e p l a t e H P a n d b l a d e H P .
T h e following i n f o r m a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e for t h e a e r a t o r :
D r a w n v o l t a g e : 220 V (average)
A m p e r a g e : 13.5 A (average)
c o s P F ( m e a s u r e d ) : 0.8
M o t o r efficiency ( e s t i m a t e d ) : 8 5 %
G e a r efficiency ( e s t i m a t e d ) : 8 5 %
II. U n s t e a d y s t a t e a e r a t i o n d a t a is o b t a i n e d in a diffused a e r a t o r system for w a t e r at 6.5°C
a n d a w a s t e w a t e r at 0 ° C , a n d is t a b u l a t e d b e l o w . C a l c u l a t e coefficient α (at 2 0 ° C ) .
T A B L E 1a
Water at 6.5°C, C = 12.3 mg/liter
s
3 0.6
6 1.6
9 3.1
12 4.3
15 5.4
18 6.0
21 7.0
T A B L E 1b
Wastewater at 0°C, C = 14.3 mg/liter s
3 0.9
6 1.7
9 2.5
12 3.2
15 3.9
18 4.6
21 5.2
w h e r e D is t h e impeller d i a m e t e r (ft) a n d η t h e r e v o l u t i o n s / s e c of r o t o r . F o r c a l c u l a t i o n of
c o m p r e s s o r h o r s e p o w e r , t a k e a p r e s s u r e d r o p of 5.55 psi a n d a n efficiency ε„, = 0.65 ( 6 5 % ) .
156 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
1. C o m p u t e K a(hr~ ).
L
l
Turbine is 4 0 in. in diameter, rotating at 15 ft/sec peripheral
speed, with an air flow o f 300 S C F M .
2. Calculate 0 transfer (lb/hr) under standard conditions. Saturation solubility of oxygen
2
References
1. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes
& N o b l e , N e w York, 1970.
2. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and Ford, D . L., in "Advances in Water Quality I m p r o v e m e n t "
(E. F. G l o y n a and W. W. Eckenfelder, Jr., eds.), p. 226. Univ. of Texas Press, Austin,
1968.
3. Eckenfelder, W . W., Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
Austin and N e w York, 1970.
4. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and O'Connor, D . J., "Biological Waste Treatment." Pergamon,
Oxford, 1961.
5. Oldshue, J., "Biological Treatment o f Sewage and Industrial Wastes." Van N o s t r a n d -
Reinhold, Princeton, N e w Jersey, 1956.
6. Quirk, T. P., unpublished report, 1962 (mentioned in Eckenfelder [1]).
7. "Standard M e t h o d s for the Examination o f Water and Wastewater," 13th ed. A m .
Public Health A s s o c . , Yearbook Publ., Chicago, Illinois, 1971.
5
Secondary Treatment:
The Activated
Sludge Process
1. Introduction 158
2. Mathematical Modeling of Activated Sludge Process 163
3. Kinetics Relationships 164
3.1. Introduction 164
3.2. Formulation of the Continuous Reactor 166
4. Material Balance Relationships 169
4.1. Design Parameters Corresponding to Net Yield of M L V S S and
Oxygen Requirements for Aerobic Biological Degradation of
Wastes 169
4.2. Material Balance for Determination of Oxygen Utilization . . . 179
4.3. Material Balance for Determination of Net Yield of Biological
Sludge ( M L V S S ) 181
4.4. Total Sludge Yield 183
4.5. Material Balances for XNVt0and X Vt0 184
4.6. Typical Values of Aerobic Biological Wastewater Treatment
Parameters for Different Types of Wastewaters 185
5. Relationship for Optimum Settling Conditions of Sludge 185
6. Experimental Determination of Parameters Needed for Design of
Aerobic Biological Reactors 189
6.1. Bench Scale Continuous Reactors 189
6.2. Experimental Procedure 191
6.3. Calculation of Design Parameters 193
6.4. Numerical Examples: Determination of Design Parameters for
an Activated Sludge System 198
7. Design Procedure for an Activated Sludge Plant 205
7.1. Introduction 205
7.2. Material Balance for Determination of Recycle Ratio of
MLVSS 206
7.3. Material Balance for Calculation of S 0 207
7.4. Alternative Expressions for Net Yield of Biological Sludge and
Oxygen Utilization in the Aerator 208
7.5. Calculation of Residence Time in Reactor 208
7.6. Equations for Sludge Recycle Ratio r in Cases When Effluent
Quality and Organic Loading Control Residence Time 209
7.7. Neutralization Requirements 210
7.8. Nutrient Requirements 211
7.9. Design Procedure for Activated Sludge Plants 212
7.10. Numerical Example: Design of an Activated Sludge Plant. . . 213
157
158 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
T h e h e a d i n g s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t e n c o m p a s s e s all b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t
processes of wastewaters, b o t h aerobic a n d anaerobic. In this c h a p t e r the
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is s t u d i e d in d e t a i l , a n d t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s
d e v e l o p e d a r e a p p l i c a b l e , w i t h m i n o r c h a n g e s , t o all a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s
d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 6.
T h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s h a s b e e n utilized for t r e a t m e n t o f b o t h
d o m e s t i c a n d i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s for a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f a c e n t u r y . D e s i g n
of activated sludge plants was carried o u t to a large extent in a n empirical
m a n n e r . I t w a s o n l y after t h e e a r l y 1960's t h a t a m o r e r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o
the design of activated sludge systems was developed. This process originated
from the observation m a d e a long time ago that whenever wastewater, either
d o m e s t i c o r i n d u s t r i a l , is a e r a t e d for a p e r i o d o f t i m e , t h e c o n t e n t o f o r g a n i c
m a t t e r is r e d u c e d , a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e a flocculent s l u d g e is f o r m e d .
M i c r o s c o p i c e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s s l u d g e r e v e a l s t h a t it is f o r m e d b y a
h e t e r o g e n e o u s p o p u l a t i o n o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , w h i c h c h a n g e s c o n t i n u a l l y in
n a t u r e in r e s p o n s e t o v a r i a t i o n in t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e w a s t e w a t e r a n d
environmental conditions. Microorganisms present are unicellular bacteria,
f u n g i , a l g a e , p r o t o z o a , a n d rotifers. O f t h e s e , b a c t e r i a a r e p o s s i b l y t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t , b e i n g f o u n d in all t y p e s o f b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s .
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r is t o d i s c u s s t h e d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s f o r t h e
activated sludge process a n d to apply t h e m to design of t r e a t m e n t plants. This
involves development of f u n d a m e n t a l design information from l a b o r a t o r y
scale r e a c t o r s . T h e a p p r o a c h u t i l i z e d is b a s e d m a i n l y o n t h e w o r k of E c k e n
felder a n d a s s o c i a t e s .
The activated sludge process has been developed as a c o n t i n u o u s operation
b y r e c y c l i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e . A flow d i a g r a m o f t h i s c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s
1. Introduction 159
Air
,01 Reactor
® ©
! Fresh | Combined Reactor Net
(Aerator)
feed ! feed effluent Secondary ! effluent
S e
clarifier Q'
X
v,a
S
F X
NV,a s X
NV,o
S e
X
V,F V
ία^β^Ν / / / / /
^
X
NV,F|
X
v,o NV,a Clarifi γ
Qu
X
NV,o underflow
Θ j© Xw.,
©
Recycled sludge Ί Wastage
NV,u j Q"
Or Recycle ΔΧ ν
S. and wastage ΔΧ Ν ν
pump ΔΧ,
S e
X ..u
Fig. 5.1. Conventional activated sludge process, (See Table 5.1 for a
definition of symbols.)
is s h o w n in F i g . 5 . 1 . A l l i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s a r e i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 5.1
a n d defined in T a b l e 5 . 1 . T h e s e s h o u l d b e carefully e x a m i n e d b y t h e r e a d e r .
I n F i g . 5 . 1 , c o m p o s i t i o n s o f t h e different s t r e a m s ( n u m b e r e d 1-7) are
characterized by three types of concentrations:
1. Concentration of soluble BOD. D e n o t e d b y t h e s y m b o l S where i9
s u b s c r i p t i refers t o t h e specific s t r e a m u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , a s i n d i c a t e d in
T a b l e 5 . 1 . S o l u b l e B O D c o m p r i s e s m a i n l y c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t e r i a l s in s o l u t i o n .
2. Concentrations of volatile suspended solids (VSS). T h e s e a r e d e n o t e d
by s y m b o l X Vii9 w h e r e s u b s c r i p t ν s t a n d s for v o l a t i l e , a n d s u b s c r i p t / refers t o
t h e specific s t r e a m in q u e s t i o n ( T a b l e 5.1). V S S c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e b i o l o g i c a l
sludge, constituted by the heterogeneous p o p u l a t i o n of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s .
E x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f V S S is p e r f o r m e d b y m e a s u r i n g t h e loss o f
w e i g h t o f t o t a l s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ( T S S ) , after i n c i n e r a t i o n in a l a b o r a t o r y o v e n
a t 6 0 0 ° C . T h i s loss of w e i g h t c o r r e s p o n d s m a i n l y t o v o l a t i l i z a t i o n o f b i o
logical s l u d g e . R e m a i n i n g solids after i n c i n e r a t i o n a t 6 0 0 ° C a r e r e f e r r e d t o
a s n o n v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s . T h e i r n a t u r e is d i s t i n c t f r o m t h o s e in t h e
biological sludge, being constituted of nonliving m a t t e r of b o t h inorganic a n d
organic nature.
3. Concentrations of nonvolatile suspended solids (NVSS). These are
denoted by symbol X , NVfi w h e r e NV s t a n d s for n o n v o l a t i l e , a n d / refers t o
t h e specific s t r e a m in q u e s t i o n .
Therefore
TSS = VSS + N V S S
T A B L E 5.1
Definition of Symbols Used in Fig. 5.1
Key
For suspended solids double subscripts are utilized, e.g., X , X v,i> Vt t N
The first subscript (v or NV) designates volatile and nonvolatile suspended solids,
respectively. The second subscript (/) refers to the specific stream in question:
F, fresh feed [stream 1]
0, combined feed [stream 2 ]
a, reactor effluent [stream 3]
e, net effluent [stream 4 ]
u, underflow from secondary clarifier [stream 5]
Symbols
1. F l o w rates
Q , fresh feed; M G D (million gallons per day) [stream 1]
F
Q , recycle; M G D [stream 7]
R
S soluble B O D o f effluent
ei
in reactor effluent
XNV.u, N V S S in secondary clarifier underflow
XNV.O N V S S in net effluent
5. Wastage (lb/day)
AX , V net yield o f M L V S S in reactor (wastage o f M L V S S )
AX , wastage of N V S S
NV
6. Reactor v o l u m e
K, reactor volume, M G (million gallons)
1. Introduction 161
A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e flowsheet i n F i g . 5.1 f o l l o w s , w i t h e m p h a s i s o n c o n c e n
t r a t i o n s o f (1) s o l u b l e B O D , (2) v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , a n d (3) n o n v o l a t i l e
s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s for t h e different s t r e a m s .
1. Soluble BOD. F r e s h feed, i.e., t h e w a s t e w a t e r t o b e t r e a t e d [ s t r e a m 1 ] ,
e n t e r s t h e p r o c e s s w i t h a v a l u e of s o l u b l e B O D d e n o t e d a s S . P u r p o s e o f t h e
F
t r e a t m e n t is t o r e d u c e t h i s v a l u e t o S (effluent B O D i n s t r e a m 4) b y o x i d a t i o n
e
o f S . T h i s m e a n s a s o l u b l e B O D r e m o v a l efficiency o f 9 0 - 9 5 % .
F
F r e s h feed is c o m b i n e d w i t h r e c y c l e d s l u d g e [ s t r e a m 7 ] a n d e n t e r s t h e
a e r a t o r ( c o m b i n e d feed, s t r e a m 2). B i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e is c o n t i n u o u s l y f o r m e d
in t h e a e r a t o r . I t is u s u a l l y d e s i r a b l e t o o p e r a t e t h e r e a c t o r a t s t e a d y s t a t e a n d
u n d e r complete mixing conditions. These t w o a s s u m p t i o n s are m a d e in m o s t
mathematical models hence. C o n c e n t r a t i o n of soluble B O D in the reactor
l i q u o r is d e n o t e d a s S . U n d e r s t e a d y s t a t e a n d c o m p l e t e m i x i n g c o n d i t i o n s
e
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u b l e B O D in r e a c t o r effluent [ s t r e a m 3 ] a l s o e q u a l s S . e
R e a c t o r effluent e n t e r s t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 5 . 1 .
C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u b l e B O D is t h e s a m e i n clarifier u n d e r f l o w [ s t r e a m 5 ]
a n d n e t effluent [ s t r e a m 4 ] , i.e., S . Clarifier u n d e r f l o w is split i n t o t w o
e
c a l c u l a t e d b y a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e a t t h e j u n c t i o n p o i n t o f s t r e a m s 1, 2, a n d 7.
T h i s b a l a n c e is w r i t t e n in S e c t i o n 7.3.
2. Volatile suspended solids (VSS). A t steady state, concentration of
b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e in t h e r e a c t o r is k e p t c o n s t a n t a t all t i m e s . I n t h e c o n v e n
tional activated sludge process this concentration, designated as X va9 where
t h e s e c o n d s u b s c r i p t a refers t o t h e a e r a t o r , is u s u a l l y selected b e t w e e n 2 0 0 0
a n d 3 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r . S i n c e c o m p l e t e m i x i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e p o s t u l a t e d t o exist i n
t h e r e a c t o r , v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d solids in it a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s M L V S S ( m i x e d
l i q u o r v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d solids). S i m i l a r l y , n o n v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s in
the reactor, being also completely mixed, are referred t o as M L N V S S (mixed
l i q u o r n o n v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d solids). T o t a l s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s i n t h e r e a c t o r
are designated as M L T S S (mixed liquor total s u s p e n d e d solids).
Therefore
Mixed liquor total suspended solids = mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
n o a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t of a e r a t i o n h a s t a k e n p l a c e a t t h i s s t a g e . V S S is p r o
d u c e d c o n t i n u o u s l y in t h e a e r a t o r , o w i n g t o s y n t h e s i s o f b i o l o g i c a l m a t t e r ,
a n d w i t h d r a w n c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h r e a c t o r effluent.
I n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S in t h e r e a c t o r ,
m o s t o f t h e clarifier u n d e r f l o w is r e c y c l e d b a c k . R e c y c l e r a t i o r is c a l c u l a t e d
b y m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e ( S e c t i o n 7.2) in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t selected
concentration X Vta o f M L V S S w i t h i n t h e r e a c t o r a t all t i m e s . O w i n g t o
s y n t h e s i s o f b i o l o g i c a l m a t t e r t h e r e is a net yield o f M L V S S in t h e r e a c t o r
(AX ,V lb/day). Therefore t o m a i n t a i n constant concentration of M L V S S in
t h e r e a c t o r a t all t i m e s , it is n e c e s s a r y t o r e m o v e f r o m t h e s y s t e m a m a s s o f
M L V S S ( l b / d a y ) e q u a l t o t h i s n e t yield AX . T h i s is d o n e b y w a s t a g e o f s l u d g e
V
[ s t r e a m 6 ] . A l t h o u g h c o n t i n u o u s w a s t a g e is i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 5 . 1 , i n p r a c t i c e
it is u s u a l l y a n i n t e r m i t t e n t o p e r a t i o n . I t is s i m p l e r t o w r i t e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e s
for a s t e a d y s t a t e o p e r a t i o n ; t h u s c o n t i n u o u s w a s t a g e is a s s u m e d i n t h e
r e m a i n d e r of this chapter. Intermittent wastage implies the a s s u m p t i o n of
u n s t e a d y s t a t e o p e r a t i o n . Since t h e w a s t a g e s t r e a m is u s u a l l y s m a l l b y c o m
p a r i s o n w i t h t h e recycle, a s s u m p t i o n o f c o n t i n u o u s w a s t a g e d o e s n o t i n t r o d u c e ,
in g e n e r a l , a n a p p r e c i a b l e e r r o r in t h e o v e r a l l m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e . C o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f V S S i n t h e r e a c t o r effluent [ s t r e a m 3 ] is a l s o X , since complete mixing
v$a
a n d 15,000 m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S . C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f V S S in w a s t a g e a n d r e
cycled s l u d g e a r e a l s o e q u a l t o X . VtU I n t h e n e t effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y
clarifier, c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S (X ) Vt6 is n e g l e c t e d in d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a t e r i a l
b a l a n c e s in t h i s c h a p t e r . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t c o m p l e t e s e p a r a t i o n o f V S S is
a s s u m e d t o t a k e p l a c e in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier (i.e., X « 0). T h i s is u s u a l l y
VfC
a g o o d a s s u m p t i o n . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in c o m b i n e d feed, X , is c a l
Vt0
c u l a t e d b y a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e a t t h e j u n c t i o n p o i n t o f s t r e a m s 1, 2, a n d 7. T h i s
b a l a n c e is w r i t t e n in S e c t i o n 4 . 5 .
3. Nonvolatile suspended solids (NVSS). C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L N V S S in
t h e a e r a t o r is d e n o t e d a s X a n d is e q u a l t o t h o s e in b o t h c o m b i n e d feed
NVta
a n d r e a c t o r effluent. T h i s is s o b e c a u s e c o m p l e t e m i x i n g is a s s u m e d a n d t h e r e
is n o p r o d u c t i o n o f N V S S i n t h e a e r a t o r ( u n l i k e t h e n e t yield o f V S S ) .
Thus
XNV,c =
XNV,o
t h e c o m b i n e d feed t h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n is d e n o t e d a s X N V T 0 a n d is c a l c u l a t e d b y
a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e w h i c h is w r i t t e n i n S e c t i o n 4 . 5 .
S o m e o f t h e N V S S i n t h e r e a c t o r effluent is a l s o s e p a r a t e d b y s e d i m e n t a t i o n
in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier. C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f N V S S i n clarifier u n d e r f l o w is
denoted as X N V T U a n d t h a t i n n e t effluent a s X N V > E .
In s u m m a r y , c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of VSS, N V S S , a n d soluble B O D in c o m b i n e d
feed ( X V > 0 , X N V > 0 , and S 0 , respectively) are o b t a i n e d by material balances
a r o u n d t h e j u n c t i o n p o i n t o f fresh feed a n d r e c y c l e d s l u d g e s t r e a m s . T h e s e
m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e s a r e w r i t t e n in S e c t i o n s 4 . 5 a n d 7 . 3 .
F r o m a n o v e r a l l b a l a n c e for t h e w a s t e w a t e r [ E q . ( 5 . 2 ) ] ,
QF = ΰ + β" (5.2)
W a s t e w a t e r flows a r e u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d in m i l l i o n s o f g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( M G D ) .
R e c y c l e r a t i o r is defined a s
Λ QR = rQ F (5.4)
Q = QF + Q R = Q (\+r) F (5.5)
H e n c e , t h e d e n s i t y o f all l i q u o r s t r e a m s in F i g . 5.1 is a s s u m e d e q u a l t o t h a t
o f w a t e r a t a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e (8.34 l b / g a l ) . * T h i s is a g o o d a p p r o x i m a t i o n
since r e l a t i v e l y d i l u t e a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n s a r e i n v o l v e d .
2. M a t h e m a t i c a l M o d e l i n g of
Activated Sludge Process
I t is d e s i r a b l e t o p o r t r a y t h i s p r o c e s s b y a m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l a n d t h e n t o
d e t e r m i n e p a r a m e t e r s utilized in m a t h e m a t i c a l e q u a t i o n s f r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l
d a t a o b t a i n e d u t i l i z i n g a series o f b e n c h s c a l e l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r s . R e l a t i o n
s h i p s w h i c h a r e p e r t i n e n t t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l fall
i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s : (1) k i n e t i c s r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; (2) m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e r e l a t i o n
s h i p s — m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n a n d o f n e t
yield o f M L V S S ; a n d (3) r e l a t i o n s h i p for o p t i m u m s e t t l i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f
sludge.
3. Kinetics R e l a t i o n s h i p s
3.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
S t u d y o f k i n e t i c s o f a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t yields t h e r a t e a t w h i c h
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s d e g r a d e a specific w a s t e , a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i c
i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d for sizing b i o l o g i c a l a e r o b i c r e a c t o r s . T h i s s t u d y is
c o n v e n i e n t l y p e r f o r m e d in a l a b o r a t o r y scale b a t c h r e a c t o r . F i g u r e 5.2 s h o w s
B O D o f w a s t e w a t e r ( o r C O D , T O D , T O C ) is d e t e r m i n e d a t selected t i m e
i n t e r v a l s b y w i t h d r a w i n g s a m p l e s for t h e a n a l y s i s . T h e m a s s o f a c c u m u l a t e d
b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e ( M L V S S ) is a l s o d e t e r m i n e d a t t h e s e s a m e t i m e i n t e r v a l s b y
m e a s u r i n g t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S in w i t h d r a w n s a m p l e s a n d r e a d i n g
t h e v o l u m e o f l i q u o r in t h e r e a c t o r a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e v o l u m e scale. T y p i c a l
c u r v e s for d e c r e a s e o f B O D a n d v a r i a t i o n o f t h e a m o u n t o f M L V S S w i t h t i m e
a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 5.3.
Fig. 5.3. Typical BOD and ML VSS curves for a batch reactor.
B O D o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r , w h i c h is a m e a s u r e o f o r g a n i c b i o d e g r a d a b l e
m a t t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , d e c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e a s t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r is o x i d i z e d .
A p l a t e a u is e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h e d c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a m o u n t o f n o n b i o
d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r (S ).
n
C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S i n c r e a s e s a t first ( f r o m t i m e 0 t o t i m e i ) d u r i n g
x
t h e p e r i o d w h e n a s u b s t a n t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e (relativley h i g h B O D )
is p r e s e n t t o p r o v i d e a b u n d a n t f o o d t o s u s t a i n g r o w t h o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s .
T h i s g r o w t h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s y n t h e s i s o f n e w m i c r o o r g a n i s m cells,
i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 5.3 a s " s y n t h e s i s p h a s e . " A f t e r t i m e t w h e n s u b s t r a t e c o n
x
c e n t r a t i o n is c o n s i d e r a b l y d e p l e t e d , t h e r e is n o t e n o u g h f o o d left t o s u s t a i n
g r o w t h of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s . A t this time, m i c r o o r g a n i s m s start c o n s u m i n g
their "fellow m i c r o o r g a n i s m s " as food. A s this "cannibalistic feast" proceeds,
concentration of M L V S S d r o p s w h e n the rate of destruction of micro
o r g a n i s m cells e x c e e d s t h a t o f s y n t h e s i s o f n e w cells. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
"endogenous respiration phase." T h e m a x i m u m on the M L V S S curve corre
sponds to time t l9 w h e n t h e s e t w o r a t e s a r e e x a c t l y e q u a l . D i s t a n c e AX
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e net r e d u c t i o n o f M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n f r o m t t o r -
x 2
T h e r e a r e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l differences b e t w e e n o p e r a t i o n o f c o n t i n u o u s
( F i g . 5.1) a n d b a t c h r e a c t o r s ( F i g . 5.2): (1) C o n t r a r y t o w h a t h a p p e n s in t h e
166 5. S e c o n d a r y Treatment: The Activated S l u d g e P r o c e s s
a l o w s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , since t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r is u s u a l l y d e s i g n e d
for r e m o v i n g m o s t o f t h e i n f l u e n t B O D . (2) C o n t r a r y t o w h a t h a p p e n s i n t h e
b a t c h r e a c t o r , c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S in t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r o p e r a t i n g
a t s t e a d y s t a t e is k e p t c o n s t a n t (X ) Vta a t a selected v a l u e . M a i n t e n a n c e o f t h i s
constant X v>a is o b t a i n e d b y p r o v i d i n g t h e c a l c u l a t e d a m o u n t o f c o n c e n t r a t e d
r e t u r n sludge. T h e m a t e r i a l balance for M L V S S , necessary t o arrive a t r e q u i r e d
r e c y c l e r a t i o for t h i s p u r p o s e , is p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 7.2.
K i n e t i c d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e b a t c h r e a c t o r is p o r t r a y e d b y t h e M i c h a e l i s -
M e n t e n r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h i c h is s t u d i e d in S e c t i o n 8. T w o i m p o r t a n t c o r o l l a r i e s
of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e p o s t u l a t e d n e x t , t h e s e c o n d o n e b e i n g utilized for
design of the c o n t i n u o u s biological reactor.
1. A t h i g h s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , B O D r e m o v a l follows z e r o - o r d e r
k i n e t i c s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e r a t e o f r e m o v a l is essentially c o n s t a n t , i n d e
p e n d e n t o f s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h i s s i t u a t i o n is f o u n d i n e a r l y s t a g e s o f
t h e b a t c h r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n , w h e n s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n is still v e r y h i g h
( h i g h B O D ) . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e B O D c u r v e ( F i g . 5.3) f r o m
time zero to approximately time Λ In this region, the tangent to the B O D
curve, which equals the rate of substrate removal, coincides essentially with
t h e c u r v e itself ( c o n s t a n t s l o p e ) .
2. B O D r e m o v a l a t l o w s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
B O D v a l u e s b e l o w 500 m g / l i t e r ) follows first-order k i n e t i c s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t
r a t e o f r e m o v a l is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o r e m a i n i n g s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h i s
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e B O D c u r v e b e y o n d t i m e t'. S l o p e o f t h e B O D
curve (which equals rate of substrate removal) decreases with time as the B O D
v a l u e is l o w e r e d . A p l o t o f t h e s e s l o p e s v s . c o r r e s p o n d i n g B O D v a l u e s yields
a s t r a i g h t line r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h i c h is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 3.2. T h u s in t h i s
r e g i o n , r a t e o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o its c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(first-order k i n e t i c s ) .
3.2. F O R M U L A T I O N O F T H E C O N T I N U O U S
REACTOR
Since for t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r o p e r a t i n g s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (S ) e
a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y b e l o w 500 m g / l i t e r ( B O D ) , first-order k i n e t i c s is a s s u m e d
5
in t h e f o r m u l a t i o n . C o n s i d e r t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r o p e r a t i n g u n d e r s t e a d y
s t a t e a n d c o m p l e t e m i x i n g c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n is i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 5.4.
A s s u m i n g t h a t r a t e o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l dS/dt follows first-order k i n e t i c s , *
I t is c u s t o m a r y t o e x p r e s s s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e p e r m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S
* Minus sign in Eq. (5.6) is required since dS/dt < 0, whereas 5 > 0.
3. Kinetics Relationships 167
V
Q.S 0 Q,s e
* ~ - X
v,a ——
p r e s e n t in t h e r e a c t o r . L e t Χυα b e t h i s M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n . E q u a t i o n (5.6)
is t h e n r e w r i t t e n
(\IX , )(dSldt)
v a = -kS (5.7)
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Κ a n d k is
Κ = kX v (5.8)
F r o m E q . (5.7)
dS/dt = -kX , S
v a (5.9)
k is t h e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n s t a n t . F o r t i m e t e q u a l t o r e s i d e n c e t i m e in
t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r , c o n c e n t r a t i o n S c o r r e s p o n d s t o 5 , a n d E q . (5.9) e
becomes
(dS/dt) . cont factor = ~ kX S Vt a e (5.10)
T h e f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for s u b s t r a t e is w r i t t e n for t h e r e a c t o r in
F i g . 5.4.
A c c o r d i n g t o E q . (5.10), t h e d e c r e a s e in t h e a m o u n t o f s u b s t r a t e d u e t o t h e
r e a c t i o n is kX S va e [ m i n u s sign a l r e a d y i n c l u d e d in E q . ( 5 . 1 1 ) ] . B e f o r e s u b
s t i t u t i n g in E q . (5.11) t h i s v a l u e is m u l t i p l i e d b y r e a c t o r v o l u m e V since y
kX S r e p r e s e n t s d e c r e a s e p e r u n i t v o l u m e .
v a e
However,
Mgal
t = VIQ = = day = residence time (/) in the reactor (5.17)
(Mgal/day)
C o n s e q u e n t l y , E q . (5.16) is
(S -S )IX t
0 e 0ta = kS e (5.18)
T e r m (S -~S )/X t
0 e Vta w h i c h a l s o a p p e a r s in o t h e r f o r m u l a t i o n s is t h e s u b
s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e . It c o r r e s p o n d s t o r a t e o f r e m o v a l o f s u b s t r a t e in t h e
continuous reactor per mg/liter of M L V S S present. Units are
mg/liter of B O D removed
(S -S )IX , t
0 e v a =
(mg/liter of MLVSS) (day)
= m g B O D removed/(day)(mg MLVSS)
= lb B O D removed/(day)(lb MLVSS)
Equation:
ω
co (VS )/X ,a t = k S
e (5.18)
5
e v
Reactor No. 2
•Reactor No. 3
-Reactor No. 4
S ;mg/liter (effluent)
e
E q u a t i o n (5.18) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
substrate concentration S e (first-order k i n e t i c s ) . S u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n
stant k (day )- 1
is d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o E q . (5.18) f r o m a plot of
(S -S )/X t
0 e Vta vs. S . e F i g u r e 5.5 s h o w s a g r a p h o f d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m f o u r
continuous laboratory reactors operating at steady state conditions. A
n u m e r i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n is p r e s e n t e d in S e c t i o n 6.4 ( E x a m p l e 5.5).
D a t a p l o t t e d i n F i g . 5.5 yield a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e o r i g i n ,
a s s u m i n g a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l in E q . (5.18). T h e l e f t - h a n d
m e m b e r , (S — S )/X t,
0 e Vfa v a n i s h e s a s t a p p r o a c h e s infinity (infinite r e s i d e n c e
time). Consequently, term S e in t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r a p p r o a c h e s zero
since k Φ 0. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o complete r e m o v a l o f s u b s t r a t e , w h i c h is n o t
a l w a y s t h e c a s e since s o m e s u b s t r a t e s c a n n o t b e c o m p l e t e l y d e g r a d e d b y t h e
a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s , e v e n a t infinite r e s i d e n c e t i m e . I n t h e s e c a s e s , t h e
s t r a i g h t line c u t s t h e a b s c i s s a a t a v a l u e o f S e > 0 corresponding to the con
c e n t r a t i o n o f n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r . A n e x a m p l e o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n is s h o w n
i n F i g . 5.14 ( S e c t i o n 6.4, E x a m p l e 5 . 5 ) .
When nonbiodegradable m a t t e r is p r e s e n t , E q . (5.18) is m o d i f i e d to
E q . (5.19).
(S.-SJIX . t
9 m = k(S -S )
e n (5.19)
w h e r e S is t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r .
n
4. Material B a l a n c e R e l a t i o n s h i p s
4.1. D E S I G N P A R A M E T E R S C O R R E S P O N D I N G
TO NET YIELD OF M L V S S A N D O X Y G E N
R E Q U I R E M E N T S FOR A E R O B I C BIOLOGICAL
D E G R A D A T I O N OF W A S T E S
4.1.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n : M e c h a n i s m of A e r o b i c
Biological D e g r a d a t i o n
A c c u m u l a t i o n of M L V S S a n d utilization of oxygen are t w o i m p o r t a n t
e l e m e n t s n e e d e d for d e s i g n o f a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r s . T o o b t a i n m a t h e
m a t i c a l m o d e l s w h i c h yield t h e s e t w o v a l u e s , s e v e r a l d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s
d e s i g n a t e d b y s y m b o l s a', a,a,b, a n d V a r e defined in t h i s s e c t i o n . T h e a p p r o a c h
f o l l o w e d is t h a t p r o p o s e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d a s s o c i a t e s [ 1 - 3 ] .
E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y u s i n g b e n c h scale
c o n t i n u o u s b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r s ( S e c t i o n 6). I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h f o l l o w s ,
n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s for t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a r e u t i l i z e d for c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f s o m e
c o n c e p t s . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e o b t a i n e d b y t e c h n i q u e s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 6.
T o a r r i v e a t t h e definition o f t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s , t h e b a s i c m e c h a n i s m o f
aerobic d e g r a d a t i o n of a substrate m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d . C o n s i d e r t h a t a s u b
s t r a t e is c h a r g e d t o a b a t c h r e a c t o r ( F i g . 5.2), a n d t h a t c u r v e s for B O D
170 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
r e m o v a l a n d M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e o b t a i n e d ( F i g . 5.3). F o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n ,
t a k e the hypothetical case of p u r e lactose as substrate. A s s u m e t h a t a lactose
s o l u t i o n is c h a r g e d t o t h e b a t c h r e a c t o r w i t h a s e e d o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m , a n d
t h a t c o m p r e s s e d a i r is b u b b l e d t h r o u g h t h e s o l u t i o n . L e t i n i t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f l a c t o s e b e e q u a l t o 1050 m g / l i t e r . S u p p o s e t h a t after a t i m e t t h i s c o n c e n
t r a t i o n is r e d u c e d t o 50 m g / l i t e r . T h u s s u b s t r a t e r e m o v e d is 1050— 50 = 1000
m g / l i t e r . A s s u m e t h a t T h O D is u t i l i z e d a s a m e a s u r e o f l a c t o s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . *
T h e c h e m i c a l e q u a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o T h O D for l a c t o s e is [ E q . ( 5 . 2 0 ) ] f
(CH 0) + 02 2 -» C 0 2 + H 0 2 (5.20)
Molecular weight: 30 32
T h u s , t h e i n i t i a l T h O D o f t h e s o l u t i o n is ( 3 2 / 3 0 ) χ 1050 = 1120 m g / l i t e r .
A f t e r t i m e t, r e m a i n i n g T h O D is ( 3 2 / 3 0 ) χ 50 = 53.3 m g / l i t e r . T h e r e f o r e ,
T h O D r e m o v e d is
1 1 2 0 - 53.3 = 1066.7 mg/liter
or
(32/30) ( 1 0 5 0 - 5 0 ) = 1066.7 mg/liter (5.21)
, Design parameter : a*
Substrate
(e.g. lactose)
M e c h a n i s m o f a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n o f a s u b s t r a t e is r e p r e s e n t e d
d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y b y F i g . 5.6. D e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s (α', a, a, b, a n d b') i n d i c a t e d
i n F i g . 5.6 a r e defined i n S e c t i o n s 4 . 1 . 2 - 4 . 1 . 9 . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e c a l c u l a t e d
f r o m l a b o r a t o r y d a t a ( S e c t i o n 6).
F i g u r e 5.6 i n d i c a t e s t h a t s u b s t r a t e is r e m o v e d d u r i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s
in t w o w a y s .
1. P a r t o f t h e s u b s t r a t e , after b e i n g c o n s u m e d a s f o o d b y m i c r o o r g a n i s m s ,
is utilized t o s y n t h e s i z e n e w m i c r o o r g a n i s m cells. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
synthesis p h a s e . F o r the lactose example, this synthesis c o r r e s p o n d s to*
synthesis
5(CH 0) 2 > C H N0
5 7 2 (5.22)
113
Molecular weight: 5 χ 30 = 150 / W T , 7 0 0 .
(MLVSS)
I n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p s in E q . (5.22) a r e c o m p l i c a t e d a n d i r r e l e v a n t . T h e e m p i r i c a l
f o r m u l a C H N 0 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e a v e r a g e c o m p o s i t i o n o f M L V S S cells.
5 7 2
N i t r o g e n is n e e d e d for s y n t h e s i s a n d m u s t b e p r o v i d e d . F r o m t h e a p p r o x i m a t e
e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a C H N 0 it follows t h a t % o f n i t r o g e n in t h e M L V S S cells
5 7 2
is ( 1 4 / 1 1 3 ) x 100 = 12.4%.
2. T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s u b s t r a t e is o x i d i z e d , t e r m i n a l p r o d u c t s b e i n g
CO a n d H 0 . I n t h e l a c t o s e e x a m p l e , t h i s s u b s t r a t e o x i d a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s
2 2
t o E q . (5.20). T h i s t e r m i n a l o x i d a t i o n p r o c e s s is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f c e l l u l a r e n e r g y utilized b y t h e cells t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r n o r m a l
functions, such as synthesis, reproduction, a n d mobility. A s s u m e t h a t 6 5 % of
t h e l a c t o s e r e m o v e d (i.e., 6 5 % o f 1000 m g / l i t e r = 6 5 0 m g / l i t e r ) is d i o x i z e d t o
p r o v i d e e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d t h a t 3 5 % (i.e., 3 5 0 m g / l i t e r ) is u t i l i z e d i n
t h e s y n t h e s i s o f n e w cell m a t t e r . S i n c e t h e r e is a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c o n s t a n t
r e l a t i n g s u b s t r a t e a n d T h O D r e m o v a l s [ f a c t o r (32/30) in E q . (5.20) f o r l a c t o s e ] ,
it f o l l o w s t h a t 6 5 % o f t h e T h O D r e m o v e d is u t i l i z e d for e n e r g y g e n e r a t i o n
a n d 3 5 % for s y n t h e s i s o f n e w cells. S i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t s a r e v a l i d in t e r m s o f
C O D a n d o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s defined in C h a p t e r 2 ( S e c t i o n s 2 a n d 3).
phosphorus = 31)
.·. η = 0.074
T h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e o f α is i n d e p e n d e n t o f p a r a m e t e r s u t i l i z e d f o r e x p r e s s
i n g s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l , since α r e p r e s e n t s t h e f r a c t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v e d
utilized for s y n t h e s i s , a n d is t h e r e f o r e a d i m e n s i o n l e s s q u a n t i t y . T h e s a m e
c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r f o r c h a n g i n g p a r a m e t e r s i n w h i c h s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l is t o
be expressed appears simultaneously in the n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r of
E q . (5.23), a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n c e l s o u t .
P a r a m e t e r α does not a p p e a r in t h e final f o r m u l a t i o n o f a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s
d e v e l o p e d in S e c t i o n 6. I n s t e a d p a r a m e t e r a, w h i c h is r e l a t e d t o a , is u t i l i z e d .
where
T o t a l s u b s t r a t e r e m o v e d : 1000 m g / l i t e r
T o t a l T h O D r e m o v e d : 3 2 / 3 0 χ 1000 = 1066.7 m g / l i t e r . T h e s e r e m o v a l s t a k e
p l a c e in t w o w a y s :
4. Material Balance Relationships 173
(1) S y n t h e s i s :
5(CH 0) - 2 C H N0
5 7 2
T h O D r e m o v e d for s y n t h e s i s :
[ R a t i o s , 3 5 0 / 1 0 0 0 = 3 7 3 . 3 / 1 0 6 6 . 7 = 0.35 = a]
(2) E n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n :
(CH 0) + 0
2 2 -> C 0 2 + H 0 2
T h O D r e m o v e d for e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n :
[ R a t i o s , 6 5 0 / 1 0 0 0 = 6 9 3 . 4 / 1 0 6 6 . 7 = 0.65 = α ' ]
F r o m E q . (5.20) T h O D r e m o v e d for e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n e q u a l s t h e l b o f
o x y g e n u t i l i z e d for o x i d a t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e . T h e r e f o r e t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a' (in
t e r m s o f T h O D ) given b y E q . (5.25) is r e f o r m u l a t e d a s
i.e., a' is e q u a l t o t h e l b o f o x y g e n u t i l i z e d in e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n p e r l b o f t o t a l
T h O D removed.
T h e r e f o r e f r o m E q . (5.26),
= flTho (lb
D total T h O D removed) (5.27)
W r i t i n g t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (5.27) in t e r m s o f C O D , B O D , a n d T O C
b y u t i l i z i n g r a t i o s T h O D / C O D , T h O D / B O D , e t c . , yields
D e f i n e s u b s c r i p t v a l u e s o f a' a s
acoo = a ( T h O D / C O D ) (5.29)
a oD = lb 0
B 2 (for energy)/Ib total B O D removed (5.34)
T h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e o f t h e n u m e r a t o r s in E q s . (5.32), (5.33), a n d (5.34) is
t h e s a m e ( l b o f o x y g e n utilized for e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s ) . V a l u e s o f d e n o m i
n a t o r s , h o w e v e r , v a r y d e p e n d i n g o n c h o i c e o f p a r a m e t e r s for expressing
s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l . C o n s e q u e n t l y , n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s o f a' f r o m E q s . (5.32),
(5.33), a n d (5.34) a r e different f r o m e a c h o t h e r . T h e r e f o r e , u t i l i z a t i o n o f
s u b s c r i p t s is justified.
F u r t h e r m o r e , only t h e v a l u e o f a' given b y E q . (5.32) is n u m e r i c a l l y e q u a l
t o t h e r a t i o s defined b y E q . (5.25), i.e., a j h O D = ' · V a l u e s o f a' g i v e n b y E q s .
a
C o n s e q u e n t l y , a r e p r e s e n t s yield o f b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e p e r l b o f t o t a l s u b s t r a t e
removed.
4. Material Balance Relationships 175
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p a r a m e t e r s a a n d a is a r r i v e d a t b y c o n s i d e r a t i o n
o f t h e l a c t o s e e x a m p l e [ E q . ( 5 . 2 2 ) ] . I t is a s s u m e d t h a t 3 5 0 m g / l i t e r ( 3 5 % o f t h e
t o t a l 1000 m g / l i t e r o f l a c t o s e r e m o v e d ) a r e u t i l i z e d for t h e s y n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e d
b y E q . (5.22). Y i e l d o f M L V S S is c a l c u l a t e d a s
= [(0.35)(1000)] (113/150)
T h e r e f o r e , f r o m E q . (5.36) o n e o b t a i n s
i.e., 2 6 3 . 7 m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S a r e p r o d u c e d p e r 1000 m g / l i t e r o f l a c t o s e
r e m o v e d ; t h u s a = 263.7/1000 = 0.2637.
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a a n d ά f r o m E q . (5.37) for t h e l a c t o s e e x a m p l e is
a = a(l 13/150)
.'. a = fl(150/113)
P a r a m e t e r a m a y b e w r i t t e n in t e r m s o f t o t a l T h O D r e m o v e d . L e t a T H 0 D O E
t h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e o f a e x p r e s s e d in t h i s m a n n e r .
= 32/30 (5.40)
or
a = flTho (32/30)
D (5.41)
E q u a t i o n (5.38) w r i t t e n in t e r m s o f % H 0 D D V
u t i l i z i n g E q . (5.41) is
a
176 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
M L V S S yield ( s y n t h e s i s ) is o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (5.39).
E q u a t i o n (5.43) m a y b e r e w r i t t e n e x p r e s s i n g s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l i n t e r m s o f
C O D , B O D , etc., by utilizing ratios T h O D / C O D , T h O D / B O D , etc.:
= 0 T h o ( l b total B O D r e m o v e d ) ( T h O D / B O D )
D (5.44)
Define
a oD =
B tfihOD (ThOD/BOD) (5.46)
Therefore
N o s u b s c r i p t s a r e u t i l i z e d for t h e p a r a m e t e r a h e n c e . I t is u n d e r s t o o d t h a t
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e o f p a r a m e t e r a is c h o s e n t o b e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e
p a r a m e t e r s for e x p r e s s i n g s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l .
5(CH 0) + 2 50 2 -+ 5 C 0 2 + 5H 0
2 (5.48)
R e c a l l t h a t f a c t o r 1.42 o r i g i n a t e d f r o m [ E q . ( 5 . 4 2 ) ] .
or (5.49)
4.1.6. Summary
a
ThOO lb 0 = axhOD ( l b total T h O D removed)
2
(energy)
where a' = a' = fraction o f substrate removed
ThOD
a
BOD lb 0 = a i o D f l b total B O D removed)
2
(5-day B O D ) (energy)
where a' = a ' ( T h O D / B O D ) = α'(1Ο0/58) = 1.72a'
BOD
= (α/1.42)(100/83) = 0.85a
= (α/1.42)(100/58) = 1.21α
R e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r o t h e r o x y g e n a n d c a r b o n p a r a m e t e r s defined i n C h a p t e r 2
are readily written.
178 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
1 . 1 8 a o D + 0.83acoD= 1 0
C
BOD tfrhOD = a o D ( B O D / T h O D ) = 0 O D ( 5 8 / 1 O O )
B B
0.82ΛΒΟΟ + 0 . 5 8 Λ Ο Ο = 1 0 Β
E q u a t i o n (5.24) is r e a d i l y w r i t t e n i n t e r m s o f o t h e r o x y g e n a n d c a r b o n p a
r a m e t e r s defined i n C h a p t e r 2 .
4.1.7. D e s i g n Parameters C o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
E n d o g e n o u s R e s p i r a t i o n : Introduction
T w o d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s , b a n d b', a r e defined c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e n d o
genous respiration phase. E n d o g e n o u s respiration involves oxidation of
cellular m a t t e r in o r d e r t o p r o v i d e food for t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s w h e n t h e
concentration of substrate has decreased considerably. It corresponds t o the
"cannibalistic feast" described in Section 3.1.
A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e c h e m i c a l f o r m u l a f o r t h e M L V S S is C H N 0 , o x i d a t i o n
5 7 2
o f cells c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n is g i v e n b y E q . (5.51).
C H N0
5 7 2 + 50 -• 5 C 0
2 2 + NH + 2H 0 3 2 (5.51)
Molecular weight: 113 5 χ 32 = 160
M L V S S p r e s e n t i n r e a c t o r a t a n y t i m e a s s u m i n g s t e a d y s t a t e o p e r a t i o n is
constant, being given b y
lb M L V S S in reactor = X , V v a (5.54)
where X Vtais t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S , i.e., l b M L V S S p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f
reactor; a n d Κ the reactor volume.
T h u s E q s . (5.53) a n d (5.54) yield
lb M L V S S oxidized/day = bX Vf a V (5.55)
(endogenous respiration)
b> = lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S inreactor)
2 (5.56)
T h u s , o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n f o r e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n is
o r f r o m E q . (5.54)
lb0 /day 2 = b'X^ V a (5.58)
(endogenous respiration)
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n b a n d b' is w r i t t e n a s s u m i n g t h a t
a v e r a g e e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a for M L V S S is C H N 0 , a n d t h a t e n d o g e n o u s
5 7 2
r e s p i r a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s t o c h e m i c a l e q u a t i o n (5.51). F r o m E q s . (5.52) a n d
(5.56) r a t i o b'/b is [ E q . (5.59)]
b'\b = lb 0 / l b M L V S S oxidized
2 (5.59)
F r o m E q . (5.51) t h i s r a t i o is
b'\b = 1.42 (5.60)
C o n s e q u e n t l y , it t a k e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.42 l b o f o x y g e n t o o x i d i z e 1 l b o f
M L V S S . T h i s v a l u e is u s e d a s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n for a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n o f
most substrates.
W h e r e a s p a r a m e t e r s a a n d a' a r e r a t i o s [ E q s . (5.25), (5.32), (5.33), a n d
(5.34) for a'; a n d E q s . (5.35) a n d (5.39) for a ] , b a n d b' a r e r a t e s . T i m e is n o t
i n v o l v e d i n t h e definitions o f a a n d abut it is i n t h o s e o f b a n d b'.
4.2. M A T E R I A L B A L A N C E F O R D E T E R M I N A T I O N
OF O X Y G E N UTILIZATION
K n o w l e d g e o f o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s t o effect a specified B O D r e m o v a l is
n e c e s s a r y for specification o f a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t . F r o m d i s c u s s i o n s i n
S e c t i o n s 4 . 1 . 3 a n d 4 . 1 . 9 it f o l l o w s t h a t o x y g e n is r e q u i r e d for t w o p u r p o s e s :
180 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
A p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s o f a' c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p a r a m e t e r s in w h i c h t o t a l s u b s t r a t e
r e m o v a l (S — S ) is e x p r e s s e d a r e utilized in E q . (5.61).
0 e
Example 5.1
C a l c u l a t e t h e o x y g e n r e q u i r e d for e n e r g y .
S 0 = 893 mg/liter
S e = 40 mg/liter
Then
S - S
0 e = 893 - 40 = 853 mg/liter = S r (total substrate removed)
Therefore
5 o _ 5 e = 5 p = 8 5 3 i ^ = 853 m
'
g B O D
g BOD. g BOD Λ r
lbBOD _ lbBOD r o r
lb liquor M l b liquor
F r o m E q . (5.61),
lb 0 lb B O D 2 r
l b 0 / d a y = 0.79
2 χ 853 χ 1 0 ~ — - - 6
, c \ lbBOD lb liquor r
(for energy) n
, liquor lb liquor
χ 2.04 χ 1 0 g a l - ~ — * 8 . 3 4 - — ^ 6
If S is in m g / l i t e r a n d Q in M G D o w i n g t o c a n c e l l a t i o n o f f a c t o r s 10
r
6
a n d 1 0 , E q . (5.61) b e c o m e s E q . (5.62).
6
Example 5.2
C a l c u l a t e t h e o x y g e n r e q u i r e d for e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n . L e t
b = 0.15 lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S in reactor)*
f
2
By a s i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e t o t h a t in E x a m p l e 5.1 it follows t h a t [ E q . ( 5 . 6 3 ) ]
lb 0 / d a y 2 = b'X Vt a V χ 8.34 (5.63)
(endogenous respiration)
w h e r e V is t h e l b 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S in r e a c t o r ) , X
2 VyQ the mg/liter of M L V S S ,
and Κ the reactor volume ( M G ) .
Consequently,
lb 0 / d a y
2 = 0.15 χ 3000 χ 1.2 χ 8.34 = 4500 lb 0 / d a y 2
(endogenous respiration)
SUMMARY T o t a l o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n is g i v e n b y t h e s u m o f E q s . (5.61) a n d
(5.58) a s
lb 0 / d a y = a\S
2 a -S )Q
e + b'X^ V = a'S Q
a r + b'x ,
v a V (5.64)
F o r E x a m p l e s 5.1 a n d 5.2,
A p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s o f a c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p a r a m e t e r s in w h i c h t o t a l s u b s t r a t e
r e m o v a l (S — S ) is e x p r e s s e d a r e utilized in E q . (5.65).
0 e
Example 5.3
Calculate M L V S S produced by substrate removal. Let
S 0 = 893 mg/liter
Se = 40 mg/liter
w h e r e .S is in m g / l i t e r a n d Q in M G D .
r
Therefore,
= 8342 lb/day of M L V S S
Example 5.4
Calculate M L V S S destroyed by endogenous respiration. Let
where X VtQ is i n m g / l i t e r a n d K i n M G .
Therefore
lb M L V S S / d a y = AX V = a(S -S )Q
0 e - bX Vta V = aS Q r - bX ,v a V (5.68)
(net yield)
F o r e x a m p l e s 5.3 a n d 5.4
4.4. T O T A L S L U D G E Y I E L D
S o far, o n l y t h e yield o f b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e ( M L V S S ) h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d .
N o w , e x a m i n e t h e d i a g r a m f o r t h e r e a c t o r s y s t e m i n F i g . 5 . 1 . T h e fresh feed
m a y contain nonvolatile suspended solids (NVSS). L e t X , F b e t h e c o n N V
t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier, h o w e v e r , p a r t o f t h e N V S S a s well a s m o s t o f V S S
settles. L e t X b e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f N V S S i n u n d e r f l o w f r o m t h e clarifier
N V T U
( s a m e a s i n w a s t a g e Q a n d recycle Q ) . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f N V S S i n n e t effluent R
f r o m clarifier (Q') is X . N V T B
[ E q . ( 5 . 6 8 ) ] . S i n c e t h e r e a c t o r o p e r a t e s a t s t e a d y s t a t e , t h i s w a s t a g e is e q u a l t o
n e t yield o f M L V S S , s o t h a t t o t a l l b o f M L V S S i n t h e r e a c t o r r e m a i n t h e s a m e
a t all t i m e s . I n a d d i t i o n , w a s t a g e i n c l u d e s v o l a t i l e s o l i d s e n t e r i n g w i t h fresh
feed ( Q X , F ) 9
F V from a n o v e r a l l b a l a n c e o f v o l a t i l e s o l i d s ( l o o p
a s s e e n
in
F i g . 5.1). T h e r e f o r e , t o t a l w a s t a g e o f M L V S S is s h o w n i n E q . (5.69) [ u t i l i z i n g
E q . (5.68) f o r ΑΧ ~\. υ
2. S e t t l e d N V S S d e n o t e d a s A X N V ( l b / d a y ) . T h i s v a l u e is d e t e r m i n e d b y
184 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
NVSS, I N : QFXNV,F
(5.70)
T h u s t h e o v e r a l l b a l a n c e is [ E q . ( 5 . 7 1 ) ]
QFXNV,F = Q'XNV, e+ AX NV
AX NV = Q F X N V , F - Q'XNV, e (5.71)
(5.73)
where
a(S Q -S )Q-
e bX Vt a V = AX V = net yield of M L V S S [Eq. (5.68)]
Q F X V , F = M L V S S in fresh feed
T h e v a l u e of X , i.e., c o n c e n t r a t i o n of N V S S in c o m b i n e d feed, is e s t a b
NVt0
NVSS, O U T = QX ,o NV
Then
QFXNV,F + QRXNV,u
A s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e is w r i t t e n for X , vo t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of V S S in
c o m b i n e d feed. F i n a l r e s u l t is
T A B L E 5.2
Aerobic Biological Waste—Treatment Parameters*' *
5. R e l a t i o n s h i p for O p t i m u m
S e t t l i n g C o n d i t i o n s of S l u d g e
F o r a d e q u a t e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , M L V S S in t h e
r e a c t o r effluent s h o u l d b e r e a d i l y s e p a r a t e d in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier. T h e
c o n d i t i o n o c c u r r i n g w h e n s l u d g e is light a n d fluffy a n d t h u s difficult t o settle
is t e r m e d b u l k i n g . B u l k y s l u d g e flakes o v e r s e p a r a t i n g w e i r s a n d c o m e s o u t
w i t h t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier effluent. S i n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e in t h e
effluent is s m a l l , t h e r e is n o t e n o u g h f o o d m a t e r i a l t o s u s t a i n t h e g r o w t h o f t h e
microorganisms which constitute the sludge. Therefore the microorganisms
are driven to endogenous respiration. O w i n g to the c o n s u m p t i o n of oxygen
for e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n , t h e effluent h a s a relatively h i g h B O D , w h i c h is
undesirable.
Settling characteristics of sludge are evaluated from sedimentation tests
p e r f o r m e d in t h e l a b o r a t o r y . F o r t h i s e v a l u a t i o n t w o p a r a m e t e r s a r e utilized.
1. Zone settling velocity (ZSV). T h i s p a r a m e t e r a n d its e x p e r i m e n t a l
d e t e r m i n a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3 , S e c t i o n 3.6. A n easily s e t t l i n g s l u d g e
h a s a h i g h Z S V o f a b o u t 2 0 ft/hr.
186 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
s m a l l e r t h e S V I , t h e e a s i e r is t h e s e t t l i n g o f t h e s l u d g e .
S e v e r a l a u t h o r s h a v e c o r r e l a t e d s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s l u d g e (in t e r m s
of Z S V or SVI) with a parameter designated as food to microorganism ratio
( h e n c e d e n o t e d a s F/M). T h i s p a r a m e t e r is defined a s [ E q . ( 5 . 7 6 ) ]
V a l u e s o f F a n d Μ a r e given b y
w h e r e Q is i n M G D a n d (S , X ) 0 va in mg/liter. Therefore
F/M = QS /X , V
0 v a (5.79)
S i n c e V/Q = t = r e s i d e n c e t i m e ,
F/M = S /X ,0 v a t ( d a y " *) (5.80)
I n o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t c o r r e l a t i o n s for s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a s l u d g e , a
series o f b e n c h scale c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r s a r e o p e r a t e d , e a c h a t a selected FjM
r a t i o . S l u d g e o b t a i n e d i n e a c h r e a c t o r is s u b j e c t e d t o s e t t l i n g t e s t s ( Z S V a n d
SVI). If t h e s e t w o p a r a m e t e r s , w h i c h a r e a m e a s u r e o f t h e ability o f t h e s l u d g e
t o settle, a r e p l o t t e d v s . t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g FjM r a t i o s , c u r v e s like t h e o n e s
s h o w n in F i g . 5.7 a r e o b t a i n e d .
S i n c e for o p t i m u m s e t t l i n g t h e s l u d g e s h o u l d h a v e a h i g h Z S V a n d a l o w
S V I , t h e o p t i m u m FjM r a t i o a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 5.7 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
m a x i m u m for t h e Z S V c u r v e a n d t h e m i n i m u m for t h e S V I c u r v e . F o r m o s t
w a s t e w a t e r s t h i s o p t i m u m v a l u e o f t h e FjM r a t i o falls b e t w e e n t h e f o l l o w i n g
limits [ E q . ( 5 . 8 1 ) ] :
0.6 > FjM > 0.3 (5.81)
SVI zsv
i /-optilmum F / M ratio. ( F / M ) p 0 T
Ο 0.3
JL I
0.6
I
0.9
L
1.2
F/M = S / X 0 V | Q t = lb B O D 5 influent/(day)(lb M L V S S in reactor)
Fig. 5.7. Typical correlation of SVI and ZSV with F/M ratio.
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell c a p s u l e
( F / M W = SJX t
9tU
(5.82)
S o l v i n g for /,
t = S /[X , (F/M) ]
0 v a OPT (5.83)
T h e g e o m e t r y o f t h e s y s t e m a n d t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h w a s t e w a t e r is fed t o t h e
a e r a t o r h a v e a n effect o n flocculating c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s l u d g e . F o r
e x a m p l e , if t h e a e r a t o r is a l o n g r e c t a n g u l a r t a n k w i t h relatively p o o r m i x i n g ,
M L V S S is initially c o n t a c t e d a t t h e feed e n d w i t h e n t e r i n g s e w a g e , a n d t h e r e
fore a h i g h F/M r a t i o p r e v a i l s a t t h e e n t r a n c e . F i l a m e n t o u s g r o w t h d e v e l o p e d
u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s persists t h r o u g h o u t t h e a e r a t i o n p e r i o d , a n d s l u d g e
w i t h p o o r settling c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is o b t a i n e d ( F i g . 5.9). T h e s a m e s i t u a t i o n
High F / M
c
""Effluent
Feed
Filamentous
growth
o c c u r s in a b a t c h r e a c t o r , since a h i g h F/M r a t i o p r e v a i l s a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e
o p e r a t i o n . T h e r e a c t o r d e p i c t e d in F i g . 5.9 is t h e p l u g flow c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r .
A general discussion of the kinetics of a c o n t i n u o u s t r e a t m e n t system (plug
flow, c o m p l e t e m i x , a n d a r b i t r a r y flow r e a c t o r s ) is p r e s e n t e d in S e c t i o n 10.
If t h e r e is c o m p l e t e m i x i n g in t h e s y s t e m , t h e F/M r a t i o is u n i f o r m t h r o u g h
o u t , p o s s i b l y falling w i t h i n t h e o p t i m u m r a n g e . U n d e r s t e a d y s t a t e a n d c o m
p l e t e m i x c o n d i t i o n s , s l u d g e is a l w a y s in c o n t a c t w i t h a B O D c o n c e n t r a t i o n
e q u a l t o t h a t in t h e effluent. T h e r e f o r e a d e n s e s l u d g e is likely t o b e o b t a i n e d .
6. Parameters for Design of Reactors 189
6. Experimental D e t e r m i n a t i o n of
P a r a m e t e r s N e e d e d for Design of
A e r o b i c Biological R e a c t o r s
6.1. B E N C H S C A L E C O N T I N U O U S REACTORS
A b e n c h scale c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r utilized for t h e s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s is
d e s c r i b e d in t h i s s e c t i o n . P a r a m e t e r s t o b e d e t e r m i n e d a r e defined in S e c t i o n s
4.1.2 t o 4 . 1 . 9 , i.e., for k i n e t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p : k; for m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e r e l a t i o n
s h i p s : a, a\ b a n d b'. A d i a g r a m o f t h e c o n t i n u o u s flow r e a c t o r is s h o w n in
9
F i g . 5.10. T h i s u n i t is d e s i g n e d a n d b u i l t b y B i o - D e v e l o p m e n t A s s o c i a t e s ,
A u s t i n , T e x a s . T h e r e a c t o r is m a d e of plexiglass a n d d i v i d e d i n t o t w o s e c t i o n s :
the aeration a n d settling c h a m b e r s . These simulate the reactor a n d the
s e c o n d a r y clarifier for a n a c t u a l p l a n t .
C a p a c i t y o f t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 liters. A i r is s u p p l i e d
a s i n d i c a t e d in t h e d i a g r a m . B u b b l i n g a i r k e e p s t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e a e r a t i o n
c h a m b e r in a c o m p l e t e l y m i x e d c o n d i t i o n . W a s t e w a t e r is fed c o n t i n u o u s l y
f r o m a c o n s t a n t h e a d feed r e s e r v o i r b y m e a n s o f a S i g m a m o t o r p u m p , a n d
overflows c o n t i n u o u s l y i n t o t h e effluent b o t t l e . T h e a e r a t i o n a n d s e d i m e n t a t i o n
c h a m b e r s a r e s e p a r a t e d b y a sliding baffle w h i c h c a n b e c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d if
desired.
S t a r t - u p is p e r f o r m e d b y p l a c i n g in t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r a seed o f d o m e s t i c
activated sludge collected from a n o p e r a t i n g plant, a n d gradually acclimating
it t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r u n d e r s t u d y . F o r w a s t e w a t e r s o f i n d u s t r i a l o r i g i n c o n
taining c o m p o u n d s which are toxic to the microorganisms, mixtures of
i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r a n d d o m e s t i c s e w a g e a r e fed t o t h e r e a c t o r w i t h a
g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d p r o p o r t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r . E v e n t u a l l y , feed is
100% i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r w i t h o u t d e l e t e r i o u s effects o n t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s .
F l o w r a t e is v a r i e d b y p r o p e r s e t t i n g o f t h e S i g m a m o t o r p u m p , a n d b y
utilizing different i n t e r n a l d i a m e t e r s for t h e T y g o n t u b i n g . A S i g m a m o t o r
p u m p operates by "squeezing" the wastewater through the Tygon tubing by
m e a n s o f m e c h a n i c a l " f i n g e r s , " t h e s p e e d o f w h i c h is set. O n e p u m p p r o m o t e s
w a s t e w a t e r flow t h r o u g h several r e a c t o r u n i t s in p a r a l l e l , e a c h o n e p r o v i d e d
190 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
Fig. 5.10. Continuous flow reactor (bench scale model). Insert: detail of
Sigma pump setup for operation of five reactors in parallel.
6.2. E X P E R I M E N T A L P R O C E D U R E
E a c h experiment requires 2 - 4 weeks before steady state conditions are
a c h i e v e d . F o r t h i s r e a s o n it is c o n v e n i e n t t o o p e r a t e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f o u r o r
five r e a c t o r s in p a r a l l e l .
S t e p s in t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e a r e [ 3 ]
1. E a c h u n i t is filled w i t h seed s l u d g e u p t o a p r e d e t e r m i n e d v o l u m e .
D i l u t i o n is m a d e w i t h w a s t e w a t e r in o r d e r t o o b t a i n a M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of 2000-3000 mg/liter.
2. A i r is t u r n e d o n a n d c o n t e n t s o f t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r a r e c o m p l e t e l y
m i x e d b y t h e t u r b u l e n c e t h u s p r o d u c e d . T h e sliding baffle is a d j u s t e d t o l e a v e
a n o p e n i n g o f J t o i in. a t t h e b o t t o m . D u r i n g o p e r a t i o n o f t h e r e a c t o r ,
f u r t h e r baffle a d j u s t m e n t s a r e m a d e in o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a d e s i r e d b l a n k e t
h e i g h t o f s l u d g e in t h e s e t t l i n g c h a m b e r a n d a n i n t e r c h a n g e o f s l u d g e b e t w e e n
t h e t w o c h a m b e r s ( F i g . 5.11).
3. S t a r t t h e S i g m a m o t o r p u m p a t a flow r a t e n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n t h e
d e s i r e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r . A c c l i m a t i o n o f s l u d g e , if
r e q u i r e d , is p e r f o r m e d a s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d .
4. O p e r a t e t h e r e a c t o r u n t i l s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s a r e a c h i e v e d . A t t a i n
m e n t o f s t e a d y s t a t e is a s s u m e d w h e n t w o c r i t e r i a a r e satisfied: ( a ) o x y g e n
192 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
'—^Effluent
a n d t w o d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f M L V S S a r e m a d e , e.g., 2 4 h r a p a r t y i e l d i n g v a l u e s
Xl and X, 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e n e t i n c r e a s e o f M L V S S is
AX V =V X ~
t 2 VX t 1 = V (X -X )
t 2 x (24-hr growth) (5.84)
c o n c e n t r a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d after t h e baffle is r a i s e d . T h i s m a y s e e m c o n t r o v e r
sial since i n E q . (5.68) Χ s t a n d s for M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in a e r a t i o n
υα
c h a m b e r d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n (V is t h e v o l u m e o f a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r ) . T h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S in t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c h a m b e r is p r o b a b l y different
f r o m t h a t in t h e a e r a t o r . A t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c h a m b e r t h e r e
is a s l u d g e b l a n k e t o f v e r y h i g h M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d a t t h e t o p a s u p e r
n a t a n t l i q u i d w i t h negligible M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n . A f t e r t h e baffle is r a i s e d ,
6. Parameters for Design of Reactors 193
t h i s h e t e r o g e n e o u s m a s s in t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c h a m b e r is m i x e d w i t h t h e
c o n t e n t s o f t h e a e r a t o r . T h e w h o l e v o l u m e is t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d b y t h e b u b b l i n g
a i r b e f o r e t h e s a m p l e is t a k e n . T h e d e s i g n e r s o f t h i s l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r c l a i m
t h a t t h e r e is n o significant difference b e t w e e n M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e
aeration c h a m b e r during operation a n d t h a t in the whole mixed content of t h e
t w o c h a m b e r s . I n a n y e v e n t , it is p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o w i t h d r a w r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e s f r o m t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n for a n a l y s i s
of X . va R e c a l l a l s o t h a t t h e v o l u m e o f t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c h a m b e r is m u c h
s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r ( r a t i o o f a b o u t 3/7). T h e r e f o r e ,
M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e m i x e d c o n t e n t s o f t h e t w o c h a m b e r s is n o t t o o
different f r o m t h a t o f t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n .
6. O n c e s t e a d y s t a t e o p e r a t i o n is a t t a i n e d , t h e s a m p l i n g s c h e d u l e p r e
s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5.3 is f o l l o w e d .
T A B L E 5.3
Sampling Schedule [3]
1. C O D , B O D , o r T O C
(mg/liter) (filtered and 3/week X — X
3. SS, M L V S S (mg/liter)
(also determine sludge
settling curves and 3/week — X X
8. Significant ions,
compounds 3/week X — X
a
Sample withdrawn from influent feed line or raw waste containers.
b
Sample withdrawn from the unbaffled tank.
c
Sample withdrawn from effluent bottle.
6.3. C A L C U L A T I O N O F D E S I G N P A R A M E T E R S
Calculation of parameters k 9 a, a', b, a n d V is m a d e f r o m o b t a i n e d d a t a .
P r o c e d u r e is d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n s 6 . 3 . 1 - 6 . 3 . 4 .
194 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
R /X , r v a = a'[(S 0 - S )/X ,
e v a t] + V (5.86)
E q u a t i o n (5.86) is t h e b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a
t i o n p a r a m e t e r s a' a n d V. N o t i c e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t e r m (S — S )/X t 0 e va (sub
s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e ) , w h i c h a l s o o c c u r s i n E q s . (5.18) a n d (5.19) f o r d e t e r
m i n a t i o n o f k.
U n i t s for R r o b t a i n e d f r o m l a b o r a t o r y scale d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a r e m e t r i c ,
i.e., m g 0 / ( d a y ) ( l i t e r ) . S i n c e
2
m g 0 / l i t e r liquor = lb 0 / M l b liquor
2 2 (Section 4.2, Example 5.1)
then
R r = lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( M l b liquor)
2
S i m i l a r l y , for XVta
T h e r e f o r e in E q . (5.86)
lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( M l b liquor)
2
RrlX ,a v = ΐ Κ ' T VQQ/MIK R = »> 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b MLVSS)
2
lb M L V S S / M l b liquor
T h u s R /X r Via is a m e a s u r e o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f o x y g e n p e r d a y a n d p e r l b o f
b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e p r e s e n t in t h e r e a c t o r .
A s s h o w n in S e c t i o n 3.2,
(S -S )IX t
0 e Ota = l b B O D r e m o v e d / ( d a y ) ( l b MLVSS)
line f r o m t h e s l o p e a n d i n t e r c e p t o f w h i c h o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s a'
6. Parameters for Design of Reactors 195
a n d b' a r e o b t a i n e d . A t y p i c a l p l o t is s h o w n i n F i g . 5.16, a n d a n u m e r i c a l
i l l u s t r a t i o n o f its c o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m l a b o r a t o r y d a t a is p r e s e n t e d i n E x a m p l e
5.5 ( S e c t i o n 6.4).
P o s s i b l y t h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e is b y g a l v a n i c
cell o x y g e n m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h i s is t h e o n l y m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
O t h e r m e t h o d s a r e p o l a r o g r a p h i c a n d W a r b u r g t e c h n i q u e s a n d off-gas
a n a l y s i s . O f all t h e s e m e t h o d s , g a l v a n i c cell m e a s u r e m e n t is t h e s i m p l e s t , a n d
its a c c u r a c y is u s u a l l y a d e q u a t e . T h e a p p a r a t u s for t h i s m e a s u r e m e n t is t h e
dissolved oxygen analyzer ( D O analyzer) described in C h a p t e r 2 (Section
2.3.1) a n d s h o w n i n F i g . 2 . 4 .
E x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e for m e a s u r i n g o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e (R ) is [ 6 ]
r
1. Fill B O D b o t t l e w i t h a e r a t e d m i x e d l i q u o r f r o m test s o l u t i o n .
2. I n s e r t p r o b e i n t o b o t t l e , a l l o w i n g d i s p l a c e d l i q u i d t o o v e r f l o w . C a r e
is t a k e n t o p r e v e n t a c c u m u l a t i o n o f a i r b u b b l e s i n s i d e b o t t l e .
3. M i x t h e c o n t e n t s u s i n g a m a g n e t i c s t i r r i n g a p p a r a t u s .
4. R e c o r d g a l v o n o m e t e r r e a d i n g s a t v a r i o u s t i m e i n t e r v a l s , u s u a l l y e v e r y
30 sec.
5. C o r r e c t r e a d i n g s b a s e d o n a p r e d e t e r m i n e d sensitivity f a c t o r (for
d e t a i l s refer t o [ 6 ] ) , a n d p l o t d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n level ( o r d i n a t e ) v s . t i m e
( a b s c i s s a ) ( F i g . 5.12).
12 I —
= - ( S lope )
II =-(2 5-8. )/(IC -2)= 0.7 rng/(l iter)( min)
= 0.7' x 6 C ) x 2 4 = I C >08r ng 0 / W ayXlit er) .
10 2
I 7
b 5
0 1 2 3 ~ 4 5 6_
7 8 9 Ϊ0
Time (min)
6. I n F i g . 5.12, t h e s l o p e o f t h e line is o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e in m g / ( l i t e r )
( m i n ) . A specific u p t a k e r a t e (R /X ) r va is t h e n d e t e r m i n e d b y d i v i d i n g t h i s
v a l u e b y M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e test s a m p l e . I n F i g . 5.12, t h e first d a t a
p o i n t s i m m e d i a t e l y after / = 0 a r e not t o b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in e v a l u a t i n g
t h e s l o p e . T h e h i g h e r s l o p e o f t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e line is d u e t o loss o f e n t r a i n e d
a i r f r o m t h e l i q u o r . A f t e r a few m i n u t e s t h e s l o p e b e c o m e s s t a b i l i z e d , a n d it
is t a k e n a s t h e u p t a k e r a t e .
A temperature correction available from n o m o g r a p h s furnished by the
m a n u f a c t u r e r is a p p l i e d t o t h e r e a d i n g s . P r o b e r e a d i n g s a r e i n a c c u r a t e a t
D O c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e l o w 0.5 m g / l i t e r . T r a n s f e r o f t h e m i x e d l i q u o r f r o m t h e
reactor to the D O analyzer bottle should be rapid, a n d the test started as
s o o n a s p o s s i b l e f o l l o w i n g s a m p l e w i t h d r a w a l . If o x y g e n d e p l e t i o n is t o o
r a p i d , t h e s a m p l e is d i l u t e d in o r d e r t o r e d u c e M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n . I t is
a d v i s a b l e t o c a l i b r a t e t h e p r o b e in a s a m p l e o f w a t e r s i m i l a r t o t h a t in w h i c h
t h e D O a n a l y z e r is u s e d , in o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e e r r o r s d u e t o t h e salt effect.
V Q
Q
X
v,o
X
v,e
1 X
NV,e
NV,o
1
X
So
S
e
(sludge deposited)
QF Q
Q" zero
Xy,F Χν,ο
XNV, F XNV, ο
6. Parameters for Design of Reactors 197
T h e r e f o r e , E q . (5.73) f o r t h e l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r b e c o m e s
AX t = a(S -S )Q-bX , V+
0 e v a QX , V 0 + Q(X -X , )
NVt0 NV e
(5.87)
AX V AX N
E q u a t i o n (5.87) is r e a r r a n g e d a s
I n t h e n u m e r a t o r o f t h e l e f t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . ( 5 . 8 9 ) , t e r m AXJV equals
t h e n e t yield o f t o t a l s l u d g e p e r u n i t v o l u m e [ i . e . , m g t o t a l s l u d g e / ( d a y ) ( l i t e r ) ] .
T e r m AXJV c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e n e t yield o f M L V S S p e r u n i t v o l u m e . I f c o n
c e n t r a t i o n s o f N V S S a n d M L V S S i n t h e i n f l u e n t a r e n e g l i g i b l e (i.e., X NVt0 «
X N V t e « X Vf0 ~ 0), this e q u a t i o n reduces t o
AXJV AXJV
= a[(S -S )/X , t]-b
0 e v a (5.90)
Xv,
E q u a t i o n (5.89) [ o r E q . ( 5 . 9 0 ) ] is t h e b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p for d e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f s l u d g e yield p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b. N o t i c e a g a i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t e r m
(S — S )/X t
0 e Vta ( s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e ) , w h i c h a l s o o c c u r r e d i n E q s . (5.18),
(5.19), a n d (5.86) f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s k, a\ a n d b'.
Note on units for Eq. (5.89) lor Eq. ( 5 . 9 0 ) ] : F r o m l a b o r a t o r y d e t e r m i n a
t i o n s , t h e v a l u e o f AXJV is o b t a i n e d i n m e t r i c u n i t s , i.e., AXJV = m g total
s l u d g e y i e l d / ( d a y ) (liter o f l i q u o r ) . F r o m s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a s t h o s e f o r
R r ( S e c t i o n 6.3.2), it f o l l o w s t h a t t h i s v a l u e is n u m e r i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h a t
e x p r e s s e d i n E n g l i s h u n i t s , i.e., AXJV = lb sludge yield/(day)(Mlb liquor).
T h e r e f o r e t e r m (AXJV)/X Vta i n E n g l i s h u n i t s is
AXt/V - (X y, ο - X , N NV e + X , )/t v 0
= lb M L V S S yield/(day)(lb M L V S S )
Xv, a
A c c o r d i n g t o E q . (5.89) [ o r E q . ( 5 . 9 0 ) ] a p l o t o f ( a c c o u n t i n g f o r p r e s e n c e o f
NVSS)
\ AX /V-(X v, -X ,
t N 0 NV e + X ,o)/t
v AXJV]
γ = — — vs. (S -S )IX at
0 e Vt
|_ -^ν,α -^υ,α J
198 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
o r s i m p l y (if N V S S is negligible)
AXJV
— — vs. (S -S )IX t
0 e Via
yields a s t r a i g h t line f r o m t h e s l o p e a n d i n t e r c e p t o f w h i c h d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s
a a n d b a r e o b t a i n e d . A t y p i c a l p l o t is s h o w n in F i g . 5.17, a n d its c o n s t r u c t i o n
f r o m l a b o r a t o r y d a t a is i l l u s t r a t e d in S e c t i o n 6.4, E x a m p l e 5.5.
T h e a b s c i s s a i n t e r c e p t in F i g . 5.17 c o r r e s p o n d s t o a z e r o v a l u e for t h e
o r d i n a t e . T h i s o c c u r s for a c o n d i t i o n o f n e t z e r o yield o f M L V S S , i.e.,
AX V = 0. R e f e r r i n g t o E q . (5.68), for AX V = 0 it f o l l o w s t h a t p r o d u c t i o n o f
M L V S S b y s y n t h e s i s , i.e., a(S 0 — S )Q
e 9 is e x a c t l y b a l a n c e d b y loss o f M L V S S
o x i d i z e d b y e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n , i.e., bX V. va Therefore
a{S -S )Q
0 e = bX , V
v a
T h u s , t h e l e n g t h o f a b s c i s s a i n t e r c e p t is (S -S )/X t
0 e va = b/a, a s i n d i c a t e d i n
F i g . 5.14.
I n s u m m a r y , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m b e n c h scale
s t u d i e s u s i n g t h i s l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r is t h e o r g a n i c r e m o v a l c a p a c i t y o f a n
a c c l i m a t e d b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e r e c e i v i n g a p r e d e f i n e d w a s t e w a t e r . F u l l scale
plants operating on design criteria developed using this reactor p r o d u c e a n
effluent w h i c h a p p r o x i m a t e s t h e p r e d i c t e d q u a l i t y . M o r e o v e r , o x y g e n u t i l i z a
t i o n r a t e s a r e s c a l e d u p w i t h r e l a t i v e a c c u r a c y f r o m b e n c h scale r e a c t o r s t o
full scale u n i t s . T h e r e is s o m e difficulty, h o w e v e r , in s c a l i n g u p a n d a p p l y i n g
coefficients a a n d b d e v e l o p e d f r o m b e n c h scale r e a c t o r s t o a full scale u n i t
b e c a u s e o f l i m i t a t i o n s d u e t o l o w a c c u r a c y o f t h e V S S test, a n d t h e difficulty
o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a solids b a l a n c e in s m a l l scale s i m u l a t i o n s t u d i e s . U s i n g l a r g e r
r e a c t o r s o f p i l o t - p l a n t scale e n h a n c e s t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e s e coefficients.
F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e a c c u r a c y o f coefficients a a n d b is less i m p o r t a n t for t h e
d e s i g n e r t h a n t h o s e for r e m o v a l r a t e c o n s t a n t (k) and oxygen demand
coefficients (a\b').
6.4. N U M E R I C A L E X A M P L E S : D E T E R M I N A T I O N
OF D E S I G N P A R A M E T E R S FOR A N
ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEM
Example 5.5
A n i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t is c o n s i d e r i n g a n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s y s t e m for t r e a t m e n t
o f t h e i r w a s t e w a t e r s . P r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s a r e p e r f o r m e d i n l a b o r a t o r y scale
c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r s ( F i g . 5.10). T h e v o l u m e o f t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r in
l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r s is 7 liters. F o u r r e a c t o r s a r e o p e r a t e d in p a r a l l e l u n t i l
s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s a r e o b t a i n e d . D a t a t a k e n a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5.4.
T h e influent c o n t a i n s a n a v e r a g e o f 3 0 m g / l i t e r o f N V S S . I n effluent, c o n -
Parameters for Design of Reactors
Ο Ο Ο Ο
CO >
h> νο ^ « Λ
00 ο οο ο\
60^ m οο m <Ν
Ό < So
3 -a
53 3
T3
(Ν Ο
_ σ\ οο
§ ^ 3 ^ οο <s
Ν r»
60
(30
5 1
S «η
^ Tt οο rn
ο
60$ Λ
8
8 > δ
m fvj co <N
3s§ Ε
(Η ©β C3 ·-<
3 S "« 55 60 8
ε s 8 S COε
ο
60 Λ J " *jj
11SS 00 00 00 00
υ ο η Ν η rt
03
OS Co
03
Ί3
ΟΙ
(0
Ο
ΙΑ *
» 75
UJ > ο
—' Εο ?a
5 '4
2
Η α:
6. Parameters for Design of Reactors 201
c e n t r a t i o n o f N V S S is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 m g / l i t e r . T h e difference, 3 0 — 2 0 =
10 m g / l i t e r , c o r r e s p o n d s t o N V S S s e t t l e d i n t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier. S l u d g e
u n d e r f l o w f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier c o n s i s t s o f t h i s N V S S s e t t l e d plus net
yield o f V S S f r o m r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n .
F r o m d a t a in T a b l e 5.4 d e t e r m i n e d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s k, a, a\ b, a n d V. A l s o
estimate nonbiodegradable matter concentration S n (mg/liter). F r o m Table
5.5 d e t e r m i n e k a n d S . n A l s o p l o t c o l u m n (9) o f t h e t a b l e v s . c o l u m n (5). A
g r a p h o f t h i s p l o t is s h o w n in F i g . 5.14.
1 1 I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1
Slope;k = ( l . 6 l - 0 . 0 ) / ( I I O - I O ) = 0.0161 d a y
-1
= 0 . 0 0 0 6 7 hr' 1
Equation:
1.6
IQ\ O^Reactor
(S -S )/X0 e V f Q t=k(S -S )
e n ID.iy; * , N q
/ 3 = l
° mg/liter
1.2
n
0.8
O ^ R e a c t o r No. 2
0.4
X ^ - R e a c t o r No. 3
! >d*-Reactor No. 4
W 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 10 50 100
S e (mg/liter)
Step 1. D e t e r m i n e t h e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n s t a n t k ( k i n e t i c s o f B O D r e m o v a l )
[ E q . (5.19)].
k = 0.0161 d a y " 1
(0.00067 h r " ) 1
Sn = 10 mg/liter
A p l o t o f S V I vs. F/M r a t i o is s h o w n in F i g . 5.15. E s t i m a t e d m i n i m u m S V I
o c c u r s a t a v a l u e o f F/M ratio « 0.6.
Step 2. D e t e r m i n e o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s a' a n d b' [ E q . ( 5 . 8 6 ) ] .
F r o m T a b l e 5.6 d e t e r m i n e a' a n d b'.
P l o t c o l u m n (4) vs. c o l u m n (5) ( T a b l e 5.6). T h e g r a p h is s h o w n in F i g . 5.16.
Then
a' = 0.79 m g 0 / m g B O D = 0.79 lb 0 / l b B O D
2 r 2 r
T A B L E 5.6
Oxygen Utilization Parameters
-τ—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—r~
Slope;a' = (i.O-0.5)/(l.07-0.44)
= 0.79 lb 0 ,energy/lb total B 0 D
2 5
Equation removed
1.5 (5.86)
^Reactor No. I
Intercept;
b'=O.I5 lb 0 /(day)(lb ML\
2
1.0
^-Reactor No. 4
^"Intercept; b'=O.I5
Ju ι ι Τ ι—ι ι ι ' I I I I—I—L_
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
ι Ό aJ
CO w
T3
CO*
3
oo δ
•s ν©
ί OOJO
ι φ¥
* l §:
I
.*i^CO
<
00
.6
υ Ι
Ο
1
CO
o O ^
-O
w
'«»is
8 s?"^
B . l b
co
< £ « ο
204 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
Step 3. D e t e r m i n e s l u d g e yield p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b [ E q . ( 5 . 8 9 ) ] .
(X ,
NV ο- X NVt e = 3 0 - 2 0 = 10 m g SS/liter) XVt 0 = 0
SUMMARY D e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s ( E x a m p l e 5.5)
S„ = 10 mg/liter
-ι 1 1 1 1
Equation;
ΔΧ,/V- (X N V , -X0 N V , e * X ) / 1 _AX /V
w V
ω
ω
> Λ
ν,α ν,α
^-Reactor
No. I J
Slope;a = (0.73-O.I55)/(l.4-0.4)
=0.575 lb MLVSS/lb total BODsrernoved
_J 1 L 1 JL
0.4 0.8 2.0
( S o - S e i V X ^ t (day' ) 1
b/a=0.075/0.575=O.I3
b = 0.075 lb M L V S S / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S )
Example 5.6
If for a w a s t e w a t e r t h e l b 0 / d a y r e q u i r e d for a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t is
2
w r i t e a n a p p r o x i m a t e e q u a t i o n for b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e yield in l b / d a y .
SOLUTION Here
b' = 0.1
T h e d e s i r e d e q u a t i o n f r o m E q . (5.68) is
A p p r o x i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s for a [ S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 6 ( c ) ] a n d b [ f r o m E q . ( 5 . 6 0 ) ] a s
f u n c t i o n s o f a' a n d b'
0 . 8 2 a o D + 0.58flioD = 1.0
B 5 5
b = b'\\A2
fl D
BO 5 = ( l - 0 . 5 8 ^ D ) / 0 . 8 2 = [ l - ( 0 . 5 8 ) ( 0 . 4 ) ] / 0 . 8 2 = 0.94
O 5
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e v a l u e o f b is
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e e q u a t i o n for M L V S S yield is
7. Design P r o c e d u r e for an
A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e Plant
7.1. INTRODUCTION
F r o m k n o w l e d g e o f d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s k, a, b, a\ a n d b\ design of the
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t is u n d e r t a k e n . F o r t h e l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r i n F i g . 5.10
t h e r e is n o r e c y c l e o f s l u d g e . N e t s l u d g e yield is w i t h d r a w n i n t e r m i t t e n t l y t o
m a i n t a i n a n a v e r a g e c o n s t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n (X ) Vf0 of M L V S S in the a e r a t i o n
c h a m b e r . F o r t h e a c t u a l p l a n t , s l u d g e is r e c y c l e d a s s h o w n i n F i g . 5 . 1 .
206 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
A p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e selected b y t h e d e s i g n e r is c o n c e n t r a t i o n X va of M L V S S
i n t h e a e r a t o r . R a t e o f recycle s l u d g e Q R is c a l c u l a t e d t o p r o v i d e t h i s c o n c e n
tration. Usually X v%a is selected b e t w e e n 2 0 0 0 a n d 4 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S .
A n o t h e r p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e w h i c h is selected b y t h e d e s i g n e r is t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
X VfU o f M L V S S i n recycle s l u d g e ( s t r e a m 7 i n F i g . 5.1), w h i c h is a l s o e q u a l t o
M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n u n d e r f l o w f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier [ s t r e a m 5 ] .
Concentration X VfU is a l s o t h e s a m e a s t h a t i n s t r e a m 6 ( w a s t a g e ) . G o o d
s e t t l i n g s l u d g e is e x p e c t e d t o a t t a i n a c o n c e n t r a t i o n X vu b e t w e e n 10,000 a n d
15,000 m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S .
A t s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s t h e r e is n o a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s l u d g e . T h u s , n e t
yield o f s l u d g e i n t h e a e r a t o r m u s t b e r e m o v e d i n w a s t a g e s t r e a m 6. F o r
p u r p o s e s o f m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s w a s t a g e is a s s u m e d t o b e c o n
t i n u o u s . I n p r a c t i c e , it is u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y b y t h e a r r a n g e m e n t
s h o w n i n F i g . 5.18, since it is o r d i n a r i l y t o o s m a l l t o justify c o n t i n u o u s w i t h
drawal.
R e t u r n a n d w a s t a g e lines a r e v a l v e d a s i n d i c a t e d . V a l v e s a r e a c t u a t e d b y a
t i m e c l o c k f o r i n t e r m i t t e n t s l u d g e w a s t a g e (e.g., 5 m i n e v e r y h o u r ) .
7.2. M A T E R I A L B A L A N C E F O R D E T E R M I N A T I O N
OF R E C Y C L E RATIO O F M L V S S
W r i t e a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e f o r M L V S S a r o u n d t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier i n F i g .
5.1 ( l o o p ··).
MLVSS, I N MLVSS, O U T
Q (l+r)X , (S.34)
F V A (lb/day) 2. M L V S S in wastage [stream 6 ]
AXv+QFXV.F (8.34) (lb/day)
3. M L V S S in recycled sludge [stream 7 ]
Q X R ( Z M ) = rQ X (S34)
V T U F (lb/day)
VtU
Then
Q (\+r)X , (S34)
F v a = 0+AX v + Q X , (S.34)
F V F + rQ ^ , « ( 8 . 3 4 )
F
S o l v i n g f o r t h e recycle r a t i o ,
r = ^MQFX^a-AX^^MQrXv^mMQAX^u-X^a)] (5.91)
ω
Fresh
®
Combined
©
Reactor Net
©
Aerator Secondary
feed feed effluent effluent
clarifier
Xlarifier
underflow
©
-^-Recycle and
Timing device-η
wastage pump
© \- ©
Recycle sludge ^ Wastage ^
Fig. 5.18. Arrangement for sludge wastage.
AXV + Q X , (8.34)
F V F = β'%,„(8.34) (5.93)
Q is o b t a i n e d b y c o m b i n i n g E q s . (5.2) a n d ( 5 . 9 4 ) :
7.3. M A T E R I A L B A L A N C E F O R C A L C U L A T I O N
OFS 0
B O D o f c o m b i n e d feed (S ) 0 is c a l c u l a t e d b y a B O D b a l a n c e a r o u n d t h e
j u n c t i o n o f fresh feed a n d recycle s l u d g e t o f o r m c o m b i n e d feed, i.e., l o o p
in F i g . 5 . 1 .
T h i s m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e is a s f o l l o w s :
or or
QS F F + rQ S F e Qr{\+r)S 0
Then
QS F F + rQ SF e = Q (l+r)S
F 0
Therefore
S 0 = (S + rS.)/(l+r)
F (5.96)
So-S e = [(S + r S . ) / ( l + r ) ] - S .
F
or
So-S e = (S -S.)/(l+r)
F (5.97)
208 5. S e c o n d a r y Treatment: The Activated S l u d g e P r o c e s s
7.4. A L T E R N A T I V E E X P R E S S I O N S F O R N E T
YIELD OF BIOLOGICAL S L U D G E A N D
O X Y G E N UTILIZATION IN T H E A E R A T O R
1. Net yield of MLVSS. S u b s t i t u t i o n o f Q a n d (S -S ) 0 e in E q . (5.68) b y
t h e i r v a l u e s given b y E q s . (5.5) a n d (5.97) yields after s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
ΔΧ υ = a(S -S )Q
F e F - bX V
Vta (5.98)
E q u a t i o n (5.98) is a n a l t e r n a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n for AX . V I t is m o r e c o n v e n i e n t
t h a n E q . (5.68), since it c o n t a i n s p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e s S F and Q F rather than S Q
a n d Q. [ 5 a n d Q a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m k n o w l e d g e o f S ,
0 F Q,
F S, e and r from
E q s . (5.96) a n d (5.5).]
T h e p h y s i c a l significance o f t h e s y n t h e s i s t e r m a(S F — S )Q e F is c l e a r . C o m
b i n e d feed Q ( F i g . 5.13) is t h o u g h t o f a s t w o h y p o t h e t i c a l s e p a r a t e s t r e a m s
( F i g . 5.19). F o r s t r e a m Q F s o l u b l e B O D is r e d u c e d f r o m S F to S, e and
b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e s y n t h e s i z e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s B O D r e d u c t i o n is a(S F — S) e Q.
F
T h e o t h e r s t r e a m (Q ) R e n t e r s a n d leaves t h e r e a c t o r w i t h t h e s a m e u n c h a n g e d
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u b l e B O D , i.e., S . e T h e r e f o r e it does not c o n t r i b u t e t o
synthesis of biological sludge.
Q ,S
F F Q ,S F e
Q =Q F + Q R
Q =rQ ,S
R F e QR.S e
= Q ( I +r)
F
l b 0 / d a y = a\S
2 F - S) Q e F + b'X ,
v a V (5.99)
Significance o f e n e r g y t e r m a\S — S )Q F is p a r a l l e l t o t h a t o f t h e s y n t h e s i s
e F
t e r m in E q . (5.98). O n l y s t r e a m Q c o n s u m e s o x y g e n since s t r e a m Q e n t e r s
F R
a n d leaves t h e r e a c t o r u n c h a n g e d . E q u a t i o n (5.99) is m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t h a n
E q . (5.64), since it c o n t a i n s p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e s S a n d Q r a t h e r t h a n S a n d Q.
F F 0
7.5. C A L C U L A T I O N O F R E S I D E N C E
T I M E IN REACTOR
R e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e r e a c t o r is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t w o c r i t e r i a i n o r d e r t o
determine which o n e controls the design. These t w o criteria are
1. Effluent q u a l i t y , w h i c h m e e t s r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .
7. Design Procedure for an Activated Sludge Plant 209
Effluent q u a l i t y d e p e n d s o n s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e g i v e n b y E q . (5.19), w h i c h
s o l v e d for t yields
t = (S -S )/[kX (Se-S )]
0 e uta n (5.100)
2. O r g a n i c l o a d i n g , e v a l u a t e d f r o m F/M r a t i o for o p t i m u m f l o c c u l a t i o n
a n d s e t t l i n g o f s l u d g e . T h i s is given b y E q . (5.80), w h i c h s o l v e d for t yields
* = S l[X , (FIM)]
0 v a (5.101)
R e q u i r e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q s . (5.100) a n d (5.101), t h e l a r g e r
o f t h e t w o v a l u e s o f t t h u s o b t a i n e d b e i n g a d o p t e d for d e s i g n . F o r w a s t e s w h i c h
a r e easily d e g r a d a b l e (e.g., s u g a r refinery, d a i r y , b r e w e r y ) , t h e optimum
flocculation c o n d i t i o n is c o n t r o l l i n g for r e s i d e n c e t i m e c a l c u l a t i o n s . F o r o t h e r
w a s t e s , e.g., i n p e t r o l e u m refineries a n d p e t r o c h e m i c a l p l a n t s , t h e effluent
quality criterion controls residence time requirements since biological
d e g r a d a t i o n is v e r y s l o w .
7.6. E Q U A T I O N S F O R S L U D G E R E C Y C L E
RATIO r IN C A S E S W H E N EFFLUENT
QUALITY A N D O R G A N I C L O A D I N G
CONTROL RESIDENCE TIME
C o n s i d e r E q . (5.91) for t h e s l u d g e recycle r a t i o . AX V is g i v e n b y E q . (5.68),
w h i c h is r e w r i t t e n i n c l u d i n g t h e f a c t o r 8.34 for u s e w i t h Q in M G D ; V i n
M G ; and S, 0 Se9 and X v%a in m g / l i t e r a s
U t i l i z i n g E q . (5.5),
S i n c e r e a c t o r v o l u m e Κ is a v a l u e c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e d e s i g n e r , it is d e s i r a b l e
t o r e w r i t e E q . (5.103) a s a f u n c t i o n o f r e s i d e n c e t i m e f, w h i c h is g i v e n b y e i t h e r
E q . (5.100) o r (5.101). T e r m V in E q . (5.103) is o b t a i n e d b y c o m b i n i n g E q s .
(5.17) a n d ( 5 . 5 ) :
V= Qt = Q V+r)t F (5.104)
AX V = S.34a(S -S )Q (l+r)
0 e F - S.34bX , Q (1
v a F +r)t (5.105)
r = [X -a(S -S )(\+r)
Vta 0 e + bX , (\+r)t-v a X ,,]/(*,,„-X ,.)
v v (5.106)
210 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
R e s i d e n c e t i m e t o n t h e n u m e r a t o r o f E q . (5.106) is given b y e i t h e r E q .
(5.100) o r (5.101), d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r r e s i d e n c e t i m e is g o v e r n e d b y
substrate removal rate or optimum flocculation conditions. E q u a t i o n s (5.100)
a n d (5.101) a r e w r i t t e n i n a g e n e r a l i z e d f o r m a s
t = (S -a)/X , fi 0 v a (5.107)
W h e r e effluent q u a l i t y c o n t r o l s d e s i g n ( C a s e 1),
α = S e (5.108)
fi = k(S -S ) e n (5.109)
<x = 0 (5.110)
β = ΠΜ (5.111)
S u b s t i t u t i n g r e s i d e n c e t i m e t i n t h e n u m e r a t o r o f E q . (5.106) b y its v a l u e f r o m
E q . (5.107) yields
X , -a(S -Se)(l
v a 0 + r) + 6 ^ A l + r)-X , v F (X ,u-Xv,a)
v (5.112)
Ρ
Since S 0 is not a. p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e it is d e s i r a b l e t o e l i m i n a t e it f r o m t h e
n u m e r a t o r o f E q . (5.112). S u b s t i t u t i n g (S — S ) b y i t s v a l u e g i v e n i n E q . 0 e
(5.97), a n d t h e v a l u e o f S i n t e r m ( S - a ) b y i t s v a l u e g i v e n i n E q . ( 5 . 9 6 ) ,
0 0
X , -a(S -S )
v a F e +b S F+ r S e
p * ( l + r )
-X V f F l(X -X , )
VtU v a (5.11 3)
Χν,ο - a(S -S ) F e +b S f
~ ° S
- X VtF (X , -Xv,a)
v u (5.114)
" (X , -X , )(FIM)-bSe
v u v a
7.7. N E U T R A L I Z A T I O N R E Q U I R E M E N T S
O p t i m u m activity for bacteria occurs a t p H values o f 6 - 8 . I t s h o u l d b e
c h e c k e d if n e u t r a l i z a t i o n is n e e d e d p r e c e d i n g b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t . F o r
a l k a l i n e w a s t e s , i t is t a k e n a s a r u l e o f t h u m b t h a t u p t o 0 . 5 l b o f a l k a l i n i t y ( a s
7. Design Procedure for an Activated Sludge Plant 211
C a C 0 ) is r e m o v e d p e r l b o f B O D r e m o v e d . T h i s h a p p e n s b e c a u s e t h e C 0
3 2
o f a b o u t 8. T h u s , n e u t r a l i z a t i o n p r e c e d i n g b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t m a y n o t b e
r e q u i r e d for s o m e a l k a l i n e w a s t e w a t e r s .
7.8. NUTRIENT R E Q U I R E M E N T S
T h e a p p r o p r i a t e a m o u n t o f c e r t a i n n u t r i e n t s is r e q u i r e d for b o t h s y n t h e s i s
a n d respiration phases of aerobic biological degradation of wastes. R e q u i r e d
nutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and vitamins.
M o s t of these nutrients, which are r e q u i r e d only in trace quantities, are
usually present in wastewaters. However, m a n y industrial wastewaters are
deficient i n n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s . R e q u i r e d a m o u n t s o f n i t r o g e n a n d
p h o s p h o r u s are estimated by the p r o c e d u r e discussed in this section. If
deficiency exists, it is c o r r e c t e d b y a d d i n g t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r c a l c u l a t e d w e i g h t s
of c o m p o u n d s containing nitrogen a n d p h o s p h o r u s .
A n e s t i m a t e o f r e q u i r e m e n t s for n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s is b a s e d o n t h e
fact t h a t w a s t e d M L V S S (ΔΑ^ l b / d a y ) c o n t a i n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 % o f its d r y
weight as p h o s p h o r u s a n d 12% as nitrogen. A n estimate of weights of nitrogen
a n d p h o s p h o r u s to be added comprises
1. W e i g h t s o f t h e s e n u t r i e n t s w h i c h a r e l o s t b y w a s t a g e o f M L V S S , i.e.,
N i t r o g e n : 0.12 AX V lb/day
P h o s p h o r u s : 0.02 AX V lb/day
2. W e i g h t s o f t h e s e n u t r i e n t s w h i c h a r e l o s t i n t h e effluent. ( T o t a l
effluent = Q' + Q" = Q .) C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s o l u b l e n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s
F
w h e r e Q is t h e effluent in M G D . T h e r e f o r e , t h e t o t a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f n i t r o g e n
F
(NH ) P0 .
4 3 4
212 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
7.9. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A C T I V A T E D
SLUDGE PLANTS
Step L C a l c u l a t e t h e r e c y c l e r a t i o o f M L V S S . Select v a l u e s f o r X va and
X ,
VtU usually within the ranges of 2000-4000 a n d 10,000-15,000 mg/liter,
respectively.
F r o m s e d i m e n t a t i o n a n d S V I d a t a ( F i g . 5.7) select a n a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e f o r
t h e F/M r a t i o . O p t i m u m F/M is u s u a l l y i n t h e r a n g e 0 . 3 - 0 . 7 .
T h e recycle r a t i o is c a l c u l a t e d (1) f r o m E q . (5.114), w h i c h a s s u m e s t h a t
effluent q u a l i t y c o n t r o l s t h e d e s i g n , a n d (2) f r o m E q . (5.115), w h i c h a s s u m e s
t h a t o p t i m u m flocculation conditions control t h e design. T h e decision o n
w h i c h c o n d i t i o n c o n t r o l s d e s i g n is a r r i v e d a t i n S t e p 3 .
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e B O D o f t h e c o m b i n e d feed (S ). S is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
0 0
E q . (5.96) u t i l i z i n g both v a l u e s o f r c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p 1 ( 1 ) a n d S t e p 1 ( 2 ) .
These t w o parallel calculations a r e referred t o hence a s Steps 2 ( 1 ) a n d 2 ( 2 ) ,
respectively.
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e r e s i d e n c e t i m e i n t h e r e a c t o r .
Case (1) Assuming substrate removal rate controls design [Eq.
( 5 . 1 0 0 ) ] , w h e r e S is t h e v a l u e c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p 2 ( 1 ) .
0
P o s s i b l y * t h e l a r g e r o f t h e s e t w o c a l c u l a t e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e s is t h e o n e
selected f o r d e s i g n . R e c y c l e r a t i o a n d B O D o f c o m b i n e d feed f o r t h e specific
case which controls design a r e then a d o p t e d . Calculated values for t h e other
case a r e discarded.
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e t h e r e a c t o r v o l u m e . R e a c t o r v o l u m e is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d
f r o m E q . (5.104) u t i l i z i n g t h e v a l u e o f t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e selected i n S t e p 3 .
A t t h i s s t a g e , d e p t h o f t a n k is selected. S e l e c t i o n d e p e n d s o n t y p e o f a e r a t o r
utilized ( C h a p t e r 4 , S e c t i o n s 1 4 . 4 , 1 5 . 4 , a n d 16.3). C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is t h e n
calculated.
Step 5 . C a l c u l a t e t h e n e t yield o f M L V S S . N e t yield o f M L V S S AX V is
c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (5.105) o r E q . (5.98).
Note: A c h e c k o n t h e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e f o r M L V S S is m a d e a t t h i s p o i n t .
(See E x a m p l e 5.7 f o r d e t a i l s . )
Step 6. C a l c u l a t e Q" a n d g ' . Q" a n d Q' a r e t h e n c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q s .
(5.94) a n d (5.95).
Step 7. C a l c u l a t e ΔΧ Νν a n d AX . t ΔΧ Νν is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (5.72) a n d
t o t a l s l u d g e yield is o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (5.1), w h e r e ΑΧ υ a n d AXNV are the
v a l u e s c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p s 5 a n d 7, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
* T h e reason for the word possibly is that frequently a compromise is made in selection o f
residence time, s o that n o t only reasonable B O D reduction is achieved (i.e., a l o w value o f
S ), but also g o o d flocculation conditions for the sludge (although n o t necessarily the
e
o p t i m u m ) are obtained.
7. Design Procedure for an Activated Sludge Plant 213
Note: A c h e c k o n t h e o v e r a l l m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for N V S S is m a d e a t t h i s
p o i n t . (See E x a m p l e 5.7 for d e t a i l s . )
Step 8. C a l c u l a t e o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s ( l b / d a y ) f r o m E q . (5.64) o r E q .
(5.99).
Step 9. Specify a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t . A e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t is selected f r o m
o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s d e t e r m i n e d in S t e p 8 a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
for a e r a t o r s . T h i s p r o c e d u r e is d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 4 , S e c t i o n s 14, 15, a n d
16. C a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s n e e d e d a r e (1) t o t a l H P a n d n u m b e r o f a e r a t i o n u n i t s ;
(2) p o w e r level, H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l ; a n d (3) s p a c i n g b e t w e e n a e r a t o r s . A l a y o u t for
a e r a t o r s in t h e t a n k is selected. ( D e t a i l s a r e given in E x a m p l e 4.5.)
Step 10. C h e c k n e u t r a l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s . Verify if n e u t r a l i z a t i o n is
required prior t o biological treatment. F o r alkaline wastes, the rule of t h u m b
s t a t i n g t h a t u p t o 0.5 l b o f a l k a l i n i t y (as C a C 0 ) is r e m o v e d p e r lb o f B O D
3
r e m o v e d is f r e q u e n t l y e m p l o y e d ( S e c t i o n 7.7).
Step 11. E v a l u a t e n u t r i e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s . R e q u i r e m e n t s for n i t r o g e n a n d
p h o s p h o r u s ( l b / d a y ) a r e e v a l u a t e d a s d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 7.8 f r o m Eqs.
(5.116) a n d (5.117).
7.10. N U M E R I C A L E X A M P L E : D E S I G N O F A N
ACTIVATED S L U D G E PLANT
Example 5.7
A n i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t ( E x a m p l e 5.5) c o n s i d e r s a n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s y s t e m for
t r e a t m e n t o f t h e i r w a s t e w a t e r s . B a s e d e s i g n o n t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a in a d d i t i o n
t o i n f o r m a t i o n given in E x a m p l e 5 . 5 :
F l o w : 1.5 M G D (1,500,000 gal/day)
Influent B O D : 1200 mg/liter
5
Effluent B O D : 40 mg/liter
5
α = A^aiwastewaterJ/t^Laiwater)] = 0.72
Assume operating D O (level in aeration basin « 1.0 mg/liter)
Characteristics of surface a e r a t o r s : given by Fig. 4.17
Select for design p u r p o s e s :
XVt a= 3000 mg/liter of M L V S S
X , = 10,000 mg/liter of M L V S S
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7. Design Procedure for an Activated Sludge Plant 215
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e r e c y c l e r a t i o o f M L V S S .
(1) A s s u m e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n t r o l s d e s i g n [ E q . ( 5 . 1 1 4 ) ] . H e r e
X ,a - a(S -S )
v F e = 3000 - 665 = 2335 mg/liter
Xv.F = 0
T h u s E q . (5.114) yields
C a l c u l a t e s e p a r a t e l y t e r m b(S F — S )/k(S
e e — S ), n w h i c h is t h e o n l y different
t e r m i n e q u a t i o n s for r i n S t e p 1(1) a n d S t e p 1 (2).
b(S -S )lk(S -S )
F e e n = 0 . 0 7 5 ( 1 2 0 0 - 4 0 ) / 0 . 0 1 6 1 ( 4 0 - 1 0 ) = 180
r = ( 2 3 3 5 + 1 8 0 ) / 7 0 0 0 = 0.36
[X , -a(S -
v a F S )] = 2335
e [calculated Step 1 (1)]
(X Vt u - X , a) = 7000
v [also calculated Step 1(1)]
X (F/M)
VtF = 0 since X VtF = 0
and
(F/M) = 0.6
b = 0.075
S e = 40
T h u s E q . (5.115) yields
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e S f r o m E q . (5.96). Q
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e r e s i d e n c e t i m e .
(1) A s s u m e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n t r o l s d e s i g n (S Q = 893 m g / l i t e r ) .
F r o m E q . (5.100)
/ = ( 8 9 3 - 4 0 ) / [ 0 . 0 1 6 1 χ 3 0 0 0 ( 4 0 - 1 0 ) ] = 0.59 day
or
24 χ 0.59 = 14.2 h r
(2) A s s u m e o p t i m u m flocculation c o n d i t i o n s c o n t r o l d e s i g n (S 0 =
900 mg/liter).
F r o m E q . (5.101)
t = 900/3000 χ 0.6 = 0.5 day
or
24 χ 0.5 = 12 h r
T h u s s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n t r o l s d e s i g n , a n d c a l c u l a t i o n s i n p a r t (2) f o r
S t e p s 1-3 a r e d i s c a r d e d . F/M r a t i o for t h e r e a c t o r is [ f r o m E q . ( 5 . 8 0 ) ]
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e r e a c t o r v o l u m e . T h r o u g h p u t r a t e [ E q . ( 5 . 5 ) ] :
Q = 1.5(1+0.36) = 2.04 M G D
F o r d e p t h s o f 10 a n d 15 ft, for e x a m p l e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a s
are
F o r d = 10 ft A = 161,000/10 = 16,100 ft 2
or
16,100 ft χ acre/43,500 ft
2 2
= 0.37 acre
F o r d = 15 ft A = 161,000/15 = 10,700 ft 2
or
O r f r o m E q . (5.98),
ΑΧ υ = 0 . 5 7 5 ( 1 2 0 0 - 4 0 ) χ 1.5 χ 8.34 - 0.075 χ 3000 χ 1.2 χ 8.34
Note: A t t h i s p o i n t a c h e c k o n m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s is m a d e .
C a l c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in c o m b i n e d feed t o t h e r e a c t o r (X ) Vt0 from
E q . (5.75), w h e r e X VtF = 0.
T h e difference b e t w e e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f M L V S S in r e a c t o r effluent ( 3 0 0 0
m g / l i t e r ) a n d t h e v a l u e 2647 m g / l i t e r in r e a c t o r influent m u s t c o r r e s p o n d t o
t h e n e t yield o f M L V S S (i.e., AX V = 6090 lb/day). Therefore, 3 0 0 0 - 2 6 4 7 =
353 m g / l i t e r , i.e., 353 m g o f M L V S S a r e p r o d u c e d p e r liter o f l i q u o r flowing
t h r o u g h t h e r e a c t o r . T h e n b a s e d o n flow Q = 2.04 M G D , n e t p r o d u c t i o n o f
M L V S S is 353 χ 2.04 χ 8.34 « 6 0 0 6 l b / d a y , w h i c h a g r e e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y w i t h
the value 6090 lb/day of c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 5 ( w i t h i n 1.4%).
Step 6. C a l c u l a t e Q" a n d Q' [ E q s . (5.94) a n d (5.95), r e s p e c t i v e l y ] .
Step 7. C a l c u l a t e AX NV a n d AX . t F r o m E q . (5.72),
T h e t o t a l s l u d g e yield AX t is [ f r o m E q . (5.1), w h e r e X VF = 0]
Step 8. C a l c u l a t e o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s f r o m e i t h e r E q . (5.64) o r E q .
(5.99). F r o m E q . (5.64) (a\ V f r o m E x a m p l e 5.5)
F r o m E q . (5.99)
T h u s 14,512/2 = 7256 l b / d a y o f a l k a l i n i t y a r e r e m o v e d . C a l c u l a t e t h e l b / d a y
o f a l k a l i n i t y in fresh feed.
2. N i t r o g e n l o s t in effluent (1.0 m g / l i t e r ) :
13 lb/day
1 χ 1.5 χ 8.34 (total nitrogen required)
743 lb/day
N i t r o g e n a v a i l a b l e is (85 m g / l i t e r )
T h u s a d d i t i o n o f n i t r o g e n is not r e q u i r e d .
Phosphorus
1. P h o s p h o r u s lost f r o m s y s t e m t h r o u g h w a s t a g e o f s l u d g e :
2. P h o s p h o r u s l o s t in t h e effluent 0.5 m g / l i t e r ) :
P h o s p h o r u s a v a i l a b l e is (3 m g / l i t e r )
8. The M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n
Relationship
8.1. D E R I V A T I O N O F M I C H A E L I S - M E N T E N
RELATIONSHIP
F o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n r e l a t i o n s h i p is b a s e d o n s t u d i e s o f
p u r e c u l t u r e s . H o w e v e r , it is u s e d in d e t e r m i n i n g k i n e t i c s o f s u b s t r a t e d e g r a
d a t i o n b y a h e t e r o g e n e o u s p o p u l a t i o n o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , w h i c h is t h e c a s e
for the activated sludge process.
Degradation o f w a s t e s b y m i c r o o r g a n i s m s is a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h a
c o m p l e x series o f c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s . T h e s e r e a c t i o n s a r e c a t a l y z e d b y o r g a n i c
c a t a l y s t s ( e n z y m e s ) p r e s e n t in t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s . E n z y m e s a r e l a r g e m o l e c
u l a r w e i g h t c o m p o u n d s . U s u a l l y e n z y m e s a r e q u i t e specific in t h e i r f u n c t i o n s
a s c a t a l y s t s , i.e., a given e n z y m e o r d i n a r i l y c a t a l y z e s a specific c h e m i c a l
reaction. Bacteria contains a great variety of enzymes, each one being respon
sible for a m i n o r s t e p in t h e c o m p l e x p r o c e s s o f b i o l o g i c a l m e t a b o l i s m .
T h e a c t i o n o f e n z y m e s is r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g c h e m i c a l e q u a t i o n :
or symbolically
T h i s a s s u m p t i o n is essentially c o r r e c t if m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e t a k e n s h o r t l y after
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t v e r y little p r o d u c t h a s b e e n
a l l o w e d t o f o r m . U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , since t h e r a t e o f t h e i n v e r s e
reaction
[Ε] + [P] [E-S]
is given b y *
*-2[E][P]
a n d since [ P ] « 0, it m a y b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e b r e a k i n g d o w n o f t h e e n z y m e -
s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x is irreversible. T h e r e f o r e E q . (5.118) is r e w r i t t e n a s s h o w n
[ E q . ( 5 . 1 1 9 ) ] . T h e r a t e o f r e a c t i o n m e a s u r e d u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s is t h a t
o c c u r r i n g i m m e d i a t e l y o n c o n t a c t o f s u b s t r a t e a n d m i c r o o r g a n i s m , a n d is
r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e initial r a t e o f r e a c t i o n . T o d e v e l o p k i n e t i c d a t a it is n e c e s s a r y
t o m e a s u r e a series o f s u c h initial r a t e s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o different c o n c e n t r a
t i o n s of s u b s t r a t e s h o r t l y after t h e s u b s t r a t e s a m p l e s a r e b r o u g h t i n t o c o n t a c t
with the microorganism.
S u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e is d e n o t e d h e r e b y V. F o r a b a t c h r e a c t o r , it c o r r e
s p o n d s t o t h e s l o p e of t h e B O D c u r v e in F i g . 5.3 ( S e c t i o n 3.1) a t a n y specified
t i m e /, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a c o n c e n t r a t i o n S o f s u b s t r a t e . A specific s u b s t r a t e
r e m o v a l r a t e p e r m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S is utilized, i.e. [ E q . ( 5 . 1 2 0 ) ] ,
w h e r e t is t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r . T h e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l
r a t e is e q u a l t o t h e r a t e o f f o r m a t i o n o f p r o d u c t P , a n d is given b y E q . (5.121).
S i m i l a r l y , t h e r a t e of f o r m a t i o n o f t h e e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x ( E - S ) is
T h e r a t e o f c o n v e r s i o n o f e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x t o Ε a n d S is [ E q . ( 5 . 1 2 3 ) ]
T h e r e f o r e , t h e n e t c h a n g e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x is
L e t t h e t o t a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e n z y m e in t h e r e a c t i n g s y s t e m b e d e n o t e d a s
E , . T h i s i n c l u d e s n o t o n l y free e n z y m e ( E ) b u t a l s o e n z y m e in c o m b i n e d f o r m
a s e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x ( E - S ) , i.e. [ E q s . (5.125) a n d ( 5 . 1 2 6 ) ] ,
[E ] = [E] + [E-S]
f (5.125)
A t s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s it is u s u a l l y a s s u m e d t h a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
i n t e r m e d i a t e c o m p l e x e s ( e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x in t h i s c a s e ) remains
u n c h a n g e d . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n is called t h e s t e a d y s t a t e a p p r o x i m a t i o n . T h e r e
fore
d[E-S]/dt = 0 (5.128)
a n d E q . (5.127) b e c o m e s E q . (5.129).
&i([EJ-[E-S])[S] - [ E - S ] - A; [E-S] = 0
2 (5.129)
S o l v i n g for [ E - S ] ,
[Et] [S]
[E-S] = J
(5.130)
T e r m (k_ t + k )/k
2 l is called t h e M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n c o n s t a n t a n d is d e s i g n a t e d
as K.s
K = (k.^^/kt
s (5.131)
T h e n , E q . (5.130) is r e w r i t t e n a s E q . (5.132).
[ E J [S]
[E-S] = (5.132)
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s v a l u e in E q . (5.121), t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n for t h e s u b
s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e Κ is o b t a i n e d :
[ E J [S]
V = & 2 — (Michaelis-Menten relationship) (5.133)
[S] + K s
8.2. C O R O L L A R I E S O F M I C H A E L I S - M E N T E N
RELATIONSHIP
T h e t w o c o r o l l a r i e s s t a t e d in S e c t i o n 3.1 a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (5.133).
Corollary 1 : H i g h s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
N e g l e c t i n g K in t h e d e n o m i n a t o r o f E q . ( 5 . 1 3 3 ) a s c o m p a r e d t o [ S ] a n d
s
simplifying,
V= * [EJ
2 = KMAX (5.135)
F r o m F i g . 5.3, a p l o t o f s l o p e s o f t h e B O D c u r v e ( K ' s o r s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l
r a t e s ) v s . t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g B O D v a l u e s ( [ S ] ) c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d ( F i g . 5.21).
T h e region of high substrate concentration encompasses values from t h e
r i g h t - h a n d e x t r e m i t y o f t h e g r a p h d o w n t o a c o n c e n t r a t i o n S' ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g
t o t i m e t' in F i g . 5.3). T h i s is t h e r e g i o n w h e r e V = V MAX = constant irre
spective o f s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
F r o m E q . (5.135) E q . (5.133) is r e w r i t t e n a s
V = K MMAAXX [ S ]
(5.136)
[S] + # S
Corollary 2 : L o w s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
A t low substrate concentrations,
[S] <^ K 5 (5.137)
8. The M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n Relationship 223
Neglecting [ S ] in the d e n o m i n a t o r of E q . ( 5 . 1 3 6 ) as c o m p a r e d t o K S ,
[SG/A. (5.138)
where
K = VMAX/K, (5.140)
8.3. S I G N I F I C A N C E O F M I C H A E L I S - M E N T E N
CONSTANT K s
F r o m E q . ( 5 . 1 3 6 ) it is s h o w n t h a t K is e q u a l t o t h e s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
S
w h e n s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e V e q u a l s half t h e m a x i m u m , i.e., w h e n V =
V /2.
MAX T h i s is s h o w n b y l e t t i n g V = V /2 MAX in E q . ( 5 . 1 3 6 ) a n d s o l v i n g for
[ S ] . T h e final r e s u l t is
T h i s is i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 5 . 2 1 .
8.4. D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F \ Z : M A X
THE L I N E W E A V E R - B U R K PLOT
T h e value of V M A X e s t i m a t e d f r o m F i g . 5 . 2 1 is i n a c c u r a t e since it is a n
asymptotic value. A better way of determining K M A X is a s f o l l o w s . T a k e t h e
inverse of Eq. (5.136),
B a s e d o n E q . ( 5 . 1 4 1 ) a l i n e a r p l o t o f l / V v s . 1 / [ S ] is c o n s t r u c t e d , f r o m w h i c h
224 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
the characteristic constants V MAX and K s are determined from the slope a n d
i n t e r c e p t o f t h e s t r a i g h t line. T h i s g r a p h , w h i c h is s h o w n i n F i g . 5.22, is k n o w n
as the Lineweaver-Burk plot [ 5 ] . As indicated the intercept at the abscissa
c o r r e s p o n d s t o (— l/K ),s since for l/V= 0 o n e o b t a i n s 1/[S] = — l/K s from
E q . (5.141).
x>
>
y^— Slope: K / V S M A X
J—l/K 8
intercept = l / V M A X
i/[s]
Fig. 5.22. Lineweaver-Burk plot.
8.5. M I C H A E L I S - M E N T E N RELATIONSHIP
W H E N N O N B I O D E G R A D A B L E MATTER IS
PRESENT IN THE S Y S T E M
I f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r is i n d i c a t e d a s [ 5 J , it is
a c c o u n t e d for by substituting t h e value of [ S ] by ( [ S ] — [ S J ) in E q . (5.136).
A s i m i l a r s u b s t i t u t i o n in S e c t i o n 3.2 led t o E q . (5.19) f r o m E q . ( 5 . 1 8 ) .
T h e r e f o r e , m o d i f i e d E q . (5.136) is
y = V ^ K s + [ s ] _ [ S n ] (5-142)
T h e t w o c o r o l l a r i e s s t u d i e d i n S e c t i o n 8.2 d e r i v e d f r o m E q . (5.133) a r e a l s o
o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . ( 5 . 1 4 2 ) . S i m i l a r l y , F i g . 5.21 is r e p l o t t e d w h e n n o n b i o
d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r is p r e s e n t ( F i g . 5.23).
F r o m E q . (5.142), it is s h o w n t h a t
K = [ S ] - [5„]
s
w h e n V= V /2
MAX
T h e L i n e w e a v e r - B u r k e q u a t i o n w h e n n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r is p r e s e n t
is w r i t t e n b y r e p l a c i n g [ S ] i n E q . (5.141) b y ( [ S ] - [ £ „ ] ) . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
L i n e w e a v e r - B u r k p l o t follows directly from the e q u a t i o n t h u s o b t a i n e d .
8. The Michaelis Menten-Relationship 225
V (day"
r-[Sn]-T-K —I 8
[S]
8.6. M I C H A E L I S - M E N T E N R E L A T I O N S H I P I N
T E R M S OF SPECIFIC G R O W T H RATE
OF S L U D G E
T h e M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n r e l a t i o n s h i p [ E q . ( 5 . 1 3 6 ) ] is w r i t t e n a s a f u n c t i o n
o f t h e specific s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e [ E q . ( 5 . 1 2 0 ) ] . A n e q u i v a l e n t f o r m is
w r i t t e n a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e specific g r o w t h r a t e o f s l u d g e , defined a s
μ = (l/X , )(dXldt)
v a (5.143)
F r o m E q . (5.144) it is s h o w n , f o l l o w i n g t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e utilized i n S e c t i o n
8.3 for E q . (5.136), t h a t K is e q u a l t o t h e s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n w h e n t h e
s
specific g r o w t h r a t e o f t h e s l u d g e is e q u a l t o h a l f t h e m a x i m u m specific g r o w t h
r a t e , i.e., K = [ S ] , w h e n
s μ — μ Α χ / 2 · All
Μ corollaries, derivations, and
g r a p h i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s s t u d i e d in S e c t i o n s 8.2 t o 8.5 b a s e d o n t h e specific
s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e a r e a l s o a p p l i c a b l e in t e r m s o f t h e specific g r o w t h r a t e
of the sludge.
226 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
9. T h e C o n c e p t of S l u d g e A g e
S l u d g e a g e is defined a s t h e m e a n r e s i d e n c e t i m e o f M L V S S i n t h e r e a c t o r .
F o r t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t s h o w n in F i g . 5.1 t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o
or
t =
s (5.146)
total lb/day of VSS wasted, i.e., _ input of VSS in fresh
o u t p u t of VSS (lb/day) feed (lb/day)
or
t s =
(AX* Qi°J-Q Xr,
+ F F
( d a y S ) ( 5 U 7 )
ts = X , V/(AX -Q Xv, )
v a v F F (X ,
v e = 0) (5.148)
S l u d g e a g e is a l s o r e f e r r e d t o a s m e a n cell r e s i d e n c e t i m e o r s o l i d s r e t e n t i o n
time. T h e relationship between sludge age a n d hydraulic or liquid retention
t i m e (t = V/Q) is p r e s e n t e d f o r t w o t y p e s o f c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r s : (1) c o m
p l e t e m i x — n o recycle r e a c t o r ; a n d (2) c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h r e c y c l e
(a) w i t h w a s t a g e d i r e c t l y f r o m r e a c t o r ( o r r e a c t o r effluent), a n d ( b ) w i t h
w a s t a g e f r o m t h e s l u d g e recycle line.
1. Complete mix—no recycle reactor. I n this m o d e l , liquor in t h e reactor
u n i t is c o m p l e t e l y m i x e d a n d t h e r e is n o recycle. T h i s does not c o r r e s p o n d t o
the conventional activated sludge process, b u t rather t o flow-through devices
s u c h a s a e r a t e d l a g o o n s ( C h a p t e r 6, S e c t i o n 5), a s s u m i n g c o m p l e t e m i x i n g t o
o c c u r i n t h e l a g o o n . T h e s i t u a t i o n is d e p i c t e d b y F i g . 5.24.
9. The Concept of Sludge A g e 227
Q
Reactor
^ν,ο ^ν,α
Fig. 5.24. Complete mix reactor without recycle.
H y d r a u l i c o r l i q u i d r e t e n t i o n t i m e is t = V/Q, a n d t h e s l u d g e a g e is [ f r o m
Eq. (5.145)]
ts = Xv.aVlQ(Xv,a-Xv,o) = ( X , J&v. a ~ Xv, .)] / (5.150)
T h e n , E q . (5.150) r e d u c e s t o
T h u s for t h e c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h o u t recycle w h e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
V S S in influent is negligible, s l u d g e a g e e q u a l s h y d r a u l i c ( o r l i q u i d r e t e n t i o n )
t i m e . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e in t h e r e a c t o r is k e p t a t a c o n s t a n t v a l u e X . Vta
Since c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e in effluent a l s o e q u a l s X , it f o l l o w s t h a t
va
r e s i d e n c e t i m e is s u c h t h a t s l u d g e is n o t w a s h e d o u t f r o m t h e s y s t e m f a s t e r
t h a n it c a n r e p r o d u c e . I n fact, since s t e a d y s t a t e is a s s u m e d ( c o n s t a n t X in va
r e a c t o r a n d effluent), r e s i d e n c e t i m e is s u c h t h a t s l u d g e w a s h e d o u t i n effluent
is exactly replaced b y a n e q u a l m a s s o f n e t s l u d g e yield for t h e s a m e t i m e
interval.
2. Complete mix reactor with recycle. T h i s m o d e l c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s ( F i g . 5.1). W a s t a g e o f s l u d g e is u s u a l l y
a c c o m p l i s h e d ( F i g . 5.1) b y d r a w i n g off f r o m t h e s l u d g e recycle line. H o w e v e r ,
t h e possibility o f w a s t i n g s l u d g e d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e r e a c t o r ( o r r e a c t o r effluent)
is a l s o c o n s i d e r e d .
^ν,ο *v,e
s e
, Q = QR
U
X
V,0
Λ
ν,υ
Λ
Fig. 5.25. Diagram of complete mix reactor with recycle, and wastage
directly from the reactor.
228 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
Ό"
S E
X
v,a Secondary
Q χ
ν,α V Q Q'= Q F - Q "
clarifier
s F ^ e
Reactor s e S E
X
V,F
Q = C |R U
-s e
QR X
v,u
S E
Fig. 5.26. Diagram of complete mix reactor with recycle, and wastage
directly from the reactor effluent.
a. C o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h recycle, a n d w a s t a g e d i r e c t l y f r o m r e a c t o r
( o r r e a c t o r effluent). T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o d i a g r a m s s h o w n i n F i g s . 5.25 a n d
5.26, t h e f o r m e r w i t h w a s t a g e t a k e n d i r e c t l y f r o m r e a c t o r a n d t h e l a t t e r w i t h
w a s t a g e t a k e n f r o m r e a c t o r effluent. T h e h y d r a u l i c o r l i q u i d r e t e n t i o n t i m e
for t h e m o d e l s i n t h e s e figures is / = V/Q w h e r e a s s l u d g e is [ f r o m E q . ( 5 . 1 4 5 ) ]
9
t s =
lb/day VSS wasted in Q"+lb/day VSS _ input of VSS in fresh ( 5 1 5 2 )
or
t S =
[β"*,,« + (QF-Q")Xv,e] - QfXv,F
I f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier is
n e g l i g i b l e (i.e., X VfC « 0 ) , E q . (5.153) yields
ts = X.,*VHQrx ..-QwXv.w)
9 (Xv, * 0)
e (5.154)
ts > t (5.156)
b . C o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h recycle, a n d w a s t a g e f r o m r e c y c l e l i n e .
T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e flow d i a g r a m i n F i g . 5 . 1 . S i n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e
i n t h e w a s t a g e s t r e a m is e q u a l t o X , VtU w h e r e a s it is X„ a(X a
f Vt < ^ , « ) when
9. The Concept of Sludge A g e 229
w a s t a g e is t a k e n d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e r e a c t o r o r r e a c t o r effluent ( F i g s . 5.25 a n d
5.26), it f o l l o w s t h a t t h e v o l u m e t r i c w a s t a g e flow Q" ( w h i c h c o n t a i n s a t o t a l
o f AX Vt0 l b / h r o f s l u d g e ) is less f o r t h e c a s e o f F i g . 5 . 1 . T h i s is o n e a d v a n t a g e
o f t a k i n g w a s t a g e d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e r e c y c l e line. H y d r a u l i c o r l i q u i d r e t e n t i o n
t i m e is / = V/Q w h e r e a s s l u d g e a g e is g i v e n f r o m E q . (5.152) a s
9
Xv,aV ,- *
t S
" [<2'X.« + (QF-Q")Xv,el - QfXv.F
I f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier is
n e g l i g i b l e (i.e., X ve « 0 ) , E q . (5.157) y i e l d s
C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e n w a s t a g e is t a k e n f r o m t h e recycle l i n e , k n o w l e d g e o f
b o t h mixed liquor a n d recycled sludge m i c r o o r g a n i s m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e
required for calculation of sludge age.
F o r t h e c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h r e c y c l e ( F i g s . 5 . 2 5 , 5.26, a n d 5.1),
r e s i d e n c e t i m e is s u c h t h a t s l u d g e is n o t w a s t e d f r o m t h e s y s t e m f a s t e r t h a n it
r e p r o d u c e s . I n fact, s i n c e a s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n is a s s u m e d , w a s t a g e (ΑΧ )υ
e q u a l s e x a c t l y t h e n e t s l u d g e yield f o r t h e s a m e t i m e i n t e r v a l if l o s s o f V S S i n
t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier is n e g l i g i b l e .
Example 5 . 8
F o r t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t d e s i g n e d i n E x a m p l e 5.7 c a l c u l a t e t h e s l u d g e
age.
SOLUTION T h i s is a c a s e o f a c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h r e c y c l e , w a s t a g e
b e i n g t a k e n f r o m t h e recycle line. C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n t h e s e c o n d a r y
clarifier effluent is n e g l i g i b l e (i.e., X &0), ve a n d also X VF = 0. Equation
(5.159) is t h e n u t i l i z e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e s l u d g e a g e . H e r e
V = 1.2 M G
Q" = 0.073 M G D
T h e n f r o m E q . (5.159)
h = Xv,aVI[a(S -S )Q-bX , V}
0 e v a
and
Since V/Q = t, t h e n
10. Kinetics of C o n t i n u o u s
T r e a t m e n t S y s t e m s : Plug Flow,
C o m p l e t e Mix, a n d A r b i t r a r y
Flow R e a c t o r s
I n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , t h e m o d e l utilized for t h e
c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r w a s t h a t o f a c o m p l e t e m i x vessel. T h e p l u g flow c o n t i n u o u s
r e a c t o r m o d e l w a s o n l y briefly m e n t i o n e d i n S e c t i o n 5 ( F i g . 5.9). I n t h i s
s e c t i o n t h r e e m o d e l s f o r t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r ( F i g . 5.27) a r e d e s c r i b e d :
(1) p l u g flow r e a c t o r , (2) c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r , a n d (3) a r b i t r a r y flow r e a c t o r .
1. Plug flow reactor. I n t h e p l u g flow r e a c t o r fluid p a r t i c l e s t r a v e l t h r o u g h
t h e vessel w i t h o u t m i x i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e a r e d i s c h a r g e d in t h e s a m e s e q u e n c e
in w h i c h t h e y e n t e r . I f a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c e r is i n t r o d u c e d s t a r t i n g a t t i m e
t = 0 ( c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r in t h e influent b e i n g C ), 0 n o t r a c e r a p p e a r s in
effluent u n t i l a t i m e / , e q u a l t o t h e o r e t i c a l r e s i d e n c e t i m e o f t h e fluid i n t h e
r
vessel, h a s e l a p s e d . T h e n , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r in t h e effluent j u m p s
from a zero value to the value C 0 a n d remains at that value as long as contin
u o u s i n j e c t i o n o f t r a c e r is m a i n t a i n e d .
If a first d o s e of s l u g t r a c e r is i n t r o d u c e d a t t i m e t = 0, n o n e o f it a p p e a r s in
t h e effluent u n t i l a t i m e t h a s e l a p s e d . A t / = t
r ri concentration of tracer in the
effluent j u m p s f r o m z e r o t o C . A t t i m e (t + dt) it is b a c k a g a i n t o z e r o . I t
0 r
j u m p s again to C 0 a t t i m e t + At
r 9 w h e r e Δ / is t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e
first t w o d i s c o n t i n u o u s injections o f t r a c e r .
2. Complete mix reactor. In this reactor immediate dispersion of particles
t a k e s p l a c e a s t h e y e n t e r t h e vessel. F o r a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c e r , its c o n c e n t r a t i o n
10. Kinetics of Continuous Treatment Systems 231
C C C
in t h e effluent a s a f u n c t i o n of t i m e is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l
b a l a n c e for t r a c e r a r o u n d t h e r e a c t o r :
or
(dC/dt) V = QC 0 — QC (5.161)
w h e r e C i s t h e effluent c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r a t a n y t i m e t\ Κ t h e v o l u m e o f t h e
r e a c t o r ; Q t h e flow r a t e ; a n d C t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r in t h e influent.
0
F r o m E q . (5.161),
Since V/Q = t ( h y d r a u l i c r e s i d e n c e t i m e , w h i c h is d e n o t e d h e r e a s t s o a s t o
r r
or
dC/{Co-C) = (\/t )dt r (5.163)
I n t e g r a t i n g E q . (5.163) a n d s o l v i n g for C,
C = c [l-*-<'"'>]
0 (5.164)
232 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e c u r v e for t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c o n t i n u o u s tracer
s h o w n in F i g . 5 . 2 7 ( b ) . A s s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s a r e a p p r o a c h e d (theo
retically a t / = o o ) , E q . (5.164) yields
C= Co
o f t r a c e r s t o p s w h e n a s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n is r e a c h e d , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
v a l u e for t r a c e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e effluent d r o p s g r a d u a l l y f o l l o w i n g c u r v e
C = C e~ \ 0
( t/tr
also s h o w n in Fig. 5.27(b). This corresponds t o a r e a c t o r
being p u r g e d of tracer. A s t oo ( s t e a d y s t a t e ) , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r i n
effluent a p p r o a c h e s z e r o .
3. Arbitrary flow reactor. These reactors correspond to a partial mix
c o n d i t i o n b e t w e e n p l u g flow a n d c o m p l e t e m i x t y p e s . T y p i c a l p a t t e r n s for
c o n t i n u o u s a n d s l u g t r a c e r i n p u t for a r b i t r a r y flow r e a c t o r s a r e s h o w n i n F i g .
5.27(c). M a t h e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h i s t y p e o f r e a c t o r is c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e
c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n p l u g o r c o m p l e t e m i x t y p e s , a n d for t h i s r e a s o n t h e s e t w o
models are usually chosen to describe reactor performance.
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o c o m p a r e efficiency o f B O D r e m o v a l for continuous
r e a c t o r s w i t h recycle ( t y p i c a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t ) , a d o p t i n g c o m p l e t e m i x
a n d p l u g flow m o d e l s t o d e s c r i b e t h e r e a c t o r in q u e s t i o n . C o m p a r i s o n is m a d e
b y c o m p u t i n g for a given w a s t e w a t e r (i.e., k a n d S n fixed) t h e effluent BOD
(S ) e for fixed v a l u e s o f flow r a t e Q, influent B O D (S \ F recycle r a t i o ( r ) , a n d
M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n (X ) Vt0 for v a r i o u s a s s u m e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e s t. F o r t h e
c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r , t h e k i n e t i c m o d e l is g i v e n b y E q . (5.19). If in E q . (5.19)
S0 is e l i m i n a t e d u t i l i z i n g E q . ( 5 . 9 6 ) , t h e r e s u l t is
(S -S )/[(l+r)X , t]
F e v a = k(S -S )
e n (5.165)
Solving for S,
e
Se = [S F + kS (\+r)X , t~\IV
n v a + kX ,a(l+r)t~\
v (5.166)
Fig. 5.28. Plot ofS 9 vs. t for continuous flow reactors with recycle (complete
mix and plug flow models).
B O D ( s h o c k l o a d s ) m u c h m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t h a n p l u g flow s y s t e m s . I n
a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is t h e u n f a v o r a b l e s i t u a t i o n o f v a r i a b l e F/M r a t i o s a l o n g p l u g
flow r e a c t o r s , a n d its p o s s i b l e u n d e s i r a b l e effect o n t h e s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f t h e s l u d g e d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 5. A l l t h e s e f a c t o r s t e n d t o r e d u c e differences
in a c t u a l efficiency o f B O D r e m o v a l for t h e t w o m o d e l s .
F i g u r e 5.29 s h o w s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e B O D r e d u c t i o n o c c u r r i n g i n a p l u g flow
r e a c t o r f r o m v a l u e S a t t h e inlet t o t h e final v a l u e S . By d i v i d i n g t h e a e r a t i o n
0 e
t a n k i n t o a series o f c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r s ( a s s u m e a u n i f o r m s o l u b l e B O D
v a l u e for t h e l i q u o r b e t w e e n a n y t w o d o t t e d p a r t i t i o n s in F i g . 5.29), a n i m p r o v e
m e n t in t r e a t m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e is o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t a m a j o r loss i n a b i l i t y o f
t h e s y s t e m t o h a n d l e s h o c k l o a d s . T h i s is t h e i d e a b e h i n d t h e s t e p a e r a t i o n
s c h e m e ( C h a p t e r 6, S e c t i o n 4 . 1 , F i g . 6.6).
Problems
TABLE 1
For Removal Kinetics
TABLE 2
Oxygen Utilization and Sludge Production
1 3200 2500
2 2187 1450
3 1425 780
4 1008 403
a = 0.50 lb M L V S S / l b B O D P
a' = 0.55 lb 0 / l b B O D
2 r
b = 0.1 lb M L V S S / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S )
b' = 0.14 lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S )
2
F/M = 0.6
s„ = 0 . 0 mg/liter
References 235
Take
X = 3000 mg/liter
a
X = 12,000 mg/liter
u
Calculate
1. Reactor v o l u m e (Mgal) and sludge return rate (Mgal/day)
2. Oxygen required Ob 0 / h r )
2
α = 0.8
References
1. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., "Industrial Pollution Control." McGraw-Hill, N e w Y o r k , 1966.
2. Eckenfelder, W. W . , Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes
& N o b l e , N e w Y o r k , 1970.
3. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
Austin and N e w York, 1970.
4. Lawrence, A . W., and McCarthy, P. L., / . Sanit. Eng. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 4 9 , S A 3
y
(1970).
5. Lineweaver, H . , and Burk, D . , / . Am. Chem. Soc. 5 6 , 6 5 8 - 6 6 6 (1934).
6. "Manual for Biooxidation U n i t . " Biodevelopment Associates, P.O. B o x 1752, Austin,
Texas.
7. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., "Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treatment, D i s p o s a l . "
McGraw-Hill, N e w York, 1972.
6
Secondary Treatment:
Other Aerobic and Anaerobic
Wastewater Treatment Processes
1. Introduction 237
2. Extended Aeration (or Total Oxidation Process) 238
2.1. Introduction 238
2.2. Comparison of Extended Aeration and Activated Sludge
Processes 238
2.3. Application of Extended Aeration 239
2.4. Extended Aeration Units 239
2.5. Settling of Sludge from Extended Aeration 241
2.6. Nitrification in Extended Aeration 241
2.7. Design Criteria for Extended Aeration 241
3. Contact Stabilization 244
3.1. Introduction 244
3.2. Advantage of Contact Stabilization v s . Conventional Activated
Sludge Process 244
3.3. Solubility Index (SI) and Overall Efficiency 245
3.4. Design of Contact Stabilization Systems 246
4. Other Modifications of Conventional Activated Sludge Process:
Step Aeration, Complete M i x Activated Sludge Process, and
Tapered Aeration 247
4.1. Step Aeration 247
4.2. Complete M i x Activated Sludge Process 248
4.3. Tapered Aeration 248
5. Aerated Lagoons 249
5.1. Introduction 249
5.2. Mixing Regimes for Aerated Lagoons 249
5.3. Kinetics of B O D Removal 250
5.4. Estimate of Lagoon Temperature (T ) w 251
5.5. Oxygen Requirements for Aerated Lagoons 253
5.6. Soluble Effluent B O D for an Aerated Lagoon 253
5.7. M L V S S Concentration in Aerated Lagoons 253
5.8. Retention Period Required for a Specified Effluent Soluble
BOD 2 5 4
6.1. Introduction 2 5 9
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
T h e b a s i c m e c h a n i s m f o r a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s is d e s c r i b e d in
C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 1 . T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is a l s o
s t u d i e d in d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r 5.
I n Sections 2 - 4 of this chapter, several modifications of t h e activated sludge
process are described. O t h e r types of wastewater t r e a t m e n t (aerated lagoons,
s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s , a n d t r i c k l i n g filters) a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n s 5 - 7 . T h e s e
a r e m o s t l y a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s . A n a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s is s t u d i e d
in S e c t i o n 8.
238 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
F o r b o t h a e r o b i c a n d a n a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s t h e a p p r o a c h utilized for t h e
m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n , a s well a s t h e p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d t o o b t a i n d e s i g n
d a t a f r o m b e n c h scale u n i t s , a r e t h o s e d e v e l o p e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d a s s o c i a t e s .
AX V « 0 (6.1)
or
aS Q
r = bX , V
v a (6.2)
T h e o r e t i c a l r e s i d e n c e t i m e t o a c h i e v e z e r o n e t yield o f M L V S S is o b t a i n e d
f r o m E q . (6.2).
T h e m a i n a d v a n t a g e o f t h e e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n p r o c e s s is t h a t s l u d g e h a n d l i n g
facilities a r e m i n i m a l c o m p a r e d t o t h o s e r e q u i r e d for t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e
process.
T A B L E 6.1
Comparison of Conventional Activated Sludge and Extended
Aeration Processes
Activated Extended
Characteristics sludge aeration
F o o d to microorganism ratio
[lb B O D / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S ) ]
5 0.3-0.7 0.10-0.25
M L V S S concentration in reactor (mg/liter) 2000-4000 3500-5000
Overall B O D removal efficiency (% includes
5
e x p e n d i t u r e m a y b e a c h i e v e d . T a b l e 6.1 p r e s e n t s a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e m a i n
characteristics of conventional activated sludge a n d extended aeration
processes.
2.3. A P P L I C A T I O N O F E X T E N D E D A E R A T I O N
T h e extended aeration process has been applied mostly in t r e a t m e n t of
w a s t e w a t e r s w h e n d a i l y v o l u m e is less t h a n 2 0 0 0 g a l / d a y . T h i s i n c l u d e s t r e a t
m e n t o f d o m e s t i c s e w a g e for s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s , h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s ,
recreational areas, a n d some industrial wastes. Extended aeration package
units are commercially available. If well designed a n d operated, they should
not present odor problems and thus can be located within populated areas.
2.4. E X T E N D E D A E R A T I O N U N I T S
F i g u r e s 6.1 a n d 6.2 i l l u s t r a t e a c o n v e n t i o n a l e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n u n i t a n d a
variation k n o w n as the oxidation ditch. In the conventional aeration unit
( F i g . 6.1), t h e influent p a s s e s first t h r o u g h a s c r e e n t o r e m o v e l a r g e s u s p e n d e d
240 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
Q=QpQp +
Waste Screen QF \
or
influent shredder
OF
S l u d g y recycle; Q R ^ P Y p S l u d g e wastage
s o l i d s , in o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e a e r a t o r u n i t f r o m d a m a g e r e s u l t i n g f r o m c l o g g i n g .
I n s o m e u n i t s a s h r e d d e r is p r o v i d e d i n s t e a d o f a s c r e e n . T h e flow d i a g r a m o f
t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l u n i t is essentially i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e
p r o c e s s . Effluent f r o m t h e clarifier m a y b e c h l o r i n a t e d p r i o r t o d i s c h a r g e i n
the receiving water.
wastage
F i g u r e 6.2 s h o w s a d i a g r a m o f t h e o x i d a t i o n d i t c h . A n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h i s
s y s t e m is a n a e r a t i o n d i t c h p r o v i d e d w i t h a n a e r a t i o n r o t o r . T h i s r o t o r h a s
t w o f u n c t i o n s : a e r a t i o n a n d p r o v i s i o n o f a flow velocity t o t h e m i x e d l i q u o r i n
t h e d i t c h . L i q u i d flow velocity is o f t h e o r d e r o f 1 ft/sec. T h e m i x t u r e o f s e w a g e
a n d activated sludge repeatedly passes over the aeration r o t o r at short inter
vals. A typical r o t o r has a diameter of approximately 30 in., revolves a t a b o u t
75 r p m , h a s a d e p t h o f i m m e r s i o n o f a b o u t 6 in., a n d a n o x y g e n a t i o n c a p a c i t y
(OC) of the order of 6 lb/hr.
2. Extended Aeration 241
2.5. S E T T L I N G O F S L U D G E F R O M
EXTENDED AERATION
A l t h o u g h t h e o r e t i c a l l y s l u d g e yield is nil f o r t h e e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n p r o c e s s ,
i n p r a c t i c e t h i s is n o t t h e c a s e since p a r t o f t h e s l u d g e is n o t b i o d e g r a d a b l e a n d
t h e r e f o r e a c c u m u l a t e s . T h e n e t s l u d g e yield m u s t b e w a s t e d .
F i g u r e 5.7 ( C h a p t e r 5) r e v e a l s t h a t for v a l u e s o f F/M i n t h e r a n g e u t i l i z e d
for t h e e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n p r o c e s s ( 0 . 1 0 - 0 . 2 5 ) , t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s a r e d r i v e n
to endogenous respiration and metabolize the cytoplasmic material of their
"fellow" microorganisms. T h e remains of this "cannibalist feast" are n o n -
d e g r a d a b l e cellular shells w h i c h a r e r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t c o m p a r e d t o c y t o p l a s m i c
m a t e r i a l a n d settle w i t h difficulty. S e t t l i n g t a n k s for e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n s y s t e m s
should therefore provide longer retention t i m e t h a n for the c o n v e n t i o n a l
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s . R e t e n t i o n t i m e is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 v s . 2 h r f o r t h e
conventional activated sludge process.
2.6. N I T R I F I C A T I O N I N E X T E N D E D A E R A T I O N
A s o r g a n i c l o a d i n g (F/M r a t i o ) is l o w i n e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n a n d s i n c e a l a r g e
excess o f a i r is s u p p l i e d , nitrification m a y o c c u r t o a n a p p r e c i a b l e e x t e n t
involving the conversion of a m m o n i a nitrogen t o nitrite a n d nitrate. A p r o b l e m
r e l a t e d t o n i t r i f i c a t i o n is a d r o p i n p H f o r t h e s y s t e m d u e t o f o r m a t i o n o f
n i t r i c a c i d . T h e p H m a y d r o p a s l o w a s 4 . 5 , in w h i c h c a s e t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s
m a y b e a d v e r s e l y affected.
2.7. D E S I G N C R I T E R I A F O R E X T E N D E D A E R A T I O N
2.7.1. Calculation of Residence T i m e for
Extended Aeration U n i t s
Since t h e d e t e n t i o n p e r i o d r e q u i r e d for B O D r e m o v a l is m u c h s h o r t e r t h a n
t h a t for a u t o x i d a t i o n o f s l u d g e , a e r a t o r v o l u m e is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e r a t e o f
sludge oxidation.
F o r m u l a t i o n o f d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e f o r e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n is b a s e d o n E q .
(6.2), w h i c h m u s t b e slightly m o d i f i e d p r i o r t o its a p p l i c a t i o n . T h e m o d i f i c a
t i o n s a r e a s f o l l o w s : in E q . (6.2), t h e l e f t - h a n d m e m b e r p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t all
s l u d g e f o r m e d (aS Q) r is b i o d e g r a d a b l e . E x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 7 % o f t h e s l u d g e p r o d u c e d is b i o d e g r a d a b l e , t h e r e m a i n i n g
2 3 % c o m p r i s i n g n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e c e l l u l a r shells. T h e r e f o r e , t h e l e f t - h a n d
m e m b e r o f E q . (6.2) is r e w r i t t e n a s E q . (6.4).
aSQ
a r =faS Qr (6.4)
w h e r e a is t h e l b o f b i o d e g r a d a b l e M L V S S p r o d u c e d / l b t o t a l B O D r e m o v e d
Q 5
o r fa; f t h e l b b i o d e g r a d a b l e M L V S S p r o d u c e d / l b t o t a l M L V S S p r o d u c e d «
0.77; a n d a the lb total M L V S S p r o d u c e d / l b total B O D removed. 5
242 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
I n t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (6.2), M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s
o n l y t o b i o d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e , i.e., X va t o b e s u b s t i t u t e d b y fX Vta (mg/liter of
b i o d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e ) . A s w r i t t e n in E q . (5.68) p a r a m e t e r b r e p r e s e n t s t h e
fraction of total M L V S S oxidized per day.
T h e relationship between b a n d b is Q
a n d fX ,
Vta respectively,
b (fX ,a)V=
0 v ΦΙ/)(/Χ , )ν= υ α bX , Vv a (6.5)
T h e r e f o r e , t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (6.2) is left u n c h a n g e d .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e m o d i f i e d E q . (6.2) is o b t a i n e d b y e q u a t i n g E q . (6.4) t o
E q . (6.5).
faS Q r = a SQ
0 r = bX , V v a (6.6)
R e s i d e n c e t i m e is t h e n s h o w n i n E q . (6.7).
I t is c o n v e n i e n t t o w r i t e t h e e x p r e s s i o n for r e s i d e n c e t i m e in t e r m s o f B O D
for t h e fresh feed, 5 . If i n E q . (6.7) (S -S )
F 0 e is s u b s t i t u t e d b y t h e v a l u e g i v e n
i n E q . (5.97), o n e o b t a i n s
F o r e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n , w a s t a g e AX V c o r r e s p o n d s t o n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e cells
which are approximately 2 3 % of the sludge formed.
where
1 - / « 1 - 0 . 7 7 « 0.23
2. Extended Aeration 243
N e g l e c t i n g effluent l o s s i n E q . ( 6 . 1 0 ) , * a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g AX V i n E q . (6.9) b y
its v a l u e f r o m E q . (6.10) y i e l d s after s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
r = \.QFXv,a-i\-f)a(S -S )Q\IQ (X , -X )
0 e F v u Vta (6.11)
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f Q a n d (S — S ) in E q . (6.11) b y t h e i r v a l u e s f r o m E q s . (5.5)
0 e
r = [X , -v a (1 -f)a'S -SMKXv.u-Xp.J
r (6.12)
V= Q fa(S -S )/bX ,
F F e v a (6.13)
T h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e for a n e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n u n i t is i l l u s t r a t e d by
Example 6.1.
Example 6 . 1
26,000 gal/day of a n industrial wastewater are t o be treated by e x t e n d e d
aeration. Influent B O D 5 is SF = 1200 m g / l i t e r , a n d it is d e s i r e d t o r e d u c e it
t o a v a l u e n o t o v e r 50 m g / l i t e r in t h e effluent (S ). e Take X Vta and X VtU as 4000
a n d 12,730 m g / l i t e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y . V a l u e s o f d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s a, b, a', a n d V
h a v e been estimated as 0.7, 0 . 1 , 0.5, a n d 0.142, respectively ( u n i t s : B O D , 5
d a y ) . A s s u m e t h a t 7 7 % o f t h e M L V S S f o r m e d is b i o d e g r a d a b l e a n d n e g l e c t
X .
VyF C a l c u l a t e (1) r e c y c l e r a t i o , (2) r e s i d e n c e t i m e i n h r , (3) B O D 5 of c o m
b i n e d feed, (4) c o m b i n e d feed i n g a l / d a y , (5) F/M r a t i o , (6) r e a c t o r v o l u m e in
gal, a n d (7) o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s in l b / d a y .
SOLUTION
1. R e c y c l e r a t i o f r o m E q . ( 6 . 1 2 ) :
r = [ 4 0 0 0 - ( l - 0 . 7 7 ) ( 0 . 7 ) ( 1 2 0 0 - 4 0 ) ] / ( 1 2 , 7 3 0 - 4 0 0 0 ) = 0.437
2. R e s i d e n c e t i m e f r o m E q . ( 6 . 8 ) :
3. B O D 5 o f c o m b i n e d feed f r o m E q . ( 5 . 9 6 ) :
4 . C o m b i n e d feed f r o m E q . ( 5 . 5 ) :
Q = 2 6 , 0 0 0 ( 1 + 0 . 4 3 7 ) = 37,360 gal/day
* Effluent loss in extended aeration is more significant than in the conventional activated
sludge process because as explained in Section 2.5, nonbiodegradable material is difficult t o
settle.
244 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
6. R e a c t o r v o l u m e f r o m E q . ( 5 . 1 0 4 ) :
7. O x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s f r o m E q . ( 5 . 8 5 ) :
3. C o n t a c t Stabilization
3.1. INTRODUCTION
C o n t a c t s t a b i l i z a t i o n is a n o t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s .
A flow d i a g r a m for t h e s y s t e m is s h o w n in F i g . 6 . 3 .
I n f l u e n t w a s t e w a t e r is m i x e d w i t h s t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e , a n d t h i s m i x t u r e is
a e r a t e d in t h e i n i t i a l c o n t a c t t a n k f o r w h i c h d e t e n t i o n t i m e is o n l y 2 0 - 4 0 m i n .
D u r i n g initial c o n t a c t a n a p p r e c i a b l e f r a c t i o n o f s u s p e n d e d a n d d i s s o l v e d
B O D is r e m o v e d b y b i o s o r p t i o n after c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w e l l - a e r a t e d a c t i v a t e d
s l u d g e . T h e m i x e d effluent f r o m t h e initial c o n t a c t t a n k flows i n t o a clarifier.
Clarified effluent is r e m o v e d a n d u n d e r f l o w f r o m t h e clarifier is t a k e n t o a
s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k , w h e r e it is a e r a t e d for a p e r i o d o f 1.5-5 h r .
D u r i n g this stabilization period, biosorbed organics are b r o k e n d o w n by
a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n . S t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e l e a v i n g t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k is i n a
" s t a r v e d " condition and ready to adsorb organic waste.
3.2. A D V A N T A G E O F C O N T A C T
STABILIZATION V S . CONVENTIONAL
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
S i n c e o n l y r e c y c l e d s l u d g e is s u b j e c t t o l e n g t h y a e r a t i o n , t h i s s y s t e m p e r m i t s
a p p r e c i a b l e r e d u c t i o n in a e r a t i o n b a s i n v o l u m e . T h i s is t h e m a i n a d v a n t a g e o f
c o n t a c t stabilization vs. the conventional activated sludge process. F o r a
w a s t e w a t e r flow Q ( f t / h r ) a n d a s l u d g e recycle o f 0.3Q , a p p r o x i m a t e t a n k
F
3
F
v o l u m e s for t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s a n d c o n t a c t s t a b i l i z a
t i o n a r e l\Q F a n d 4Q , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a n e a r l y t h r e e f o l d
F
t a n k r e d u c t i o n . O v e r a l l r e m o v a l efficiencies a r e u s u a l l y l o w e r t h a n in t h e
c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , b u t c o u l d easily r e a c h 8 5 - 9 0 % B O D 5
removal.
T h e c o n t a c t s t a b i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s is s u i t a b l e w h e n t h e w a s t e w a t e r c o n t a i n s
a high p r o p o r t i o n of B O D in suspended a n d colloidal forms. C o n t a c t stabiliza
t i o n p l a n t s m a y o p e r a t e w i t h o u t n e e d o f p r i m a r y clarification.
3. Contact Stabilization 245
Q =Q + Q =Qp (l r)
F R
+
, A j r
Influent Effluent
Initial contact tank Clarifier
Typical f X = 4 0 0 0 mg/liter
v a
Stabilized
Stabilization tank
t w 1.5 to 5 hr Sludge
m Wastage
sludge recycle
QR
3.3. S O L U B I L I T Y I N D E X ( S I ) A N D
OVERALL EFFICIENCY
T h e solubility i n d e x (SI) o f a w a s t e w a t e r is defined a s
SI = soluble B O D / t o t a l B O D (6.14)
w h e r e 0 < SI ^ 1.0.
A s SI a p p r o a c h e s z e r o t o t a l B O D t e n d s t o b e o f s u s p e n d e d o r c o l l o i d a l f o r m ,
a n d t h e w a s t e w a t e r b e c o m e s s u i t a b l e for t r e a t m e n t b y c o n t a c t s t a b i l i z a t i o n
since m o s t B O D c a n b e r e m o v e d w i t h i n a s h o r t i n i t i a l c o n t a c t p e r i o d . A s S I
approaches one, total B O D tends t o be of soluble form, a n d the conventional
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is m o r e efficient.
Fig. 6.4. Relationship of SI, BOD removal, and initial contact time.
246 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f S I , B O D r e m o v a l , a n d initial c o n t a c t t i m e is s h o w n i n
F i g . 6.4. F o r t y p i c a l r e s i d e n c e t i m e s i n t h e initial c o n t a c t t a n k , c o n s i d e r a b l y
g r e a t e r B O D r e d u c t i o n o f effluent is a c h i e v e d w h e n t h e v a l u e o f S I a p p r o a c h e s
u n i t y . T h e rise in t h e c u r v e for SI = 0 f o l l o w i n g t h e initial d r o p is d u e t o o v e r -
o x i d a t i o n , a c o n c e p t w h i c h is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 3.4.
3.4. D E S I G N O F C O N T A C T S T A B I L I Z A T I O N
SYSTEMS
3.4.1. Selection of Residence Times for
C o n t a c t and Stabilization
T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e in d e s i g n o f c o n t a c t s t a b i l i z a t i o n s y s t e m s is t h e s e l e c t i o n
o f r e s i d e n c e t i m e s for initial c o n t a c t a n d s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k s . F o r a specific
w a s t e w a t e r , l a b o r a t o r y tests a r e p e r f o r m e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e effect o f a c o m
b i n a t i o n o f v a r i o u s r e s i d e n c e t i m e s for initial c o n t a c t a n d s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k s
o n t h e % B O D r e m o v a l . A t y p i c a l set o f c u r v e s o b t a i n e d for a specific w a s t e
w a t e r is s h o w n in F i g . 6.5. E a c h c u r v e c o r r e s p o n d s t o a fixed initial c o n t a c t
d e t e n t i o n t i m e . T h e a b s c i s s a is s t a b i l i z a t i o n t i m e a n d t h e o r d i n a t e is t h e % B O D
removal.
I f t h e d e s i r e d B O D r e m o v a l c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d in t h e initial c o n t a c t t a n k
(i.e., a t s t a b i l i z a t i o n t i m e = 0 ) , s t a b i l i z a t i o n t i m e m u s t b e e x t e n d e d t o r e a c h
t h e d e s i r e d r e m o v a l . F o r e a c h c o n t a c t t i m e ( t h a t is, for e a c h c u r v e in F i g . 6.4)
t h e r e is a n o p t i m u m s t a b i l i z a t i o n t i m e a s i n d i c a t e d , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a
m a x i m u m % B O D removal. F o r stabilization times longer t h a n those corre-
r = 0 . 5 . O n c e t h e recycle r a t i o a n d d e t e n t i o n t i m e s h a v e b e e n d e t e r m i n e d ,
sizing o f c o n t a c t a n d s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k s is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .
4. O t h e r M o d i f i c a t i o n s of
Conventional Activated Sludge
Process: Step Aeration, Complete
Mix A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e P r o c e s s , a n d
Tapered Aeration
4.1. S T E P A E R A T I O N
S t e p a e r a t i o n is a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s
in w h i c h fresh feed is i n t r o d u c e d a t s e v e r a l p o i n t s a l o n g t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k . T h i s
a r r a n g e m e n t p r o v i d e s f o r a n e q u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e F/M r a t i o s a l o n g t h e t a n k .
Primary
clarifier
Tank length
T h e a e r a t i o n t a n k is d i v i d e d b y baffles i n t o several p a r a l l e l c h a n n e l s . E a c h
c h a n n e l constitutes o n e step of the process, a n d the steps are linked together
i n series. T h i s p r o c e s s , a s well a s o x y g e n s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d a l o n g t h e t a n k
l e n g t h , a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 6.6.
4.2. C O M P L E T E M I X A C T I V A T E D S L U D G E
PROCESS
I n t h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , fresh feed a n d r e c y c l e d
s l u d g e a r e c o m b i n e d a n d t h e n i n t r o d u c e d a t several p o i n t s in t h e a e r a t i o n
t a n k f r o m a c e n t r a l c h a n n e l . A e r a t e d l i q u o r leaves t h e r e a c t o r f r o m effluent
c h a n n e l s o n b o t h sides o f t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k ( F i g . 6.7).
Primary Secondary
clarifier clarifier
Reactor
\Effluent
Wastage
Recycled sludge
Pump
Supply
Q) Ο
Demand
Ο ο
c
ο
Tank length (or width)
Oxygen supply and d e m a n d are uniform along the tank, as indicated by the
g r a p h a c c o m p a n y i n g F i g . 6.7. T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l for t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s d e v e l o p e d in C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 3.2 a s s u m e s c o m p l e t e
m i x i n g . If p l u g flow c o n d i t i o n s a r e a s s u m e d , o x y g e n d e m a n d d e c r e a s e s a l o n g
the length of the aeration t a n k , whereas the oxygen supply r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t
( F i g . 6.8).
4.3. T A P E R E D A E R A T I O N
T h e p u r p o s e o f t a p e r e d a e r a t i o n is t o m a t c h t h e a m o u n t o f a i r s u p p l i e d
w i t h t h e o x y g e n d e m a n d a l o n g t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k . S i n c e a t t h e inlet o x y g e n
d e m a n d is t h e h i g h e s t , a e r a t o r s a r e s p a c e d m o r e closely t o p r o v i d e a h i g h e r
o x y g e n a t i o n r a t e . S p a c i n g b e t w e e n a e r a t o r s is i n c r e a s e d t o w a r d t h e o u t l e t a s
oxygen d e m a n d decreases.
5. Aerated Lagoons 249
Primary Secondary
clarifier clarifier
Effluent
Plug flow reactor
Wastage
Recycled sludge Γ
Pump
Tank length
Fig. 6.8. Conventional activated sludge process with plug flow reactor [8].
5. A e r a t e d L a g o o n s
5.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
A e r a t e d l a g o o n s a r e b a s i n s h a v i n g d e p t h s v a r y i n g f r o m 4 t o 12 ft i n w h i c h
o x y g e n a t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r s is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a e r a t i o n u n i t s . T h e f u n d a
m e n t a l difference b e t w e e n a e r a t e d l a g o o n s a n d t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s y s t e m is
t h a t r e c y c l i n g o f t h e s l u d g e is p r o v i d e d i n t h e l a t t e r a s a m e a n s o f c o n t r o l l i n g
t h e a m o u n t o f b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e i n t h e a e r a t o r . A e r a t e d l a g o o n s a r e flow-
t h r o u g h devices, i.e., n o recycle o f s l u d g e is p r o v i d e d . S o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n
t h e l a g o o n is a f u n c t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d d e t e n t i o n t i m e . I t is
u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 8 0 a n d 2 0 0 m g / l i t e r , i.e., m u c h l o w e r t h a n t h a t f o r a c t i v a t e d
sludge units (2000-4000 mg/liter).
5.2. M I X I N G R E G I M E S F O R A E R A T E D L A G O O N S
T u r b u l e n c e level i n l a g o o n s is t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i r classification i n t o t w o t y p e s .
5.2.1. Completely M i x e d L a g o o n s
T h e t u r b u l e n c e level is sufficient t o m a i n t a i n s o l i d s i n s u s p e n s i o n . D e t e n t i o n
t i m e s a r e u s u a l l y less t h a n 3 d a y s , a n d p o w e r levels a r e h i g h e r t h a n 2 5 H P p e r
m i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f b a s i n v o l u m e . P o w e r levels f o r a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e u n i t s a r e
in t h e vicinity o f 0.25 H P / 1 0 0 0 gal ( o r 2 5 0 H P p e r m i l l i o n g a l l o n s ) , i.e., a b o u t
ten times higher t h a n for a e r a t e d lagoons. A s s u m p t i o n of c o m p l e t e mixing,
w h i c h e v e n f o r a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e u n i t s is a n i d e a l i z e d a p p r o x i m a t i o n , is
250 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
q u e s t i o n a b l e for a e r a t e d l a g o o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s a s s u m p t i o n is often m a d e ,
l e a d i n g t o a s i m p l e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l for t h e l a g o o n . U t i l i z i n g a p p r o p r i a t e
safety f a c t o r s , t h i s i d e a l i z e d a p p r o a c h is useful.
5.2.2. Facultative L a g o o n s
T h e t u r b u l e n c e level is insufficient t o m a i n t a i n all s o l i d s in s u s p e n s i o n .
P a r t o f t h e s o l i d s settle t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l a g o o n , w h e r e t h e y u n d e r g o
anaerobic decomposition. Detention times are usually over 6 days a n d power
levels a r e 4 - 2 5 H P p e r m i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f b a s i n v o l u m e . T h e r e is a g r a d u a l
b u i l d u p o f r e s i d u e w h i c h h a s t o b e d e s l u d g e d a t p e r i o d s o f 1-10 y e a r s .
S e l e c t i o n o f m i x i n g r e g i m e is t h e r e s u l t o f a n e c o n o m i c b a l a n c e b e t w e e n
p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s ( g r e a t e r in c o m p l e t e l y m i x e d r e g i m e ) a n d a c r e a g e c o s t
( m o r e a c r e a g e r e q u i r e d for f a c u l t a t i v e l a g o o n s ) . T h e s e t w o m i x i n g r e g i m e s a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 6.9.
» % r Γ"β~7 % , •
Influent \ / — / *± /Effluent
* χ (Lj / IV
lnfluent\
Jk
—23—
^
^ J~/\ ^ - ^ ^ J- S o/Effluent
v
<V
lids
'—-— f^ffffiffigy deposition
Facultative lagoon
(b)
5.3. K I N E T I C S O F B O D R E M O V A L
Assuming appropriate environmental conditions ( p H , presence of nutrients,
etc.), t h e r a t e o f B O D r e m o v a l is a f u n c t i o n o f d e t e n t i o n t i m e , t e m p e r a t u r e ,
n a t u r e of wastewater, a n d concentration of suspended volatile solids.
U s u a l l y B O D r e m o v a l r a t e is a s s u m e d t o f o l l o w first-order k i n e t i c s , a n d t h e
f o r m u l a t i o n for t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r a s s u m i n g c o m p l e t e m i x i n g ( C h a p t e r 5 ,
S e c t i o n 3.2) is utilized. T h e r e f o r e , E q . (5.18) is t a k e n a s t h e k i n e t i c m o d e l f o r
t h e l a g o o n . I t is c o n v e n i e n t t o r e w r i t e E q . (5.18) in t e r m s o f t h e r a t i o SJS 09
w h e r e S is t h e s o l u b l e B O D o f t h e influent, S t h e s o l u b l e B O D o f t h e effluent,
0 e
I n E q . (6.16), Κ is t h e l a g o o n v o l u m e , Q t h e flow r a t e , A t h e h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s -
sectional area of the lagoon, a n d D the d e p t h of t h e lagoon.
I t s h o u l d b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h i s m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l is b a s e d o n t w o
f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n s , t h o s e o f first-order k i n e t i c s a n d t o t a l m i x i n g
c o n d i t i o n s . N e i t h e r a s s u m p t i o n is v a l i d i n a l l c a s e s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s f o r m u l a
t i o n is useful f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s .
V a l u e s o f A^can b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m b e n c h scale d a t a . A r e a c t o r like t h e o n e
s h o w n i n F i g . 5.10 ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 6.1) is u s e d t o s i m u l a t e a n a e r a t e d
l a g o o n . T h e sliding baffle is r e m o v e d f o r t h i s s i m u l a t i o n . T h e v a l u e o f Κ is
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m l i n e a r p l o t s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n F i g . 5.5 ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n
3.2) b a s e d o n E q . (5.18). Κ v a l u e s s h o u l d b e c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e l a g o o n t e m
perature (summer a n d winter conditions) by the procedure described in
S e c t i o n 5.4. V a l u e s o f Κ c a n a l s o b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m p i l o t - p l a n t d a t a o r
estimated from data o n operating lagoons.
5.4. E S T I M A T E O F L A G O O N T E M P E R A T U R E (T ) w
Let
T = temperature of t h e influent
t
T (air)
a
(80°F)
T: (IOO°F) T w (87.I°F)
T w (87.I°F)
Q
(should take into account such factors as wind a n d humidity effects). In the
absence of m o r e a c c u r a t e information a value of 100 B T U / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( ° F ) m a y 2
Q = flow r a t e (Mgal/day)
T h e e n t h a l p y c h a n g e o f t h e i n f l u e n t is
= β ( Γ , - 7^)8.34 x 1 0 6
(BTU/day) (6.17)
h BTU/(day)(ft )(°F) χ A ft 2 2
χ (T -T )°F w 0 = hA(T -T ) w a (BTU/day)
(6.18)
E q u a t i n g E q s . (6.17) a n d ( 6 . 1 8 ) ,
2 ( 7 , - 7 ^ ) 8 . 3 4 χ 1 0 = hA(T -T ) 6
w a (6.19)
Let
h χ 10- /8.34 = / 6
O n e then writes
Q(T^T )=/A(T -
W W T) a (6.20)
S o l v i n g for T , w
Tw = (AfT +QTi)/(Af+
a Q) (6.21)
E q u a t i o n (6.21) p e r m i t s a n e s t i m a t e o f l a g o o n t e m p e r a t u r e .
T h e effect o f l a g o o n t e m p e r a t u r e (T ) w o n B O D r e m o v a l r a t e Κ is g i v e n b y
the empirical equation
K Tw = Κ Θ »- 20
Τ 20
(6.22)
E q u a t i o n (6.23) p e r m i t s e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e effect o f t e m p e r a t u r e o n p e r
c e n t a g e o f B O D r e m a i n i n g i n t h e effluent.
5. Aerated Lagoons 253
5.5. O X Y G E N R E Q U I R E M E N T S F O R
AERATED LAGOONS
Oxygen r e q u i r e m e n t s for aerobic o x i d a t i o n processes a r e given by E q .
(5.64). S i n c e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S (X ) Vta is l o w f o r a e r a t e d l a g o o n s ,
t h e t e r m b'X Vis
va usually neglected. Therefore
lb 0 / d a y « a'S Q « a\\b B O D removed/day)
2 r (6.24)
V a l u e s o f a' f o r a e r a t e d l a g o o n s v a r y f r o m 0.9 t o 1.4 d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n a t u r e
of waste, mixing regime, a n d t e m p e r a t u r e .
5.6. S O L U B L E E F F L U E N T B O D F O R A N
AERATED LAGOON
T h e s o l u b l e effluent B O D f o r a n a e r a t e d l a g o o n is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q .
(6.15). S o l v i n g f o r S , e
S = S /(l+Kt) e 0 (6.25)
This equation does n o t take into account B O D feedback to the lagoon d u e t o
a n a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n of deposited solids. Usually a correction factor t o
a c c o u n t f o r t h i s is i n t r o d u c e d i n E q . (6.25). S i n c e a n a e r o b i c B O D f e e d b a c k is
g r e a t e r d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r , t w o m o d i f i e d f o r m s o f E q . (6.25) a r e r e c o m
mended by Eckenfelder a n d F o r d [ 5 ] .
S u m m e r c o n d i t i o n s : S = \2S /(\
e 0 + Kt) (6.26)
F o r a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t s , d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e c o n s i s t s o f specifying a
d e s i r e d effluent q u a l i t y (S ) a n d t h e n c a l c u l a t i n g r e s i d e n c e t i m e ( / ) n e c e s s a r y
e
t o a c h i e v e t h i s specified q u a l i t y . F o r a e r a t e d l a g o o n s t h e d e s i g n a p p r o a c h is
normally t h e reverse of t h a t for activated sludge plants. U u s u a l l y w h e n a n
a e r a t e d l a g o o n is b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , o n e h a s a v a i l a b l e a g i v e n a c r e a g e o f l a n d
presumably at a reasonably low cost. T h e design procedure starts from t h e
k n o w n value of t h e surface area A a n d a n a s s u m e d reasonable d e p t h . T h e r e
f o r e , t h e v o l u m e o f t h e l a g o o n a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y r e s i d e n c e t i m e a r e fixed.
Effluent q u a l i t y S a c h i e v e d f o r t h i s r e s i d e n c e t i m e is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q .
e
(6.25) [ o r E q s . (6.26) a n d ( 6 . 2 7 ) ] . F o r t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t i t is u n
i m p o r t a n t t o w r i t e E q . (6.25), since S is a primary specification,
e rather than a
calculated v a l u e .
5.7. M L V S S C O N C E N T R A T I O N I N
AERATED LAGOONS
Consider a n aerated lagoon for complete m i x conditions indicated b y
Fig. 6.11. Let X Vt0 b e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of V S S in t h e influent (mg/liter) a n d
Xva t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S f o r t h e l a g o o n ( s a m e a s t h a t i n effluent,
mg/liter).
254 6. S e c o n d a r y Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic P r o c e s s e s
V
Q Q
X
ν,α X
ν,α
Fig. 6.11. Material balance for ML VSS.
A m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for V S S yields
D i v i d i n g t h r o u g h b y Q, l e t t i n g V/Q = / = d e t e n t i o n t i m e , a n d s o l v i n g f o r
(6.28) is t h e n u t i l i z e d t o c a l c u l a t e X . Vta F o r a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t s it is u n
i m p o r t a n t t o w r i t e E q . (6.28), since X v>a is a p r i m a r y specification r a t h e r t h a n
a calculated quantity.
5.8. R E T E N T I O N P E R I O D R E Q U I R E D F O R A
SPECIFIED EFFLUENT S O L U B L E B O D
F r o m t h e d e s i g n a p p r o a c h i n S e c t i o n 5.6, r e t e n t i o n p e r i o d is u s u a l l y a
p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e w h i c h is i n d i r e c t l y specified b y t h e d e s i g n e r . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
o b t a i n i n g a n e q u a t i o n for / f o r t h e a e r a t e d l a g o o n is less i m p o r t a n t t h a n it w a s
for t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a n e q u a t i o n f o r r e s i d e n c e t i m e is
d e r i v e d w h i c h m a y b e u t i l i z e d t o e v a l u a t e r e s i d e n c e t i m e s f o r a specified v a l u e
o f S f o r several p o s s i b l e selected v a l u e s o f l a g o o n d e p t h . T a k e E q . (5.18) a n d
e
w h e r e S = S — S . I f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n t h e i n f l u e n t (X )
r 0 e Vt0 is n e g l i
gible, E q . ( 6 . 2 9 ) simplifies t o yield
t = XI(akS -b) e (X ,ο * 0)
v (6.30)
If i n t h i s e q u a t i o n t h e u n i t s t o b e utilized a r e t ( d a y s ) , a ( l b M L V S S / l b B O D ) , r
k (hr" ), S1
e (mg/liter), a n d b [lb M L V S S / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S ) ] , a conversion
f a c t o r o f 2 4 h r / d a y is u s e d . T h e r e f o r e , E q . (6.29) is r e w r i t t e n a s E q . (6.31).
5.9. T O T A L E F F L U E N T B O D F O R A N
AERATED LAGOON
S o far, o n l y s o l u b l e B O D o f t h e effluent (S ) h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d . T o t h i s ,
e
w h e r e S is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (6.26) [ o r E q . ( 6 . 2 7 ) ] , φ is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m
e
F i g . 6.12, a n d X is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (6.28).
Vtu
5.10. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A E R A T E D
LAGOONS
T h e p r o c e d u r e p r o p o s e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d a s s o c i a t e s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y
E x a m p l e 6.2.
Example 6.2
A n a e r a t e d l a g o o n is c o n t e m p l a t e d for t r e a t i n g a n i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r .
A n a r e a o f 5 a c r e s is a v a i l a b l e . T h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n is t a k e n a s a b a s i s
for d e s i g n :
T = 100°F
t (influent temperature)
D a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m b e n c h scale e q u i p m e n t :
Κ = 0.06 h r " 1
= 1.44 d a y " 1
(at 20°C)
a = 0.5 lb VSS/lb B O D r
b = 0.06 d a y - 1
a' = 1.1 l b 0 / l b B O D
2 r
h = 100BTU/(day)(ft )(°F) 2
Calculate
1. Effluent s o l u b l e B O D for s u m m e r a n d 5 winter conditions. Base
c a l c u l a t i o n s o n a l a g o o n d e p t h o f 8 ft.
2. M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t e q u i l i b r i u m for a completely mixed lagoon
Xva for s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s .
3. T o t a l B O D in t h e effluent for s u m m e r a n d
5 winter conditions.
4. S u r f a c e a e r a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s : lb 0 / d a y , 2 required H P , and power
level in H P / M g a l o f b a s i n v o l u m e .
S O L U T I O N : Part 1 BOD 5 o f effluent
Step 1. E s t i m a t e T w for s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s [ E q . ( 6 . 2 1 ) ] . H e r e
and
/ = 12 χ I O " 6
5. Aerated Lagoons 257
corresponding to
h = 100BTU/(day)(ft )(°F) 2
= 87.1°F (30.6°C)
= 58.7°F (14.8°C)
Step 2. E s t i m a t e B O D r e m o v a l r a t e Κ f o r s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s
[Eq. (6.22)].
Summer: K . * 30 6 c = 1.44 χ 1 . 0 5 6 ( 3 0
· - 6 2 0 )
= 2.57 d a y 1
Winter: # 1 4 . .
8 c = 1.44 χ 1 . 1 3 5 < · - 1 4 8 2 0 )
= 0.745 d a y 1
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e d e t e n t i o n t i m e [ E q . ( 6 . 1 6 ) ] .
t = = 8.7 days
1,500,000 gal/day y
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e S e ( s o l u b l e B O D o f effluent) f o r s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r
5
conditions.
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n [ E q . (6.28)]
Soluble B O D 5 o f t h e effluent h a s b e e n c a l c u l a t e d i n S o l u t i o n , P a r t 1, S t e p 4 .
Step 1. E s t i m a t e ψ f r o m F i g . 6.12. F i r s t c a l c u l a t e s l u d g e a g e [ E q . ( 5 . 1 5 0 ) ] .
T h e n f r o m F i g . 6.12,
Step 2 . E s t i m a t e V S S c o n t r i b u t i o n t o effluent B O D . 5
Step L E s t i m a t e o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s [ E q . ( 6 . 2 4 ) ] .
= 326 lb 0 / h r 2
= 269 lb B O D / h r r
= 296 lb 0 / h r 2
N = 2.5 lb 0 / Η Ρ χ h r
0 2
α = 0.8
Csw = 7.0 mg/liter ( s u m m e r ) ; 9.5 mg/liter (winter)
C L = 1.0 mg/liter
6. Wastewater Stabilization Ponds 259
Then
Ν — 2.5[(7.0-1.0)/9.2]0.8 χ 1 . 0 2 4 ( 3 0
· -
6 2 0 )
= 1.68 lb 0 / ( H P x hr)
2
Ν = 2.5[(9.5-1.0)/9.2]0.8 χ 1 . 0 2 4 ( 1 4
· -
8 2 0 )
= 1.63 lb 0 / ( H P x hr)
2
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e t h e r e q u i r e d H P .
lbP /hr2
lb 0 / H P x h r
2
S u m m e r : H P = 326/1.68 = 194 H P
6. W a s t e w a t e r S t a b i l i z a t i o n P o n d s
6.1. INTRODUCTION
T h e b a s i c difference b e t w e e n t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d i n
t h i s s e c t i o n a n d t h o s e p r e v i o u s l y s t u d i e d is t h a t n o a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t is
e m p l o y e d in s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s . O x y g e n n e e d s for p o n d s a r e p r o v i d e d b y
n a t u r a l surface aeration a n d by algae, which p r o d u c e oxygen by p h o t o
s y n t h e s i s . O x y g e n r e l e a s e d b y a l g a e a s a r e s u l t o f p h o t o s y n t h e s i s is u t i l i z e d b y
b a c t e r i a for a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r . P r o d u c t s o f t h i s d e g r a d a
t i o n ( c a r b o n d i o x i d e , a m m o n i a , p h o s p h a t e s ) a r e in t u r n u t i l i z e d b y a l g a e .
T h i s cycle s y m b i o t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a l g a e a n d b a c t e r i a is s h o w n d i a -
grammatically in Fig. 6.13.
W a s t e w a t e r s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s a r e feasible w h e n l a r g e l a n d a r e a s are
a v a i l a b l e a t l o w c o s t a n d h i g h q u a l i t y effluent is n o t r e q u i r e d . I f B O D o f the
influent is h i g h , o x y g e n d e m a n d is a b o v e t h a t p r o v i d e d b y p h o t o s y n t h e s i s and
n a t u r a l surface aeration. U n d e r these circumstances D O concentration in the
260 6. S e c o n d a r y Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic P r o c e s s e s
r Organic
New- Bacteria matter
bacteria
C0 ,NH2 3
Algae
Solar
energy New
algae
w a s t e w a t e r d r o p s t o a very l o w level a n d a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n p r e v a i l s .
T e r m i n a l p r o d u c t s for a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n a r e C H + H 0 , in c o n t r a s t
4 2
t o C 0 + H 0 for a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n . C h e m i c a l e q u a t i o n s p e r t i n e n t t o
2 2
a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n a r e s t u d i e d in S e c t i o n 8 . 1 .
P o n d s in w h i c h t h e u p p e r l a y e r s a r e a e r o b i c a n d t h e l o w e r a r e a n a e r o b i c
a r e referred t o a s f a c u l t a t i v e p o n d s . M o s t s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s fall in t h i s
category.
W h e n e v e r o r g a n i c l o a d i n g is v e r y h i g h , o x y g e n d e m a n d m a y b e s u c h t h a t
p o n d o p e r a t i o n is a n a e r o b i c . W h e n several p o n d s a r e o p e r a t i n g in series, t h e
first o n e r e c e i v i n g r a w w a s t e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e is a n a e r o b i c a n d t h e s e c o n d ,
w h i c h receives p a r t i a l l y stabilized w a s t e w a t e r f r o m t h e first, m a y b e a f a c u l t a
tive p o n d . T h e last o n e r e c e i v i n g relatively l o w B O D w a s t e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e
from the preceding one might function as a n aerobic p o n d .
Because of high detention time, frequently a b o u t 2 m o n t h s , r e m o v a l of
refractory organic materials which c a n n o t be accomplished by activated
s l u d g e o r a e r a t e d l a g o o n p r o c e s s e s m a y b e c o m e p o s s i b l e in s t a b i l i z a t i o n
p o n d s . T h u s , a convenient arrangement m a y be to provide stabilization p o n d s
following a n activated sludge (or aerated lagoon) unit to complete
stabilization.
6.2. K I N E T I C S O F B O D R E M O V A L F O R
STABILIZATION P O N D S
A n i d e a l i z e d a p p r o a c h s i m i l a r t o t h a t utilized for a e r a t e d l a g o o n s is o f t e n
e m p l o y e d for s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S is n o t a r e l e v a n t
p a r a m e t e r in s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s , a n d t h u s t h e t e r m X does not appear in
Vf0
t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l . E q u a t i o n 5.18 is r e w r i t t e n a s
(S -S )lt
0 e = KS e
(6.33)
6.3. L A B O R A T O R Y S I M U L A T I O N O F
STABILIZATION P O N D S
Batch or continuous models of stabilization p o n d s have been used on
b e n c h o r p i l o t scale. T w o o f t h e s e m o d e l s , r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d
F o r d [ 5 ] , a r e s h o w n in F i g . 6.14.
Light system
F r o m d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e s e m o d e l s , g r a p h s s u c h a s F i g s . 6.18 a n d 6.19 a r e
c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d a n e s t i m a t e o f Κ v a l u e s is m a d e .
6.4. M A T H E M A T I C A L F O R M U L A T I O N F O R
S E V E R A L STABILIZATION P O N D S IN S E R I E S
S t a r t f r o m t h e m o d i f i e d f o r m o f t h e first-order kinetics removal equation
for o n e p o n d . S o l v i n g E q . (6.15) f o r / y i e l d s :
t = (l-SJS.)/K(SJS.) (6.34)
R a t i o SJS r e p r e s e n t s t h e % B O D r e m a i n i n g in t h e effluent.
0
F o r t w o s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s in series ( F i g . 6.15), o n e c a n w r i t e [ E q . ( 6 . 1 5 ) ]
S 0 s; s e
Pond No. 1 Pond No. 2
•l *2
C o m b i n i n g E q s . (6.35) a n d (6.36) b y m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ,
W h e n r e t e n t i o n p e r i o d t a n d r e m o v a l r a t e c o n s t a n t Κ a r e t h e s a m e for b o t h
p o n d s , E q . (6.37) yields
SJSo = 1/(1 +Kt) 2
(6.38)
262 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
/ = [1 - (S /S ) ]/K(S /S y>
e 0
1/2
e o
2
(6.39)
SJS 0 = 1/(1+Kt) n
(6.40)
t = [1 - (S IS ) ]/K(S ISo)
e 0
lln
e
1,n
(6.41)
F u r t h e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n is p o s s i b l e w h e n e v e r t h e p r o d u c t Kt is m u c h less t h a n
unity. Exponential e Kt
is g i v e n b y t h e p o w e r series in E q . (6.42).
eKt
= 1 + Kt + (Kt) /2l 2
+ (Kt) /3l 3
+ ··· (6.42)
If ATr <^ 1, o n e c a n w r i t e a s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n
e Kt
= 1 + Kt (6.43)
gives E q . (6.44),
SjSo = lle nKt
= e~ nKt
(6.44)
from which
SolS e = (6.45)
or
(S /S )
0 e
1,n
= (6.46)
6.5. E F F E C T O F T E M P E R A T U R E O N R E A C T I O N
RATE C O N S T A N T Κ
T h i s effect is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m a n e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p r e c o m m e n d e d b y
Eckenfelder and F o r d [ 5 ] .
K = Κ Θ-
t 25
χ 25
(6.47)
w h e r e K is t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e a t t°C;
t K 25 the reaction rate at 25°C; t the tem
p e r a t u r e ( ° C ) ; a n d θ t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c o n s t a n t ( 1 . 0 6 — 1 . 0 9 ; t a k e θ = 1.07).
6.6. O X Y G E N P R O D U C T I O N I N A E R O B I C P O N D S
Aerobic stabilization p o n d s depend on algae to provide the oxygen necessary
t o satisfy B O D r e q u i r e m e n t s . S i n c e t h i s o x y g e n is p r o d u c e d b y p h o t o s y n t h e s i s ,
s u n l i g h t is r e q u i r e d . T h i s r e s t r i c t s t h e d e p t h o f a e r o b i c p o n d s t o a r a n g e o f
6-18 in.
T h e a m o u n t o f o x y g e n p r o d u c e d b y a l g a e is e s t i m a t e d f r o m Oswald's
e q u a t i o n [ E q . (6.48)] [ 9 ] .
O P = 0.25FI L (6.48)
w h e r e O P is t h e o x y g e n p r o d u c t i o n [ l b 0 / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) ] ; F t h e light c o n v e r
2
s i o n efficiency ( % ) ; a n d I t h e light i n t e n s i t y [ c a l / ( c m ) ( d a y ) ] .
L
2
F is u s u a l l y a s s u m e d t o b e 4 % . T h u s F = 4 a n d
OP « l L (6.49)
6. Wastewater Stabilization Ponds 263
I v a r i e s f r o m a b o u t 100 t o 3 0 0 c a l / ( c m ) ( d a y ) d u r i n g w i n t e r a n d s u m m e r ,
L
2
6.7. D E P T H O F O X Y G E N P E N E T R A T I O N I N
STABILIZATION P O N D S
D e p t h of oxygen penetration has been correlated by O s w a l d [ 1 0 ] t o surface
l o a d i n g , e x p r e s s e d a s l b B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) ( F i g . 6.16). T h e g r e a t e r t h e l o a d i n g ,
5
t h e s h a l l o w e r t h e d e p t h o f o x y g e n p e n e t r a t i o n since o x y g e n d e m a n d is h i g h e r .
12
Fall c onditio ns
_ 10
c
ο
.2 8 α>
σ α
ν κ ϊ
ί 4
ο
2
< r Sumn er
inter^
Ο 100 200
Loading ;lb B 0 D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y )
5
6.8. F A C U L T A T I V E P O N D S : H E R M A N N A N D
GLOYNA'S EQUATION
T h e d e s i g n f o r m u l a t i o n for s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n s 6.2
a n d 6.4 a p p l i e s t o f a c u l t a t i v e p o n d s . F a c u l t a t i v e p o n d d e p t h s v a r y f r o m 3 t o
8 ft.
A n e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n for f a c u l t a t i v e p o n d s h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y H e r m a n n
a n d G l o y n a [ 6 ] . T h i s f o r m u l a is b a s e d o n s e v e r a l a s s u m p t i o n s a n d d e v e l o p e d
b y a n a l y s i s o f r e s u l t s f r o m b e n c h scale, p i l o t - p l a n t , a n d field p o n d s . I t is
a p p l i c a b l e t o d o m e s t i c s e w a g e for a 8 5 - 9 5 % B O D r e d u c t i o n [ E q . ( 6 . 5 0 ) ] .
V = 10.7 x 1 0 - Q S ( 1 . 0 8 5 - * )
8
o
3 5
(6.50)
w h e r e V is t h e p o n d v o l u m e ( a c r e χ f t ) ; Q t h e w a s t e w a t e r flow ( g a l / d a y ) ; S Q
t h e B O D o f influent ( m g / l i t e r ) ; a n d t t h e p o n d t e m p e r a t u r e ( ° C ) .
M
264 6. S e c o n d a r y Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic P r o c e s s e s
6.9. A N A E R O B I C P O N D S
L o a d i n g o f a n a e r o b i c p o n d s is s u c h t h a t a n a e r o b i c c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l
t h r o u g h o u t the liquid. Organic loadings range between 250 a n d 4000 lb
B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) . R e m o v a l efficiencies v a r y b e t w e e n 50 a n d 8 0 % . S i n c e t h i s
5
d e g r e e o f B O D r e m o v a l is u s u a l l y n o t a d e q u a t e for d i s c h a r g i n g t h e effluent,
5
6.10. S U M M A R Y O F D E S I G N C R I T E R I A F O R
WASTEWATER STABILIZATION P O N D S
D e s i g n c r i t e r i a a r e s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 6.2.
TABLE 6.2
Summary of Design Criteria for Wastewater Stabilization P o n d s '
Ponds
a
Adapted from Eckenfelder [4J.
6.11. D E S I G N C A L C U L A T I O N S FOR
STABILIZATION P O N D S
D e s i g n for s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 6 . 3 . T h e d e s i g n
p r o c e d u r e is t h a t r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d a s s o c i a t e s .
Example 6.3
W a s t e w a t e r s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s a r e c o n s i d e r e d for t r e a t m e n t o f o r g a n i c
c h e m i c a l s w a s t e . T o t a l d e s i g n flow is 1.0 M G D , a n d e s t i m a t e d p o n d t e m p e r a
t u r e s a r e 15° a n d 3 0 ° C for w i n t e r a n d s u m m e r o p e r a t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
It is d e s i r e d t o r e d u c e w a s t e w a t e r C O D f r o m 2 0 0 0 t o 4 0 0 m g / l i t e r u s i n g t w o
a n a e r o b i c p o n d s in series o f e q u a l d e t e n t i o n t i m e , a n d t h e n t o l o w e r t h e C O D
o f t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a n a e r o b i c p o n d t o 50 m g / l i t e r b y m e a n s o f a n
6. W a s t e w a t e r Stabilization P o n d s 265
D e t e n t i o n time
S (mg/liter C O D )
0 S (mg/liter C O D )
e (days)
Anaerobic p o n d
Run 1 3000 1000 40
Run 2 2000 667 40
Run 3 1200 400 40
Aerobic p o n d
Run 4 700 49 40
Run 5 400 28 40
Run 6 300 21 40
SOLUTION See F i g s . 6 . 1 7 - 1 9 .
Step 1. O b t a i n c o n s t a n t Κ a t 2 5 ° C for t h e a n a e r o b i c a n d a e r o b i c p o n d s ,
f r o m p l o t s o f l a b o r a t o r y d a t a [ ( 5 - S )/t
0 e v s . SJ s h o w n in t a b u l a t i o n b e l o w .
S 0 S e D e t e n t i o n time
(mg/liter C O D ) (mg/liter C O D ) (days) (S -S )/t
0 e
Anaerobic
Run 1 3000 1000 40 50
Run 2 2000 667 40 33.3
Run 3 1200 400 40 20
Aerobic
Run 4 700 49 40 16.3
Run 5 400 28 40 9.3
Run 6 300 21 40 7.0
In summary
Κ (anaerobic ponds) = 0 . 0 5 d a y " 1
K ls = 0.05 χ 1 . 0 7 ( 1 5
- 2 5 )
= 0.0254 d a y " 1
( w a s 0.05 d a y " 1
at 25°C, laboratory conditions).
266 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
601 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Γ
20 1——— 1 1 1 J
K= 16.75/50=0.335 day" 1
liter]Kday)
>*#4
15 S (49;I63) "
\
CP IO
ε
(28;9.3)
(2I;7)
5 -
k
^ Ι Ι Ι -I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
S e (mg/liter)
F o r the aerobic p o n d
K l5 = 0.335 χ 1 . 0 7 ( 1 5
- 2 5 )
= 0.17 d a y " 1
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e d e t e n t i o n t i m e s .
F o r t h e t w o a n a e r o b i c p o n d s i n series [ E q . ( 6 . 3 9 ) ]
/ = [1 - ( 4 0 0 / 2 0 ω ) 1 / 2
]/0.0254(400/2000) 1 / 2
= 48.7 days (each p o n d )
6. Wastewater Stabilization Ponds 267
S fS
e Q — S /S
e e
Λ S e
f
= (S Se)
0
112
= (2000x400) 1 / 2
= 894 mg/liter
( C O D of effluent from a n a e r o b i c p o n d 1)
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e p o n d a r e a ( a c r e s ) . F o r t h e t w o a n a e r o b i c p o n d s a s s u m e
a d e p t h o f 12 ft. S i n c e / = V/Q = Ah/Q, w h e r e / is t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e ( d a y ) ;
Κ t h e v o l u m e o f p o n d ( f t ) ; Q t h e flow r a t e ( f t / d a y ) ; A t h e a r e a o f p o n d ( f t ) ;
3 3 2
a n d h t h e d e p t h o f p o n d (ft), t h e n A = tQ/h o r
T h e r e f o r e , d e s i g n t w o 12.5 a c r e p o n d s , e a c h 12 ft d e e p . S u r f a c e l o a d i n g [ l b
B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) ] for e a c h o f t h e a n a e r o b i c p o n d s is s h o w n b e l o w .
5
Anaerobic pond 1
Since 2 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r = 2 0 0 0 χ 1 0 " 6
lb C O D / l b liquor
χ 2000 χ 1 0 - lb C O D / l b liquor
6
a n d lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) = 11,676/12.5 = 9 3 4
5 (surface loading for
a n a e r o b i c p o n d 1).
Anaerobic pond 2
l b B O D s / d a y = (0.7)(7456) = 5219
lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) = 5219/12.5 = 418
5 (surface loading for anaerobic
p o n d 2)
F o r t h e a e r o b i c p o n d , t h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e is a s f o l l o w s :
1. A s s u m e a d e p t h o f o x y g e n p e n e t r a t i o n , e.g., h = 3 ft.
2. F r o m k n o w l e d g e o f r e s i d e n c e t i m e a n d flow r a t e , c a l c u l a t e a first
a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e p o n d a r e a ( a c r e s ) : A = tQ/h.
3. C a l c u l a t e s u r f a c e l o a d i n g in lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y )
5 based on the
a s s u m e d v a l u e o f h.
268 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
4. F r o m F i g . 6.16 d e t e r m i n e t h e d e p t h o f o x y g e n p e n e t r a t i o n a n d c o m p a r e
it w i t h t h e a s s u m e d v a l u e u n d e r (1). F o r a e r o b i c o p e r a t i o n , t h e d e p t h o f o x y g e n
p e n e t r a t i o n s h o u l d b e at least e q u a l t o t h e a s s u m e d d e p t h . If n e c e s s a r y ,
assume a n o t h e r value of h a n d iterate steps ( l ) - ( 4 ) .
5. O x y g e n p r o d u c t i o n b y a l g a e is c h e c k e d t o a s s u r e t h a t it is sufficient t o
satisfy t h e s u r f a c e l o a d i n g [ E q . ( 6 . 4 9 ) ] .
Calculations are as follows:
1. A s s u m e h = 3 ft.
2. C a l c u l a t e A i n a c r e s .
= 42.1 acres
3. S u r f a c e l o a d i n g . F i r s t c a l c u l a t e l o a d i n g in t e r m s o f l b C O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) .
Since 4 0 0 m g / l i t e r = 4 0 0 χ 1 0 " l b C O D / l b l i q u o r ,
6
= 3336 lb C O D / d a y
Therefore,
A s s u m e B O D / C O D « 0.7. T h e n t h e s u r f a c e l o a d i n g in t e r m s o f B O D
5 5 is
l b B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) = 0.7 χ 79.2 « 55 lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y )
5 5
(acre) ( d a y ) . S i n c e a c t u a l l o a d i n g is o n l y 55 l b B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) , a n excess
5
o f o x y g e n o v e r B O D r e q u i r e m e n t s is a v a i l a b l e .
5
7. Trickling Filters
7.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
T h e t r i c k l i n g filter is a p a c k e d m e d i a c o v e r e d w i t h b i o l o g i c a l slime t h r o u g h
w h i c h w a s t e w a t e r is p e r c o l a t e d . T h e slime layer, w h i c h u s u a l l y h a s a t o t a l
t h i c k n e s s b e t w e e n 0.1 a n d 2.0 m m , c o n s i s t s o f o n e a e r o b i c a n d o n e a n a e r o b i c
s u b l a y e r , a s s h o w n d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 6.20.
T h e biological aerobic process which takes place in the aerobic sublayer
is t y p i c a l ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 1 , F i g . 5.6). T h e s u b s t r a t e is p a r t i a l l y o x i d i z e d
7. Trickling Filters 269
BOD Oo (air)
" ^ j - Aerobic
Ν \ layer
-*\—J-Anaerobic
/ / / layer
/ ι
r ,
!
—f-Slime layer
/ / (0.1-2.0 mm)
-Organic acids
Fig. 6.20. Diagram of aerobic and anaerobic sublayers for a trickling filter.
t o p r o v i d e e n e r g y for t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s . A n o t h e r p a r t o f t h e s u b s t r a t e is
utilized t o s y n t h e s i z e n e w s l i m e m a t e r i a l .
In the anaerobic sublayer decomposition takes place with formation of
o r g a n i c a c i d s , C H , a n d H S ( S e c t i o n 8.1). I n t h e t r i c k l i n g filter, o r g a n i c a n d
4 2
7.2. T H I C K N E S S O F S L I M E L A Y E R
U s u a l l y , t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s l i m e l a y e r is b e t w e e n 0.1 a n d 2.0 m m . I t h a s
a n a d v e r s e effect o n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e t r i c k l i n g filter if it is t h i c k e r t h a n
2.0 m m . C l o g g i n g o f m e d i a m a y o c c u r , t h u s i m p a i r i n g t h e w a s t e w a t e r flow
a n d the transfer of oxygen t o aerobic m i c r o o r g a n i s m s .
Operational hydraulic loadings are low [0.4-4.0 gal/(min)(ft )] a n d are 2
7.3. C O M P A R I S O N B E T W E E N T R I C K L I N G
FILTERS A N D A C T I V A T E D S L U D G E P R O C E S S
F o r B O D r e m o v a l efficiencies o f a b o u t 6 0 % , it is u s u a l l y f o u n d t h a t t r i c k l i n g
filters a r e m o r e e c o n o m i c a l t h a n t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r
s m a l l flow r a t e s o f w a s t e w a t e r . F o r h i g h e r B O D r e m o v a l efficiencies ( 9 0 % o r
270 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
a b o v e ) , t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is m o r e e c o n o m i c a l b e c a u s e p a c k i n g
material costs w o u l d be t o o high. These considerations suggest a possible
t w o s t e p o p e r a t i o n : t r i c k l i n g filters f o l l o w e d b y a n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t , a
c o m b i n a t i o n w h i c h in s o m e c a s e s m a y p r o v e a d v a n t a g e o u s .
S o m e a d v a n t a g e s o f t r i c k l i n g filters o v e r t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s a r e
(1) n o p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s for a e r a t i o n , (2) s i m p l e o p e r a t i o n , a n d (3) s l o w e r
r e s p o n s e a n d q u i c k e r r e c o v e r y t o s u d d e n c h a n g e s o f influent B O D .
7.4. P H Y S I C A L A R R A N G E M E N T O F
TRICKLING FILTERS
T r i c k l i n g filters a r e b e d s f r o m 3 t o 4 0 ft d e e p filled w i t h p a c k i n g s u c h a s
b r o k e n rock, clinkers, or synthetic media (trade n a m e s Surfpac, Flocor,
Actifil). T h e s e p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l p a c k i n g s a r e a v a i l a b l e c o m m e r c i a l l y ( D o w
Chemical C o . , Ethyl C o r p o r a t i o n , B . F . G o o d r i c h , N o r t o n Co.) in h o n e y c o m b
a n d o t h e r s h a p e s . I n f l u e n t w a s t e w a t e r is u s u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e filter
by a mechanical rotating a r m mechanism and percolates t h r o u g h the packing,
c o m i n g in c o n t a c t w i t h t h e b i o l o g i c a l slime layer.
W h e r e a s b e d s filled w i t h r o c k s , c l i n k e r s , o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l s a r e l i m i t e d in
d e p t h f r o m 3 t o 8 ft, b e d s o f s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l s a r e c o m m o n l y 2 0 - 4 0 ft d e e p .
T h e higher percentage of void space for synthetic packing allows a n easier
flow a n d r e d u c e s t h e r i s k o f flooding.
F o r o r d i n a r y p a c k i n g ( r o c k s , c l i n k e r s , etc.) t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a r e t y p i c a l : d i a m e t e r s : 1^—2 i n . ; s u r f a c e a r e a : 2 4 - 3 4 f t / f t o f b u l k v o l u m e ;
2 3
v o i d % : 4 5 - 5 5 % ; a n d m a x i m u m h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g s : 0.5 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) . 2
A d v a n t a g e s o f s y n t h e t i c p a c k i n g s a r e t h a t t h e y (1) a l l o w p a c k i n g d e p t h u p
t o 4 0 ft; (2) a l l o w h i g h e r h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g s , u p t o 4 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ; (3) h a v e
2
7.5. T R I C K L I N G FILTER S Y S T E M S
M o s t c o m m o n a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r t r i c k l i n g filters a r e s h o w n i n F i g . 6 . 2 1 .
(a) Single filter system—May b e o p e r a t e d w i t h o r w i t h o u t recycle. R e c y c l i n g
is i n d i c a t e d for h i g h e r effluent q u a l i t y . If influent B O D is g r e a t e r t h a n 500
m g / l i t e r , r e c y c l i n g is u s u a l l y r e c o m m e n d e d , (b) Alternating double filtration—
T h e first filter is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m o s t B O D r e m o v a l ; t h e s e c o n d o n e is a n
effluent p o l i s h e r . C o n s e q u e n t l y , m o s t slime g r o w t h o c c u r s in t h e first filter.
T h e cycle is r e v e r s e d p e r i o d i c a l l y (daily o r w e e k l y ) a s i n d i c a t e d b y d o t t e d lines
in F i g . 6.21 ( b ) . I n t h i s m a n n e r c o n t r o l o f t h e slime l a y e r t h i c k n e s s is a c h i e v e d ,
m a i n t a i n i n g a u n i f o r m slime t h i c k n e s s in b o t h u n i t s . H i g h e r B O D effluent
7. Trickling Filters 271
Sedimentation!
tank I
Sedimentation Sedimentation!
tank tank I I
S /S
e 0 = effluent B O D (mg/liter)/influent B O D (mg/liter)
T h e t r i c k l i n g filter d e p t h is d e n o t e d b y D (ft) a n d h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g b y L
[ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] . A s s u m i n g B O D r e m o v a l t o f o l l o w first-order k i n e t i c s [ E q .
2
(6.51)],
dS/dt = -k'X S v = -K'S (6.51)
w h e r e K' = k'X .
0
272 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
w h e r e D is t h e filter d e p t h (ft); L t h e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] ; a n d 2
C , η t h e c o n s t a n t s w h i c h a r e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e filter m e d i a a n d specific s u r f a c e .
Specific s u r f a c e is defined a s f t 2
of p a c k i n g surface per ft 3
of bulk v o l u m e .
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f t [ E q . ( 6 . 5 3 ) ] in E q . (6.52) yields
S IS e 0 = - e
K C D
i L n
= e- " KD/L
(6.54)
w h e r e A: = K'C.
E q u a t i o n ( 6 . 5 4 ) is t h e b a s i c m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l [ 4 ] for t r i c k l i n g filters. I t
r e l a t e s % B O D r e m a i n i n g (SJS ) 0 t o d e p t h o f t h e filter (D) and hydraulic
l o a d i n g ( L ) . P a r a m e t e r Κ ( r a t e c o n s t a n t ) is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e e a s e o f d e g r a d -
ability of the substrate. P a r a m e t e r η d e p e n d s o n the characteristics of the
packing media.
7.8. A P P L I C A T I O N O F B A S I C M A T H E M A T I C A L
M O D E L TO TRICKLING FILTERS
WITHOUT A N D WITH RECYCLE
S t r e a m s i n v o l v e d in o p e r a t i o n o f t r i c k l i n g filters w i t h o u t a n d w i t h r e c y c l e
a r e s h o w n in t h e F i g . 6.22. R e c y c l e i m p r o v e s efficiency o f B O D r e m o v a l a n d
d i l u t e s i n f l u e n t B O D t o a level c o m p a t i b l e w i t h m a i n t e n a n c e o f a e r o b i c
c o n d i t i o n s . W h e n t h e r e is n o recycle, E q . (6.54) a p p l i e s d i r e c t l y . F o r t r i c k l i n g
filters w i t h recycle, influent B O D (S ) is d i l u t e d t o a v a l u e S p r i o r t o e n t e r i n g
F Q
t h e filter. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g S 09 5 , S F e9 a n d t h e recycle r a t i o is o b t a i n e d
b y a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for t h e B O D [ l o o p ( ) of F i g . 6 . 2 2 ( b ) ] .
SJS 0 = e- ' KD LH
(6.55)
QS F F + QS R e = (QF + Q R ) S 0
S 0 = (Q S F F + Q S )KQ R E F + Q) R
Dividing b o t h n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r by Q F a n d l e t t i n g Q /Q
R F = r =
recycle r a t i o [ E q . (6.56)],
So = ( S + r S ) / ( l + r ) F e (6.56)
7. Trickling Filters 273
Q F . S F
iQ=Q .Q .S
F R 0
Recycle
Q =rQ
R F
No recycle:(6.54)
S /S =e-KD/L"
e 0 [S = S ]
0 F
S /S =e-KO/L"
e 0
(a)
Fig. 6.22. Trickling filter without recycle (a) and with recycle (b).
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s v a l u e i n E q . (6.55),
S /[(S
e F + rS We + r)] = e- ' KD La
(6.57)
F o r s i m p l i c i t y , let KB/ Π = X. D i v i d i n g b o t h n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r
by S F a n d s o l v i n g for SJS , F
SJS F = e- l(\
x
+r-re- ) x
(6.58)
S IS
e 0 = exp(-0.003^°- 6 4 4
5* - D/L )
e
0 5 4 n
(6.59)
7.9. P R O C E D U R E F O R D E S I G N O F T R I C K L I N G
FILTERS W H E N B E N C H S C A L E O R
PILOT-PLANT DATA A R E AVAILABLE
T h r e e i t e m s will b e d i s c u s s e d : (1) A m o d e l o f b e n c h s c a l e t r i c k l i n g filter a n d
p r o c e d u r e for o b t a i n i n g d e s i g n d a t a f r o m t h i s m o d e l , (2) t r e a t m e n t o f d a t a
o b t a i n e d in o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e c o n s t a n t s η a n d Kin E q . ( 6 . 5 4 ) ; a n d (3) a p p l i
c a t i o n o f t h e s e r e s u l t s t o d e s i g n o f a p l a n t scale t r i c k l i n g filter. B o t h c a s e s ,
w i t h o u t a n d w i t h r e c y c l e , a r e s t u d i e d . T h e a p p r o a c h f o l l o w e d is t h a t p r o p o s e d
b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 5 ] . E x a m p l e 6.4 p r e s e n t s a n u m e r i c a l i l l u s t r a t i o n .
Media
sampling
ports
Γ^β Overflow
Constant head feed Media
reservoir (substrate)
Settling tank
A s a p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p , it is n e c e s s a r y t o g e n e r a t e a n a c c l i m a t e d slime o n t h e
filter m e d i a . T h i s m a y t a k e f r o m a few d a y s t o several w e e k s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
n a t u r e of the wastewater. Samples are t a k e n periodically at the m e d i a a n d
liquid sampling ports, a n d B O D determinations are performed. Steady state
B O D v a l u e s a r e r e c o r d e d . P i l o t - p l a n t u n i t s m a y a l s o b e utilized.
T h e p r o c e d u r e t o o b t a i n b a s i c d a t a is (1) select t h r e e o r f o u r h y d r a u l i c
l o a d i n g s [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] . F o r d e e p filters (D > 10 ft) w i t h p l a s t i c p a c k i n g ,
2
flow r a t e s o f 0 . 5 - 4 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) a r e selected. F o r t h e p i l o t - p l a n t u n i t ( E x a m p l e
2
T A B L E 6.3
Data for Example 6.4*
D, depth
(ft)
L = 1 L = 2 L = 3 L = 4
T h e r e f o r e a family o f s t r a i g h t lines is o b t a i n e d . T h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f t h e i r
s l o p e s c o r r e s p o n d s t o K/I?. F o r E x a m p l e 6.4, t h i s p l o t is s h o w n i n F i g . 6 . 2 4 ,
w h e r e f o u r lines c o r r e s p o n d t o f o u r r u n s [ L = 1, 2 , 3 , a n d 4 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] .
2
90r
15 20
D, depth (ft)
Step 2 . O n l o g - l o g p a p e r , p l o t t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e s o f t h e s l o p e s f o r e a c h
o f t h e lines f r o m S t e p 1 v s . L ( T a b l e 6.4 a n d F i g . 6.25). Since
|Slope| = K/L n
(6.61)
then
l o g | s l o p e | = logK- nlogL (6.62)
η =0.478
0.1
0.08 j
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.02
I 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
L
T A B L E 6.4
K/L" vs. L
L [gal/(min)(ft )] 2
"Absolute value o f slopes,A7L rt
1 0.1085
2 0.0779
3 0.0634
4 0.0560
a
F r o m Fig. 6.24.
O n e s t r a i g h t line is o b t a i n e d , e a c h p o i n t o f w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o o n e e x p e r i
m e n t . I t s s l o p e yields t h e v a l u e o f η i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h E q . (6.62). F o r E x a m p l e
6.4 t h i s p l o t is s h o w n i n F i g . 6 . 2 5 , w h e r e f o u r p o i n t s a r e u t i l i z e d f o r t h e
construction.*
* T h e value o f i f f m a y b e estimated from the ordinate intercept (for abscissa L = 1) o f Fig.
6.25 as 0.11. It is preferable, however, t o determine Κ from the slope o f the straight line in
Fig. 6.26, as described in Step 4 .
7. Trickling Filters 277
Step 3. P e r f o r m t h e f o l l o w i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s :
1. D e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e s o f L f o r e a c h e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n u t i l i z i n g t h e
n
v a l u e o f η d e t e r m i n e d in S t e p 2 ( T a b l e 6.5).
T A B L E 6.5
Values of L = Ι · n β 4 7 β
vs. L
n _ £0.478
Run no. L(gal/(min)(ft )] 2 L
1 1 1.0
2 2 1.393
3 3 1.690
4 4 1.941
T A B L E 6.6
Matrix for Values of D/L n
= D/L 9
Values o f L
D, depth
(ft)
L = l L = 2 L = 3 L = 4
6.7). F r o m E q . (6.60) o b t a i n
TABLE 6.7
D/L n
= D/L 0 4 7 9
v s . (SJS ) 0 X100
D\L n
= D/L 0418
(S l S ) x 100
e 0
5 57.5
3.59 67.5
2.96 73.0
2.57 76.0
10.0 33.5
7.17 46.0
5.91 53.0
5.15 57.0
15.0 19.5
10.75 31.0
8.87 38.7
7.71 43.0
20.0 11.3
14.35 21.0
11.83 28.2
10.30 32.8
TABLE 6.8
S u m m a r y of Calculated Values for Example 6.4
70
60
50
Ο
2 40
^ 3 0
Ο
Slope; Κ =0.109
ε
ν.
ο
2 2 0
GO
10
10 15 20 25 30 35
0.478
L = [-KDI\n(S /S )y e 0
ln
(6.64)
E q u a t i o n (6.64) yields t h e r e q u i r e d h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g L i n g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) .
2
Step 2. T h e r e q u i r e d filter a r e a A is
(6.65)
280 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
d = (4Α/π) 1/2
= (Λ/0.785) 1/2
ft (6.66)
-KD
L =
t (SJS )(\+r)
F
(6.67)
In
\+r(S /S ) J e F
Step 4. F i l t e r d i a m e t e r is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (6.66).
E x a m p l e 6.4
D a t a p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 6.3 f o r % B O D r e m a i n i n g vs. d e p t h a r e o b t a i n e d
f r o m a p i l o t - p l a n t t r i c k l i n g filter t r e a t i n g a n i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r .
1. D e t e r m i n e v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s η a n d Κ a n d w r i t e t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f
B O D remaining to depth and hydraulic loading.
2. C a l c u l a t e t r i c k l i n g filter d i a m e t e r n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n B O D r e d u c t i o n
o f 8 0 % if w a s t e w a t e r flow is 2.0 M G D . A filter d e p t h o f 2 0 ft is p r o v i d e d w i t h
recycle r a t i o o f 0 . 3 . B a s e c a l c u l a t i o n s o n a n influent B O D o f 300 m g / l i t e r .
3. If n o recycle is u s e d for t h e filter d e s i g n e d in P a r t 2, c a l c u l a t e t h e
m a x i m u m w a s t e w a t e r flow p e r m i s s i b l e in M g a l / d a y t o r e a c h t h e d e s i r e d B O D
reduction of 80%.
S O L U T I O N : Part 1 F o l l o w p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 7.9.2.
A s u m m a r y o f c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s is g i v e n i n T a b l e 6.8.
Step 4. P l o t l o g [ ( 5 / S ) χ 100] v s . D / L '
e 0
0 4 7 8
( F i g . 6.26). F r o m t h e s l o p e o f
t h e s t r a i g h t line in F i g . 6.26 o n e o b t a i n s # = 0 . 1 0 9 . F r o m E q . (6.54) for
η = 0.478 a n d # = 0 . 1 0 9 ,
S /S
e 0 = ^- / °* 0109D L 7e
w h i c h is t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f B O D r e m a i n i n g t o d e p t h a n d h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g .
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 T r i c k l i n g filter d i a m e t e r
F o l l o w p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 7.9.3 ( C a s e 2).
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e S 0 [Eq. (6.56)].
Here,
S e = (0.2) (300) = 60 mg/liter
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e L [ E q . ( 6 . 6 4 ) ] .
Here,
ln 0.245 = - 1 . 4 0 5
and
η = 0.478
Therefore,
L = (-0.109 χ 20/-1.405) 1 / 0
· 4 7 8
= 2.506 gal/(min) (ft ) 2
or
2.506 gal/(min)(ft ) χ 6 0 m i n / h r χ 2 4 h r / d a y = 3609 gal/(day)(ft )
2 2
Step 3. D e t e r m i n e t h e filter a r e a [ E q . ( 6 . 6 8 ) ] .
A = 2,000,000(0.3 + l ) / 3 6 0 9 = 720 ft 2
Step 4. D e t e r m i n e t h e filter d i a m e t e r [ E q . ( 6 . 6 6 ) ] .
d = (720/0.785) 1/2
= 30.3 ft
S O L U T I O N : Part 3 N o recycle
A = 720 f t 2
SJSo = 0.2
282 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e a l l o w a b l e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g [ E q . ( 6 . 6 4 ) ] .
Here,
S0 = S F = 300 mg/liter
L = (-0.109 x 2 0 / l n 0 . 2 ) 1 / 0 4 7 8
= 1.89 gal/(min)(ft ) 2
or
Step 2. D e t e r m i n e t h e m a x i m u m w a s t e w a t e r flow [ E q . ( 6 . 6 5 ) ] .
or
QF = 1.960 M G D
( w a s 2.0 M G D w i t h r = 0.3).
7.10. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E W H E N
EXPERIMENTAL DATA ARE NOT
AVAILABLE
Experimental d a t a necessary to determine parameters η a n d Κ by the
p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 7.9.2, i.e., a n e t w o r k o f d a t a a s s h o w n i n
T a b l e 6 . 3 , a r e often u n a v a i l a b l e . I t m a y n o t b e feasible t o c o n d u c t t h e t e d i o u s
e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n t h i s n e t w o r k o f d a t a . If t h i s is t h e c a s e
p a r a m e t e r η is e s t i m a t e d f r o m a v a i l a b l e d a t a for different t y p e s o f filter m e d i a
(n d e p e n d s only o n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p a c k i n g ) . P a r a m e t e r K, w h i c h is o n l y
a f u n c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r , is a l s o e s t i m a t e d f r o m a v a i l a b l e
d a t a for w a s t e w a t e r s f r o m several s o u r c e s . E c k e n f e l d e r [ 4 ] p r e s e n t s a t a b u l a
t i o n o f Κ v a l u e s for S u r f p a c filter m e d i a (n = 0.5) for several i n d u s t r i a l
wastewaters.
8. A n a e r o b i c T r e a t m e n t
8.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
A n a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t is utilized for t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s a s well a s for
d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e s . A n a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s is d e s c r i b e d in t h i s
s e c t i o n . A n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e s is s t u d i e d in C h a p t e r 7 ( S e c t i o n s 2.6
a n d 2.7). T h e e n d p r o d u c t s o f a n a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n a r e g a s e s , m o s t l y m e t h a n e
( C H ) , c a r b o n d i o x i d e ( C 0 ) , a n d s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f h y d r o g e n sulfide
4 2
( H S ) a n d h y d r o g e n ( H ) . T h e p r o c e s s c o m p r i s e s t w o s t a g e s : (1) a c i d fer
2 2
m e n t a t i o n a n d (2) m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n .
In the acid fermentation stage, organic materials are b r o k e n d o w n t o
organic acids, mainly acetic ( C H C O O H ) , p r o p i o n i c ( C H C H C O O H ) , a n d
3 3 2
C H 3 C O O H ? ^ C 0 2 + CH 4
organisms
r a t e c o n s t a n t k. T h i s is s i m i l a r t o t h e s i t u a t i o n f o u n d in a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t
[ E q . (5.18) a n d F i g . 5 . 5 ] . H o w e v e r , o n e s t r a i g h t line is o b t a i n e d i n a e r o b i c
treatment, whereas two result from anaerobic data. T h e rate constants can
b e e v a l u a t e d f r o m t h e s l o p e s o f t h e s e s t r a i g h t lines. F r o m F i g . 6.28, t h e s l o p e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e is m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t f o r
t h e m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e . If t h e t w o lines a r e p l o t t e d o n t h e s a m e scale
a s in F i g . 6.28, t h e o n e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n is n e a r l y
v e r t i c a l b y c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e o t h e r . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e m e t h a n e fer
m e n t a t i o n s t a g e c o n t r o l s t h e p r o c e s s r a t e . T h e r e f o r e , for d e s i g n p u r p o s e s o n e
should a d o p t the k value a n d other parameters evaluated from the m e t h a n e
f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e . S i n c e m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n c o n t r o l s t h e p r o c e s s r a t e , it
is i m p o r t a n t t o m a i n t a i n c o n d i t i o n s o f effective m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n .
D e t e n t i o n t i m e for m e t h a n e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s m u s t b e a d e q u a t e , o r t h e y a r e
washed away from the system. Experimental d a t a show that the required
d e t e n t i o n t i m e v a r i e s f r o m 2 t o 2 0 d a y s . O p t i m u m p H r a n g e is 6 . 8 - 7 . 4 .
A n a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t is relatively i n e x p e n s i v e b e c a u s e a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t
is n o t utilized. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e s i d e n c e t i m e s r e q u i r e d a r e m u c h l o n g e r
t h a n for a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s . B a d o d o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s ,
due mainly to production of H S a n d m e r c a p t a n s , m a y constitute a serious
2
l i m i t a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in u r b a n a r e a s .
8.2. A Q U A N T I T A T I V E S T U D Y O F A N A E R O B I C
D E G R A D A T I O N OF A N O R G A N I C W A S T E
A quantitative study of anaerobic degradation of organic wastewaters h a s
b e e n m a d e b y A n d r e w s [ 1 ] , a n d r e s u l t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n F i g . 6.27.
T h e following observations m a y be m a d e :
1. pH. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n ( a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n ) ,
the p H d r o p s d u e t o f o r m a t i o n of organic acids. Since at a later stage ( m e t h a n e
f e r m e n t a t i o n ) t h e s e a c i d s a r e b r o k e n d o w n , p H i n c r e a s e s . T h e rise s t a r t s
after a b o u t 2 d a y s , a s d e p i c t e d in F i g . 6.27.
2. COD remaining. T h i s c u r v e is relatively flat d u r i n g t h e first 2 d a y s o f
t h e a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e , since a t t h i s t i m e o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s a r e m e r e l y
c o n v e r t e d t o s o l u b l e f o r m ; s o t h e r e is n o C O D r e d u c t i o n . C O D d r o p s m a r k e d l y
after t h i s initial s t a g e .
284 6. S e c o n d a r y Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic P r o c e s s e s
a n d C 0 . S i n c e n o t all v o l a t i l e s o l i d s a r e b i o d e g r a d a b l e , t h e c u r v e for C O D
2
r e m a i n i n g a p p r o a c h e s a l i m i t i n g o r d i n a t e for l a r g e v a l u e s o f r e s i d e n c e t i m e .
8.3. M A T H E M A T I C A L F O R M U L A T I O N F O R
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS
T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n d e s c r i b e d is t h e o n e p r o p o s e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r
a n d associates [ 5 ] .
(S -S )IX t
0 e v = kS e (6.69)
IQ
Acid fermentation stage
2o|
^-Slope: k
7>CT
0
v s . S yields t w o s t r a i g h t lines, a s s h o w n i n F i g . 6 . 2 8 . F o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s , t h e
e
v a l u e o f k o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e s l o p e o f t h e line c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e m e t h a n e
f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e is t h e o n e a d o p t e d . I n F i g . 6.28 a s i n F i g . 5.14, t h e a b s c i s s a
a t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e o r d i n a t e axis c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e s u b
strate (S ).
n
F i g u r e 6.28 c a n b e r e p l o t t e d b y c h o o s i n g a s a b s c i s s a o n l y t h e b i o d e g r a d a b l e
p o r t i o n o f t h e effluent, S '.
e
S.' = S e - S n (6.71)
T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o F i g . 6.29 is
(S - S )/X
0 e v t = S /X
r v t = kS '
e (6.72)
If t h e r e is n o n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r , S n = 0, a n d S ' = S
e e9 t h e n E q . (6.72)
r e d u c e s t o E q . (6.69).
Fig. 6.29. Modified plot for determination of BOD removal rate for
anaerobic degradation.
Waste S l u d g e out
Anaerobic
reactor
Λ
ν,ο "ν
X = (Xv, ο + aSrW
v + bt) (6.73)
E q u a t i o n (6.73) is t h e e x p r e s s i o n for t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in t h e a n a e r o b i c
r e a c t o r . If t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in t h e influent is negligible (i.e., X Vy0 « 0),
t h i s e q u a t i o n is simplified t o yield
X = aSrl(\+bt)
v (X ,o*0)
v
(6.74)
P a r a m e t e r s a a n d b i n E q . (6.73) a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y w r i t i n g it in l i n e a r f o r m .
B y c r o s s m u l t i p l y i n g , d i v i d i n g t h r o u g h b y aX V9 a n d r e a r r a n g i n g , E q . (6.74)
yields
( l / a ) ( l -X .JX )
9 9 + (b/a)t = S /X r v (6.75)
E q u a t i o n (6.75) is t h e b a s i s f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b. A p l o t
of S /X = (S — S )/X v s . t yields a set o f t w o s t r a i g h t l i n e s : t h e first o n e , for
r v 0 e v
l o w e r f's, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e , a n d t h e s e c o n d , f o r
8. Anaerobic Treatment 287
(s -s )/x
0 e v
Methane
fermentation:
lntercept =
(l/a)(l-X Vf0 /X )
v
Note:
If X « 0 , t h e n :
vo
Intercept* l/a
λ .
W h e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in t h e i n f l u e n t is negligible (i.e., X v o « 0)
a s s h o w n in F i g . 6.35, S e c t i o n 8.5, E q . (6.75) yields E q . (6.76).
F o r c a l c u l a t i o n of d e t e n t i o n t i m e , t h e v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s α a n d b c o r r e
s p o n d i n g t o the m e t h a n e fermentation are t h e ones t o be a d o p t e d since this
is t h e c o n t r o l l i n g s t a g e .
t = (X - v Χ , )l(akX
υ 0 v S ' - bX )
e 0 (6.79)
I n E q . (6.79), S J is g i v e n b y E q . (6.71). W h e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n
t h e i n f l u e n t is negligible (i.e., X vo w 0 ) , E q . (6.79) is simplified t o yield
/ = 1 l(akS ' - b) e (X , ο * 0)
v (6.80)
288 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
t h a t m e t h a n e g a s p r o d u c t i o n c a n b e e s t i m a t e d a s 5.62 f t ( a t S T P ) * p e r l b o f 3
C O D r e m o v e d , excluding t h e C O D r e m o v e d w h i c h is c o n v e r t e d t o cells. T h e
p r o p o s e d r e l a t i o n s h i p t o e s t i m a t e g a s p r o d u c t i o n is t h e n
w h e r e G is t h e f t o f g a s ( a t S T P ) p r o d u c e d p e r d a y ; QS t h e l b C O D r e m o v e d /
3
r
M l b liquor), then
„ *„ /^ S
ft3
l M
ο COD
a l
^ lb liquor
l i ( u o r l b
n
o r finally [ E q . ( 6 . 8 2 ) ] ,
8.4. L A B O R A T O R Y A N A E R O B I C R E A C T O R S
FOR O B T A I N I N G B A S I C D E S I G N I N F O R M A T I O N
T w o m o d e l s o f a l a b o r a t o r y a n a e r o b i c r e a c t o r a r e s h o w n in F i g s . 6.32 a n d
6.33. T h e r e a c t o r in F i g . 6.32 is a b a t c h t y p e a n d t h e o n e in F i g . 6.33 is
continuous.
T h e o p e r a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d t o o b t a i n b a s i c d e s i g n d a t a is
1. T o p r o v i d e a seed o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , o b t a i n a s a m p l e o f s e t t l e d s l u d g e
f r o m a m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t a n d p l a c e it in t h e l a b o r a t o r y
reactor. A d d the wastewater to be treated a n d maintain a temperature of 35°C
t h r o u g h o u t t h e test p e r i o d .
2. I f significant a m o u n t s o f a i r a r e t r a p p e d in t h e r e a c t o r , p u r g e t h e
system with an inert gas.
3. T h e m i x t u r e is m i x e d c o n t i n u o u s l y , e i t h e r m e c h a n i c a l l y ( F i g . 6.32) o r
b y r e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e g a s p r o d u c e d , b y m e a n s o f a g a s p u m p ( F i g . 6.33). D o
n o t s t a r t feeding t h e w a s t e w a t e r o r w i t h d r a w i n g t h e m i x e d l i q u o r u n t i l g a s
p r o d u c t i o n is a s c e r t a i n e d .
* S T P stands for standard temperature and pressure, taken as Ρ = 1 atm and t = 60°F.
8. Anaerobic Treatment 289
Feed tube and g a s sampling cock
Withdrawal tube
Mixer
Digester
Rubber tubing—J
Feed-*=fl
(gravity flow)
Feed-*-
reservoir^
(constant head) Condensate trap
Overflow*-^
4. O n c e g a s p r o d u c t i o n is n o t i c e d , feed p o r t i o n s o f w a s t e w a t e r , w i t h
drawing equal portions of mixed liquor.
5. D u r i n g t h e e n t i r e s t a r t - u p p e r i o d p H is o b s e r v e d closely, a n d if it
falls b e l o w 6.6, a l k a l i n i t y is a d d e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e r e c o m m e n d e d r a n g e , i.e.,
p H 6.6-7.6.
6. C o n t i n u e t o feed a n d w i t h d r a w d a i l y u n t i l effluent B O D ( o r C O D )
stabilizes. A n a l y z e a n d r e c o r d t h e d a t a : r a w w a s t e w a t e r : p H a n d C O D ( o r
B O D ) ; effluent: p H , C O D ( o r B O D ) , a n d V S S .
5 5
8.5. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R
ANAEROBIC DIGESTERS
T r e a t m e n t of the d a t a o b t a i n e d in the l a b o r a t o r y t o arrive at design p a r a
meters a n d utilization of this i n f o r m a t i o n in the design of a n a n a e r o b i c
d i g e s t e r a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 6.5.
290 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
Example 6.5
200,000 gal/day of a wastewater are t o be treated by a n a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n .
T h e m e a n v a l u e for influent C O D is 10,000 m g / l i t e r . Effluent C O D s h o u l d b e
r e d u c e d t o a t t h e m o s t 2 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in t h e influent is
negligible.
A b e n c h scale r e a c t o r is utilized t o s i m u l a t e t h e p r o c e s s , a n d M L V S S c o n
c e n t r a t i o n is m a i n t a i n e d a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 500 m g / l i t e r in all e x p e r i m e n t a l
r u n s . D a t a o b t a i n e d a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 6.9.
T A B L E 6.9
Laboratory Data for Example 6.5
1 5 8,550 3,800
2 10 8,400 2,400
3 15 9,190 1,940
4 20 10,200 1,700
5 30 12,470 1,470
1. O b t a i n d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s k, a, a n d b.
2. C a l c u l a t e d i g e s t e r v o l u m e r e q u i r e d ( g a l ) .
3. C a l c u l a t e M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n for t h e a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r ( m g / l i t e r ) .
4. E s t i m a t e g a s p r o d u c t i o n ( f t / d a y a t S T P ) .
3
S O L U T I O N : Part 1
Step 1. O b t a i n v a l u e s o f (S -S )/X 0 a n d (S -S )/X t
e 0 0 e v necessary to plot
F i g s . 6.34 a n d 6 . 3 5 . T h i s is s h o w n in T a b l e 6.10.
Step 2. P r e p a r e a p l o t o f (S — S )/X t 0 vs. S a n d d e t e r m i n e k from the
e v e
s l o p e o f t h e line f o r t h e m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e . T h i s is s h o w n i n F i g .
6.34. S i n c e all r e s i d e n c e t i m e s c o n s i d e r e d a r e l o n g e r t h a n 5 d a y s , o n l y t h e
s t r a i g h t line c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e is s h o w n in
F i g . 6.34. F r o m t h e s l o p e o f t h i s line o n e o b t a i n s k = 0 . 0 0 0 5 d a y and - 1
S « 0 ( s t r a i g h t line p a s s e s t h r o u g h o r i g i n ) .
n
Step 5. D e t e r m i n e p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b. P l o t (S — S )/X v s . t: T h i s p l o t
0 e v
is s h o w n i n F i g . 6.35. A s i n d i c a t e d i n S t e p 2 , o n l y t h e s t r a i g h t line c o r r e
s p o n d i n g t o t h e m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e is o b t a i n e d .
co
CO
5
O m
si 0\ Ν
vo «o
ON OO
m
h
^ ^ ο ο ο
CO
CO
Co Xi «η Ο «ο ρ
σ< (Ν T t
Ο
cn
s
I
S O ^ ^
8
oo ^
8 S8§
Hu oo τ ? λ ι-^
rn r i ^ *-T
CO
~ Q ο ο
«ο Ο _ . _ -
8 8 S
GO Π « η Tf rt^ (Ν Tt
οο οο" oC θ" ri
ΙΛ
<o
9
O.
ε
X
2 ϊ
UJ
•8S
4>
(ft
ο c
ο
<o
(D
III _
-I 3
§8 •Η Ν (^1 Tt ΙΛ
< CD
292 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
2.0
/\
Ι.Θ
16
1.4
).000i > day" 1
1.2 >
1.0
0.8
0
χ
0.6
0.4
0.2
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 D i g e s t e r v o l u m e (gal)
/ = 1 / ( 0 . 1 4 3 x 0 . 0 0 0 5 x 2 0 0 0 - 0 . 0 7 1 5 ) = 14 days
Step 2. D i g e s t e r v o l u m e is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d .
S O L U T I O N : Part 4 G a s p r o d u c t i o n f r o m E q . (6.82)
Since
Q = 200,000 gal/day = 0.2 Mgal/day
then
Ο 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
t (days)
Problems
I. A n aerated lagoon is being considered for treatment o f an industrial wastewater flow o f
1.0 M G D .
T h e following data are available:
Influent soluble B O D = 200 mg/liter
5
Wastewater temperature = 6 0 ° F
Since in most situations summer conditions control required aerator horsepower, base
design u p o n an air temperature o f 85°F
T a k e h = 100 B T U / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( ° F )
2
L a g o o n depth = 10 ft
Oxygen concentration to be maintained in liquid is 1.5 mg/liter
Determine
1. L a g o o n surface in acres
2. Total effluent B O D (soluble + insoluble)
3. Oxygen requirements [lb 0 / ( H P ) ( h r ) ] and total required H P and p o w e r
2 level
(HP/Mgal). Take C sw = 8 mg/liter and α = 0.85. A s s u m e aerators are conservatively rated
at N = 3.0 lb 0 / ( H P ) ( h r ) .
0 2
294 6. S e c o n d a r y Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic P r o c e s s e s
a 10-ft depth. Calculate the area of the p o n d in acres. Calculate surface loading in lb B O D / 5
(acre)(day).
Stages 2 and 3—Facultative ponds. D e s i g n stages 2 and 3 for same residence time in each.
T a k e Κ = 0.2 d a y " for both stages. For stage 2, the design is to be based o n a surface loading
1
of 500 lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) . Calculate the area in acres and the depth in ft. Estimate depth
5
o x y g e n penetration in ft.
Hydraulic loading [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ]
2
Z>, depth
(ft)
1 2 3 4
6 62 70 75 80
12 36 46 57 63
18 24 32 43 48.5
24 14 22 32 39
1. Correlate the data and develop a relationship between B O D removal, depth, and
hydraulic loading.
2. D e s i g n a filter to obtain 80% B O D reduction from 5 M G D of settled wastewater
with an initial B O D o f 2 5 0 mg/liter, using a depth o f 30 ft (a) without recycle; (b) with
5
IV. A wastewater for which the m e a n influent C O D may be taken as 10,000 mg/liter is t o be
treated by anaerobic degradation. Laboratory tests indicated that the nondegradable C O D
is approximately 2000 mg/liter. Average M L V S S influent concentration is 15 mg/liter.
Bench scale determinations yield the following values for design parameters: k = 0.0004
d a y " , α = 0.14 lb M L V S S yield/lb C O D removed, and 6 = 0.02 lb M L V S S oxidized/
1
(day)(lb M L V S S in reactor). Calculate % C O D removal for residence times o f 80, 60, 40,
and 2 0 days, and plot % removal vs. residence time. O n the same graph plot the corre
sponding values o f % C O D removal, neglecting the M L V S S in the influent.
References
1. Andrews, J. F., Cole, R. D . , and Pearson, Ε . Α . , "Kinetics and Characteristics o f
Multistage Methane Fermentation," S E R L R e p . 6 4 - 1 1 . University of California,
Berkeley, 1962.
2. Balakrishnan, S., Eckenfelder, W . W., and Brown, C , Water Wastes Eng. 6, N o . 1,
A-22(1969).
3. Eckenfelder, W. W . , Jr., "Industrial Pollution Control." McGraw-Hill, N e w Y o r k , 1966.
References 295
4. Eckenfelder, W . W., Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes
& N o b l e , N e w Y o r k , 1970.
5. Eckenfelder, W . W., Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton
Press, Austin and N e w York, 1970.
6. Hermann, E. J., and G l o y n a , E. F., Sewage Ind. Wastes 3 0 , N o . 8, 963 (1958).
7. Lawrence, A . W . , and McCarthy, P. L., "Kinetics o f Methane Fermentation in Anaerobic
Waste Treatment," R e p . N o . 75. Department o f Civil Engineering, Stanford University,
Stanford, California, 1967.
8. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. "Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treatment, D i s p o s a l . "
:
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
M o s t p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s ( C h a p t e r 3) a s well a s s e c o n d a r y t r e a t
m e n t s e q u e n c e s ( C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6) yield s l u d g e s w h i c h m u s t b e d i s p o s e d o f i n
s o m e a d e q u a t e w a y . S l u d g e s r e s u l t i n g solely f r o m s o l i d - l i q u i d s e p a r a t i o n
p r o c e s s e s ( s e d i m e n t a t i o n , flotation) a r e r e f e r r e d t o h e n c e a s p r i m a r y s l u d g e s ,
a n d those resulting from biological processes are designated as secondary
sludges.
O n e p o s s i b i l i t y in t h e t r e a t m e n t s e q u e n c e is r e d u c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l a m o u n t
of organic a n d volatile c o n t e n t by submitting the sludge t o digestion. A e r o b i c
a n d a n a e r o b i c digestion of sludges are discussed in Section 2.
A n o t h e r a p p r o a c h is t o i n c r e a s e t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f solid c o n t e n t s i n t h e
s l u d g e b e f o r e final d i s p o s a l b y a s e q u e n c e o f p r o c e s s e s w h i c h fall u n d e r t h e
h e a d i n g s o f t h i c k e n i n g a n d d e w a t e r i n g , s t u d i e d in S e c t i o n s 3 - 7 . F i g u r e 7.1
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i n c r e a s e in s o l i d c o n t e n t w h i c h m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d i n s u c h
treatment sequences.
Special t r e a t m e n t p r e c e d i n g d e w a t e r i n g b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y f o r c e r t a i n
s l u d g e s w h i c h a r e difficult t o d e w a t e r . T h e s e i n c l u d e c h e m i c a l c o a g u l a t i o n a n d
h e a t - t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s , d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 8.
T h e end of the treatment sequence involves disposal of the remaining sludge,
w h i c h is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 9. S l u d g e d i s p o s a l m e t h o d s fall i n t o t w o s c h e m e s
involving either land disposal or incineration. All these alternatives are
i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 7 . 1 , w h i c h is t h e o v e r a l l p l a n o f s t u d y f o r t h i s c h a p t e r .
2. A e r o b i c a n d A n a e r o b i c
Digestion of S l u d g e s
2.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N T O A E R O B I C D I G E S T I O N
OF S L U D G E S
A e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n is a p r o c e s s in w h i c h a m i x t u r e o f p r i m a r y d i g e s t i b l e
s l u d g e f r o m p r i m a r y clarification a n d a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e f r o m a e r o b i c b i o
logical t r e a t m e n t is a e r a t e d for a n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d o f t i m e . T h i s r e s u l t s i n
cellular destruction with a decrease of volatile s u s p e n d e d solids (VSS).
298 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
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2. Digestion of Sludges 299
T h e p u r p o s e o f a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n is t o r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t o f s l u d g e w h i c h
is t o b e d i s p o s e d o f s u b s e q u e n t l y . T h i s r e d u c t i o n r e s u l t s f r o m c o n v e r s i o n b y
oxidation of a substantial p a r t of the sludge into volatile p r o d u c t s ( C 0 , 2
N H , H ) . If b a c t e r i a l cells a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e f o r m u l a C H N 0 , o x i d a
3 2 5 7 2
t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e in a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n is g i v e n b y E q . (5.51). T h i s o x i d a t i o n
o c c u r s w h e n t h e s u b s t r a t e in a n a e r o b i c s y s t e m is insufficient f o r e n e r g y a n d
s y n t h e s i s . I t c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n p h a s e ( F i g . 5.3).
Stabilized
sludge—
2.2. S C H E M A T I C R E P R E S E N T A T I O N O F A E R O B I C
BIOLOGICAL T R E A T M E N T OF S L U D G E S
F i g u r e 5.3 s h o w s t w o v a r i a b l e s ( m a s s o f a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e a n d r e m a i n i n g
s o l u b l e B O D ) p l o t t e d v s . a e r a t i o n t i m e . T h e c u r v e for r e m a i n i n g s o l u b l e B O D
b e c o m e s n e a r l y flat a s t h e m a s s o f M L V S S r e a c h e s its m a x i m u m . S i n c e a e r o b i c
d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e o c c u r s in t h e e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n p h a s e r e g i o n , t h e r e is
essentially n o s o l u b l e B O D r e m o v a l . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l o b j e c t i v e o f a e r o b i c
d i g e s t i o n is r e d u c t i o n o f t h e m a s s o f s l u d g e for d i s p o s a l , a n d n o t r e m o v a l o f
soluble B O D .
300 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
2.3. C O N C E P T O F S L U D G E A G E F O R T H E
C A S E OF S L U D G E DIGESTERS
T h e c o n c e p t o f s l u d g e a g e is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 9 a n d is g i v e n
b y E q . (5.145), in w h i c h t h e d e n o m i n a t o r is t h e n e t o u t p u t o f V S S f r o m t h e
s y s t e m . F o r all c a s e s d i s c u s s e d s o far, c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e i n t h e r e a c t o r
effluent w a s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t in t h e influent. A s a r e s u l t , t h e r e w a s a p o s i t i v e
n e t o u t p u t o f V S S for t h e s y s t e m . F o r s l u d g e d i g e s t e r s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is less
s l u d g e l e a v i n g t h a n e n t e r i n g , t h e difference c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s l u d g e w h i c h is
b i o d e g r a d e d . A s a r e s u l t , t h e d e n o m i n a t o r in E q . (5.145) is n e g a t i v e , c o r r e
s p o n d i n g t o a n e t i n p u t o f V S S t o t h e s y s t e m . T h e r e f o r e , for s l u d g e d i g e s t e r s
t h i s e q u a t i o n is r e w r i t t e n a s
lb M L V S S in the digester
ts = > 0 (7.1)
net input of VSS t o the system (lb/day)
F r o m E q . (7.1), s l u d g e a g e c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e a v e r a g e l e n g t h o f t i m e t h e
n e t i n p u t o f s l u d g e is s u b j e c t e d t o d i g e s t i o n . A n u m e r i c a l e x a m p l e will clarify
t h i s c o n c e p t ( v a l u e s f r o m E x a m p l e 7 . 1 ) : 5 0 0 0 l b / d a y o f s l u d g e a r e fed t o a n
a e r o b i c digester. L a b o r a t o r y t e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t 5 5 % o f t h i s s l u d g e is n o n -
degradable. This a m o u n t s t o (0.55)(5000) = 2750 lb. T h u s , the d e g r a d a b l e
p o r t i o n is 5 0 0 0 - 2 7 5 0 = 2 2 5 0 l b .
T h e a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r is d e s i g n e d for t h e p u r p o s e o f o x i d i z i n g 9 0 % o f t h i s
d e g r a d a b l e V S S . T h e V S S w h i c h is n o t o x i d i z e d is 1 0 % o f 2 2 5 0 l b o r
(0.10) (2250) = 2 2 5 l b . A s s u m e t h a t t h e d i g e s t e r is c o n t i n u o u s , o p e r a t i n g a t
s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s , a n d t h a t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S is m a i n t a i n e d a t
4 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r . D i g e s t e r v o l u m e is 1,185,000 g a l . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e s h o w n in
Fig. 7.3(a).
T h u s , t h e t o t a l o u t p u t o f s l u d g e is
2750 + 225 = 2975 lb/day
Since t h e s e 2 9 7 5 l b / d a y e n t e r a n d leave t h e d i g e s t e r w i t h o u t a n y c h a n g e , t h e
n e t s l u d g e i n p u t ( s l u d g e w h i c h is a c t u a l l y o x i d i z e d i n t h e d i g e s t e r ) is
5000 - 2975 = 2025 lb/day
T h e r e f o r e , F i g . 7 . 3 ( a ) is r e d r a w n [ F i g . 7 . 3 ( b ) ] s h o w i n g t h e n e t i n p u t .
S l u d g e a g e t f r o m E q . (7.1) is d e r i v e d f r o m E q . (7.2).
s
ts (days)
_ 4000 χ 1 0 " lb sludge/lb liquor χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal liquor χ 1,185,000 gal liquor
6
2025 lb sludge/day
= 19.5 days
2. Digestion of Sludges 301
V= 1,185,000 gal
Part of degradable sludge
Aerobic digester which is not oxidized-.225 lb/day
Input: X = 4 0 0 0 mg/liter
v a
V= 1,185,000 gal
Aerobic digester
2 0 2 5 lb/day
(b)
2.4. L A B O R A T O R Y S C A L E B A T C H R E A C T O R
TO OBTAIN B A S I C D E S I G N DATA FOR
AEROBIC DIGESTERS
A t y p i c a l b a t c h l a b o r a t o r y scale r e a c t o r utilized f o r o b t a i n i n g d e s i g n d a t a
for a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r s is s h o w n in F i g . 5.2. E v e n w h e n d e s i g n i n g a c o n t i n u o u s
a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r a s s h o w n in F i g . 7.2, t h e l a b o r a t o r y scale b a t c h r e a c t o r is
needed t o o b t a i n design i n f o r m a t i o n , because residence times required for
a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e s a r e h i g h . R e q u i r e d flow r a t e s for c o n t i n u o u s
o p e r a t i o n are impractically small for the low v o l u m e l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r a n d
cannot be measured with reasonable accuracy. Therefore, continuous labora
t o r y scale r e a c t o r s a s in F i g . 5.10 a r e n o t r e c o m m e n d e d .
A c o n t i n u o u s digester operates, a s s u m i n g steady state conditions, with a
c o n s t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s . F o r t h e b a t c h l a b o r a t o r y scale
u n i t utilized t o s i m u l a t e t h e p l a n t scale c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r , c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
suspended solids decreases with t i m e because of the g r a d u a l oxidation of V S S .
302 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
F o r e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f b a t c h l a b o r a t o r y scale d a t a t o a p l a n t scale c o n t i n u o u s
reactor, o n e should w o r k with a n average value of the VSS c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o
s i m u l a t e t h e p r e v a i l i n g c o n s t a n t V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e c o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r
operating a t steady state conditions. Similarly, the oxygen u p t a k e rate for the
b a t c h r e a c t o r d e c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e . A n a v e r a g e v a l u e is t a k e n t o s i m u l a t e t h e
p r e v a i l i n g c o n s t a n t o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e in t h e c o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r o p e r a t i n g a t
steady state conditions. T h e calculation technique for utilizing b a t c h reactor
d a t a in d e s i g n i n g a c o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r is i l l u s t r a t e d in E x a m p l e 7 . 1 .
F u n d a m e n t a l d e s i g n i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e b a t c h l a b o r a t o r y scale
r e a c t o r is (1) s u s p e n d e d solids v s . s l u d g e a g e ( d a y s ) a n d (2) o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e
[mg/(liter)(hr)] vs. sludge age (days). Several units each with a capacity of
a b o u t 2 liters a r e u s e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a n d r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d a r e a v e r a g e d . T h e
u n i t s a r e filled w i t h s l u d g e w i t h a n initial c o n c e n t r a t i o n w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s
the range which might be expected in the p r o p o s e d digester unit. Samples are
w i t h d r a w n a t selected t i m e i n t e r v a l s , a n d V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a n d o x y g e n
uptake rates are determined.
C a l c u l a t e d d e s i g n v a l u e s a r e (1) r e q u i r e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e ( a n d v o l u m e o f t h e
d i g e s t e r ) a n d (2) o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s ( l b / h r ) f r o m w h i c h n e e d e d H P is
c a l c u l a t e d a n d a e r a t o r s specified.
2.5. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A E R O B I C
D I G E S T E R S O F S L U D G E [1]
T h e p r o c e d u r e for u t i l i z i n g l a b o r a t o r y d a t a for t h i s d e s i g n is p r e s e n t e d i n
E x a m p l e 7 . 1 . D e s i g n for a c o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r is i l l u s t r a t e d f r o m d a t a o b t a i n e d
in a l a b o r a t o r y b a t c h r e a c t o r . F o r t h e d e s i g n o f a b a t c h r e a c t o r t h e p r o c e d u r e
is s i m p l e r , b e c a u s e t h e l a b o r a t o r y scale b a t c h u n i t is a n a c t u a l m i n i a t u r e o f t h e
p l a n t scale digester.
T h e r a t e o f d e g r a d a t i o n o f s l u d g e is t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n t . F o r a c o n
servative design, l a b o r a t o r y d a t a should be o b t a i n e d at the lowest t e m p e r a t u r e
a n t i c i p a t e d i n t h e field.
Example 7.1
D a t a i n T a b l e 7.1 w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m a l a b o r a t o r y b a t c h r e a c t o r . 5 0 0 0
l b / d a y o f s l u d g e a r e t o b e d i g e s t e d a n d it is d e s i r e d t o d e s t r o y 9 0 % o f d e g r a d a b l e
VSS. A s s u m e a n operating steady state concentration of 4000 mg/liter of VSS
for t h e c o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r t o b e d e s i g n e d . C a l c u l a t e (1) d i g e s t e r v o l u m e (gal)
a n d (2) o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t ( l b / d a y ) .
S O L U T I O N : Part 1 D i g e s t e r v o l u m e (gal)
Step 1. P l o t V S S ( m g / l i t e r ) [ c o l u m n (2), T a b l e 7.1] v s . t i m e o f a e r a t i o n
[ c o l u m n (7), T a b l e 7 . 1 ] , a s s h o w n in F i g . 7.4. T h e c u r v e is a s y m p t o t i c t o a V S S
v a l u e e s t i m a t e d a t 3050 m g / l i t e r , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o n o n d e g r a d a b l e V S S
in t h e s l u d g e .
2. Digestion of S l u d g e s 303
T A B L E 7.1
Data for Example 7.1
ω (2) (3)
Time o f aeration VSS R , oxygen uptake rate
r
0 5550
1 5200 35.0
2 4950 28.0
5 4420 19.0
7 4170 16.0
10 3870 12.5
15 3500 8.8
20 3260 6.1
25 3200 4.2
8000i
7000
[Labon itory da a]
1
Κ 6000
@5000
c
ε
ο 4000
,ο,
I 3000
ί
If 1
ο»
i
Ε
mρ
co
£2000
§
m mΜ
1000
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Aeration time (days) [Column φ , table 7l]
Step 2. O b t a i n t h e o x i d i z a b l e V S S r e m a i n i n g a t a n y t i m e b y s u b t r a c t i n g
3 0 5 0 m g / l i t e r f r o m t h e v a l u e s in c o l u m n (2) o f T a b l e 7 . 1 . T h e r e s u l t is s h o w n i n
T a b l e 7.2 [ c o l u m n ( 2 ) ] .
304 7. S l u d g e Treatment and Disposal
T A B L E 7.2
Degradable V S S Remaining vs. Time of Aeration
(Example 7.1)
ω (2)
Time o f aeration Degradable VSS remaining
(days) (mg/liter)
0 2500
1 2150
2 1900
5 1370
7 1120
10 820
15 450
20 210
25 150
F r a c t i o n o f n o n d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e is 3 0 5 0 / 5 5 5 0 = 0.55 ( o r 5 5 . 0 % ) , a n d t h a t
o f d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e is 1—0.55 = 0.45 ( o r 4 5 . 0 % ) . A t t i m e z e r o , c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e is 2 5 0 0 m g / l i t e r [first e n t r y in c o l u m n (2), T a b l e 7 . 2 ] . I t
is d e s i r e d t o oxidize 9 0 % o f t h i s s l u d g e , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e d e g r a d a b l e V S S
r e m a i n i n g is 1 0 % o f 2 5 0 0 m g / l i t e r , o r ( 0 . 1 ) ( 2 5 0 0 ) = 2 5 0 m g / l i t e r .
Step 3. D e t e r m i n e s l u d g e a g e ( d a y s ) for o x i d i z a b l e V S S r e m a i n i n g t o b e
2 5 0 m g / l i t e r . F o r c o n v e n i e n t i n t e r p o l a t i o n p l o t c o l u m n (2) vs. c o l u m n ( / )
(of T a b l e 7.2) o n s e m i l o g p a p e r , a s s h o w n in F i g . 7.5. F o r a n o r d i n a t e o f 2 5 0
m g / l i t e r , a s l u d g e a g e o f 19.5 d a y s is r e a d .
Step 4. F r o m i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d in t h e p r e v i o u s s t e p s ( u t i l i z i n g
l a b o r a t o r y d a t a o n l y ) , t h e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for t h e p l a n t scale a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r
is w r i t t e n a s f o l l o w s :
Sludge I N : 5000lb/day
Sludge O U T :
Nondegradable V S S : (0.55)(5000) = 2750
F r a c t i o n o f d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e w h i c h is not o x i d i z e d : d e g r a d a b l e
sludge = 5 0 0 0 - 2 7 5 0 = 2250 lb/day
Fraction not oxidized: (0.1) (2250) = 225
Total sludge output: 2975 lb/day
T h i s m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e is s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 3 , w h i c h w a s u s e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e
concept of sludge age.
Step 5. C a l c u l a t e t h e d i g e s t e r v o l u m e f r o m E q . (7.2), w h e r e
w h e r e -X w%a = 4 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r a n d t = 19.5 d a y s .
Therefore,
B e f o r e m a k i n g a n e s t i m a t e o f o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s for t h e c o n t i n u o u s
d i g e s t e r , c a l c u l a t e a v e r a g e v a l u e s for V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d o x y g e n
u p t a k e r a t e for t h e l a b o r a t o r y u n i t o v e r a p e r i o d o f 19.5 d a y s .
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e a v e r a g e V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r a l a b o r a t o r y u n i t .
A v e r a g e V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m F i g . 7.4. F i r s t d e t e r m i n e b y
graphical integration the area b o u n d by the curve from the abscissa zero to
19.5 d a y s .
J
*f = 1 9 . 5 d a y s
(VSS concentration) dt = 78,400 (mg/liter) χ day
*=o
306 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
A v e r a g e V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n is t h e n
/V=19.5days
Average VSS concentration = [ l / ( / - 0 ) ] (VSS concentration)*//
Jt=o
J
V = 19.5days
(VSS concentration)*//
f=0
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e t h e a v e r a g e o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e for a l a b o r a t o r y u n i t .
O x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e [ c o l u m n (3) o f T a b l e 7 . 1 ] is p l o t t e d v s . t i m e o f a e r a t i o n
[ c o l u m n (7) o f T a b l e 7 . 1 ] . T h i s is s h o w n in F i g . 7.6. D e t e r m i n e b y g r a p h i c a l
i n t e g r a t i o n t h e a r e a b o u n d b y t h e c u r v e f r o m t h e a b s c i s s a z e r o t o 19.5 d a y s .
/•/ = 1 9 . 5 d a y s
Area = R dt
r = 303 m g 0 / ( l i t e r ) (hr) χ days
2
Jt=o
45i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ο 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time of aeration [Column®, table 7.0
or
χ days χ 24 h r / d a y = 7272 m g 0 / l i t e r 2
A v e r a g e d a i l y o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e is t h e n
»r = 1 9 . 5 d a y s »i = 1 9 . 5 d a y s
Averages = [l/(i-0)] R dtr = R dt
r
]
t=0 Jt=o
= 373 m g 0 / ( l i t e r ) ( d a y )
2
Step 3. E s t i m a t e o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s for a c o n t i n u o u s a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r .
A v e r a g e o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e for t h e l a b o r a t o r y b a t c h u n i t is
373 m g 0 / ( l i t e r ) ( d a y )
2
C a l c u l a t e d a v e r a g e V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n for t h e l a b o r a t o r y b a t c h u n i t is 4 0 2 0
m g / l i t e r ( S o l u t i o n , P a r t 2 , S t e p 1), w h e r e a s V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t s t e a d y s t a t e
c o n d i t i o n s for t h e c o n t i n u o u s a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r is 4 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r . O x y g e n
r e q u i r e m e n t s for the c o n t i n u o u s a e r o b i c reactor a r e estimated a s s u m i n g
proportionality between oxygen utilization a n d VSS concentration.
= 3667 lb 0 / d a y 2
w h e r e 4 0 0 0 / 4 0 2 0 is t h e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r r e q u i r e d for t r a n s l a t i n g d a t a o b t a i n e d
with the laboratory batch reactor to actual operational conditions with the
c o n t i n u o u s reactor. H o r s e p o w e r requirements a n d layout for a e r a t o r s are
o b t a i n e d b y t h e p r o c e d u r e d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 4 , S e c t i o n s 1 4 - 1 6 .
2.6. I N T R O D U C T I O N T O A N A E R O B I C
SLUDGE DIGESTION
I t h a s b e e n k n o w n f o r a t l e a s t a c e n t u r y t h a t if s e t t l e d s e w a g e s o l i d s a r e k e p t
in a c l o s e d t a n k for a p e r i o d o f t i m e , t h e y a r e c o n v e r t e d t o a l i q u i d s t a t e a n d a
c o m b u s t i b l e g a s c o n t a i n i n g m e t h a n e is g e n e r a t e d . A p a t e n t w a s i s s u e d t o
I m h o f T i n 1904 f o r t h e d e s i g n o f a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n vessels, w h i c h a r e k n o w n
as Imhoff tanks. M o s t sludge digestion processes in use t o d a y are anaerobic,
a l t h o u g h a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n is i n c r e a s i n g l y m o r e p o p u l a r , especially for s m a l l
units.
308 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
A n a e r o b i c s l u d g e d i g e s t e r s a r e u s u a l l y o f t w o t y p e s : (1) single-stage d i g e s t e r s
a n d (2) t w o - s t a g e d i g e s t e r s . A t y p i c a l single-stage s l u d g e d i g e s t e r is s h o w n in
F i g . 7.7.
Gas removal
Gas
Supernatant layer
Supernatant layer
outlet
Raw sludge
feed .Actively digesting Sludge
—-—~ sludge heater
^ Digested sludge;^
R a w s l u d g e is fed t o t h e z o n e w h e r e t h e s l u d g e is actively d i g e s t i n g a n d g a s is
p r o d u c e d . A s t h e g a s rises, it lifts s l u d g e p a r t i c l e s a n d o t h e r m a t e r i a l s ( g r e a s e ,
oil, fats), f o r m i n g a s u p e r n a t a n t l a y e r w h i c h is d r a w n off f r o m t h e d i g e s t e r .
D i g e s t e d s l u d g e is w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t a n k .
T h e d i g e s t i o n p r o c e s s is f a v o r e d b y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e ( u s u a l l y f r o m 8 5 ° -
1 0 5 ° F ) , so d i g e s t i n g s l u d g e is h e a t e d e i t h e r b y s t e a m coils w i t h i n t h e vessel o r
b y m e a n s o f a n e x t e r n a l s l u d g e h e a t e r ( F i g . 7.7). G a s is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e t o p
o f t h e d i g e s t e r a n d o f t e n utilized a s fuel, o w i n g t o its h i g h c o n t e n t o f m e t h a n e .
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e t w o - s t a g e u n i t is f u n d a m e n t a l l y t o p r o v i d e a b e t t e r v o l u m e
Gas removal
Gas Gas
Supernatant
Supernatant
XIiV.-
layer outlet
— layer
Row sludge_
feed
-ι f Sludge Digested _
.1 Ί- heater sludge
outlet
Stage I Stage 2
u t i l i z a t i o n . V o l u m e u t i l i z a t i o n f o r t h e s i n g l e - s t a g e u n i t is p o o r , o w i n g t o
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a n d p o o r m i x i n g . S t a g e 1 is u s e d for d i g e s t i o n . I t is h e a t e d a n d
m i x i n g is p r o v i d e d e i t h e r m e c h a n i c a l l y o r b y m e a n s o f g a s r e c i r c u l a t i o n .
S t a g e 2 is u s e d for s t o r a g e a n d s e p a r a t i o n o f d i g e s t e d s l u d g e a n d t h e s u p e r
n a t a n t layer.
2.7. S I Z I N G O F A N A E R O B I C S L U D G E D I G E S T E R S
L a b o r a t o r y s i m u l a t i o n for a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e s c a n b e m a d e b y
t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d for a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r s , e x c e p t t h a t a e r a t i o n is n o t
p r o v i d e d . C u r v e s s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e s h o w n i n F i g . 7.4 a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m
l a b o r a t o r y s i m u l a t i o n , a n d t h e d i g e s t e r v o l u m e is c a l c u l a t e d b y a p r o c e d u r e
s i m i l a r t o t h a t for a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r s ( E x a m p l e 7.1).
E m p i r i c a l m e t h o d s a r e u s u a l l y e m p l o y e d for sizing a n a e r o b i c s l u d g e
digesters. S o m e of these m e t h o d s are based o n the p o p u l a t i o n served by the
s e w a g e s y s t e m (for d o m e s t i c s l u d g e ) o r o n r e c o m m e n d e d v a l u e s o f s l u d g e a g e .
T h e latter values are temperature dependent, decreasing with increase of
o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . T a b l e 7.3 p r e s e n t s s u g g e s t e d s l u d g e a g e v a l u e s a s a
f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e . V o l u m e ( S C F M ) o f g a s g e n e r a t e d is e s t i m a t e d f r o m
E q . (6.82).
T A B L E 7.3
Recommended Values of Sludge A g e for
Anaerobic Sludge Digester [3]
65 28
75 20
85 14
95 10
105 10
3. Thickening of S l u d g e s
3.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
T h i c k e n i n g is t h e u s u a l first s t e p i n s l u d g e d i s p o s a l p r o c e s s i n g . I t c a n b e
d o n e (1) b y g r a v i t y a n d (2) b y d i s s o l v e d a i r flotation.
3.2. A D V A N T A G E S O F T H I C K E N I N G
1. I t i m p r o v e s d i g e s t e r o p e r a t i o n a n d r e d u c e s c a p i t a l c o s t w h e n e v e r
s l u d g e d i g e s t i o n is utilized.
310 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
2. It r e d u c e s s l u d g e v o l u m e p r i o r t o l a n d o r sea d i s p o s a l .
3. I t i n c r e a s e s e c o n o m y of sludge dewatering systems (centrifuges,
v a c u u m filters, p r e s s u r e filters, etc.).
3.3. G R A V I T Y THICKENER
Thickeners are t a n k s of circular cross section provided with a r o t a t i n g rake
m e c h a n i s m s i m i l a r t o t h e clarifiers d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3, S e c t i o n 3.7.
3.4. D E S I G N P R I N C I P L E S F O R G R A V I T Y
THICKENERS
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i c k e n e r s is t o p r o v i d e a c o n c e n t r a t e d s l u d g e u n d e r f l o w .
A f u n d a m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r is t h i c k e n e r a r e a r e q u i r e d for a specific u n d e r f l o w
c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h i s is e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f t h e u n i t a r e a UA, defined a s
[ E q . (7.3)]
υ A = ft /(lb/day) = (ft )(day)/(lb)
2 2
(7.3)
[i.e., t h e a r e a ( f t ) r e q u i r e d p e r l b / d a y o f s l u d g e in t h e i n f l u e n t ] . T h e r e c i p r o c a l
2
o f t h e u n i t a r e a , w h i c h is t e r m e d m a s s l o a d i n g (ML) is
ML = l/UA = (lb/day)/ft 2
= lb/(day)(ft ) 2
(7.4)
given in E q . (7.5).
or
Area (ft ) = (lb/day of influent/ML)
2
[from Eq. (7.4)] (7.6)
[ f t / ( l b / d a y ) ] ; a n d Κ a n d η c o n s t a n t s . C o n s t a n t η is o n l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
2
r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s l u d g e . C o n s t a n t Κ is r e l a t e d n o t o n l y t o t h e
initial c o n c e n t r a t i o n C 0 b u t also t o the height of settling c o l u m n .
E q u a t i o n (7.7) is w r i t t e n in l i n e a r f o r m b y t a k i n g l o g a r i t h m s o f b o t h
members.
F r o m E q . (7.8) a p l o t o n l o g - l o g p a p e r o f [ ( C / C ) - 1 ] v s . (l/UA)
M 0 [or
( M L ) ] yields a s t r a i g h t line o f s l o p e = — η a n d i n t e r c e p t = K. A p r o c e d u r e f o r
d e s i g n o f g r a v i t y t h i c k e n e r s s t a r t i n g f r o m d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m b e n c h scale
u n i t s a n d b a s e d o n E d d e a n d E c k e n f e l d e r ' s e q u a t i o n is d e s c r i b e d b y E c k e n
felder a n d F o r d [ 1 ] .
3.6. FLOTATION T H I C K E N I N G
F l o t a t i o n t h i c k e n i n g c a n b e utilized f o r s l u d g e s a n d is specifically r e c o m
m e n d e d for gelatinous ones such as t h o s e from t h e activated sludge process.
D e s i g n o f flotation e q u i p m e n t is d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 3 , S e c t i o n 4 .
4. D e w a t e r i n g of S l u d g e s by
V a c u u m Filtration
4.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
V a c u u m filtration is t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d p r o c e d u r e f o r d e w a t e r i n g w a s t e
w a t e r s l u d g e s . I n v a c u u m f i l t r a t i o n , w a t e r is r e m o v e d u n d e r a p p l i e d v a c u u m
t h r o u g h a p o r o u s m e d i a which retains solids b u t allows liquids t o p a s s t h r o u g h .
S e v e r a l t y p e s o f m e d i a a r e u s e d , s u c h a s n y l o n a n d d a c r o n c l o t h , steel m e s h ,
a n d t i g h t l y w o u n d stainless steel coil s p r i n g s .
T h e c e n t r a l u n i t is a r o t a r y d r u m w h i c h r e v o l v e s i n a s l u r r y t a n k ( F i g . 7.9).
V a c u u m is a p p l i e d t o t h e s u b m e r g e d p a r t o f t h e d r u m a n d s o l i d s a r e r e t a i n e d
o n t h e d r u m surface. T h e c a k e s t a r t s b u i l d i n g u p a t p o i n t A a s t h e d r u m d i v e s
i n t o t h e s l u r r y t a n k , a n d r e a c h e s full t h i c k n e s s a t p o i n t Β a s t h e d r u m e m e r g e s .
T i m e e l a p s e d f r o m A t o Β (i.e., s u b m e r g e n c e t i m e ) is d e s i g n a t e d a s f o r m t i m e
(t ).
f F r o m Β t o A t h e c a k e is d e w a t e r e d , a n d t i m e e l a p s e d is d e s i g n a t e d a s d r y
t i m e (t ). T h e t o t a l cycle t i m e (t ) is
d c
t = t + t
c f d (7.9)
U s u a l l y d r u m s u b m e r g e n c e b e t w e e n 10 a n d 6 0 % is e m p l o y e d , i.e.,
T h e r e f o r e , f o r m t i m e is u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 10 a n d 6 0 % o f t o t a l cycle t i m e .
After being dried by liquid transfer t o air d r a w n t h r o u g h the cake by the
a p p l i e d v a c u u m , t h e c a k e is r e m o v e d b y a knife e d g e o n t o a c o n v e y o r b e l t t o
d i s p o s a l facilities. T h e filter m e d i a is t h e n w a s h e d b y a w a t e r s p r a y p r i o r t o
b e i n g i m m e r s e d a g a i n in t h e s l u r r y t a n k .
4.2. V A R I A B L E S I N V A C U U M F I L T R A T I O N
V a r i a b l e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d fall i n t o t w o g r o u p s : t h o s e r e l a t e d t o s l u d g e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d t h o s e p e r t a i n i n g t o filter o p e r a t i o n . V a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o
sludge characteristics are as follows:
1. S o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e s l u d g e . T h i s is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e n a t u r e
o f t h e s l u d g e (i.e., p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y , d o m e s t i c o r i n d u s t r i a l ) a n d b y
t h i c k e n i n g p r o c e s s e s p r e c e d i n g t h e filtration s t e p .
2. Viscosity o f s l u d g e a n d filtrate, t h e l a t t e r b e i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e
a s t h a t for w a t e r a t s i m i l a r t e m p e r a t u r e s .
3. S l u d g e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y , w h i c h is r e l a t e d t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e
particles.
4. C h e m i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , i n c l u d i n g p a r t i c l e size a n d s h a p e ,
water content.
Filter operation variables are
1. Operating vacuum. U s u a l l y f r o m 10 t o 2 0 in. o f m e r c u r y . H i g h e r
v a c u u m s a r e m o r e effective w i t h i n c o m p r e s s i b l e c a k e s . F o r v e r y c o m p r e s s i b l e
c a k e s , a p p l y i n g h i g h e r v a c u u m s m a y r e s u l t in c l o g g i n g t h e filter m e d i a .
2. Drum submergence. T h i s v a r i e s f r o m 10 t o 6 0 % , h i g h p o r o s i t y s l u d g e s
p e r m i t t i n g h i g h e r s u b m e r g e n c e s . S l u d g e s o f l o w p o r o s i t y m u s t b e filtered w i t h
low submergence, otherwise the resulting c o m p a c t a n d thick cake does n o t
a l l o w a n a d e q u a t e flow o f filtrate.
4. Dewatering of Sludges 313
w h i c h m i g h t o t h e r w i s e c l o g t h e filter m e d i a , r e s u l t i n g in r e d u c t i o n o f filtration
rate.
4. Type and porosity of the filter media. H i g h p o r o s i t y m e d i a r e s u l t s i n
h i g h e r filtration r a t e s .
4.3. D E F I N I T I O N O F P A R A M E T E R c
F i l t r a t i o n e q u a t i o n s in S e c t i o n 4 . 4 e m p l o y a p a r a m e t e r c, w h i c h is defined
a s t h e m a s s o f solids d e p o s i t e d o n t h e filter p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f filtrate. A n
e x p r e s s i o n f o r c is d e r i v e d a s f o l l o w s : L e t c b e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l i d s i n
f
t h e i n c o m i n g s l u r r y , e x p r e s s e d a s g r a m s o f s o l i d s p e r m l o f s l u r r y . S l u r r y is
filtered in a l a b o r a t o r y B u c h n e r filter ( F i g . 7.10). F u r t h e r m o r e , a s s u m e t h a t
for t h e filtrate t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l i d s is r e d u c e d t o a v a l u e i n d i c a t e d a s
c ( a l s o e x p r e s s e d a s g r a m s o f solids p e r milliliter). P r e s u m a b l y c <ζ c .
f f {
Since t h e s l u r r y is relatively d i l u t e d , a s s u m e t h a t t h e d e n s i t y is a p p r o x i m a t e l y
t h a t o f w a t e r , i.e., 1 g p e r m l . T h u s , 1 g o f feed t o t h e filter c o n t a i n s c g r a m f
o f solid a n d (1 — c ) g r a m o f w a t e r . T h e m l o f w a t e r p e r g r a m o f s o l i d s i n t h e
t
i n c o m i n g s l u r r y a r e t h e n (1 - q ) / ^ ( m l w a t e r / g s o l i d ) . S i m i l a r l y f o r t h e filtrate
o n e h a s (l—c )/cf f ( m l w a t e r / g s o l i d ) . T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o v a l u e s
is
(\-c,)lc -{\-c,)lc
f t (ml water/g solid)
T h e i n v e r s e o f t h i s q u a n t i t y c o r r e s p o n d s t o p a r a m e t e r c, i.e., m a s s o f s o l i d s
d e p o s i t e d p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f filtrate [ E q . ( 7 . 1 2 ) ] .
c = l/[(l-c,)/cr-(l-c )/o] (
(7.12)
314 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
4.4. F I L T R A T I O N E Q U A T I O N S
T h e b a s i c filtration e q u a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e Poiseuille a n d d ' A r c y l a w is
p r e s e n t e d in E q . (7.13).
H e n c e , it is i n d i c a t e d a s Ρ = a p p l i e d v a c u u m ( p s i ) ; R cake t h e r e s i s t a n c e offered
b y c a k e t o t h e flow o f filtrate; a n d ^ m e d i a t h e r e s i s t a n c e offered b y m e d i a t o
t h e flow o f filtrate.
T h i s e q u a t i o n is r e w r i t t e n a s [ 5 ]
w h e r e V is t h e v o l u m e o f filtrate; t t h e t i m e ; Ρ t h e a p p l i e d v a c u u m ; A t h e
filter a r e a ; c t h e p a r a m e t e r defined in S e c t i o n 4 . 3 , i.e., m a s s o f solids d e p o s i t e d
p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f filtrate. C o n s e q u e n t l y p r o d u c t cV is t h e m a s s o f c a k e (lb)
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o v o l u m e V o f filtrate; r t h e specific r e s i s t a n c e o f c a k e t o t h e
flow of filtrate (i.e., r e s i s t a n c e p e r l b o f c a k e ) . P h y s i c a l significance o f r a n d its
u n i t s is d i s c u s s e d in t h i s s e c t i o n ; R t h e initial r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e filter m e d i a .
m
T h i s r e s i s t a n c e is u s u a l l y negligible a s c o m p a r e d t o t h a t d e v e l o p e d b y t h e
filter c a k e ; a n d μ t h e viscosity o f t h e filtrate.
T h e p h y s i c a l significance o f p a r a m e t e r r c a n b e a p p r e c i a t e d if in E q . (7.14)
m e d i a r e s i s t a n c e R is n e g l e c t e d . S o l v i n g f o r r,
m
r = PA /UicV(dV/dt)]
2
(7.15)
A s s u m i n g t h e specific r e s i s t a n c e o f c a k e t o b e c o n s t a n t ,
4. Dewatering of Sludges 315
or
(p/A P)[rc(V /2)
2 2
+ R AV]
m = t
r = (2PA /pc)s
2
(7.17)
R m = iAP/μ (7.18)
w h e r e s a n d / d e n o t e t h e s l o p e a n d t h e i n t e r c e p t o f t h e s t r a i g h t line. A t y p i c a l
p l o t o f (t/V) v s . Vis s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 1 3 . Specific r e s i s t a n c e is p r i m a r i l y useful
for c o m p a r i n g filtration c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f different s l u d g e s a n d d e t e r m i n i n g
o p t i m u m c o a g u l a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s t o p r o d u c e a c a k e offering a minimum
r e s i s t a n c e ( S e c t i o n 4.5).
4.5. L A B O R A T O R Y D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE r A N D O P T I M U M
COAGULANT DOSAGE
L a b o r a t o r y d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f specific r e s i s t a n c e r is b a s e d o n c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f a p l o t o f t/V v s . V a n d c a l c u l a t i o n o f r f r o m E q . (7.17). T h e l a b o r a t o r y
e q u i p m e n t n e e d e d is a n o r d i n a r y B u c h n e r f u n n e l a p p a r a t u s ( F i g . 7.11).
T h e p r o c e d u r e [ 1 ] is a s f o l l o w s :
1. P r e p a r e t h e B u c h n e r f u n n e l a n d filter p a p e r .
2. W e t filter p a p e r a n d a d j u s t v a c u u m t o 15 o r 2 0 in. o f H g .
Buchner funnel-f
Filter paper Λ
Vacuum g a u g e y
3. R e c o r d filtrate v o l u m e s a t selected t i m e i n t e r v a l s u n t i l t h e v a c u u m
b r e a k s . V a c u u m exists a s l o n g a s t h e r e is a p o o l o f l i q u i d o v e r t h e c a k e . A s
s o o n a s t h e l i q u i d is d r a i n e d off, a i r is s u c k e d in a n d t h e v a c u u m b r e a k s .
4. M e a s u r e s o l i d s c o n t e n t in i n c o m i n g s l u r r y a n d filtrate b y e v a p o r a t i o n
a n d w e i g h i n g . L e t t h e s e b e v a l u e s c (initial c o n c e n t r a t i o n , g / m l ) a n d c ( c o n
{ f
c e n t r a t i o n in filtrate, g / m l ) . P a r a m e t e r c is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (7.12).
5. C a l c u l a t e r f r o m a p l o t o f tjV vs. Κ u t i l i z i n g E q . (7.17).
6. R e p e a t S t e p s 1-5 u s i n g v a r i o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f c o a g u l a n t . D e
p e n d i n g on the n a t u r e of the sludge, F e C l a n d / o r lime dosages are 2 - 1 0 % by
3
Fig. 7.12. Typical curve for the effect of coagulant dosage on sludge
specific resistance.
t i o n in E q . (7.17). T h e c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r is
(in. Hg)(34.5) = g / c m 2
(7.19)
If a p p l i e d v a c u u m is e x p r e s s e d in p s i , t h e c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r is
(psi)(70.1) = g / c m 2
(7.20)
4. Dewatering of S l u d g e s 317
2. Specific r e s i s t a n c e r is u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d in c m / g . F r o m F i g . 7 . 1 3 ,
2
U n i t s for c a r e
c = g/ml « g / c m 3
a n d t h o s e for μ a r e
μ = g/(cm)(sec) = Poise
I f Ρ is e x p r e s s e d in g / c m 2
utilizing the conversion factors indicated in E q s .
(7.19) a n d (7.20), a n d t h e a r e a is i n c m , t h e n f r o m E q . (7.17) u n i t s f o r r a r e
2
g/cm χ c m
2 4
r =
"77—77—χ ;—5 * sec/cm = sec /g
6 2
g/(cm)(sec)xg/cm 3
4.7. N U M E R I C A L E X A M P L E : D E T E R M I N A T I O N
OF S P E C I F I C C A K E R E S I S T A N C E U S I N G
THE B U C H N E R FUNNEL
Example 7.2
T h e d a t a t a b u l a t e d b e l o w a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m a filtration l a b o r a t o r y test for
a n activated sludge utilizing a B u c h n e r funnel a p p a r a t u s .
25 48
50 150
75 308
100 520
125 788
150 1118
O p e r a t i n g v a c u u m is 2 0 i n . o f H g a n d t e m p e r a t u r e is 2 5 ° C . A r e a o f t h e
filter is 5 0 0 c m . A s s u m e t h a t t h e filtrate h a s t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f w a t e r a t 2 5 ° C
2
in sec /g.
2
Step 1. Set u p t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n f r o m t h e d a t a g i v e n a b o v e .
25 48 1.92
50 150 3.00
75 308 4.11
100 520 5.20
125 788 6.30
150 1118 7.45
318 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
Step 2. P r e p a r e a p l o t o f t/V v s . V. T h i s is s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 1 3 .
Step 3. F r o m F i g . 7 . 1 3 ,
Since Ρ = ( 2 0 ) ( 3 4 . 5 ) = 6 9 0 g / c m , t h e n r is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (7.17).
2
2 χ 690 g / c m χ 5 0 0 c m χ 0.0443 s e c / c m
2 2 4 6
8.53 χ 1 0 s e c / g
9 2
4.8. S P E C I F I C R E S I S T A N C E F O R
COMPRESSIBLE CAKES
M o s t i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s f o r m c o m p r e s s i b l e c a k e s for which
filtration r a t e a n d specific r e s i s t a n c e a r e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e p r e s s u r e difference
a c r o s s t h e c a k e . T h i s effect is r e p r e s e n t e d b y E q . (7.21).
r = rP Q
s
(7.21)
w h e r e s is t h e coefficient o f c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y . T h e l a r g e r is s t h e m o r e c o m p r e s
9
sible is t h e s l u d g e . W h e n s = 0, t h e specific r e s i s t a n c e is i n d e p e n d e n t o f p r e s s u r e
a n d t h e s l u d g e is i n c o m p r e s s i b l e . E q . (7.21) yields
r = r = constant
Q (7.22)
R a w s e w a g e s l u d g e is t h e e a s i e s t t o filter ( l o w e r specific r e s i s t a n c e ) , w h e r e a s
s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e is t h e m o s t difficult.
2. F i l t e r a b i l i t y is i n f l u e n c e d b y p a r t i c l e size, s h a p e , a n d d e n s i t y , a n d b y
electrical c h a r g e o n t h e p a r t i c l e . T h e l a r g e r t h e p a r t i c l e size, t h e h i g h e r t h e
filtration r a t e ( l o w e r specific r e s i s t a n c e ) , a n d t h u s t h e final c a k e m o i s t u r e is
lower. A d d i t i o n of coagulants p r o m o t e s agglomeration of particles, t h u s
increasing filtration rate.
4.9. F I L T R A T I O N D E S I G N E Q U A T I O N
F o r p u r p o s e o f filter d e s i g n it is c o n v e n i e n t t o m o d i f y E q . ( 7 . 1 6 ) . N e g l e c t i n g
r e s i s t a n c e o f m e d i a (R m « 0) a n d r e c a l l i n g t h a t t is t h e f o r m t i m e (t = t \
f
tfjV= <jirc/2PA )V
2
(7.23)
I t is c o n v e n i e n t t o w r i t e t h e e q u a t i o n in t e r m s o f filter l o a d i n g (L ) f 9 i.e., l b o f
d e p o s i t e d c a k e / ( f t ) ( h r ) . S i n c e p r o d u c t cV r e p r e s e n t s t h e w e i g h t o f c a k e
2
( S e c t i o n 4 . 4 ) , filter l o a d i n g (L ) f b a s e d o n f o r m t i m e ( f o r m l o a d i n g ) is
L f = cV/Atf = lb of deposited c a k e / ( f t ) ( h r ) 2
(7.24)
V /A 2 2
= (ZPi-'tJIQir.c) (7.25)
S u b s t i t u t i n g in t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (7.25) t h e i d e n t i t i e s t f = t /tf
f
2
a n d c = c /c 2
and rearranging,
(cV/Atf) 2
= W-*c)l<jir t )
0 r (7.26)
T h e l e f t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (7.26) is t h e s q u a r e o f f o r m l o a d i n g [ E q . ( 7 . 2 4 ) ] .
Therefore,
Lf = [(^-•cVOir.'/)] ' 1 2
(7.27)
T A B L E 7.4
Units for Form Loading Equation
ω (2) (3)
Practical units Metric units Conversion factors
Lf = lb/(ft )(hr) 2
g/(cm )(sec) 2
Lf l b / ( f t ) ( h r ) x 4 5 4 g/lb
2
χ f t / 3 0 . 5 c m χ hr/3600 sec
2 2 2
= 1.356 x l O " ! , / 4
P = psi g/cm 2
Ρ (psi) χ 70.1 g / c m / p s i = Ρ χ 70.1
2
[Eq. (7.20)]
c = g/ml = g / c m g/cm
—
3 3
r = (sec /g)xl0-
o
2 7
w h i c h is t h e e q u a t i o n for f o r m l o a d i n g . If m e t r i c u n i t s a r e u s e d ( E x a m p l e 7.2),
t h e set o f u n i t s for p a r a m e t e r s in E q . (7.27) is p r e s e n t e d in c o l u m n (2), T a b l e 7.4.
F o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s it is c o n v e n i e n t t o e x p r e s s f o r m l o a d i n g in t e r m s o f l b
o f c a k e / ( f t ) ( h r ) a n d o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s in t h e p r a c t i c a l u n i t s i n d i c a t e d in
2
c o l u m n ( / ) , T a b l e 7.4. C o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r s f r o m c o l u m n ( / ) t o c o l u m n (2) a r e
i n d i c a t e d in c o l u m n (5). S u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e s e c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r s in E q . (7.27)
l e a d s t o E q . ( 7 . 2 8 ) , w h e r e all p a r a m e t e r s a r e in t h e p r a c t i c a l u n i t s listed in
c o l u m n ( / ) o f T a b l e 7.4.
L f = 35.7 [ ( c P - )l(Mr 1 s
0 tf)] '
1 2
(7.28)
Lf = 35J(P - lpr ) (c lt )
1 S
0
ll2 m
f
n
(7.29)
[ F o r u n i t s see T a b l e 7.4, c o l u m n ( / ) . ]
E q u a t i o n 7.29 is referred t o a s t h e f o r m l o a d i n g e q u a t i o n . T h e u s u a l r a n g e s
o f v a l u e s for p a r a m e t e r s η a n d m a r e 1.0 > η > 0.4, o w i n g t o v a r i a t i o n in c a k e
p e r m e a b i l i t y w h i l e a d d i t i o n a l c a k e is b e i n g f o r m e d [ E q . (7.28) c o r r e s p o n d s t o
a v a l u e o f η = 0 . 5 ] ; a n d 1.0 > m > 0 . 2 5 , o w i n g t o effect o f v a r i a t i o n in s o l i d s
c o n t e n t fed t o filter. [ E q . (7.28) c o r r e s p o n d s t o a v a l u e o f m = 0 . 5 . ]
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s n, s, m, a n d r is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 4 . 1 0 . 0
E x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e utilized is d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . E x a m p l e 7.3
( S e c t i o n 4.12) i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e .
4.10. D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F P A R A M E T E R S
n. s, m. A N D r I N E q . (7.29) Q
1. Determination of n. If Ρ a n d c a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t (μ a n d r a r e c o n s t a n t 0
f o r a specific e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n ) , E q . (7.29) b e c o m e s
L f = K (Vt ) 1 f
n
(7.30)
where
K l = 35J(P - lMr ) c 1 s
0
lf2 m
= constant (7.31)
W r i t i n g E q . (7.30) in l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m ,
logL f = -n l o g t + l o g K , f (7.32)
— Αϊ. A t y p i c a l p l o t is p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 7.16.
2. Determination of s. If t a n d c a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t (μ a n d r a r e c o n s t a n t
f Q
L f = K P^- 2
S)/2
(7.33)
where
K 2 = 35.7(l///r ) 0
1 / 2
( c / / / ) = constant
M
(7.34)
4. Dewatering of Sludges 321
W r i t i n g E q . (7.34) in l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m ,
4. Determination ofr .
0 F r o m E q . (7.29) a p l o t o f L r vs. 3 5 . 7 ( Ρ 1 _
7μ) 1 / 2
(c /t/)
m
yields a s t r a i g h t line o f s l o p e ( l / r ) 0
1 / 2
. A t y p i c a l p l o t is p r e s e n t e d i n
F i g . 7.19. S i n c e r is o n l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e , i t is a c o n s
Q
t a n t for all e x p e r i m e n t s p e r f o r m e d w i t h t h e s a m e s l u d g e .
4.11. L E A F T E S T L A B O R A T O R Y P R O C E D U R E
FOR D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF T H E
P A R A M E T E R S IN THE L O A D I N G EQUATION
E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 1 ] r e c o m m e n d a leaf t e s t a p p a r a t u s a s s h o w n i n
F i g . 7.14 for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s i n t h e l o a d i n g e q u a t i o n . I t is
o p e r a t e d b y a l t e r n a t i v e l y s u b m e r g i n g t h e t e s t leaf i n t h e s l u d g e t o s i m u l a t e
f o r m t i m e t , a n d t a k i n g it o u t t o s i m u l a t e d r y t i m e t . F r o m E q . (7.10) it
f d
f o l l o w s t h a t it is p o s s i b l e t o s i m u l a t e o p e r a t i o n o f a r o t a r y filter o f k n o w n
s u b m e r g e n c e b y p r o p e r c h o i c e o f t a n d t . U s u a l l y , t o t a l cycle t i m e (t ) r a n g e s
f d c
from 1 to 6 min.
I n p r a c t i c e , o n e selects a n o p e r a t i n g v a c u u m ( 1 0 - 2 0 i n . H g ) a n d a s u b
m e r g e n c e ( 1 0 - 6 0 % ) . T h e n a d r y t i m e is selected t o yield t h e d e s i r e d % m o i s t u r e
for t h e c a k e . T h i s is d o n e b y u s i n g t h e leaf test a p p a r a t u s a n d p r e p a r i n g a n
experimental g r a p h of % m o i s t u r e for the c a k e vs. d r y time. A s a m p l e g r a p h
is s h o w n in F i g . 7.15. A v a l u e o f t is t h e n selected ( F i g . 7.15) c o r r e s p o n d i n g
d
σ
( J
Dry t i m e , t d (min)
T h e p r o c e d u r e [ 1 ] f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s i n t h e l o a d e q u a t i o n is
1. Select t f r o m F i g . 7.15.
d
2. U s i n g t h e o p t i m u m c o a g u l a n t d o s a g e a s d e t e r m i n e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 5 ,
r u n a series o f leaf t e s t s r e l a t i n g filter l o a d i n g t o f o r m t i m e (t ), initial s o l i d s
f
( T a b l e 7.5).
A p o s s i b l e series o f r u n s is s h o w n in T a b l e 7.6, w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o d a t a in
E x a m p l e 7.3.
T h e f o l l o w i n g r e m a r k s a r e p e r t i n e n t t o T a b l e 7 . 6 : (a) for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f η
(Ρ a n d c c o n s t a n t ) , r u n s 1 - 3 ; ( b ) for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s (t a n d c c o n s t a n t ) ,
f
r u n s 6 - 8 ; (c) for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m (t a n d Ρ c o n s t a n t ) , r u n s 2 , 4 , a n d 5 ; a n d
f
( d ) f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f r , r u n s 1-8.
0
4. Dewatering of Sludges 323
T A B L E 7.5
Usual Range of Values for t and t f d
tc tf = t (% submergence/100)
c U = t -t c f
T A B L E 7.6
Leaf Test Data
3. P r o c e d u r e f o r e a c h r u n is a s f o l l o w s .
(a) A d d t h e o p t i m u m c o a g u l a n t d o s a g e a s d e t e r m i n e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 5 .
( b ) F l o c c u l a t e t h e m i x t u r e f o r 3 0 s e c . I n s o m e c a s e s a series o f t e s t s a r e
m a d e t o d e t e r m i n e o p t i m u m flocculation t i m e .
(c) S u b m e r g e t h e leaf i n flocculated s l u d g e m i x t u r e f o r t h e specified
f o r m t i m e (t ) ( T a b l e 7.5). M a i n t a i n g e n t l e m i x i n g t o a v o i d d e p o s i t i o n o f
f
sludge.
(d) R e m o v e leaf f r o m s l u d g e a n d h o l d it v e r t i c a l l y f o r t h e specified d r y
t i m e , k e e p i n g it u n d e r full v a c u u m .
(e) T r a n s f e r e n t i r e c a k e f r o m t h e filter leaf t o a t a r e d d i s h . C o m p r e s s e d
a i r m a y b e g e n t l y a p p l i e d t o l o o s e n t h e c a k e f r o m t h e leaf.
(f) W e i g h w e t c a k e , d r y a t 1 0 3 ° C , a n d r e w e i g h ; m e a s u r e a n d r e c o r d
cake thickness.
(g) T h e l o a d i n g i n l b / ( f t ) ( h r ) is
2
4. P r e p a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g g r a p h s :
(a) \ogL f vs. l o g t f (P a n d c a r e c o n s t a n t s ) ( F i g . 7.16). S l o p e o f t h e
s t r a i g h t line yields p a r a m e t e r η in E q . (7.29).
( b ) l o g L y v s . l o g Ρ (t f a n d c a r e c o n s t a n t s ) ( F i g . 7.17). S l o p e o f t h e
s t r a i g h t line is (11 — s)/2, f r o m w h i c h p a r a m e t e r s is c a l c u l a t e d .
(c) \ogL f v s . l o g c (t f a n d Ρ a r e c o n s t a n t s ) ( F i g . 7.18). S l o p e o f t h e
s t r a i g h t line is p a r a m e t e r m in E q . (7.29).
(d) L f vs. 35.7(Ρ - /μ) (ο /ί )
1 3 ι/2 η
/
η
( F i g . 7.19). S l o p e o f t h e s t r a i g h t line
is (l/0 >1/2
fr° m
w h i c h p a r a m e t e r r is c a l c u l a t e d .
0
4.12. I L L U S T R A T I O N O F C A L C U L A T I O N
P R O C E D U R E F O R P A R A M E T E R S n, s, m,
AND r Q
Example 7 . 3
L a b o r a t o r y tests o n a leaf filter c o n d u c t e d for a s l u d g e yield r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d
in T a b l e 7.6. O b t a i n t h e v a l u e s for p a r a m e t e r s n, m, s, a n d r i n t h e f o r m 0
loading equation.
SOLUTION
(a) Determination of n. T h e l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f L f v s . t is s h o w n in F i g .
f
7.16, f r o m w h i c h s l o p e = —n = — 0 . 6 5 3 , η = 0 . 6 5 3 .
3001 1 1 1 π—Γ ι ι ιι 1 1
I0L
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0
t (min)
f
60,
50
cqnstant
R u n s : 6 . 7 and
40
R u n Mo. 8 ^
\ ,7-x
-Q
Run Ν
-T 20
-Slope = ( l - s ) / i
10
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ρ (psi)
100
90 -Rtifl -N U". U m
\
80
70 P u n Mn Α —*ύ
n u n WU. *τ v
60
Dpe=m
ccr so
1?un No. 2y
* 40
30
[t , P = c o n s t a n t ]
f
R u n s . 2 , 4 and 5
20
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06
c
( b ) Determination of s. T h e l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f L f v s . Ρ is s h o w n i n F i g .
7.17. From Fig. 7.17 read s l o p e = (1 -s)/2 = 0.1635. Therefore, s =
1 - 2 ( 0 . 1 6 3 5 ) = 0.673.
(c) Determination of m. T h e l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f L f vs. c is s h o w n i n F i g .
7.18. F r o m F i g . 7.18 r e a d s l o p e = m = 1.265.
100
Runs: 1 throigh 8
90
Run NO.
80
Run N( ι. 1
70 ι A
Run Ν
- 60
1/2
-Slope = ( l / r ) 0
Ξ 50
η
-Run 1 Jo. 2
jf 4 0
30 £=Run Nu. 3
tun No 8
η No. 7
20 ^-Run No. 6
10
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
35.7(p'" //x) (c /ty)
s ,/2 m
T A B L E 7.7
Calculations for Determination of r (Example 7.3) c
R u n no.
j p l - 0 . 6 7 3 _ p 0 . 3 2 7 c 1.265 ,0,653
l
f 35J(P - M (c /t )
1 s lJ2 m
f
n
(d) Determination of r .
0 T h e plot of L f vs. 35J(P ' /p) (c /t/)
i s i/2 m
is
s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 1 9 ; t h e n e c e s s a r y c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 7.7.
Take μ = 1 cP.
F r o m F i g . 7.19 s l o p e = ( l / r ) 0
1 / 2
= 48.5. Therefore, r = (1/48.5) = 0.000425. 0
2
4.13. P R O C E D U R E F O R R O T A R Y FILTER
D E S I G N [1]
Step 1. F r o m F i g . 7.15 select a n a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e o f t h e d r y t i m e t for a d
u s e (a) v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s n, m, s, a n d r d e t e r m i n e d f r o m l a b o r a t o r y d a t a
0
f r o m S t e p 2 ; a n d (d) μ a n d c f r o m d a t a o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s l u d g e . O r d i n a r i l y
take μ = 1 cP.
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e cycle l o a d i n g L c from
E x a m p l e 7.4 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e .
E x a m p l e 7.4
m i n t o b e a n a p p r o p r i a t e c h o i c e . * I t is d e s i r e d t o d e s i g n a v a c u u m filter t o
d e w a t e r 3 0 , 0 0 0 l b / d a y o f s l u d g e ( d r y w e i g h t ) . P a r a m e t e r c is 0 . 0 3 . F i l t e r
o p e r a t e s 100 h r / w e e k . Select a s u b m e r g e n c e o f 2 5 % a n d a n o p e r a t i n g v a c u u m
o f 15 i n . o f H g . D e t e r m i n e t h e r e q u i r e d filter a r e a i n f t . 2
* Details o f these tests, including the graph (similar to Fig. 7.15) utilized for selection o f
t , are not s h o w n in the text.
d
328 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
SOLUTION
Step 1. t = 1.25 m i n .
d
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e t f r o m E q . (7.39).
f
t f = 1 . 2 5 / [ ( 1 0 0 / 2 5 ) - l ] = 0.417 min
Take t f = 0.5 m i n a n d adjust accordingly values of t a n d % submergence, c
i.e. [ f r o m E q . ( 7 . 9 ) ] ,
t = h + t = 0.5 + 1.25 = 1.75 min
c d
F r o m E q . (7.10), t h e a d j u s t e d % s u b m e r g e n c e is
% submergence = 1 0 0 ( / / / i ) = 100(0.5/1.75) = 28.6% c
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e f o r m l o a d i n g L f r o m E q . (7.29), w h e r e p a r a m e t e r s
f
η = 0 . 6 5 3 , s = 0 . 6 7 3 , m = 1.265, a n d r = 0 . 0 0 0 4 2 5 ( E x a m p l e 7.3). O t h e r d a t a :
0
Ρ = 15 i n . H g ( = 7.35 p s i ) , μ = 1 c P , c = 0 . 0 3 , a n d t = 0.5 m i n . f
Step 5. D e t e r m i n e t h e r e q u i r e d filter a r e a [ E q . ( 7 . 4 1 ) ] .
5. P r e s s u r e Filtration
F i l t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e s in filter p r e s s e s is e c o n o m i c a l l y feasible w h e n e v e r
l a b o r c o s t s a r e relatively l o w , o w i n g t o t h e difficulty o f full a u t o m a t i o n o f t h e
o p e r a t i o n . R e c e n t l y , s y s t e m s w i t h fully a u t o m a t i c o p e r a t i o n h a v e b e e n
available commercially with a u t o m a t i c opening of the press, cake discharge,
a n d w a s h i n g o f t h e filter m e d i a b e t w e e n cycles. T h e s e n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s t e n d
t o m a k e filter p r e s s e s d e s i r a b l e for u s e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y in t h e f u t u r e .
T h e m a i n a d v a n t a g e o f filter p r e s s e s o v e r r o t a r y v a c u u m filters is t h a t a
d r i e r c a k e c a n b e o b t a i n e d . T h i s is especially a d v a n t a g e o u s if filtration is
followed by incineration.
6. Centrifugation
Dewatering of sludges by centrifugation has been applied with increasing
f r e q u e n c y i n t h e last few y e a r s . A s k e t c h o f a t y p i c a l c e n t r i f u g e for t h i s service
(a c o n t i n u o u s solid b o w l t y p e ) is s h o w n in F i g . 7.20.
T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e c e n t r i f u g e a r e (1) fixed c a s i n g , (2) r o t a t i n g b o w l ,
(3) r o t a t i n g i n n e r c o n v e y o r , (4) d r i v i n g c o m p o n e n t s ( m o t o r a n d g e a r s y s t e m ) ,
(5) s l u r r y inlet p o r t , (6) solids d i s c h a r g e p o r t , a n d (7) l i q u i d d i s c h a r g e p o r t .
7. Bed Drying of Sludges 329
Fig. 7.20. Bird continuous solid bowl centrifuge. (Courtesy of Bird Machine
Company, Inc.)
S l u d g e solids a r e c o m p a c t e d b y c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e i n n e r w a l l s o f
the rotating bowl, then picked u p by the conveyor a n d t a k e n t o the solids
d i s c h a r g e p o r t . L i q u i d is d i s c h a r g e d a t t h e o p p o s i t e e n d o f t h e b o w l . N o
e s t a b l i s h e d d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e is a v a i l a b l e f r o m l a b o r a t o r y d a t a , b u t feasibility
o f c e n t r i f u g a t i o n for a specific s l u d g e m a y b e e v a l u a t e d f r o m t e s t s e m p l o y i n g
l a b o r a t o r y centrifuges.
7. Bed Drying of S l u d g e s
7.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
A i r d r y i n g o f s l u d g e s o n s a n d b e d s is o n e o f t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l m e t h o d s
for d e w a t e r i n g . I t is t h e m o s t c o m m o n m e t h o d for s m a l l t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s , f o r
b o t h domestic a n d industrial wastewaters.
330 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
E c o n o m i c feasibility o f t h e p r o c e s s d e p e n d s g r e a t l y o n (1) a v a i l a b i l i t y o f
l a n d a t a r e a s o n a b l e c o s t , a n d (2) f a v o r a b l e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s ( d r y a n d w a r m
c l i m a t e ) c o n d u c i v e t o o p t i m u m e v a p o r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . T h e a r e a n e e d e d is a
f u n c t i o n o f (1) rainfall a n d e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e s , a n d (2) s l u d g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
(for e x a m p l e , g e l a t i n o u s s l u d g e s r e q u i r e a l a r g e r a r e a ) .
7.2. M E C H A N I S M S O F D E W A T E R I N G SLUDGES
ON SAND BEDS
Dewatering of sludges occurs by t w o m e c h a n i s m s :
1. P e r c o l a t i o n o f w a t e r t h r o u g h t h e s a n d b e d . T h e p r o p o r t i o n o f w a t e r
r e m o v e d by percolation varies from 20 t o 5 5 % d e p e n d i n g o n initial solids
c o n t e n t o f s l u d g e a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o l i d s . P e r c o l a t i o n is g e n e r a l l y c o m
p l e t e in 1-3 d a y s , r e s u l t i n g in s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n a s h i g h a s 1 5 - 2 5 % .
2. E v a p o r a t i o n o f w a t e r . E v a p o r a t i o n o c c u r s b y m e c h a n i s m s o f r a d i a t i o n
a n d c o n v e c t i o n . T h e r a t e o f e v a p o r a t i o n is s l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f d e w a t e r i n g b y
p e r c o l a t i o n , a n d it is r e l a t e d t o t e m p e r a t u r e , r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y , a n d a i r v e l o c i t y .
A t y p i c a l e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e c u r v e is s h o w n i n F i g . 7.21 a n d e x h i b i t s t w o d i s
t i n c t s e c t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o c o n s t a n t a n d falling r a t e p e r i o d s .
Moisture (%)
D u r i n g t h e c o n s t a n t r a t e p e r i o d , t h e s l u d g e s u r f a c e is w e t , a n d r a t e o f
e v a p o r a t i o n is relatively i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e . T h i s r a t e is
less t h a n t h a t w h i c h is o b s e r v e d f r o m a free w a t e r s u r f a c e (free w a t e r e v a p o r a
t i o n ) , o w i n g t o t h e fact t h a t t h e p l a n e o f v a p o r i z a t i o n is b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e o f
t h e solid. E v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e e d s a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e u n t i l a critical m o i s t u r e
c o n t e n t is r e a c h e d ( F i g . 7.21).
W h e n t h e critical m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t is r e a c h e d , w a t e r n o l o n g e r m i g r a t e s t o
t h e surface o f t h e s l u d g e a s r a p i d l y a s it e v a p o r a t e s , a n d t h e falling r a t e p e r i o d
7. Bed Drying of Sludges 331
o c c u r s . R a t e o f d r y i n g d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d is r e l a t e d t o t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s l u d g e ,
its p h y s i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , a n d atmospheric conditions. Sub
s u r f a c e d r y i n g c o n t i n u e s u n t i l a n e q u i l i b r i u m m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t is r e a c h e d
( F i g . 7.21).
7.3. C O N S T R U C T I O N OF S A N D D R Y I N G B E D S
T y p i c a l s a n d b e d c o n s t r u c t i o n is i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 7.22, w h i c h s h o w s a
v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n o f a d r y i n g b e d . U n d e r d r a i n p i p i n g m a y b e o f vitrified clay,
w i t h a m i n i m u m d i a m e t e r o f 4 in. a n d a m i n i m u m s l o p e o f 1%. T h e filtrate is
returned to the treatment plant.
Gravel
-Gravel 8 to 18"
Size: 1/8 to I inch
diameter
Underdrain » » Filtrate
piping-'
S l u d g e is u s u a l l y a p p l i e d t o d r y i n g b e d s a t d e p t h s o f 8 - 1 2 i n . I t is left t o
d r y u n t i l it r e a c h e s a s o l i d s c o n t e n t b e t w e e n 3 0 a n d 5 0 % . I t is r e m o v e d w h e n
s o l i d s r e a c h a liftable s t a t e , w h i c h v a r i e s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l j u d g e m e n t a s well a s
t h e final d i s p o s a l m e a n s .
T h e p e r i o d o f t i m e b e t w e e n a p p l i c a t i o n o f s l u d g e t o s a n d b e d a n d its r e m o v a l
in a liftable s t a t e is c a l l e d b e d t u r n o v e r t i m e . I t v a r i e s b e t w e e n 2 0 a n d 7 5 d a y s ,
d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e . I t is p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e s u b s t a n t i a l l y
the bed t u r n o v e r time by prior t r e a t m e n t with chemical c o a g u l a n t s , for
e x a m p l e , a l u m a n d p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s . By c h e m i c a l p r e t r e a t m e n t it is p o s s i b l e
t o r e d u c e d r y i n g t i m e b y a s m u c h a s 5 0 % , a n d it is feasible t o a p p l y t h e s l u d g e
in a t h i c k e r l a y e r . B e d yield is r e p o r t e d t o v a r y l i n e a r l y w i t h c o a g u l a n t
dosage.
7.4. D R Y I N G B E D D E S I G N
In the past, drying beds have been designed o n a n empirical basis of ft of 2
e m p l o y e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a r e given in Ref. [ 7 ] .
332 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
E x a m p l e 7.5
Sludge drying beds are considered to dewater 4000 lb/day (dry weight) of
a s l u d g e p r o d u c e d in a n i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t . T h e s l u d g e is
a p p l i e d t o b e d s in 10-in. lifts.
A laboratory study shows t h a t percolation increased solids concentration
f r o m its initial v a l u e o f 5 % t o 2 0 % i n 2 5 h r . S l u d g e is c o n s i d e r e d liftable f r o m
drying beds at 25%solids. Meteorological records for the region a r e indicated
in T a b l e 7.8. D e t e r m i n e t h e r e q u i r e d a r e a o f b e d s .
TABLE 7 . 8
Rainfall and Evaporation Record (Example 7 . 5 )
Rainfall (in.) 4.0 3.0 3.1 4.1 4.0 3.5 2.1 3.0 3.2 3.0 2.7 2.8
Evaporation (in.) 5.8 6.5 7.5 8.7 11.2 11.0 13.2 11.3 9.1 6.5 4.6 3.1
10 in. l i f t — 10/12 = 0 . 8 3 ft
(I f t ) 2
χ ( 0 . 8 3 f t ) ( 6 2 . 4 I b / f t ) = 5 l . 8 lb
3
SOLUTION T a k e s l u d g e d e n s i t y a s 62.4 l b / f t . B a s e c a l c u l a t i o n s o n t o t a l
3
l b o f w e t s l u d g e a p p l i e d i n a lift p e r f t o f b e d , a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 7 . 2 3 .
2
Steps 1 and 2. P e r f o r m l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s a s d e s c r i b e d .
Step 3. S o l i d s c o n t e n t a t b e g i n n i n g o f p e r c o l a t i o n e q u a l s 5 % a s s t a t e d .
B a s e d o n a 10-in. lift p e r f t o f b e d , t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o (51.8 l b ) ( 0 . 0 5 ) = 2.6
2
Step 4. E v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e e d s t o a final c a k e c o n t a i n i n g 2 5 % s o l i d s . T h i s
c o r r e s p o n d s t o a t o t a l w e i g h t o f w e t c a k e p e r f t o f a r e a (10-in. lift) = 2.6
2
l b / 0 . 2 5 = 10.4 l b / f t .2
334 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
(Step 3) (Step 4)
W a t e r e v a p o r a t e d is e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f i n c h e s e v a p o r a t e d p e r f t 2
of bed
area. V o l u m e of water e v a p o r a t e d (ft /ft 3 2
o f b e d a r e a ) is
or
0.0417 f t / f t
3 2
χ 12 in./ft = 0.5 in. of water to be evaporated/ft of bed area 2
Step 6. M a i n t a i n m e t e o r o l o g i c a l r e c o r d s ( T a b l e 7.8).
Step 7. R e c o r d i n c h e s o f rainfall χ 0 . 5 7 ; see c o l u m n s (2) a n d (3) o f T a b l e
7.9. R e c o r d i n c h e s o f e v a p o r a t i o n χ 0 . 7 5 ; see c o l u m n s (4) a n d (5) o f T a b l e 7.9.
Step 8. T a k e t h e a v e r a g e e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e ( d a y s / i n . ) f o r e a c h m o n t h .
T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n is i n d i c a t e d in c o l u m n s (6) a n d (7) o f T a b l e 7.9.
Step 9. D e t e r m i n e t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o e v a p o r a t e 0.5 in. o f w a t e r (see
S t e p 5). T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n is i n d i c a t e d i n c o l u m n (8) o f T a b l e 7.9.
Step 10. C a l c u l a t e t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o e v a p o r a t e rainfall ( d a y s ) . T h i s
c a l c u l a t i o n is i n d i c a t e d in c o l u m n (9) o f T a b l e 7.9.
Step 11. E s t i m a t e t h e t o t a l t i m e r e q u i r e d t o e v a p o r a t e 0.5 i n . o f w a t e r plus
r a i n f a l l . See c o l u m n (10), T a b l e 7.9.
Step 12. T a k e D e c e m b e r a s t h e c o n t r o l m o n t h [ l a r g e s t v a l u e o f t o t a l
t i m e , i.e., 2 7 . 9 5 d a y s , c o l u m n (70) o f T a b l e 7 . 9 ] . R e q u i r e d a r e a o f s a n d b e d is
then
8. P r e - d e w a t e r i n g T r e a t m e n t
of S l u d g e s
F r e q u e n t l y , d e w a t e r i n g of s l u d g e s is difficult, especially w h e n o f g e l a t i n o u s
c o n s i s t e n c y . D e w a t e r i n g t h e s e t y p e s o f s l u d g e s b y v a c u u m filtration, f o r
e x a m p l e , is e x c e e d i n g l y difficult, a n d p r e - d e w a t e r i n g t r e a t m e n t m a y b e
r e c o m m e n d e d . T w o t y p e s o f p r e d e w a t e r i n g t r e a t m e n t a r e d i s c u s s e d in t h i s
s e c t i o n : (1) c h e m i c a l c o a g u l a t i o n a n d (2) h e a t t r e a t m e n t .
8.1. C H E M I C A L C O A G U L A T I O N
A d d i t i o n of c h e m i c a l c o a g u l a n t s p r o m o t e s c o a l e s c e n c e o f s l u d g e p a r t i c l e s
a n d t h u s i m p r o v e s t h e i r ability t o b e filtered. I t m a y b e p r e c e d e d b y w a s h i n g
o f t h e s l u d g e , a n o p e r a t i o n w h i c h is k n o w n a s e l u t r i a t i o n . E l u t r i a t i o n r e d u c e s
alkalinity, a n d therefore minimizes coagulant requirements. F e C l , lime, a n d 3
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336 7. S l u d g e Treatment and Disposal
8.2. H E A T T R E A T M E N T O F S L U D G E S
T h r e e p r o c e s s e s o f h e a t t r e a t m e n t a r e d e s c r i b e d in t h i s s e c t i o n : (1) P o r t e u s ,
(2) Z i m p r o , a n d (3) N i c h o l s p r o c e s s e s . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e w e t o x i d a t i o n
o f s l u d g e . T h i s c o n s i s t s o f c h e m i c a l o x i d a t i o n o f o r g a n i c solids in a n a q u e o u s
p h a s e b y d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n in r e a c t o r s o p e r a t i n g a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d
p r e s s u r e s . A d v a n t a g e s o f h e a t t r e a t m e n t a r e t h a t s l u d g e is sterilized, d e
o d o r i z e d , a n d c a n b e easily filtered e i t h e r in v a c u u m o r p r e s s u r e filters. A
c o m b i n e d flow d i a g r a m for t h e P o r t e u s a n d Z i m p r o p r o c e s s e s is s h o w n in
F i g . 7.24.
Coagulated sludge
Sludge inlet
Sludge outlet
(To thickening and/or
filtration/or drying beds)
Fig. 7.24. Combined flow diagrams for the Porteus and Zimpro processes.
T h e N i c h o l s h e a t - t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s [ 4 ] is a t h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m t h a t
c o n d i t i o n s all t y p e s o f s e w a g e s l u d g e for effective d e w a t e r i n g . S l u d g e is s u b
jected t o a t e m p e r a t u r e of 395°F for a p e r i o d of 30 m i n , b r e a k i n g d o w n
g e l a t i n o u s cell s t r u c t u r e s t o r e l e a s e e n t r a i n e d w a t e r . A f t e r t h i s t h e r m a l a g i n g
s t e p , specific r e s i s t a n c e a n d c a p i l l a r y s u c t i o n t i m e o f t h e s l u d g e a r e l o w e r e d t o
a p o i n t w h e r e it c a n easily b e d e w a t e r e d m e c h a n i c a l l y t o a h i g h s o l i d s c o n
centration without addition of chemicals.
H e a t t r e a t m e n t c a n b e u s e d t o c o n d i t i o n all t y p e s o f c o m b i n a t i o n s o f o r g a n i c
w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e , i n c l u d i n g t h e difficult t o h a n d l e w a s t e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e .
T h e p r e s e n c e o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s h a s n o t b e e n f o u n d t o affect s l u d g e c o n
ditioning.
A s s h o w n i n F i g . 7.25, s l u d g e first p a s s e s t h r o u g h g r i n d e r s , t h e n i n t o h i g h
p r e s s u r e feed p u m p s . I n t e r l o c k s p r e v e n t i m p r o p e r flow levels a n d r a t e s a n d
a s s u r e c o n t i n u o u s feed. S l u d g e t r a v e l s d i r e c t l y t o t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r s e c t i o n ,
w h e r e it is b r o u g h t t o p r o c e s s t e m p e r a t u r e i n t w o s t a g e s ; i t t h e n flows c o n
tinuously through the reactor along serpentine tubes, where thermal aging
takes place. T h e treated sludge then travels back t h r o u g h the heat exchanger,
t h i s t i m e g i v i n g u p its h e a t , a n d i n t o a vessel t h a t c o n t r o l s p r e s s u r e a n d
b a l a n c e s t h e s y s t e m o u t p u t a g a i n s t i n p u t . H e a t - t r e a t e d s l u d g e is t h e n d i s
c h a r g e d i n t o a d e c a n t i n g t a n k . T h i c k e n e d s l u d g e is d r a w n c o n t i n u o u s l y o u t o f
the decanting t a n k into a conditioned sludge tank equipped with mixers.
F i n a l l y , c o n d i t i o n e d , t h i c k e n e d , a n d h o m o g e n i z e d s l u d g e is p u m p e d t o t h e
dewatering equipment.
T h e p r i m a r y sludge heater employs water t o transfer heat from o u t g o i n g t o
i n c o m i n g s l u d g e . T h i s m e t h o d p e r m i t s all s l u d g e t o flow u n h i n d e r e d t h r o u g h
the heat exchanger along piping designed to eliminate the high maintenance
costs associated with plugging. T h e secondary heater also m a k e s use of water
t o t r a n s f e r h e a t t o s l u d g e . S i n c e it is a n i n d i r e c t " c l o s e d l o o p " s y s t e m , w a t e r is
r e t a i n e d , a n d all h e a t t h a t r e m a i n s a f t e r t h e s l u d g e h a s b e e n h e a t e d t o p r o c e s s
t e m p e r a t u r e is r e c y c l e d t o t h e h o t w a t e r g e n e r a t o r f o r r e u s e . I n a d d i t i o n , w i t h
i n d i r e c t h e a t i n g t h e r e is n o i n c r e a s e i n t h e v o l u m e o f s l u d g e t o b e d e w a t e r e d .
W h e n required, the N i c h o l s system can c o m b i n e direct heating for q u i c k
s t a r t - u p a n d i n d i r e c t h e a t i n g t o p r o v i d e m a x i m u m d a y - i n , d a y - o u t efficiency.
B e c a u s e o f a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l s , safety i n t e r l o c k s , levels, t e m p e r a t u r e p r o b e s ,
a n d centralized valving, the entire Nichols heat-treatment system c a n be
c o n t r o l l e d b y o n e o p e r a t o r . N e a r l y all s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s c a n b e l o c a t e d
o u t s i d e , effectively c u t t i n g d o w n o n i n d o o r s p a c e r e q u i r e m e n t s .
T h e a u t o m a t i c pressure control system prevents boiling of sludge a n d
r e s u l t a n t c o r r o s i o n o f p i p i n g , i n s p i t e o f flow c o n t r o l v a l v e o p e n i n g s o r
e q u i p m e n t failures. T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t a l s o a l l o w s t h e s y s t e m t o r e a c h o p e r a t i n g
p r e s s u r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y , a s s o o n a s t h e feed p u m p s a r e t u r n e d o n .
W h e r e a N i c h o l s - H e r r e s h o f f m u l t i p l e h e a r t h f u r n a c e ( F i g . 7.26) is u s e d , t h e
Sludge Treatment and Disposal
I
a
ι
s
•ε
v.
I
I
JO
IS
8. Pre-dewatering Treatment of Sludges 339
h e a t - t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m is o p e r a t e d , e x c e p t for e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r , f r o m t h e w a s t e
heat recovered from the furnace. In addition, the conditioned sludge can be
d e w a t e r e d t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t fuel f o r t h e f u r n a c e is r e q u i r e d o n l y a t f u r n a c e
warm-up.
9. S l u d g e Disposal
T w o f u n d a m e n t a l a p p r o a c h e s a r e utilized in s l u d g e d i s p o s a l : l a n d d i s p o s a l
or incineration.
9.1. L A N D D I S P O S A L O F S L U D G E S
T w o t y p e s o f l a n d d i s p o s a l o f s l u d g e s a r e m e n t i o n e d h e r e : (1) l a g o o n i n g
a n d (2) o x i d a t i o n p o n d s . L a g o o n i n g m a y b e a n e c o n o m i c a l d i s p o s a l m e t h o d
w h e n l a r g e l a n d a r e a s a r e a v a i l a b l e a t l o w c o s t . S u p e r n a t a n t l i q u o r is r e m o v e d
c o n t i n u o u s l y , a n d e v e n t u a l l y t h e l a g o o n b e c o m e s filled w i t h s o l i d s . I n a 2 - t o
3-year p e r i o d a 5 0 - 6 0 % m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t c a n b e a t t a i n e d . T h e n t h e l a g o o n is
a b a n d o n e d a n d a n e w l o c a t i o n is selected.
O x i d a t i o n p o n d s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e d i s c u s s e d for w a s t e w a t e r s in C h a p t e r 6,
S e c t i o n 6 c a n b e utilized. A n a e r o b i c c o n d i t i o n is m a i n t a i n e d o n t h e s u r f a c e ,
d u e m a i n l y t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a l g a e . A n a e r o b i c c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l in d e e p e r
layers.
9.2. S L U D G E I N C I N E R A T I O N
S l u d g e i n c i n e r a t i o n is a f r e q u e n t l y e m p l o y e d d i s p o s a l m e t h o d . Self-
s u s t a i n i n g c o m b u s t i o n is s o m e t i m e s p o s s i b l e after b u r n i n g a n a u x i l i a r y fuel
w h i c h raises t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e i n c i n e r a t o r a b o v e i g n i t i o n p o i n t . T h e
c o m b u s t i o n p r o d u c t s are mainly c a r b o n dioxide, sulfur dioxide, a n d ash.
T w o t y p e s o f i n c i n e r a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s a r e (1) m u l t i p l e h e a r t h f u r n a c e s a n d
(2) fluidized b e d d r y i n g a n d b u r n i n g . A d i a g r a m o f a m u l t i p l e h e a r t h f u r n a c e
for i n c i n e r a t i o n o f s l u d g e s ( N i c h o l s - H e r r e s h o f f f u r n a c e ) is s h o w n i n F i g . 7.26.
Cyclone-W
Combustion gases
+ ash
ScrubberH
. Fluidized
: bed ..
Concentrated
sludge
Auxiliary
air blower
Fig. 7.27. Sketch of a fluidized bed disposal system.
References 341
S l u d g e p a s s e s d o w n w a r d t h r o u g h a series o f h e a r t h s . V a p o r i z a t i o n o f m o i s
t u r e o c c u r s in t h e u p p e r h e a r t h s , f o l l o w e d b y i n c i n e r a t i o n in t h e l o w e r o n e s .
Ashes from the b o t t o m of the furnace are collected by a dry ash h a n d l i n g
system. A n alternative water scrubbing system can also be provided.
E x h a u s t g a s e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e u p p e r s e c t i o n o f t h e f u r n a c e flow i n t o a
V e n t u r i h i g h e n e r g y t y p e s c r u b b e r f o r r e m o v a l o f fly a s h . F u r n a c e t e m p e r a t u r e
is 1 0 0 0 ° - 1 8 0 0 ° F . T h e f u r n a c e is a i r c o o l e d , a i r b e i n g b l o w n b y a f a n . C o o l i n g
a i r is r e c i r c u l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e a i r r e c i r c u l a t i o n d u c t . A f r a c t i o n o f t h e c o o l i n g
a i r is w a s t e d t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e .
A s k e t c h o f a fluidized b e d d i s p o s a l s y s t e m is s h o w n i n F i g . 7.27. S l u d g e is
fed i n t o a b e d o f s a n d fluidized b y a i r . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e fluidized b e d is
1 4 0 0 ° - 1 5 0 0 ° F . T h e r e is r a p i d d r y i n g a n d c o m b u s t i o n o f t h e s l u d g e . A s h is
carried u p from the bed by the c o m b u s t i o n gases a n d separated by water
s c r u b b i n g a n d c y c l o n i n g . A u x i l i a r y fuel is u t i l i z e d a t least f o r s t a r t i n g t h e
combustion process.
Problems
I. T h e following data are obtained from bench scale aeration o f a sludge for which a c o n
tinuous digester is to be designed.
0 6750 50
5 5650 21
10 4750 11
15 4200 7
20 3750 6
25 3600 5.5
30 3550 5.5
6000 lb/day o f this sludge are to be treated in an aerobic digester which is designed to achieve
80% reduction o f degradable volatile suspended solids. A s s u m e a steady state concentration
of 3500 mg/liter o f suspended solids in the digester. Estimate basin v o l u m e (gal) and o x y g e n
requirements (lb 0 / h r ) for the aerobic digester.
2
II. Air drying is being considered to dewater 1500 lb/day (dry weight) o f a sludge utilizing
8-in. lifts. A laboratory study has s h o w n that percolation increased solids concentration f r o m
its initial value o f 2% to 20% solids in 2 0 hr. Calculate the areas o f drying beds ( f t ) required 2
for liftable sludges with 30 and 35% solids, respectively. Base calculations o n 3 in. o f rainfall
and 4.5 in. evaporation for a 30-day period.
References
1. Eckenfelder, W. W . , Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
Austin and N e w York, 1970.
2. Edde, H . J., and Eckenfelder, W . W., Jr., J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 4 0 , N o . 8, 1486
(1968).
342 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
343
344 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
T e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t (also referred a s " a d v a n c e d w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t " )
c o n s i s t s o f p r o c e s s e s w h i c h a r e d e s i g n e d t o a c h i e v e h i g h e r effluent q u a l i t y t h a n
c o n v e n t i o n a l s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t s d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6. T h e f o l l o w
i n g t y p e s o f t e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r : (1) s u s p e n d e d
s o l i d s r e m o v a l , (2) c a r b o n a d s o r p t i o n ( o r g a n i c r e m o v a l ) , (3) i o n e x c h a n g e ,
(4) r e v e r s e o s m o s i s , (5) e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s , (6) c h e m i c a l o x i d a t i o n ( c h l o r i n a t i o n
a n d o z o n a t i o n ) , (7) n u t r i e n t r e m o v a l m e t h o d s ( n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s
r e m o v a l ) , a n d (8) s o n o z o n e w a s t e w a t e r p u r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s
a r e n o t utilized extensively in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t t o d a y , b u t t h e i r u s e o n a n
i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e r scale is a n t i c i p a t e d a s effluent q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s b e c o m e
m o r e s t r i n g e n t in t h e f u t u r e .
2. S u s p e n d e d Solids Removal
S u s p e n d e d solids which have n o t been r e m o v e d by conventional p r i m a r y
a n d s e c o n d a r y o p e r a t i o n s m a y c o n s i t u t e a m a j o r p a r t o f t h e B O D o f effluents
f r o m w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s . T h e f o l l o w i n g r e m o v a l p r o c e s s e s for t h e s e
s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s a r e a v a i l a b l e : (1) m i c r o s c r e e n i n g , (2) filtration, a n d (3)
coagulation.
M i c r o s c r e e n s a r e w o u n d a r o u n d r o t a t i n g d r u m s . W a s t e w a t e r is fed c o n
t i n u o u s l y t o t h e i n s i d e o f t h e d r u m , flowing t o a c l e a r w a t e r s t o r a g e c h a m b e r
o n t h e o u t s i d e . C l e a n i n g o f t h e i n n e r surface o f t h e d r u m is p e r f o r m e d b y
s p r a y s o f c l e a r w a t e r , w a s h i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s u s u a l l y b e i n g a b o u t 5 % o f feed
v o l u m e . M i c r o s c r e e n i n g r e s u l t s in 7 0 - 9 0 % r e m o v a l o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s .
F i l t r a t i o n is c o m m o n l y u s e d for s u s p e n d e d solids r e m o v a l y i e l d i n g r e m o v a l
efficiencies u p t o 9 9 % . S a n d , a n t h r a c i t e , a n d d i a t o m a c e o u s e a r t h a r e t h e m o s t
c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d filter m e d i a . C o a g u l a t i o n is p e r f o r m e d u t i l i z i n g a l u m ,
polyelectrolytes, lime, a n d other chemical agents.
3. Carbon Adsorption 345
3. C a r b o n A d s o r p t i o n
3.1. INTRODUCTION
A d s o r p t i o n is t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a s o l u t e a t t h e s u r f a c e o f a s o l i d . T h i s
p h e n o m e n o n t a k e s p l a c e w h e n s u c h a s u r f a c e is p l a c e d in c o n t a c t w i t h a
solution. A layer of molecules of solute a c c u m u l a t e s a t the surface of the solid
d u e t o i m b a l a n c e o f s u r f a c e forces ( F i g . 8.1).
N o n b a l a n c e d forces
I n t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e solid, m o l e c u l e s a r e c o m p l e t e l y s u r r o u n d e d b y s i m i l a r
m o l e c u l e s a n d t h e r e f o r e s u b j e c t e d t o b a l a n c e d forces, a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e
a r r o w s in F i g . 8 . 1 . M o l e c u l e s a t t h e s u r f a c e a r e s u b j e c t e d t o n o n b a l a n c e d
forces. B e c a u s e t h e s e r e s i d u a l forces a r e sufficiently s t r o n g , t h e y m a y i m
p r i s o n m o l e c u l e s o f a s o l u t e w i t h w h i c h t h e s o l i d is in c o n t a c t . T h i s p h e n o m
e n o n is c a l l e d p h y s i c a l ( o r v a n d e r W a a l s ) a d s o r p t i o n . T h e solid (e.g., a c t i v a t e d
c a r b o n ) is t e r m e d t h e a d s o r b e n t a n d t h e s o l u t e b e i n g a d s o r b e d is t h e a d s o r b a t e .
A d s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y is directly r e l a t e d t o t h e t o t a l s u r f a c e o f a d s o r b e n t since
t h e l a r g e r t h i s s u r f a c e is, t h e m o r e r e s i d u a l ( u n b a l a n c e d ) forces a r e a v a i l a b l e
for a d s o r p t i o n .
3.2. A C T I V A T E D C A R B O N S A S A D S O R B E N T S
A c t i v a t e d c a r b o n s h a v e b e e n w i d e l y u s e d a s a d s o r b e n t s in w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t s t o r e m o v e t a s t e a n d o d o r c a u s i n g o r g a n i c s . I t is e x p e c t e d t h a t w i t h t h e
e m p h a s i s b e i n g p l a c e d o n h i g h e r q u a l i t y effluents, use o f a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n s in
t e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s will i n c r e a s e c o n s i d e r a b l y in t h e f u t u r e .
Preparation of activated carbons. A c t i v a t e d c a r b o n s a r e p r e p a r e d f r o m
c a r b o n a c e o u s r a w m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s w o o d , lignite, c o a l , a n d n u t shells b y a
p r o c e s s o f t h e r m a l a c t i v a t i o n w h i c h yields a v e r y p o r o u s s t r u c t u r e w i t h l a r g e
s u r f a c e a r e a s (as h i g h a s 1000 m / g ) . A d s o r p t i o n e q u i l i b r i u m is e s t a b l i s h e d w h e n
2
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c o n t a m i n a n t r e m a i n i n g in s o l u t i o n is in d y n a m i c b a l a n c e
with that at the surface of the solid.
346 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
3.3. A D S O R P T I O N I S O T H E R M S
Equilibrium relationships between adsorbent a n d adsorbate are described
by adsorption isotherms. I n this section only t h e L a n g m u i r a n d Freundlich
isotherms are mentioned.
w h e r e Xis t h e w e i g h t o f s o l u t e a d s o r b e d ( a d s o r b a t e ) ( m g ) ; Μ t h e w e i g h t o f
adsorbent (g); Κ the equilibrium constant ( c m of adsorbent/mg of adsor 3
X / M
X/M = kC 1,n
(8.3)
X/M a n d C h a v e t h e s a m e m e a n i n g a s i n L a n g m u i r ' s i s o t h e r m , a n d k a n d η
a r e c o n s t a n t s d e p e n d e n t o n several e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s . E q u a t i o n (8.3) is
r e w r i t t e n in l i n e a r f o r m b y t a k i n g l o g a r i t h m s o f b o t h m e m b e r s .
3.4. A D S O R P T I O N OPERATION
I n p r a c t i c e , a d s o r p t i o n o f o r g a n i c s in a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n is c o n d u c t e d e i t h e r
as a batch or continuous operation. In batch o p e r a t i o n , powdered activated
c a r b o n is m i x e d w i t h t h e w a s t e w a t e r a n d a l l o w e d t o settle. C o n t i n u o u s o p e r a
t i o n is p e r f o r m e d i n c o l u m n s c o n t a i n i n g g r a n u l a r c a r b o n ( 4 0 - 8 0 m e s h ) . I t is
more economical than batch operation a n d has found the widest application.
R e m o v a l o f o r g a n i c s in a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n c o l u m n s o c c u r s b y t h r e e m e c h
a n i s m s : (1) a d s o r p t i o n o f o r g a n i c m o l e c u l e s , (2) filtration o f l a r g e p a r t i c l e s ,
a n d (3) p a r t i a l d e p o s i t i o n o f c o l l o i d a l m a t e r i a l . P e r c e n t r e m o v a l d e p e n d s
primarily on contact time between wastewater and activated carbon.
A s w a s t e w a t e r flows t h r o u g h t h e b e d , c a r b o n n e a r e s t t o t h e feed p o i n t
b e c o m e s s a t u r a t e d a n d m u s t b e r e p l a c e d w i t h fresh c a r b o n . T h i s is d o n e b y
o p e r a t i n g several s u i t a b l y v a l v e d c o l u m n s in series. T h e first c o l u m n is r e
p l a c e d w h e n e x h a u s t e d , a n d t h e flow o f w a s t e w a t e r is s w i t c h e d t o m a k e t h a t
c o l u m n t h e last o n e in t h e series. I n l a r g e i n s t a l l a t i o n s r e g e n e r a t i o n o f s p e n t
c a r b o n is e s s e n t i a l for e c o n o m i c feasibility.
3.5. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A C T I V A T E D
CARBON ADSORPTION COLUMNS
T h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d is r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d
[ 5 ] a n d is b a s e d o n a n e q u a t i o n d e r i v e d b y B o h a r t a n d A d a m s [ 1 ] . T h e fol
l o w i n g t o p i c s a r e d i s c u s s e d : (1) B o h a r t a n d A d a m s ' e q u a t i o n for p e r f o r m a n c e
o f a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n a d s o r p t i o n c o l u m n s ( S e c t i o n 3 . 5 . 1 ) ; (2) l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s
w i t h b e n c h scale c o l u m n s t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s ( S e c t i o n
3 . 5 . 2 ) ; (3) " s c a l e - u p " o f l a b o r a t o r y d a t a a n d d e s i g n o f a p l a n t scale u n i t
( S e c t i o n 3 . 5 . 3 ) ; a n d (4) d e r i v a t i o n o f B o h a r t a n d A d a m s ' e q u a t i o n ( S e c t i o n
3.5.4).
348 8. Tertiary T r e a t m e n t of W a s t e w a t e r s
I t is d e s i r e d t o r e d u c e s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e effluent t o a v a l u e n o t ex
ceeding C (mg/liter), as determined by water quality requirements.
E
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e o p e r a t i o n , w h e n a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n is fresh, effluent
c o n c e n t r a t i o n is a c t u a l l y lower t h a n a l l o w a b l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n C . A s t h e E
o p e r a t i o n p r o c e e d s a n d a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n a p p r o a c h e s s a t u r a t i o n , effluent c o n
c e n t r a t i o n r e a c h e s v a l u e C . T h i s c o n d i t i o n is called t h e b r e a k p o i n t . L e t /
E
b e t h e t i m e e l a p s e d t o r e a c h t h e b r e a k p o i n t (service t i m e , h o u r s ) . A t t i m e /,
o p e r a t i o n is d i s c o n t i n u e d a n d a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n is r e g e n e r a t e d .
A t t i m e z e r o (t = 0 ) , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d e p t h o f c a r b o n w h i c h is sufficient t o
p r e v e n t effluent s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n f r o m e x c e e d i n g v a l u e C is c a l l e d t h e
E
(ft) ( F i g . 8 . 3 ) .
S e r v i c e time; t
[Break point]
ft/hr
C' >CE E
7""
Do
"0 ' 0
A d s o r p t i v e c a p a c i t y (N ) 0 is a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t d e s i g n v a r i a b l e . I t is t h e
m a x i m u m a m o u n t of c o n t a m i n a n t solute t h a t c a n be a d s o r b e d by the c a r b o n
(lb solute/ft 3
o f c a r b o n ) w h e n s a t u r a t i o n o c c u r s . T h e b r e a k p o i n t is u s u a l l y
t a k e n before s a t u r a t i o n o c c u r s . A n o t h e r p a r a m e t e r w h i c h e n t e r s in B o h a r t
a n d A d a m s ' e q u a t i o n is t h e r a t e c o n s t a n t K. T h i s a s s u m e s a f i r s t - o r d e r a d
sorption rate
r = Kc (8.5)
3. Carbon Adsorption 349
l n [ ( C / C ) - 1] = \n(e ° -
0 £
KN DiV
1) - KC t 0 (8.6)
w h e r e C is t h e influent s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l i t e r ) ; C t h e a l l o w a b l e
0 E
effluent s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l i t e r ) ; Κ the r a t e c o n s t a n t [ f t / ( l b o f c a r b o n ) 3
(8.6) b y l e t t i n g t = 0 a n d s o l v i n g f o r D ( w h i c h e q u a l s D in t h i s c a s e ) . S i n c e 0
w i t h i n b r a c k e t s in t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (8.6) is n e g l e c t e d . T h e final
r e s u l t is
D = (V/KNo) ln [ ( C / C ) - 1 ]
0 0 £ (8.7)
E q u a t i o n (8.8) is t h e b a s i s for e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s N 0
a n d Κ f r o m b e n c h s c a l e c o l u m n s . T h e p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d is d e s c r i b e d in
S e c t i o n 3.5.2.
L a b o r a t o r y e q u i p m e n t r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 5 ] is
s h o w n in F i g . 8.4. R e q u i r e d d a t a for r e m o v a l o f o r g a n i c s a r e o b t a i n e d b y
passing wastewater containing a k n o w n concentration of organic material
( C ) t h r o u g h a series o f c o l u m n s (e.g., t h r e e c o l u m n s in F i g . 8.4) a n d r e c o r d i n g
0
t h e t i m e s t {t t , a n d t ) a t w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f effluents f r o m c o l u m n s
u 2 3
# 1 , # 2 , a n d # 3 r e a c h t h e a l l o w a b l e effluent s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( C ) . E a c h £
set o f e x p e r i m e n t s is p e r f o r m e d a t c o n s t a n t flow r a t e [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] , t h e r e 2
c o l u m n #2 r e a c h e s v a l u e C , t h i s t i m e a l s o b e i n g r e c o r d e d ( f ) . F i n a l l y ,
£ 2
350 8. Tertiary Treatment of W a s t e w a t e r s
Φ2 #3
Sampling ports
effluent f r o m c o l u m n # 3 r e a c h e s c o n c e n t r a t i o n C . E T h i s t i m e is a l s o r e c o r d e d
( i ) a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t d i s c o n t i n u e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e e x p e r i m e n t is c a r r i e d
3
o u t u n t i l t h e b r e a k p o i n t o f t h e l a s t c o l u m n is r e a c h e d .
T a b l e 8.1 s h o w s a t y p i c a l t a b u l a t i o n o f t v s . D v a l u e s a t f o u r different flow
r a t e s . F o r E x p e r i m e n t n o . 1, t h r e e c o l u m n s o f 2.5 ft o f c a r b o n d e p t h e a c h a r e
u t i l i z e d , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t o t a l d e p t h s o f 2 . 5 , 5.0, a n d 7.5 ft a t s a m p l i n g p o r t s .
F l o w r a t e is 2 . 0 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) . 2
F o r E x p e r i m e n t n o . 2, t h e first t w o c o l u m n s c o n t a i n a d e p t h o f 2 . 5 ft o f
c a r b o n e a c h , a n d t h e t h i r d 5 ft. T o t a l d e p t h s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s a m p l i n g p o r t s
a r e 2 . 5 , 5.0, a n d 10 ft. F l o w r a t e is 4 . 0 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) . 2
F o r e x p e r i m e n t s n o . 3 a n d 4 , c a r b o n d e p t h s a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , 5-5-5 ft a n d
5-10-10 ft for t h e t h r e e c o l u m n s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t o t a l d e p t h s a t s a m p l i n g
p o r t s o f 5-10-15 ft a n d 5-15-25 ft. F l o w r a t e s a r e 8 a n d 16 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) , 2
r e s p e c t i v e l y . E q u a t i o n (8.8) r e v e a l s t h a t a p l o t o f t v s . D yields a s t r a i g h t
line for w h i c h s l o p e (s) a n d i n t e r c e p t ( i ) a r e
s = No/CoV
.'. N 0 = CQVS (8.9)
i =
In [(Co/CJJ) — 1]/ K C Q
Λ Κ = l n [ ( C / C ) - 1]//C
0 £ 0 (8.10)
T A B L E 8.1
Data for Example 8.1
(4)
(2) Throughput
Experiment w
F l o w rate Bed depth (i)
Time, / volume
no. [gal/(min)(ft )] 2
(ft) (hr) (gal)
e
or
(4) = ( / ) χ (5) χ 0.327
Example 8.1
D a t a in T a b l e 8.1 a r e o b t a i n e d b y u s i n g c o n t i n u o u s b e n c h scale a c t i v a t e d
c a r b o n a d s o r p t i o n c o l u m n s w i t h 1-in. i n s i d e d i a m e t e r . F o u r sets o f e x p e r i
ments are performed. T h e wastewater contains 20 mg/liter of a n organic
solute removable by c a r b o n adsorption. Experiments are carried o u t record
i n g t h e t i m e t a k e n for effluents f r o m t h e first, s e c o n d , a n d t h i r d a d s o r p t i o n
c o l u m n s t o r e a c h a c o n c e n t r a t i o n C = 1.0 m g / l i t e r o f s o l u t e [ c o l u m n (3) o f
E
T a b l e 8 . 1 ] . P r e p a r e a p l o t o f p a r a m e t e r s N , K, a n d D v s . flow r a t e [ g a l /
0 0
(min(ft )].2
V a l u e s o f V (ft/hr) a r e
T h e calculation of N 0 is p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 8.2.
3000,
;perimen t no. 1
(7.5;27 B0)f [2.0 gpn l/ft ] 2
2500
= 2000
Γ
oo iperimen \ no. 2
!(5il780 [4.0 gprr ,/ft ]
2
© 1500
c
ε rfl0il33C
ο srExper iment nc .3
ο, \ [ 8 . C » gpm/ft*]
~ 1000
-7(2.5; 740) ι rtl5i830 1 (25^ '30)
Αδ60)
500
«<I5;39 0)
— E x p e riment η ).4
(5;I70)
Ϊ5-60) [l6.< ) gpm/f 1
P t e 5 ; l SO)
-500L
5 10 15 20 25
Depth, D (ft) [column®, table 8.l]
T A B L E 8.2
Calculation of /V (Example 8.1)
0
N 0 = C Vs0 Eq.(8.9)
T A B L E 8.3
Calculations of Κ and D (Example 8.1 ) 0
a
V No ι (absolute
Flow (ft/hr) (lb/ft ) 3
value of K, D,
0
— • 1 1 1
ο Experiment no. 1
• Experiment no. 2
• Experiment no. 3
Δ Experiment no. 4
0(2,8-15) < 1 6
^ 8
20
Κ
(16i33l)
\ ( 3;I5.6^T 7
"fi;2.29l/ /
(4;II.6W \
Ρ ΙΟ 6§ '
ο
Ζ
(2;8.3) / Λ
yfoij >3) (8-5 27) (1' >;5.27) 5
>4(2;0.6< >5)
5 10 15
Flow rate [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] 2
V a l u e s o f Κ a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (8.10), w h e r e ln [ ( C / C — 1] = 0 £
l n [ ( 2 0 / l ) - l ] = 2.94. V a l u e s o f D a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (8.7). C a l c u l a
0
t i o n s o f Κ a n d D a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 8 . 3 . V a l u e s o f JV , K, a n d D a r e
0 0 0
p l o t t e d v s . flow r a t e i n F i g . 8.6.
1. C a l c u l a t e service t i m e ( h o u r s p e r cycle).
2. C a l c u l a t e n u m b e r o f c a r b o n c h a n g e s r e q u i r e d p e r y e a r a n d a n n u a l
carbon volume (ft ). 3
3. E s t i m a t e s o l u t e r e m o v a l ( l b / y e a r ) .
4 . C a l c u l a t e a d s o r p t i o n efficiency b a s e d o n N a n d D . 0 0
5. E s t i m a t e % e r r o r in n e g l e c t i n g u n i t y f a c t o r in t e r m (e KNoD/v
— 1).
T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n is u t i l i z e d in a r r i v i n g a t E q s . (8.7)—(8.10).
SOLUTION P a r t 1. C a l c u l a t i o n o f service t i m e
K= 10.7ft /(lb)(hr)
3
and
N0 = 6.35 lb/ft 3
SOLUTION P a r t 2. N u m b e r o f c a r b o n c h a n g e s p e r y e a r a n d a n n u a l c a r b o n
volume
S o l u t e r e m o v e d p e r cycle is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
= 1.16 x 1 0 f t / c y c l e
5 3
and
Co = 20 mg/liter = 1.248 χ 1 0 " 3
lb/ft 3
then
lb solute in influent per cycle = 1.248 χ 1 0 ~ lb/ft χ 1.16 χ 1 0 ft /cycle
3 3 5 3
= 144.8 lb/cycle
3. Carbon Adsorption 355
R e s i d u a l s o l u t e l e a v i n g w i t h effluent p e r cycle is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
= 1.16 χ 1 0 C 5
a v e (lb/cycle)
C a v e is g i v e n b y
/ V = 8 3 6 hr
C a v c = (1/836) Cdt
Jt = 0
C s t a n d s for a series o f effluent c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( i n c r e a s i n g v a l u e s ) , t h e h i g h e s t
one being that corresponding to C E = 1 mg/liter (or 6.24 χ 1 0 " 5
lb/ft ),
3
or
SOLUTION P a r t 4. A d s o r p t i o n efficiency
Based on N:
0
D= 0 1.23 ft.
SOLUTION P a r t 5. E r r o r in n e g l e c t i n g f a c t o r o f u n i t y
e i 4 . ii _ j = ΐ 42,440
)3
w h e r e Ν is t h e r e s i d u a l a d s o r b i n g c a p a c i t y [ a t t = 0, Ν = N 0 = adsorptive
capacity ( l b / f t ) ] ; C the solute concentration (lb/ft ); t the time (hr); a n d Κ
3 3
C o n s i d e r n o w t h e s o l u t i o n f r o m w h i c h s o l u t e is r e m o v e d b y a d s o r p t i o n .
Solute concentration diminishes at a rate given by
w h e r e D is t h e d e p t h o f a d s o r b e n t ( t o t a l d e p t h , D = D ) 0 (ft); a n d V t h e
flow v e l o c i t y o f s o l u t i o n p a s t t h e a d s o r b e n t (ft/hr).
T h e f o l l o w i n g b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s ( B C ) a p p l y : F o r B C - 1 a t t = 0, Ν = N 0
(initial s o l u t e c a p a c i t y o f a d s o r b e n t ) . F o r B C - 2 a t D = 0, C = C 0 (inlet c o n
centration).
Perform the following changes of variable. Let
. N= N N' 0
(8.14)
C = C/Co (8.15)
. c = CC 0
(8.16)
D' = KN DjV 0
(8.17)
D = D'V/KNo (8.18)
t' = KC t 0
(8.19)
: t = t'lKCo (8.20)
F r o m Eq. (8.11)
BN'Idt' = -N'C (8.21)
or
θ In N'/dt' = -C" (8.22)
3. Carbon Adsorption 357
F r o m Eq. (8.12)
dC'IdD' = -N'C (8.23)
or
dlnC'/dD' = -N' (8.24)
d InN'/dD'
2
dt' = -dC'IdD' = N'C (8.25)
3 2
In C'ldt' dD' = -dN'/dt' = N'C (8.26)
S u b t r a c t i n g E q . (8.25) f r o m E q . ( 8 . 2 6 ) ,
3 2
In C'ldt' dD' - B InN'/dD' 2
dt' = 0
or
d \n(C'/N')ldt'
2
dD' = 0 (8.27)
I n t e g r a t i o n o f E q . (8.27) y i e l d s
-(dC'IC' )ldD2 f
= N'/C = e '- D v
(8.31)
* P r o o f that Eq. (8.28) is a solution for differential equation (8.27): differentiating Eq.
(8.28) with respect to D' and then with respect to yields Eq. (8.27), since
dfitydD' = 0
and
a df(D')
df dD'
[since f(D') a n d / ( / ' ) are, respectively, functions of D' and / ' alone],
In 1/1 = 0 - 0 = 0.
E q u a t i o n (8.31) i n t e g r a t e s t o yield*
l/C" = * D
' - ' - ^ ( 0 (8.32)
w h e r e ψ(ί') is a f u n c t i o n o f / ' a l o n e .
F u n c t i o n \l/(t') is e v a l u a t e d b y i m p o s i n g b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n B C - 2 ' . f
ψ(ί') = e~ v
- 1 (8.33)
T h u s E q . (8.32) becomes
1 / C = e '-*' 0
-e-*' + \ (8.34)
F r o m E q . (8.34),
C = l/i^'-'-e-'+l) (8.35)
M u l t i p l y i n g b o t h n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r o f E q . (8.35) b y e*\
a = J'Ke^-l+e*') (8.36)
= e 7(^
K C o o D / K
C/Co -1 + e K C o t
) (8.37)
E KN D/V
0 J
* Proof that Eq. (8.32) is a solution for Eq. (8.31) is obtained by differentiation of Eq.
(8.32) with respect to D ' . Notice that di/r(t')/dD' = 0, and therefore
d(\IC)ldD' = d ^ - ^ I d D '
or
-(dC'IdDyC 2
= e '- ' 0 1
and finally
-(dC'IC' )ldD' = 2
4. Ion E x c h a n g e
4.1. INTRODUCTION
I o n e x c h a n g e is a p r o c e s s w h e r e i o n s w h i c h a r e h e l d t o f u n c t i o n a l g r o u p s
o n t h e s u r f a c e o f a solid b y e l e c t r o s t a t i c forces a r e e x c h a n g e d for i o n s o f a
different species in s o l u t i o n . T h i s t r e a t m e n t p r o c e d u r e h a s b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y
i m p o r t a n t in t h e field o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t .
S i n c e c o m p l e t e d e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n is a c h i e v e d b y i o n e x c h a n g e , it is p o s s i b l e
t o u s e split s t r e a m t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s w h e r e p a r t o f t h e influent w a s t e w a t e r
is d e m i n e r a l i z e d a n d t h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h b y p a s s e d influent t o p r o d u c e a n
effluent o f specified q u a l i t y (e.g., a specified h a r d n e s s ) .
Ion exchange resins. U n t i l t h e 1940's n a t u r a l zeolites w e r e t h e o n l y i o n
e x c h a n g e r e s i n s a v a i l a b l e . E x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y w a s relatively l o w , w h i c h
l i m i t e d t h e i r e c o n o m i c feasibility in t h e field o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t . S i n c e
t h e n , n a t u r a l zeolites h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d b y s y n t h e t i c r e s i n s . T h e s e a r e i n
soluble polymers t o which acidic or basic groups are a d d e d by chemical
reaction procedures. These g r o u p s are c a p a b l e of reversible exchange with
i o n s p r e s e n t in a s o l u t i o n . T h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f f u n c t i o n a l g r o u p s p e r u n i t
w e i g h t ( o r u n i t v o l u m e ) o f resin d e t e r m i n e s e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y , w h e r e a s t h e
t y p e o f f u n c t i o n a l g r o u p d e t e r m i n e s i o n selectivity a n d p o s i t i o n o f e x c h a n g e
e q u i l i b r i u m . R e s i n p a r t i c l e s h a v e d i a m e t e r s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.5 m m a n d
a r e e m p l o y e d in p a c k e d c o l u m n s w i t h w a s t e w a t e r flows o f 5 - 1 2 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) . 2
Sodium cycle: Na R + M2
2 +
^ M R + 2Na +
(8.39a)
or
Hydrogen cycle: H R + Μ 2
2 +
^ M R + 2H +
(8.39b)
C u , Z n , N i , C a , and M g
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +
a r e r e t a i n e d o n t h e r e s i n a n d a soft
2 +
r e g e n e r a t i o n , t h e c o l u m n s h o u l d b e b a c k w a s h e d t o r e m o v e solid d e p o s i t s .
Regeneration consists of passing t h r o u g h the c o l u m n either a brine solution
( N a C l f o r s o d i u m cycle) o r a n a c i d s o l u t i o n , u s u a l l y H S 0 2 4 o r H C I (for
h y d r o g e n cycle).
R e g e n e r a t i o n r e a c t i o n s for t h e s o d i u m a n d h y d r o g e n cycles a r e shown
below.
Regenerated Regenerant
resin waste
MR + 2 N a C l ^ Na R 4- MC1 2 2 (8.40a)
T y p i c a l r e g e n e r a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e 2 - 5 % b y w e i g h t w i t h flow r a t e s o f
1-2 ( g a l ) / ( m i n ) ( f t ) . A s i n d i c a t e d b y E q . ( 8 . 4 0 ) , r e g e n e r a n t w a s t e c o n s i s t s o f
2
c a t i o n salts. T h i s w a s t e s t r e a m a m o u n t s t o 1 0 - 1 5 % o f i n f l u e n t v o l u m e t r e a t e d
b e f o r e b r e a k t h r o u g h . F o l l o w i n g r e g e n e r a t i o n t h e e x c h a n g e r b e d is r i n s e d w i t h
water to remove residual regenerant.
Regenerant
"BackwasK^aste NaCl (sodium cycle)
TRinsing waste) or
HCI; H S 0 ( a c i d cycle);
2 4
Reactions
Removal:
(Sodium cycle)... N a R 2
2 Na*
or • Μ * * M R * or 2
(8.39)
(Hydrogen cycle)... H R 2
2H +
MR • or - or or
2 HCI;H S02 4
H R 2
MSO4
. (Hydrogen cycle) (8.40)
Legend:
- Wastewater streams
-Regenerant streams
Rinsing streams
-Backwash_
Regenerant Sodium salts (sodium cycle)
(and rinsing)
waste stream or
(cation salts) Soft effluent
Acids (hydrogen cycle)
R(OH) + A " ^ 2
2
RA + 2 0 H - (8.41)
A n i o n s (e.g., S O ^ " , C r O . " ) a r e t h u s r e m o v e d f r o m s o l u t i o n .
2
R e g e n e r a t i o n is m a d e after b r e a k t h r o u g h , u s u a l l y p r e c e d e d b y b a c k -
w a s h i n g t o r e m o v e solid d e p o s i t s . R e g e n e r a n t s c o m m o n l y u s e d a r e s o d i u m
a n d a m m o n i u m h y d r o x i d e s . T h e r e g e n e r a t i o n r e a c t i o n is
Regenerated Regenerant
resin waste
RA + 2 N a O H ^ R(OH) + A " 2
2
(8.42)
or ' Na A ' 2
2NH OH 4 or
(NH ) A4 2
4.3. D E S I G N O F I O N E X C H A N G E COLUMNS
T h e first s t e p in d e s i g n i n g a n i o n e x c h a n g e s y s t e m for a specific w a s t e w a t e r
is t o r u n a c o m p l e t e c a t i o n - a n i o n a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n f l u e n t t o b e t r e a t e d . I n
addition, d a t a o n total dissolved solids ( T D S ) , dissolved C 0 , S i 0 , a n d p H 2 2
are obtained.
C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l i o n s p r e s e n t a r e e x p r e s s e d in e i t h e r o f t w o
ways:
1. I n m e q / l i t e r ( m i l l i e q u i v a l e n t s p e r liter), e.g., for a s o l u t i o n c o n t a i n i n g
2 0 m g / l i t e r o f C u , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t e r m s o f m e q / l i t e r is
2 +
centration of C u 2 +
in t e r m s o f C a C 0 is c a l c u l a t e d a s
3
20(134.5/100) = 27 mg/liter of C a C Q 3
362 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
NaOH
Anionic waste Regenerant
or
_ _Bac^was_h^waste NH4OH
(Rinsing waste)
Reactions
Removal
2 NH4OH or
[(NH ) Aj 4 2
Legend.
Wastewater streams
Regenerant streams
Rinsing streams
^-Backwash
(and rinsing)
Regenerant"
waste] Soft effluent
spectively.
D e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s d e t e r m i n e d b y l a b o r a t o r y tests p r i o r t o d e s i g n o f a n
ion exchange column are
1. Exchange capacity of resin. C a t i o n - a n i o n resin c a p a c i t i e s a r e u s u a l l y
e x p r e s s e d a s e q u i v a l e n t s o f i o n r e m o v e d p e r u n i t b e d v o l u m e (e.g., e q u i v a l e n t s /
liter o f r e s i n o r e q u i v a l e n t s / f t o f r e s i n ) . T h e y m a y b e a l s o e x p r e s s e d p e r u n i t
3
w e i g h t o f b e d (e.g., e q u i v a l e n t s / l b o f r e s i n ) . E x c h a n g e c a p a c i t i e s a r e a l s o
e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f w e i g h t o f C a C 0 e q u i v a l e n t , e i t h e r p e r u n i t v o l u m e o r
3
p e r u n i t w e i g h t o f b e d (e.g., l b C a C 0 / f t o f r e s i n , l b C a C 0 / l b o f r e s i n ) .
3
3
3
2. Regenerant requirements. R e g e n e r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e e x p r e s s e d in
t e r m s o f w e i g h t p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f b e d (e.g., l b H S 0 / f t ) . T h e d e g r e e o f
2 4
3
t h e o r e t i c a l c a p a c i t y a t t a i n e d ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o fresh resin) d e p e n d s o n t h e
weight of regenerant employed. A n economic balance between degree of
theoretical capacity attained a n d weight of regenerant (lb r e g e n e r a n t / f t of 3
b e d v o l u m e ) is t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . P e r f o r m a n c e c u r v e s for r e g e n e r a n t s
4. Ion Exchange 363
f r o m b e n c h s c a l e u n i t s [ 5 ] . Plexiglass c o l u m n s o f 1 in. d i a m e t e r a r e u s e d a t
u n i t flow r a t e s c o m p a r a b l e t o p l a n t scale u n i t s . T a b l e 8.4 s h o w s t y p i c a l d a t a
o b t a i n e d f r o m b e n c h scale u n i t s .
T A B L E 8.4
Characteristics of Cation and Anion Exchange Resins Utilized in
Treatment of Plating Industry Wastewater
Cation Anion
Regenerant H S0
2 4 NaOH
Requirement (lb/ft o f resin)3
11.0 (inlbH S0 ) 2 4 4.7 (in lb N a O H )
Concentration (%) 5.0 10.0
F l o w rate [gal/(min)(ft )] 2
1.0 1.0
Rinsing water requirements
(gal/ft o f resin)
3
130.0 100.0
e x c h a n g e r a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y r e c o v e r e d a s c h r o m i c a c i d ( H C r 0 ) in a h y d r o
2 4
gen cation exchanger. Nickel ions are salvaged from plating plant wastes.
2. C a l c u l a t i o n o f b e d d e p t h is i l l u s t r a t e d in E x a m p l e 8.3. A d d i t i o n a l free
h e i g h t is p r o v i d e d t o a l l o w for e x p a n s i o n o f t h e b e d for b a c k w a s h i n g a n d
c l e a n i n g . A s a r u l e o f t h u m b a 5 0 % a l l o w a n c e is t a k e n .
4.4. D E S I G N O F A N I O N E X C H A N G E S Y S T E M [ 5 ]
E x a m p l e 8.3
D e s i g n a n i o n e x c h a n g e s y s t e m t o t r e a t 120,000 gal o f w a s t e w a t e r p e r d a y
f r o m a m e t a l - p l a t i n g i n d u s t r y . T h e m a i n m e t a l i o n s p r e s e n t in t h e w a s t e
w a t e r a r e c h r o m i u m , e q u i v a l e n t t o 120 m g / l i t e r o f C r 0 ( p r e s e n t a s c h r o m a t e ,
3
C r O " ) ; C u , 30 m g / l i t e r ; Z n , 15 m g / l i t e r ; a n d N i , 2 0 m g / l i t e r .
2 2 + 2 + 2 +
364 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
I t is d e s i r e d t o r e m o v e C u , Z n , a n d N i 2 +
in a h y d r o g e n cycle c a t i o n
2 + 2 +
e x c h a n g e r ( c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r n o . 1) a n d C r 0 ~ in a n a n i o n e x c h a n g e r d o w n
4
s t r e a m f r o m t h e c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r . T h e h y d r o g e n cycle c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r is
regenerated by a 5% solution of H S 0 . T h e anion exchanger employed to 2 4
r e m o v e C K ) ~ is r e g e n e r a t e d b y a 1 0 % s o l u t i o n o f N a O H . Effluent f r o m t h i s
4
r e g e n e r a t i o n c o n t a i n s s o d i u m c h r o m a t e ( N a C r 0 ) . V a l u a b l e C r 0 ~ is 2 4 4
r e c o v e r e d in a n o t h e r h y d r o g e n c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r ( c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r n o . 2) a s
c h r o m i c a c i d ( H C r 0 ) . T h i s c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r is a l s o r e g e n e r a t e d b y a 5 %
2 4
s o l u t i o n o f H S 0 . A c i d effluents f r o m r e g e n e r a t i o n o f c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r s
2 4
Start
Metal-plating
To neutralization unit
wastewater
[Cu ',Zn ,
z 2 >
CuS0 4
Ni 'CrO|-]
2
ZnS0 4 CrO£ _Na_2Cr_04 ^ j [Na S0 ] 2 4
|NiS0
(H Cr0 )
4
2 4
S Ni ] 2+
NaOH
regenerant
Η2Ο H Cr0
2 4
(recovered)
H S0
2 4
regenerant
where M = Cu2 + 2 +
, Zn 2 +
, and N i 2 +
.
Regeneration
MR + H S 0 2 4 -> H R + M S 0
2 4
A n i o n exchanger
Removal
R(OH) + H C r 0 2 2 4 ^ RCr0 4 + 2H 0 2
Regeneration
RCr0 4 + 2NaOH ^ R ( O H ) -f N a C r 0
2 2 4
H y d r o g e n cycle cation—exchanger n o . 2
Removal
H R + Na Cr0
2 2 4 ^ Na R + H Cr0
2 2 4 (recovered)
Regeneration
Na R + H S 0
2 2 4 ^ H R + Na S0
2 2 4
30 mg/liter C u 2+
63.5/2 = 31.7 30/31.7 = 0.95
15 mg/liter Z n 2+
65.4/2 = 32.7 15/32.7 = 0.46
2 0 mg/liter N i 2 +
58.7/2 = 29.4 20/29.4 = 0.68
Total = 2.09
Step 2. D e t e r m i n e t h e t o t a l e q u i v a l e n t s / d a y t o b e r e m o v e d .
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e t o t a l r e s i n r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e b a s i s o f 7 0 e q u i v a l e n t s / f t 3
o f r e s i n ( T a b l e 8.4) a n d 6 - d a y o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n r e g e n e r a t i o n s .
948 e q / d a y χ 6 days/cycle
Resin requirement = 70 e q / f t 3 =
resm/cycle
Step 4. Select a c o l u m n d i a m e t e r o f 3 ft a n d c a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d d e p t h o f
resin bed.
Cross section = (i)n3 2
= 7.07 ft 2
D e p t h = 81/7.07 = 11.5 ft
Step 5. C a l c u l a t e r e g e n e r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s . R e g e n e r a n t is a 5 % s o l u t i o n
of H S 02 4 a s i n d i c a t e d in T a b l e 8.4, a n d 11.0 l b H S 0 / f t 2 4
3
o f resin a r e r e
q u i r e d . T h e lb o f H S 0 2 4 required are
11 lb/ft χ 81 ft
3 3
= 891 lb of H S 02 4 per cycle
or
891 (100/5) = 17,820 lb of 5% solution
a n i o n e x c h a n g e u n i t , w h i c h is d e s i g n e d a s f o l l o w s :
Step 1. T o t a l c h r o m e r e m o v e d p e r d a y ( a s C r 0 ) is 3
Step 3. Select a c o l u m n d i a m e t e r o f 3 ft a n d c a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d d e p t h o f
resin bed.
A l l o w i n g a 5 0 % free s p a c e f o r b e d e x p a n s i o n , t h e h e i g h t o f t h e r e q u i r e d
c o l u m n is ( 1 . 5 0 ) ( 2 9 . 0 ) = 4 3 . 5 ft. U t i l i z e f o u r c o l u m n s in series, e a c h 11 ft in
h e i g h t ( 1 1 x 4 = 4 4 ) , a n d e a c h c o n t a i n i n g 2 9 / 4 = 7.25-ft r e s i n d e p t h (free
s p a c e , 3.75 ft for e a c h c o l u m n ; r a t i o , 11/7.25 = 1.5).
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e r e g e n e r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s . R e g e n e r a n t is a 1 0 % s o l u t i o n
o f N a O H a s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 8.4, a n d 4.7 l b o f N a O H s o l u t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d
per ft of resin. T h e lb of N a O H required are
3
a n i o n e x c h a n g e r ( w h i c h c o n t a i n s N a C r 0 ) b y p a s s i n g it t h r o u g h a c a t i o n
2 4
e x c h a n g e r ( F i g . 8.9). A s c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p 4 o f t h e d e s i g n for t h e a n i o n e x
changer, 968 lb of N a O H are required.
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e s o d i u m h y d r o x i d e e q u i v a l e n t s t o b e r e m o v e d b y t h e
cation exchanger.
968 lb χ 454 g/lb χ eq/40 g = 10,987 eq
since t h e e q u i v a l e n t w e i g h t o f N a O H is 4 0 g.
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e resin r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e b a s i s o f 7 0 e q u i v a l e n t s / f t 3
o f r e s i n ( T a b l e 8.4).
« . 10,987eq „ , . i r r r
Resin requirement = — — — r = 157 f t of resin 3
70 e q / f t 3
D e p t h = 157/7.07 = 22.2 ft
A l l o w i n g 5 0 % free s p a c e for b e d e x p a n s i o n , t h e h e i g h t o f t h e r e q u i r e d c o l u m n
is ( 1 . 5 0 ) ( 2 2 . 2 ) = 33.3 ft. U t i l i z e t h r e e c o l u m n s i n series, e a c h 3 3 . 3 / 3 « 11 ft
d e e p , e a c h c o n t a i n i n g a 2 2 . 2 / 3 = 7.4-ft r e s i n d e p t h (free s p a c e , 3.6 ft for e a c h
c o l u m n ; r a t i o , 1 1 / 7 . 4 = 1.48).
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e r e g e n e r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s . R e g e n e r a n t is a 5 % s o l u t i o n
of H S 0 2 4 a s i n d i c a t e d in T a b l e 8.4, a n d 11.0 l b o f H S 0 / f t 2 4
3
of resin are
required. T h e lb of H S 0 2 4 required are
11 lb/ft 3
χ 157 f t 3
= 17271bH S0 2 4
or
1727(100/5) = 34,540 lb of 5 % solution
5. R e v e r s e O s m o s i s
5.1. O S M O S I S A N D O S M O T I C P R E S S U R E
A l t h o u g h o s m o t i c p h e n o m e n a h a v e b e e n k n o w n for o v e r 2 0 0 y e a r s , t h e
first p r e c i s e e x p e r i m e n t s l i n k i n g o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e t o t e m p e r a t u r e a n d s o l u t e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n w e r e p e r f o r m e d in t h e l a t e 1800's b y Pfeffer. A t y p i c a l e x p e r i
m e n t w i t h a s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 8.10.
368 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
Glass tube—Η
Η -Pressure at
Dilute solution
of sucrose-
•Pressure at
A* - Ρ • 7Γ
Bag made of
semipermeable •Passage of
membrane — solvent
Water (water)
T h e b a g s h o w n in F i g . 8.10 is m a d e o f a m e m b r a n e p e r m e a b l e t o t h e s o l v e n t
( w a t e r in F i g . 8.10) b u t i m p e r m e a b l e t o t h e s o l u t e ( s u c r o s e ) . T h e s e a r e k n o w n
a s s e m i p e r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e s . E a r l y s e m i p e r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e s u t i l i z e d in
o s m o s i s w e r e a n i m a l m e m b r a n e s (e.g., p i g b l a d d e r s ) . S y n t h e t i c m e m b r a n e s w e r e
d e v e l o p e d later, cellulose a c e t a t e m e m b r a n e s n o w b e i n g t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d .
A d i l u t e s o l u t i o n o f s u c r o s e (e.g., a 0.001 Μ s o l u t i o n ) is p l a c e d i n s i d e t h e
s e m i p e r m e a b l e b a g , w h i c h is t h e n d i p p e d i n t o a v a t c o n t a i n i n g p u r e w a t e r .
T h e w a t e r diffuses s p o n t a n e o u s l y f r o m t h e v a t t o t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e s e m i
p e r m e a b l e bag, as indicated by the a r r o w . A s a result, a c o l u m n of liquid
rises t h r o u g h t h e glass t u b e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e d i l u t e s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n , r e a c h i n g
a t e q u i l i b r i u m a h e i g h t π a b o v e t h e level o f w a t e r in t h e v a t . A t t h i s m o m e n t ,
passage of solvent stops. Pressure exerted on points A ' a n d A situated at the
s a m e e l e v a t i o n differs b y t h e i n c r e m e n t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o h e i g h t π o f l i q u i d .
T h i s v a l u e is c a l l e d t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e o f t h e s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n . O s m o s i s is
defined a s t h e s p o n t a n e o u s p a s s a g e o f a s o l v e n t f r o m a d i l u t e s o l u t i o n ( p u r e
w a t e r in t h e c a s e o f F i g . 8.10) t o a m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n e t h r o u g h a s e m i
permeable membrane.
Let Ρ be the pressure at point A (atmospheric pressure plus pressure cor
r e s p o n d i n g t o a c o l u m n o f w a t e r o f h e i g h t H). T h e p r e s s u r e a t A ' is ( Ρ + π ) .
O s m o t i c p r e s s u r e π is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n
a n d t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p for π a s a f u n c t i o n o f c o n
c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e (c) a n d a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e (T) is given b y t h e v a n ' t
Hoff equation.
5.2. V A N ' T H O F F E Q U A T I O N F O R O S M O T I C
PRESSURE
D e r i v a t i o n o f t h e v a n ' t H o f f e q u a t i o n is f o u n d in s t a n d a r d p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y
texts [ 3 ] . T h e e q u a t i o n is
π = nRT/V = cRT (8.43)
5. Reverse Osmosis 369
w h e r e π is t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e ( a t m ) ; η t h e g m o l e o f s o l u t e (e.g., s u c r o s e ) ;
Vthe v o l u m e o f t h e s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n ; n\V— c t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u c r o s e s o l u
t i o n (g m o l e / l i t e r ) ; R t h e i d e a l g a s c o n s t a n t [ 0 . 0 8 2 ( a t m ) ( l i t e r ) / ( g m o l e ) ( ° K ) ] ;
and Τ the absolute temperature (°K).
T h e v a n ' t Hoff e q u a t i o n shows a startling similarity t o the ideal gas law,
the solvent corresponding to the e m p t y space between gas molecules a n d these
latter c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the molecules of solute, in the case of osmosis. T h u s ,
one could consider osmotic pressure t o be the result of b o m b a r d m e n t exerted
b y m o l e c u l e s o f s o l u t e o n t h e m e m b r a n e . D e s p i t e t h i s a n a l o g y , it is d e c e p t i v e
t o c o n s i d e r o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e a s a s o r t o f p r e s s u r e w h i c h is e x e r t e d b y t h e
s o l u t e . R a t h e r o s m o s i s is t h e p a s s a g e o f s o l v e n t t h r o u g h t h e m e m b r a n e d u e
t o m o m e n t a r y i n e q u a l i t y o f t h e c h e m i c a l p o t e n t i a l o n t h e t w o sides o f t h e
m e m b r a n e [3.] O s m o t i c pressure results from this passage of solvent.
A p p l i c a t i o n o f E q . (8.43) t o a 0.001 Μ s o l u t i o n o f s u c r o s e (i.e., n/V = c =
0.001 g m o l e / l i t e r ) a t 2 0 ° C l e a d s t o a v a l u e o f t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e c a l c u l a t e d
as
n = RT=
C 0.001 g mole/liter χ 0.082 (atm)(liter)/(g m o l e ) ( ° K ) χ 293.2°K
= 0.024 a t m
A s s u m i n g t h e specific g r a v i t y o f t h e d i l u t e s o l u t i o n t o b e t h a t o f p u r e w a t e r ,
t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a h e i g h t π ( F i g . 8.10) e q u a l t o
If t h e v a n ' t H o f f e q u a t i o n c o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o r e l a t i v e l y concentrated
s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n s (e.g., a 1.0 Μ s o l u t i o n ) , h e i g h t π w o u l d b e 1000 t i m e s t h a t
j u s t c a l c u l a t e d , i.e., 820 ft. I n a s m u c h a s t h e i d e a l g a s l a w d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e
a c c u r a t e l y g a s b e h a v i o r a t h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s , t h e v a n ' t H o f f e q u a t i o n is n o t a n
a d e q u a t e m o d e l for o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e a t h i g h e r s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .
Semipermeable | Semipermeable
U—membrane r*—membrane
'·..·•·'·.'•'·'·· . ί '
• · · . I
• • ' ' · ' . ' • ' - . 1 Liquid head
•' · . · ' · . ' · ' . . 1 equal to
' ' ; . ·' ' ' 1 osmotic
"•'.•••'".·· I pressure
. 1
• . 1
Sucrose solution Water ' ' * " ' ' · -i ι
' . ' ·..'·· ' ι
Sucrose solution { _ Water
. ·· · . : · · Ί
' ·' · ' . · · . ! -
. " · · I-
(a) (b)
Direct osmosis: Equilibrium condition:
solvent flows spontaneously through solvent flow s t o p s
the semipermeable membrane
ι- , ι Semipermeable
Force F equal to | . _ m e m b r a n e
(osmotic pressure r _ —
plus liquid head
Water
F F F F '
M i l !
Sucrose solution '
(c)
Reverse osmosis:
requires applied force in excess
of the osmotic pressure
p e r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e m a t e r i a l a n d d e s i g n e d for h i g h p r e s s u r e operation.
Purified w a t e r is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e o u t e r t u b e , w h i c h is a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s
s u r e a n d is m a d e o f o r d i n a r y t u b u l a r m a t e r i a l . T y p i c a l v a l u e s o f o p e r a t i n g
p r e s s u r e s , w a t e r fluxes (yield o f p u r i f i e d w a t e r p e r u n i t a r e a o f m e m b r a n e ) ,
a n d p r o d u c t quality are discussed in the following sections.
5.4. P R E P A R A T I O N O F R O M E M B R A N E S
R e v e r s e o s m o s i s f o u n d its e a r l i e r a p p l i c a t i o n s in d e s a l i n a t i o n o f o c e a n
water. C o n s i d e r a b l e research a n d pilot-plant w o r k are being d o n e for utiliza
t i o n o f R O in r e m o v a l o f c o n t a m i n a n t s f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s . S o m e o f t h e s e
(e.g., n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s c o m p o u n d s , c h r o m a t e s , a n d s o m e o r g a n i c
c o m p o u n d s ) are not adequately removed by other processes. Consequently,
usual processes m a y be complemented by R O , provided economic con
siderations are favorable. Research indicates t h a t in principle, R O can be
u s e d t o o b t a i n a n effluent o f v i r t u a l l y a n y d e s i r e d d e g r e e o f p u r i t y w h i l e still
m a i n t a i n i n g r e a s o n a b l e flow r a t e s .
M a n y natural materials have semipermeable characteristics. A n i m a l a n d
plant membranes are well-known examples. Collodion, cellophanes, porous
g l a s s frits, finely c r a c k e d g l a s s , a n d i n o r g a n i c p r e c i p i t a t e s s u c h a s c o p p e r
ferrocyanide, a n d zinc and uranyl p h o s p h a t e s have been used. All these,
however, have the shortcomings of developing leaks a n d exhibiting short
lived selectivity a n d p o o r r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y .
Cellulose acetate m e m b r a n e s (hence denoted as C A m e m b r a n e s ) are the
m o s t successful s e m i p e r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e s d e v e l o p e d . S o u r i r a j a n a n d L o e b
[ 9 ] d e v e l o p e d a t e c h n i q u e for p r e p a r a t i o n o f C A m e m b r a n e s y i e l d i n g b o t h
high permeabilities a n d high degrees of solute separation from a q u e o u s
s o l u t i o n s o f s o d i u m c h l o r i d e . T h e i r t e c h n i q u e is a s f o l l o w s :
^Raw
wastewater
in
Concentrate
removal Λ
5.5. P R E F E R E N T I A L S O R P T I O N - C A P I L L A R Y F L O W
M E C H A N I S M FOR R E V E R S E O S M O S I S
S e v e r a l m e c h a n i s m s h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d b y different i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o e x
p l a i n r e v e r s e o s m o s i s . O f t h e s e , o n l y t h e p r e f e r e n t i a l s o r p t i o n - c a p i l l a r y flow
m e c h a n i s m is d e s c r i b e d h e r e . T h i s m e c h a n i s m , p r o p o s e d b y S o u r i r a j a n [ 9 ] ,
is s u m m a r i z e d a s f o l l o w s : R O s e p a r a t i o n is t h e c o m b i n e d r e s u l t o f a n i n t e r
facial p h e n o m e n o n a n d fluid t r a n s p o r t u n d e r p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h c a p i l l a r y
p o r e s . F i g u r e 8.13 is a c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l o f t h i s m e c h a n i s m for r e c o v e r y o f
fresh w a t e r f r o m a q u e o u s salt s o l u t i o n s ( o c e a n w a t e r ) .
T h e s o l u t i o n is in c o n t a c t w i t h a p o r o u s m e m b r a n e , t h e s u r f a c e o f w h i c h
h a s a p r e f e r e n t i a l s o r p t i o n for w a t e r a n d / o r p r e f e r e n t i a l r e p u l s i o n for t h e
s o l u t e . A c o n t i n u o u s r e m o v a l o f p r e f e r e n t i a l l y s o r b e d i n t e r f a c i a l w a t e r is
effected b y flow u n d e r p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h t h e m e m b r a n e c a p i l l a r i e s . T h e
p r e f e r e n t i a l l y s o r b e d w a t e r l a y e r a t t h e i n t e r f a c e is o f a m o n o m o l e c u l a r
n a t u r e ( i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 8.13 b e l o w t h e single d o t t e d line), a n d r e s u l t s f r o m
interaction between interfacial surface tension a n d a d s o r p t i o n of solute.
F o r a m a x i m u m s e p a r a t i o n a n d p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h i s m o d e l gives rise t o t h e
c o n c e p t o f critical p o r e d i a m e t e r , w h i c h is e q u a l t o t w i c e t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e
p r e f e r e n t i a l l y s o r b e d i n t e r f a c i a l w a t e r l a y e r ( F i g . 8.14). F r o m a n i n d u s t r i a l
s t a n d p o i n t , a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e r e v e r s e o s m o s i s t e c h n i q u e for a g i v e n s e p a r a t i o n
5. Reverse Osmosis 373
Pressure
H0 2
NaXf H0 2 Na C f HoO
Na Cf
+
H0 2 Na Cf
+
Bulk of the
solution
H0 2
Na CI"
+
H0 2
Na Cf
+
H02
H0 2
Na Cf +
H0 2
Na Cf
+
H02
Pure water H0 2
Na Cf +
H0 2
Na Cf
+
H02
interface
H0 2 H0 2 HoO H 0 2
H02
T" 11!!! · V
1
ι ϋ !ί ιι
2t
Critical pore diameter
on the a r e a o f t h e f i l m a t t h e i n t e r f a c e
Fig. 8.14. Critical pore diameter for maximum separation and permeability
[ 9 ] . (Reprinted with permission from Ind. Eng. Chem. Copyright by the American Chemical
Society.)
p r o b l e m i n v o l v e s t h e c h o i c e o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c h e m i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e film
surface a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f m e t h o d s for p r e p a r i n g films c o n t a i n i n g t h e
l a r g e s t n u m b e r of p o r e s o f t h e r e q u i r e d size. T h i s a p p r o a c h is t h e b a s i s o f t h e
successful d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e S o u r i r a j a n - L o e b t y p e of p o r o u s C A m e m b r a n e s
for saline w a t e r c o n v e r s i o n a n d o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s .
5.6. C H A R A C T E R I Z A T I O N O F M E M B R A N E
PERFORMANCE
T h e t w o b a s i c p a r a m e t e r s for c h a r a c t e r i z i n g R O s y s t e m s a r e (1) p r o d u c t i o n
o f purified w a t e r p e r u n i t a r e a o f m e m b r a n e ( w a t e r flux) a n d (2) p r o d u c t
q u a l i t y , i.e., p u r i t y o f purified w a t e r ( r e j e c t i o n f a c t o r ) . T h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a r e
d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n s 5.7 a n d 5.8.
374 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
5.7. W A T E R F L U X
P r o d u c t i o n o f purified w a t e r is m e a s u r e d b y t h e w a t e r flux, defined a s
quantity of p r o d u c t recovered per day per unit area of m e m b r a n e . English
u n i t s a r e u s e d for w a t e r flux i n field w o r k [ g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ] , w h e r e a s m e t r i c
2
F l u x t h r o u g h a specific m e m b r a n e is d e t e r m i n e d b y ( 1 ) p h y s i c a l c h a r a c
teristics o f t h e m e m b r a n e , e.g., t h i c k n e s s , c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d p o r o s i t y ,
a n d ( 2 ) s y s t e m c o n d i t i o n s , e.g., t e m p e r a t u r e , differential p r e s s u r e a c r o s s t h e
m e m b r a n e , salt c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u t i o n s t o u c h i n g t h e m e m b r a n e , a n d
velocity o f feed m o v i n g a c r o s s t h e m e m b r a n e .
I n p r a c t i c e , p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e m e m b r a n e a s well a s t e m p e r a t u r e
a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s o l u t e i n feed a n d p r o d u c t s t r e a m s a r e fixed f o r a g i v e n
p r o c e s s . T h e r e f o r e , w a t e r flux is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e differential p r e s s u r e a c r o s s
the m e m b r a n e , being given a p p r o x i m a t e l y by
FH O2 « Λ(ΔΡ-Δπ) (8.44)
where
ΔΡ = P- F ΡΡ (8.45)
Απ = 7Tf — ηρ (8.46)
v a r i a b l e s o f t h e m e m b r a n e a n d is relatively c o n s t a n t ; AP = (P — P ) F P the
p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d o n feed s o l u t i o n (P ) m i n u s p r e s s u r e o n p r o d u c t (P )
F P (atm);
a n d An = (n —n ) F P t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e o f feed s o l u t i o n (n ) F minus osmotic
p r e s s u r e o f p r o d u c t (n ) P (atm).
F o r a l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t w i t h a feed o f p u r e w a t e r An = 0 , E q . ( 8 . 4 4 )
r e d u c e s t o a classical flux e q u a t i o n :
F H O = A AP
2 (8.47)
d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 5 . 1 5 . T h i s is w h y E q . ( 8 . 4 4 ) is a p p r o x i m a t e . A n a c c u r a t e
v e r s i o n is w r i t t e n i n S e c t i o n 5 . 1 5 .
5.8. R E J E C T I O N F A C T O R
I m p r o v e m e n t o f q u a l i t y b e t w e e n feed a n d p r o d u c t s t r e a m s is e x p r e s s e d
q u a n t i t a t i v e l y b y t h e r e j e c t i o n f a c t o r , defined a s
/ = (C -C )/C
F P F (8.48)
5. Reverse Osmosis 375
w h e r e / i s t h e rejection f a c t o r ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) ; C t h e s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
F
in feed s o l u t i o n ; a n d C t h e s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p r o d u c t .
P
T h u s , / = 0.9 m e a n s t h a t C = 0 . 1 C , i.e., t h e p r o d u c t c o n t a i n s o n e - t e n t h
P f
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e in t h e f e e d ; t h e r e f o r e , 9 0 % o f t h e s o l u t e is rejected
b y t h e m e m b r a n e . R e j e c t i o n f a c t o r is t h e r e f o r e a m e a s u r e o f m e m b r a n e
selectivity. S o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s C a n d C a r e o b t a i n e d b y d e t e r m i n a t i o n
F P
o f t o t a l d i s s o l v e d solids ( e v a p o r a t i o n t o d r y n e s s ) . W h e n t h e s o l u t e is a n
e l e c t r o l y t e (e.g., N a C l ) , a n a l y s i s is c o n v e n i e n t l y p e r f o r m e d b y c o n d u c t i v i t y
measurements.
T h e ability o f a m e m b r a n e t o reject s o l u t e s is a c o m p l i c a t e d p r o b l e m
depending o n a combination of physicochemical characteristics of solute,
m e m b r a n e , a n d w a t e r . P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s o l u t e w h i c h h a v e t h e m o s t influence
o n rejection o f i n d i v i d u a l species a r e (1) v a l e n c e c h a r g e — r e j e c t i o n i n c r e a s e s
w i t h v a l u e o f c h a r g e o f i o n ; (2) m o l e c u l a r s i z e — r e j e c t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h
m o l e c u l a r size o f s o l u t e ; a n d (3) h y d r o g e n b o n d i n g t e n d e n c y — p e r m e a t i o n
i n c r e a s e s w i t h s t r e n g t h o f h y d r o g e n b o n d i n g . A b i l i t y o f a m e m b r a n e t o reject
salts d e c r e a s e s w i t h o p e r a t i n g t i m e . V a r i a t i o n o f r e j e c t i o n w i t h t i m e is illus
t r a t e d b y F i g . 8.15.
100
Fig. 8.15. Variation of salt rejection with operating time [6]. (Reprinted by
special permission from Chemical Engineering, April 1973. Copyright by McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
New York N.Y.t t 10020)
A t first, d e c r e a s e is m o r e p r o n o u n c e d f o r s m a l l , u n i v a l e n t i o n s s u c h a s
sodium ( N a ) a n d chloride (Cl~). These are normally a m o n g the most
+
p e r m e a b l e , s h o w i n g t h e l o w e s t initial r e j e c t i o n a n d h a v e t h e h i g h e s t r a t e o f
decline. D i v a l e n t i o n s s u c h a s c a l c i u m ( C a ) a n d m a g n e s i u m ( M g ) a n d
2 + 2 +
s l o w r a t e o f d e c l i n e . R e j e c t i o n o f s u c h i o n s m a y a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e for a w h i l e
( F i g . 8.15), b e c o m i n g n e a r l y c o n s t a n t after t h a t . O v e r a l l salt r e j e c t i o n t e n d s
t o follow the m o n o v a l e n t curve.
P r o g r e s s i v e d e c r e a s e in salt r e j e c t i o n m a y b e c a u s e d b y h y d r o l y s i s o f t h e
m e m b r a n e , w i t h s u b s e q u e n t loss o f b o n d i n g sites. A n o t h e r c a u s e m a y b e
i n c r e a s e in p o r e size d u e t o m e m b r a n e swelling. M o s t p r o b a b l y , b o t h effects
p l a y a p a r t in t h e r e s u l t .
5.9. E F F E C T O F S H R I N K A G E T E M P E R A T U R E O N
P E R F O R M A N C E OF C A M E M B R A N E S
A d j u s t i n g h o t w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e s h r i n k a g e s t e p for p r e p a r a t i o n o f
C A m e m b r a n e s ( S e c t i o n 5.4) p e r m i t s c o n t r o l o f m e m b r a n e p o r o s i t y , t h u s
leading to various degrees of wastewater separation. A t higher shrinkage
t e m p e r a t u r e s , p o r e sizes o b t a i n e d a r e s m a l l e r , l e a d i n g t o g r e a t e r r e j e c t i o n .
W a t e r flux, h o w e v e r , d e c r e a s e s a t h i g h e r s h r i n k a g e t e m p e r a t u r e s , a s e x p e c t e d .
F o r specific R O a p p l i c a t i o n s o n e seeks a n e c o n o m i c b a l a n c e b e t w e e n w a t e r
flux a n d rejection. F i g u r e 8.16 s h o w s r e j e c t i o n a n d flux d a t a o b t a i n e d b y
K o p e c e k a n d S o u r i r a j a n for t h r e e t y p e s o f C A m e m b r a n e s .
LCA-NRC-25
74 78 82 86 90 94 98
Shrinkage temperature (°C)
Fig. 8.16. Effect of shrinkage temperature on the performance of different
CA membranes [ 9 ] . (Reprinted with permission from Ind. Eng. Chem. Copyright by the
American Chemical Society.)
5. Reverse Osmosis 377
5.10. E F F E C T O F F E E D T E M P E R A T U R E O N
F L U X [6]
F l u x is a l s o affected b y feed t e m p e r a t u r e . W a t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y for t h e m e m
b r a n e i n c r e a s e s a b o u t 1.5% p e r ° F . F l u x for a m e m b r a n e is u s u a l l y specified
a t 7 5 ° - 7 7 ° F , a n d a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r is a p p l i e d a t o t h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h i s
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r c a n b e d e r i v e d b y t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f r o m diffusivity
a n d viscosity values, b u t experimentally d e t e r m i n e d corrections are m o r e
reliable.
A c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r w h i c h is a m u l t i p l i e r o f t h e r e q u i r e d m e m b r a n e a r e a is
p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 8.17. T h i s c u r v e w a s d e v e l o p e d b y G u l f E n v i r o n m e n t a l
S y s t e m s C o . for m o d i f i e d cellulose a c e t a t e m e m b r a n e s . A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r is i l l u s t r a t e d in E x a m p l e 8.4.
Feedwater temperature ( ° C )
SOLUTION M e m b r a n e a r e a is s h o w n in E q . (8.49).
378 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
A t 7 7 ° F t h e r e q u i r e d m e m b r a n e a r e a is
100,000 gal/day
Area (77°F) = ' ' J = 6667 ft
8 2
15gal/(day)(ft ) 2
If a d d i t i o n a l p r o d u c t is n o t r e q u i r e d w h e n t e m p e r a t u r e is a b o v e 6 8 ° F , o p e r a t
i n g p r e s s u r e is r e d u c e d .
5.11. F L U X D E C L I N E [6]
A p p l i c a t i o n o f p r e s s u r e t o t h e m e m b r a n e r e s u l t s in c o m p a c t i o n a n d c o n
s e q u e n t l y i n a d e c l i n e o f flux. C o m p a c t i o n r e s u l t s f r o m d e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
thin m e m b r a n e layer a n d corresponds t o n a r r o w i n g of the pores t h r o u g h
w h i c h w a t e r m u s t p a s s . A s t h e c h a n n e l s n a r r o w , flow d e c r e a s e s .
A n o t h e r c a u s e o f flux d e c l i n e is h y d r o l y s i s o f a c e t y l g r o u p s w h i c h t a k e s
p l a c e d u r i n g t h e life o f t h e m e m b r a n e . T h e r e f o r e , R O m e m b r a n e s a r e l i m i t e d
to a p H operating range of 3-7, outside of which rapid hydrolysis a n d m e m
b r a n e d e g r a d a t i o n o c c u r . T h e o p t i m u m r a n g e is b e l i e v e d t o b e p H 5 - 6 .
H y d r o l y s i s o f a c e t y l g r o u p s r e s u l t s in loss o f h y d r o g e n b o n d i n g sites, w h i c h
r e d u c e s t h e w a t e r t r a n s p o r t . T h i s h y d r o l y s i s is a l s o a s o u r c e o f salt l e a k a g e
b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e fewer w a t e r b r i d g e s b l o c k i n g p a s s a g e o f f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l s
through the pores.
L o s s in p r o d u c t i v i t y h a p p e n s slowly t o e v e r y m e m b r a n e a n d is p e r m a n e n t .
C h e m i c a l r e j u v e n a t i o n a n d l o w p r e s s u r e o p e r a t i o n t o r e l a x a n d swell t h e
m a t r i x h a v e b e e n t r i e d w i t h o u t s u c c e s s ; t h e m e m b r a n e s i m p l y a g e s a n d flux
decreases until economics dictate replacement.
5.12. F O U L I N G : C A U S E S A N D C U R E S [6]
F o u l i n g , r e s u l t i n g in t e m p o r a r y flux r e d u c t i o n , is c a u s e d b y f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l s
coating the m e m b r a n e surface, as only hydrogen b o n d i n g substances (water,
a m m o n i a ) pass t h r o u g h the discriminating pores of the m e m b r a n e . N o n -
b o n d i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e left in t h e q u i e s c e n t film k n o w n a s t h e l i q u i d b o u n d a r y
layer.
T h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f d e p o s i t s in b o u n d a r y l a y e r s reflects t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f
feedwater. A s expected, the m o s t c o m m o n constituents are calcium car
b o n a t e , sulfate scales, h y d r a t e s o f i r o n a n d a l u m i n u m o x i d e s , silicates,
miscellaneous particulates, a n d biological growths.
5. Reverse Osmosis 379
F o u l i n g is m i n i m i z e d b y t a k i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p r e c a u t i o n s : (1) p r e t r e a t i n g
feed t o r e m o v e i r o n a n d c o n t r o l p H , (2) l i m i t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t o n o n s c a l i n g
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f w a s t e w a t e r , (3) filtration o f w a s t e w a t e r feed, a n d (4) injec
t i o n o f s m a l l a m o u n t s o f b i o c i d e s (e.g., c h l o r i n e ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o m a t t e r
h o w t h o r o u g h the protection, fouling always occurs a n d the m e m b r a n e s
s h o u l d b e p e r i o d i c a l l y c l e a n e d . T h e u s u a l c l e a n i n g p r o c e d u r e is a s f o l l o w s :
1. F l u s h t h e m e m b r a n e w i t h feed w a t e r a t r e d u c e d p r e s s u r e o f t w o o r
t h r e e t i m e s n o r m a l v e l o c i t y ; t h e t u r b u l e n t a c t i o n o f t h e fluid l o o s e n s f o u l i n g
d e p o s i t s a n d c a r r i e s t h e m a w a y . W a t e r flushing is t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p i n
every cleaning operation.
2. H a r d n e s s scales ( c a r b o n a t e s a n d s u l f a t e s s a l t s o f c a l c i u m a n d m a g
n e s i u m ) a r e s o m e t i m e s r e m o v e d b y s o a k i n g t h e m e m b r a n e i n distilled w a t e r
for l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e . S i n c e t h i s is t i m e c o n s u m i n g , m o r e o f t e n a w a r m
s o l u t i o n o f 1-2% citric a c i d is v i g o r o u s l y c i r c u l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e u n i t , d i s
solving large a m o u n t s of metallic ions a n d keeping t h e m in solution by
chelation.
3. M i c r o b i o l o g i c a l g r o w t h s o c c u r in m o s t n a t u r a l w a t e r s , a n d a r e a
p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m w h e n t r e a t i n g effluents f r o m b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s . T h e s e
a r e often r e m o v e d b y r e c i r c u l a t i n g w a s h e s o f e n z y m e d e t e r g e n t s .
Theoretical flux
Averaged flux
C Actual flux
Periodic cleaning
of membrane
- Υ Ί
Fig. 8.18. Effect of membrane cleaning on flux [6]. (Reprinted by special permiss
ion from Chemical Engineering•, April 2 , 1973. Copyright by McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
Ν. Y, 10020.)
F l u x d e g r a d a t i o n b y f o u l i n g is a n a d d i t i o n a l loss s u p e r i m p o s e d o n t h e
p e r m a n e n t losses d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 5 . 1 1 . T h i s is s h o w n in F i g . 8.18, w h i c h
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e effect o f m e m b r a n e c l e a n i n g o n flux. A s s h o w n in F i g . 8.18,
t h e a c t u a l flux c u r v e follows a d e c l i n i n g , s a w - t o o t h e d p a t t e r n w h e n t h e m e m
b r a n e is c l e a n e d p e r i o d i c a l l y . W i t h o u t c l e a n i n g , flux w o u l d follow t h e l o w e s t
c u r v e , a p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e initial s m o o t h d e c l i n e . F l u x f r o m a h y p o t h e t i c a l
380 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
m e m b r a n e t h a t is n e v e r f o u l e d ( t h e o r e t i c a l flux) is s h o w n b y t h e u p p e r line,
t h e t h e o r e t i c a l flux c u r v e w h i c h t o u c h e s o n l y t h e p e a k s o f t h e s a w - t o o t h e d
curve.
5.13. P R E D I C T I O N O F F L U X [6]
W a t e r o u t p u t f r o m a m e m b r a n e b e g i n s t o d e c l i n e a s s o o n a s p r e s s u r e is
a p p l i e d , a n d c o n t i n u e s t o d e g r a d e slowly t h e r e a f t e r . T h e loss is i r r e v e r s i b l e ,
a n d if m o r e flux is r e q u i r e d feed p r e s s u r e m u s t b e i n c r e a s e d . T h i s a l t e r n a t i v e
is self-defeating s i n c e a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e , w h i l e p r o d u c i n g m o r e w a t e r , a l s o
c o m p r e s s e s t h e m e m b r a n e f u r t h e r a n d h a s t e n s flux d e c l i n e . N o r m a l p r a c t i c e
is t o overspecify t h e m e m b r a n e a r e a slightly a n d t o k e e p t h e o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e
c o n s t a n t a s l o n g a s p o s s i b l e , r e s o r t i n g t o a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e l a t e in t h e life
of the m e m b r a n e .
T h e o u t p u t o f a m e m b r a n e is p r e d i c t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e d e c l i n e p e r u n i t a r e a
o f t h e m e m b r a n e is q u i t e u n i f o r m a n d c a n b e p r o j e c t e d . A p l o t o f flux v s .
o p e r a t i n g t i m e a t a specified p r e s s u r e (like t h e l o w e r c u r v e in F i g . 8.18) yields
a c u r v e w i t h a n initial s t e e p d e s c e n t f o l l o w e d b y a p r o l o n g e d a n d m o d e r a t e
d e c l i n e . A l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t y i e l d s a s t r a i g h t line w h i c h is a d e q u a t e f o r p r e d i c
t i o n p u r p o s e s for 1 a n d p r o b a b l y 2 y e a r s . T h u s , flux c a n b e p r e d i c t e d f r o m
s u c h p l o t s o n c e t h e initial flux a n d s l o p e a r e k n o w n .
M a n u f a c t u r e r s p r o v i d e initial flux v a l u e s a n d e s t i m a t e s o f s l o p e s a t v a r i o u s
o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s . I n i t i a l flux is t h e p r o d u c t i o n for t h e first 2 4 h r d i v i d e d
b y t h e m e m b r a n e a r e a in t h e t e s t u n i t . D e c l i n e s l o p e is c o m p u t e d o r d e t e r
m i n e d g r a p h i c a l l y f r o m flux v a l u e s t a k e n a t t i m e i n t e r v a l s s u c h a s 10, 100,
a n d 1000 h r . T i m e i n t e r v a l s in m u l t i p l e s o f 10 a r e c o n v e n i e n t l y selected
b e c a u s e c o m p u t a t i o n is simplified. D e c l i n e r a t e is g i v e n b y E q . (8.50).
m = ( l o g F i - l o g F J / G o g / i - l o g ^ ) = log(F,/F,)/log(/,// ) x (8.50)
w h e r e F is t h e i n i t i a l flux [ g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) ] ; F t h e flux a t t i m e χ [ g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) ] ;
f
2
x
2
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f flux o v e r t h e life o f t h e m e m b r a n e is b a s i c t o t h e d e s i g n
of R O systems, because these values are used to estimate m e m b r a n e area
r e q u i r e d for a d e s i r e d p l a n t c a p a c i t y b y u t i l i z i n g E q . (8.49). T h r e e p o s s i b l e
approaches are
1. T a k e a n a v e r a g e o f t h e initial a n d final flux a s a c o m p r o m i s e t o o b t a i n
a n a v e r a g e a r e a . W h e n t h i s c h o i c e is m a d e , it is e x p e c t e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e l a t e r
life o f t h e m e m b r a n e , flux will b e b r o u g h t u p t o its initial v a l u e b y i n c r e a s i n g
the operating pressure.
2. Specify m e m b r a n e a r e a f r o m final o r s m a l l e s t flux v a l u e . A l t h o u g h
fixed c o s t s a r e h i g h e r , l o w e r s y s t e m p r e s s u r e s d e c r e a s e o p e r a t i n g c o s t s .
3. Select initial flux a s t h e d e s i g n b a s i s . T h i s m i n i m i z e s m e m b r a n e a r e a
5. Reverse Osmosis 381
a n d c a p i t a l c o s t s , b u t raises o p e r a t i n g c o s t s a s p r e s s u r e s a r e i n c r e a s e d t o m a i n
t a i n p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s is a logical c h o i c e for i n t e r m i t t e n t a n d short-term
p r o j e c t s i n w h i c h initial c o s t s m u s t b e m i n i m i z e d .
5.14. M E M B R A N E L E A K A G E [6]
C a l c u l a t e d s o l u t e r e j e c t i o n is a l w a y s h i g h e r t h a n e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s , e v e n
those t h a t are d e t e r m i n e d u n d e r the m o s t careful conditions. F o r example,
t h e o r e t i c a l r e j e c t i o n o f s o d i u m c h l o r i d e f r o m a m o d i f i e d C A m e m b r a n e is
calculated as 99.7%, b u t experimental results show n o better t h a n 9 7 - 9 9 %
r e j e c t i o n . T h e difference is c a u s e d b y m i n u t e i m p e r f e c t i o n s in t h e m e m b r a n e
t h r o u g h w h i c h p r e s s u r i z e d b r i n e c a n flow a n d c o n t a m i n a t e t h e p r o d u c t w a t e r .
All m e m b r a n e s have imperfections; these are p r o b a b l y n o t m a n u f a c t u r i n g
faults, b u t a p r o p e r t y of the m e m b r a n e t h a t m u s t be adjusted o r optimized
t o s u i t a specific service. H e n c e , v e r y p o r o u s C A m e m b r a n e s a r e u s e d t o
screen o u t large molecules (20-500 A diameter) a n d very small particles for
u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n s . L e s s p o r o u s m e m b r a n e s a r e selected f o r h i g h
w a t e r flow a n d m o d e r a t e salt r e j e c t i o n service in saltless s o f t e n e r s , a n d m e m
b r a n e s h e a t t r e a t e d t o l o w p o r o s i t y a r e u s e d for a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g h i g h
rejection.
Fortunately, most imperfections are small a n d easily p l u g g e d . D i s t r i b u t i o n
r u n s f r o m n u m e r o u s h o l e s w i t h d i a m e t e r s 100 A a n d s m a l l e r t o a few o f
l - μ ι η in d i a m e t e r . T h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f p r o d u c t c o n t a m i n a t i o n results from
s o l u t e p a s s a g e t h r o u g h l a r g e r h o l e s , since f r o m P o i s e u i l l e ' s l a w for v i s c o u s
flow, salt l e a k a g e i n c r e a s e s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o the fourth power of pore
diameter.
A n u m b e r of techniques have been tried t o reduce m e m b r a n e leakage:
1. Heat treating and modifying dope formula. T h i s is t h e o n l y p e r m a n e n t
w a y t o r e d u c e l e a k a g e . M e m b r a n e s f o r sea w a t e r m u s t b e h e a t t r e a t e d a t
h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s t o yield a film t h a t c a n reject 9 9 . 5 % o f t h e salt in t h e feed.
2. Addition of certain chemicals to the feed. C h e m i c a l s o f l a r g e m o l e c u l a r
size a d d e d t o t h e feed a r e utilized t o p l u g l e a k i n g p o r e s . L o e b [ 7 ] d i s c o v e r e d
t h a t t r a c e a m o u n t s o f a l u m i n u m salts o c c u r r i n g in L o s A n g e l e s t a p w a t e r
p l u g g e d l e a k i n g p o r e s o f test m e m b r a n e s a n d i m p r o v e d salt r e j e c t i o n . Z e p h i r a n
(tetraalkylaluminum chloride) was used at University of California at Los
A n g e l e s ( U C L A ) t o g a i n a s i m i l a r a n d m o r e r e p r o d u c i b l e effect. O t h e r m a t e r i a l s
t h a t i m p r o v e rejection include polyvinyl methyl ether a n d D o w f a x .
Unfortunately, leak-stopping additives have serious d r a w b a c k s t h a t limit
t h e i r u s e : (1) t h e y a r e m o r e effective o n l o w flux t h a n o n h i g h flux s t a n d a r d
C A m e m b r a n e s , n o w a l m o s t exclusively u s e d ; (2) t h e y d i s s i p a t e q u i c k l y a n d
m u s t b e r e g u l a r l y r e p l e n i s h e d ; (3) m o s t o f t h e m r e d u c e w a t e r flux a s t h e y
r e d u c e s o l u t e l e a k a g e ; a n d (4) t h e y a r e e x p e n s i v e a n d t h e r e f o r e useful o n l y i n
special s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e c o s t is n o t a f a c t o r .
382 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
5.15. S O L U T E P E R M E A B I L I T Y A N D
CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION
T h e o r e t i c a l l y , s o l u t e flux is a f u n c t i o n o f m e m b r a n e p e r m e a b i l i t y a n d t h e
difference b e t w e e n s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in t h e h i g h a n d l o w p r e s s u r e sides
o f t h e m e m b r a n e , i.e.,
Fsoiuu = fi(C -C )
H L = β AC « fiC H (8.51)
where F solute is t h e s o l u t e flux [ g / ( c m ) ( s e c ) ] ; β t h e s o l u t e p e r m e a b i l i t y c o
2
U n l i k e w a t e r flux [ E q . ( 8 . 4 4 ) ] , n o r m a l s o l u t e flux is i n d e p e n d e n t o f p r e s s u r e
[ E q . ( 8 . 5 1 ) ] . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , if p r e s s u r e in t h e R O s y s t e m is i n c r e a s e d , s o l u t e
diffuses a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e w h i l e w a t e r flow i n c r e a s e s . T h e r e s u l t is g r e a t e r
production of pure water.
Since C L is u s u a l l y s m a l l a s c o m p a r e d t o C , H E q . (8.51) is w r i t t e n a p p r o x i
m a t e l y a s i n d i c a t e d , i.e., salt flux is e s s e n t i a l l y g o v e r n e d b y c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
s o l u t e in t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r n e x t t o t h e m e m b r a n e o n t h e c o n c e n t r a t e side.
Solute concentration C H can be substantially higher than the concentration
i n t h e feed C F o w i n g t o a n effect c a l l e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n . I n m e m
b r a n e p r o c e s s e s s o l u t e a c c u m u l a t e s in a relatively s t a b l e l a y e r ( b o u n d a r y
layer) n e x t t o t h e m e m b r a n e . C o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n is t h e r a t i o o f s o l u t e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h i s b o u n d a r y l a y e r t o t h a t in t h e b u l k o f t h e s o l u t i o n .
Initially, s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r is t h e s a m e a s in t h e
b u l k o f t h e s o l u t i o n . H o w e v e r , since t h e m e m b r a n e is p e r m e a b l e t o s o l v e n t
a n d i m p e r m e a b l e t o solute, the b o u n d a r y layer becomes heavily p o p u l a t e d
with solute as solvent leaves t h r o u g h the channels o f t h e m e m b r a n e . T h e
b o u n d a r y layer grows thicker a n d m o r e concentrated, because the rate of
s o l u t e diffusion a w a y f r o m t h e m e m b r a n e c a n n o t k e e p p a c e w i t h s o l v e n t
flow t h r o u g h t h e m e m b r a n e .
T h e r e s u l t o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n follows f r o m E q . (8.51). W r i t e
C H = C B L , where C B L s t a n d s for t h e p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g s o l u t e c o n
c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y layer. T h e r e f o r e
Fsolute * fiC Bh (8.52)
C o n s e q u e n t l y , c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n r e s u l t s in a n i n c r e a s e d s o l u t e flux
o r a l o w e r p r o d u c t q u a l i t y . T h i s is u n d e s i r a b l e , s o o n e strives t o r e d u c e t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n effect. T h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d i n t w o w a y s :
1. Higher feed velocity. T h i s r e d u c e s t h i c k n e s s a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e
b o u n d a r y layer a s it is s c o u r e d a w a y b y t h e feed s t r e a m a t h i g h v e l o c i t y . T h e
e x t r a flow t h r o u g h t h e u n i t r e s u l t s in a n o v e r a l l l o w e r p r o d u c t r e c o v e r y , i.e.,
s m a l l e r r a t i o o f p r o d u c t t o feed. T h i s i n c r e a s e s p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n a n d
a m o u n t of concentrate (waste) p r o d u c e d .
5. Reverse Osmosis 383
w h e r e n is t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d s o l u t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y
BL
l a y e r (n BL > n ). S i n c e Δ π , g i v e n b y E q . (8.53), is h i g h e r t h a n t h e v a l u e c a l
F
F o = A[(P -P )-(n -n )]
H2 F P Bh P (8.54)
T h e r e is n o s i m p l e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e a v a i l a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e s o l u t e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r ( a n d t h e r e f o r e n ). A n i n d i r e c t a p p r o a c h
BL
T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e a t t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r is t h e n o b t a i n e d f r o m a p r e
viously p r e p a r e d plot of osmotic pressure vs. solute c o n c e n t r a t i o n [ π =
f(c)l
5.16. E X P E R I M E N T A L T E C H N I Q U E F O R
LABORATORY PREDICTION OF
MEMBRANE PERFORMANCE
A laboratory a p p a r a t u s for t h e prediction of m e m b r a n e performance in
r e v e r s e o s m o s i s is d e s c r i b e d b y S o u r i r a j a n a n d A g r a w a l [ 9 ] , a n d a s c h e m a t i c
flow d i a g r a m is s h o w n i n F i g . 8.19. F e e d s o l u t i o n is p u m p e d t h r o u g h a s u r g e
t a n k i n t o t h e cell c o n t a i n i n g t h e m e m b r a n e . P r e s s u r e is c o n t r o l l e d b y a p r e s s u r e
regulator operating o n a nitrogen back pressure system.
E x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d v a r i a b l e s a t a specific p r e s s u r e a r e (1) r e j e c t i o n
f a c t o r [ E q . (8.48)]; (2) p r o d u c t r e c o v e r y , i.e., r a t i o o f p r o d u c t t o f e e d ; a n d
(3) p e r m e a t i o n coefficient A. P e r m e a t i o n coefficient A, w h i c h i n c l u d e s p h y s i c a l
v a r i a b l e s o f t h e m e m b r a n e , is relatively c o n s t a n t ( S e c t i o n 5.7). T h e r e f o r e , it
384 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
N 2 g a s under pressure-H
Surge tank
7)
Feed
solution out
Δπ = n L B — 7TP = 0
F r o m E q . (8.54),
A = F /AP H20 (8.56)
where
AP = P F - PP
w h e r e A is t h e p e r m e a t i o n coefficient [ g m o l e o f w a t e r / ( s e c ) ( c m ) ( a t m ) ] ; 2
PWP t h e p u r e w a t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y ( g / h r ) ; Μ t h e m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t o f w a t e r
( 1 8 ) ; S t h e effective m e m b r a n e a r e a ( c m ) (7.6 c m for S o u r i r a j a n ' s a p p a r a t u s
2 2
in F i g . 8.19); a n d AP t h e differential p r e s s u r e ( a t m ) .
5.17. F I N A L R E M A R K S O N R E V E R S E O S M O S I S
R e v e r s e o s m o s i s is still t o o e x p e n s i v e for w i d e s p r e a d u t i l i z a t i o n in w a s t e
w a t e r t r e a t m e n t . I t is a l s o l i m i t e d t o t r e a t i n g s o l u b l e w a s t e s since s u s p e n d e d
solids c l o g t h e m e m b r a n e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , p r e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e feed is r e
quired whenever there are suspended solids, t h u s raising costs.
6. Electrodialysis 385
O p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s e m p l o y e d v a r y f r o m 6 0 0 u p t o 1500 p s i g . O n e o f t h e
m a i n g o a l s in c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h is t o d e v e l o p b e t t e r m e m b r a n e s t h a t c a n
o p e r a t e a t l o w e r p r e s s u r e s ( a r o u n d 2 5 0 p s i g ) a n d still yield relatively h i g h
p r o d u c t r a t e s , o f t h e o r d e r o f 4 0 g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) . O n c e t h e s e difficulties a r e
2
o v e r c o m e , R O c o u l d b e c o m e a p r o c e s s o f w i d e s p r e a d a p p l i c a t i o n in t h e field
of wastewater treatment.
6. Electrodialysis
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Electrodialysis was originally developed for desalination of o c e a n water.
I t is a p r o m i s i n g m e t h o d for r e m o v a l o f i n o r g a n i c n u t r i e n t s ( p h o s p h o r u s a n d
n i t r o g e n ) f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s , a n d t h u s it is a p o s s i b l e final s t a g e in w a s t e w a t e r
treatment processes.
A d i a g r a m o f a n e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s cell is s h o w n in F i g . 8.20. T h e b a s i c c o m
p o n e n t s o f t h e cell a r e a series o f m e m b r a n e s m a d e o f i o n e x c h a n g e r e s i n s .
T h e s e m e m b r a n e s a r e p e r m e a b l e o n l y t o i o n i c species a n d a r e selective t o a
specific t y p e o f i o n . T h e r e a r e t w o t y p e s o f m e m b r a n e s u t i l i z e d in a n e l e c t r o
dialysis c e l l : (1) c a t i o n m e m b r a n e s , w h i c h p o s s e s s a fixed n e g a t i v e c h a r g e ,
allowing cations (positive ions) t o pass t h r o u g h t h e m b u t repelling a n i o n s
( n e g a t i v e i o n s ) ; a n d (2) a n i o n m e m b r a n e s , w h i c h p o s s e s s a fixed p o s i t i v e
charge, allowing anions (negative ions) to pass t h r o u g h t h e m b u t repelling
cations (positive ions).
P a s s a g e o f i o n s t h r o u g h t h e m e m b r a n e s is a c c e l e r a t e d b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f a
c o n s t a n t v o l t a g e a c r o s s a series o f c a t i o n - a n d a n i o n - p e r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e s ,
a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 8.20. T h e c a t h o d e a n d a n o d e a r e l o c a t e d a t t w o e x t r e m e s
o f t h e cell, s o t h a t t h e m e m b r a n e c l o s e s t t o t h e c a t h o d e is c a t i o n p e r m e a b l e
a n d t h a t c l o s e s t t o t h e a n o d e is a n i o n p e r m e a b l e . R a w w a s t e w a t e r is fed
continuously into the concentrating compartments, and treated wastewater
is w i t h d r a w n c o n t i n u o u s l y f r o m t h e d i l u t i n g c o m p a r t m e n t s .
6.2. V O L T A G E R E Q U I R E D F O R E L E C T R O D I A L Y S I S
V o l t a g e r e q u i r e d is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m O h m ' s l a w [ E q . ( 8 . 5 8 ) ] .
Ε = IR (8.58)
w h e r e Ε is t h e a p p l i e d v o l t a g e ( V ) , / t h e c u r r e n t ( A ) , a n d R t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c a l
r e s i s t a n c e o f m e m b r a n e s a n d s o l u t i o n s in cells ( o h m s ) .
6.3. C U R R E N T R E Q U I R E D F Q R E L E C T R O D I A L Y S I S
T h e c u r r e n t r e q u i r e d is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i o n i c s t r e n g t h o f s o l u t i o n
( e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f n o r m a l i t y ) , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f cells. I t is c a l c u l a t e d
386 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
-Diluting compartment-
Cathode \ Concentrating Anode
compartment +
A j C
Legend:Δ - Cation
© - Anion
A - Anion-permeable membrane
C - Cation-permeable membrane
/ = FqNe/ηε (8.59)
w h e r e / is t h e c u r r e n t ( A ) , F t h e F a r a d a y c o n s t a n t ( 9 6 , 5 0 0 A χ s e c / g e q u i v
a l e n t ) , q t h e flow r a t e (liters/sec), TV t h e n o r m a l i t y o f s o l u t i o n (g e q u i v a l e n t s /
l i t e r ) , e t h e r e m o v a l efficiency (0 < e < 1.0), η t h e n u m b e r o f cells b e t w e e n
e l e c t r o d e s , a n d ε t h e c u r r e n t efficiency ( 0 < ε < 1.0).
I n c r e a s i n g t h e n u m b e r o f cells for a fixed a p p l i e d v o l t a g e Ε r e s u l t s i n a n
i n c r e a s e o f t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e R. C o n s e q u e n t l y , f r o m O h m ' s l a w
the current / decreases.
6.4. P R E T R E A T M E N T O F W A S T E W A T E R S
IN E L E C T R O D I A L Y S I S
F o r p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s cell, p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r , l a r g e
o r g a n i c i o n s , a n d c o l l o i d a l m a t t e r m u s t b e r e m o v e d p r i o r t o t h e p r o c e s s . If
t h i s is n o t d o n e , t h e s e m a t e r i a l s c a u s e f o u l i n g o f m e m b r a n e s , w h i c h r e s u l t s i n
a n increase of t o t a l electrical resistance. F o r a c o n s t a n t applied voltage, t h e
c u r r e n t p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e cell is t h u s l o w e r e d . T h e r e f o r e , d e m i n e r a l i z i n g
c a p a c i t y o f t h e e q u i p m e n t is l o w e r e d .
7. Chemical Oxidation Processes 387
F o u l i n g o f m e m b r a n e s is t h e g r e a t e s t p r o b l e m t o b e o v e r c o m e i n o r d e r t o
achieve e c o n o m i c operation of electrodialysis in t r e a t m e n t of wastewaters.
F o u l i n g is m i n i m i z e d b y
1. P r e t r e a t m e n t o f r a w w a s t e w a t e r in o r d e r t o r e m o v e p a r t i c u l a t e a n d
c o l l o i d a l m a t t e r a n d l a r g e o r g a n i c i o n s . T h i s is d o n e b y a d d i t i o n o f c o a g u l a n t s ,
filtration through microscreens, and/or adsorption in activated carbon
c o l u m n s . C o s t of p r e t r e a t m e n t m a y r e n d e r the process u n e c o n o m i c a l .
2. F o u l i n g is m i n i m i z e d b y p e r i o d i c p l a n t s h u t d o w n f o r c l e a n i n g .
3. F r e q u e n t c u r r e n t r e v e r s a l s t e n d t o m i n i m i z e t h e effects o f f o u l i n g .
7. Chemical Oxidation P r o c e s s e s
(Chlorination and Ozonation)
7.1. C H L O R I N A T I O N O F W A S T E W A T E R S
7.1.1. Utilization and Purposes of Chlorination
C h l o r i n a t i o n is a w i d e l y u s e d p r o c e s s in t h e t r e a t m e n t o f d o m e s t i c a n d i n
d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s . S o m e i n d u s t r i a l effluents w h i c h a r e c o m m o n l y c h l o
rinated prior t o discharge into receiving waters are those from beet sugar,
c a n n e r y , d a i r y , p u l p a n d p a p e r , textile, t a n n i n g , p e t r o c h e m i c a l , p h a r m a
ceutical, a n d metal processing ( c h r o m i u m , electroplating) plants.
Purposes of chlorination are summarized as follows:
1. Disinfection. P r i m a r i l y a d i s i n f e c t a n t o w i n g t o its s t r o n g o x i d i z i n g
capacity, chlorine destroys or inhibits g r o w t h of bacteria a n d algae.
2. BOD reduction. Chlorine accomplishes B O D reduction by oxidation
o f o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s p r e s e n t in w a s t e w a t e r s .
3. Elimination or reduction of colors and odors. C o l o r a n d o d o r - p r o d u c i n g
s u b s t a n c e s p r e s e n t in w a s t e w a t e r s a r e o x i d i z e d b y c h l o r i n e . T h e o x i d i z i n g
ability o f c h l o r i n e is e m p l o y e d for o d o r c o n t r o l a n d c o l o r r e m o v a l i n t r e a t
m e n t o f m a n y i n d u s t r i a l effluents ( b e e t s u g a r , c a n n e r y , d a i r y , p u l p a n d p a p e r ,
textiles).
4. Oxidation of metal ions. M e t a l i o n s w h i c h a r e in a r e d u c e d s t a t e a r e
o x i d i z e d b y c h l o r i n e (e.g., f e r r o u s t o ferric i o n a n d m a n g a n o u s t o m a n g a n i c
ions).
5. Oxidation of cyanides to innocuous products. T h i s a p p l i c a t i o n is d e
s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 7.1.4.
NH 3 + HOCl ^ NH C1 + H 0
2 2
(monochloramine)
NH C1 + HOCl ^
2 NHC1 + H 0 2 2
(dichloramine)
NHC1 + HOCl ^
2 NC1 + H 0 3 2
(nitrogen trichloride)
R e a c t i o n s o f c h l o r i n e in w a t e r a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 8 . 2 1 , w h i c h s h o w s t h e
relationship between chlorine added and chlorine residual.
-Zone I: -Zone 3:
Destruction of 1 Destruction of chloramines and
1 chlorine by \ chloro organic compounds
\reducing compounds
. Zone 4 :
Formation of free
0.6 Zone 2: chlorine and presence of
Formation of chloro organic compounds
0.5
chloro organic not destroyed
0.4 compounds and
chloramines
0.3
Free residual
0.2 Combined residual
0.1
T h e i n i t i a l a m o u n t o f c h l o r i n e a d d e d is r e d u c e d b y c o m p o u n d s w h i c h
r e a c t r a p i d l y w i t h c h l o r i n e (e.g., F e 2 +
and M n ) . This corresponds to
2 +
Z o n e 1 for w h i c h r e s i d u a l c h l o r i n e is n e a r l y z e r o . C o n t i n u e d a d d i t i o n o f
c h l o r i n e r e s u l t s in r e s i d u a l c h l o r i n e i n t h e f o r m o f c h l o r o o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s
o r c h l o r a m i n e s ( c o m b i n e d r e s i d u a l ) . C h l o r i n e r e s i d u a l is a l w a y s less t h a n
t h e c h l o r i n e a d d e d . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o Z o n e 2 o f t h e c u r v e in F i g . 8 . 2 1 . B y
adding m o r e chlorine, chloro organic c o m p o u n d s are frequently oxidized:
t h e m o l e c u l e is b r o k e n d o w n a n d c h l o r i n e is l i b e r a t e d . T h i s r e s u l t s in a decrease
o f r e s i d u a l c h l o r i n e ( Z o n e 3 i n F i g . 8.21). F i n a l l y , w h e n all r e d u c i n g c o m
p o u n d s have been oxidized, the additional quantity of chlorine a d d e d t o the
7. Chemical Oxidation Processes 389
w a t e r r e s u l t s in a n e q u i v a l e n t r e s i d u a l c h l o r i n e . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o Z o n e 4
in F i g . 8 . 2 1 , w h i c h d i s p l a y s a 4 5 ° s t r a i g h t line for t h e free r e s i d u a l , a n d a
s t r a i g h t line p a r a l l e l t o t h e a b s c i s s a for t h e c o n s t a n t c o m b i n e d r e s i d u a l .
T A B L E 8.5
Typical Chlorine Dosages for Disinfection [8]
D o s a g e range
Effluent from (mg/liter)
w h e r e Ν is t h e b a c t e r i a c o u n t , t t h e t i m e , dN/dt t h e r a t e o f b a c t e r i a kill, a n d
k t h e r a t e o f kill c o n s t a n t .
S e p a r a t i n g t h e v a r i a b l e s a n d i n t e g r a t i n g f r o m t i m e t = 0 t o a n y t i m e i,
N/No = e~ kt
(8.61)
w h e r e N is t h e b a c t e r i a c o u n t a t ί = 0 a n d Ν t h e b a c t e r i a c o u n t a t t i m e t.
0
T h e r a t e o f kill c o n s t a n t k is a f u n c t i o n o f p H , t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d a p p l i e d
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c h l o r i n e . I t is e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e s l o p e o f a s t r a i g h t line p l o t
o f \nN/N 0 v s . t b a s e d o n E q . (8.61), w h i c h w r i t t e n in l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m is
T h e effectiveness o f c h l o r i n a t i o n for d e s t r u c t i o n o f v a r i o u s o r g a n i s m s c o r
r e s p o n d s t o v a l u e s o f k f r o m 0.24 t o 6.3 for 9 9 % kill (i.e., N/N = 1/100 =
0
0.01) a t 0 ° - 6 ° C .
C h i c k ' s l a w is a n i d e a l i z e d p o r t r a y a l o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . U s u a l l y , i d e a l c o n
d i t i o n s d o n o t exist o w i n g t o v a r i a t i o n s in cell r e s i s t a n c e , d e c r e a s e in c h l o r i n e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , e t c . R a t e s o f kill s o m e t i m e s i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e w i t h t i m e .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , a m o d i f i e d f o r m o f E q . (8.61) c o n t a i n i n g a n e x t r a c o n s t a n t m
t o b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a is w r i t t e n a s
Ν IN 0 = e~ ktm
(8.63)
390 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
If m is less t h a n 1, t h e r a t e o f kill d e c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e , a n d if m is g r e a t e r t h a n 1,
it i n c r e a s e s . C o n s t a n t s i n E q . ( 8 . 6 3 ) a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y p l o t t i n g -ln(N/N ) 0
vs. c o n t a c t t i m e t o n l o g a r i t h m i c p a p e r . T h e l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p is
T h e effect o f c h l o r i n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n is defined b y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
C % = constant = Κ (8.65)
T h e s l o p e o f t h i s line c o r r e s p o n d s t o v a l u e o f — ( 1 / n ) .
F r o m E q s . (8.67) a n d (8.68) t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s t o i c h i o m e t r i c r a t i o is 5 C 1 / 2
2 C N " o r 2 . 5 C 1 / 1 C N ~ . I n p r a c t i c e , a l a r g e excess o f c h l o r i n e is u t i l i z e d , o f
2
t h e o r d e r o f 7.5 p a r t s c h l o r i n e p e r o n e p a r t C N ~ .
7.1.5. E c o n o m i c s of Chlorination
of W a s t e w a t e r s
A l t h o u g h t h e u s e o f c h l o r i n a t i o n is w i d e s p r e a d , it s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t
t h a t c h l o r i n e is a relatively e x p e n s i v e c h e m i c a l . If e c o n o m i c s is a c o n s i d e r a t i o n
for a given a p p l i c a t i o n , o t h e r m e t h o d s s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d . C h l o r i n e o x i d e s
( C 1 0 , C 1 0 , C 1 0 ) have been used in the disinfection of waters. A mixture
2 2 5 2 7
of C 1 0 / C 1 0
2 5 2 7 is a v a i l a b l e c o m m e r c i a l l y .
7.2. O Z O N A T I O N O F W A S T E W A T E R S
C h e m i c a l o x i d a t i o n w i t h o z o n e is a n effective m e t h o d for t r e a t i n g w a s t e
waters, based o n the following factors [ 5 ] :
1. O z o n e r e a c t s r e a d i l y w i t h u n s a t u r a t e d o r g a n i c s i n w a s t e w a t e r s .
8. Nutrient Removal 391
2. F o a m i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f w a s t e w a t e r s a r e r e d u c e d f o l l o w i n g o z o n e
treatment.
3. R i n g o p e n i n g a n d p a r t i a l o x i d a t i o n o f a r o m a t i c s r e n d e r s t h e w a s t e
water m o r e susceptible t o conventional biological treatment.
4 . O z o n e in t h e effluent q u i c k l y r e v e r t s t o o x y g e n o n c e it h a s s e r v e d its
p u r p o s e . T h i s d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n is beneficial t o t h e r e c e i v i n g s t r e a m a n d h e l p s
s u p p o r t a q u a t i c life. I n c o n t r a s t , c h l o r i n e ( w h i c h is t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d
b a c t e r i a kill a g e n t ) lingers in t h e effluent a n d b e c o m e s a p o l l u t a n t itself).
L a b o r a t o r y scale o z o n a t i o n e q u i p m e n t for e v a l u a t i n g a m e n a b i l i t y o f w a s t e
w a t e r t o o z o n e o x i d a t i o n is d e s c r i b e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 5 ] .
O z o n e m a y r e p l a c e c h l o r i n e in t r e a t m e n t o f c y a n i d e w a s t e w a t e r s . O x i d a t i o n
t a k e s p l a c e in t w o s t a g e s a c c o r d i n g t o E q s . (8.69) a n d (8.70).
8. N u t r i e n t Removal
8.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
R e m o v a l of nutrients ( p h o s p h o r u s a n d nitrogen c o m p o u n d s ) from waste
w a t e r s is a n i m p o r t a n t o p e r a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e s e c o m p o u n d s p l a y a critical
r o l e i n l a k e e u t r o p h i c a t i o n ( C h a p t e r 1, S e c t i o n 7). E m p h a s i s h a s b e e n g i v e n
t o p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l for t w o r e a s o n s : (1) p h o s p h o r u s is t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l
n u t r i e n t , a n d (2) n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l p r o c e s s e s a r e less efficient a n d m o r e e x
p e n s i v e . M o s t n u t r i e n t r e m o v a l t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s in o p e r a t i o n t o d a y a r e
d e s i g n e d for p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l a l o n e .
8.2. P H O S P H O R U S R E M O V A L
8.2.1. Processes for P h o s p h o r u s Removal
P r o c e s s e s for p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l i n c l u d e (1) c h e m i c a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
(2) a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s ( C h a p t e r 5), (3) s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s ( C h a p t e r 6,
S e c t i o n 6), (4) r e v e r s e o s m o s i s ( C h a p t e r 8, S e c t i o n 5), a n d (5) e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s
( C h a p t e r 8, S e c t i o n 6).
T h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , a l t h o u g h p r i m a r i l y i n t e n d e d for r e m o v a l o f
o r g a n i c c o n t a m i n a n t s , r e m o v e s b o t h p h o s p h o r u s a n d n i t r o g e n , since b i o l o g
ical cells c o n t a i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 . 0 % p h o s p h o r u s a n d 1 2 % n i t r o g e n b y
weight. F o r domestic sewage this a m o u n t s t o a p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l rate of
2 0 - 4 0 % ( o r 1-2 m g / l i t e r ) .
S t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s yield relatively h i g h p h o s p h o r u s a n d n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l ,
p r o v i d e d light a n d t e m p e r a t u r e c o n d i t i o n s a r e f a v o r a b l e t o t h e g r o w t h o f
algae. D u r i n g the summer, removal of a b o u t 80% of the nutrients m a y be
392 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
o b t a i n e d , w h e r e a s d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r it m a y d r o p t o 2 0 % o r less. R e v e r s e
o s m o s i s a n d e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s a r e still t o o c o s t l y f o r g e n e r a l i z e d u s e . T h e d i s
c u s s i o n o f p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l i n t h i s s e c t i o n is exclusively c o n c e r n e d w i t h
chemical precipitation processes.
c o m b i n a t i o n s of F e 3 +
a n d l i m e . T h e m e c h a n i s m o f p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l is
mostly precipitation in the form of phosphates of C a , F e , a n d A l . 2 + 3 + 3 +
3Ca 2 +
+ 2P<V- - Ca (P0 ) i
3 4 2
Fe 3 +
+ P0 4
3 _
-> F e P 0 j 4 (8.71)
Al 3 +
+ P0 4
3
- AlP0 j 4
A d s o r p t i o n a l s o p l a y s a r o l e in t h e r e m o v a l o f s o m e p h o s p h a t e s w h i c h a r e
a d s o r b e d o n t h e p r e c i p i t a t i n g floe. C o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n u t i l i z a t i o n o f different
precipitants are as follows:
1. F e (as F e C l ) . F e C l (in d o s a g e s o f 10 m g / l i t e r ) is t h e m o s t c o m
3 +
3 3
m o n l y e m p l o y e d p r e c i p i t a t i n g a g e n t for p h o s p h o r u s , y i e l d i n g a r o u n d 9 0 %
removal.
2. C a 2 +
(as l i m e ) . L i m e is less efficient t h a n F e C l . U t i l i z e d in d o s a g e s o f
3
5 0 0 - 7 0 0 m g / l i t e r yields r e m o v a l o f a t m o s t 8 0 % a t p H v a l u e s o f 1 0 . 5 - 1 1 .
A n o t h e r d r a w b a c k o f l i m e u t i l i z a t i o n r e s i d e s in t h e l a r g e v o l u m e s o f s l u d g e
p r o d u c e d , which causes a disposal p r o b l e m . Recovery of lime by calcination
of this sludge m a y be performed. Because of the presence of organic materials,
t h e s l u d g e m a y b e c a p a b l e o f s u p p o r t i n g its o w n c o m b u s t i o n .
3. A l 3 +
[as alum, A 1 ( S 0 ) . 1 6 H 0 ] . Although alum precipitation
2 4 2
yields a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 5 % p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l a t d o s a g e s o f 2 0 0 - 2 5 0 m g /
liter, it is less f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d o w i n g t o t h e h i g h c o s t o f a l u m . R e m o v a l o f
5 0 - 6 0 % o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s ( c a r b o n a c e o u s a n d n i t r o g e n o u s ) is o b t a i n e d
simultaneously with phosphorus removal.
4. C o m b i n a t i o n o f F e a n d lime. C o m b i n a t i o n s of F e C l solutions
3 +
3
a n d l i m e in r e s p e c t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s o f 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 m g / l i t e r a n d 2 - 5 m g / l i t e r h a v e
been used, yielding p h o s p h o r u s removal of approximately 9 5 % .
T h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o p e r a t i o n is u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h i n a t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s . F i g u r e 8.22 s u m m a r i z e s t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s for
p h o s p h o r u s removal within an activated sludge plant.
Alternative No. 1—precipitation in primary clarifier. The precipitant,
usually a c o m b i n a t i o n of F e C l a n d lime with typical dosages indicated pre
3
v i o u s l y , is a d d e d t o r a w s e w a g e , p h o s p h a t e s b e i n g p r e c i p i t a t e d a n d r e m o v e d in
8. Nutrient Removal 393
-Alternative no. I
Precipitation in primary clarifier
Additional
clarifier
for
Alternative
\ n o . 3 /
Y
•
Wastage
t h e p r i m a r y clarifier. P h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l is 9 0 - 9 5 % , a n d a c o n s i d e r a b l e
a m o u n t o f s l u d g e is o b t a i n e d . T h e a d d i t i o n o f l i m e in t h i s p r o c e s s r a i s e s t h e
p H o f t h e effluent f r o m t h e p r i m a r y clarifier t o n e a r l y 10.0. T h i s is n o t a n
obstacle to the p r o p e r operation of the biological process in the aerator,
w h i c h r e q u i r e s a p H n e a r n e u t r a l i t y . T h e n a t u r a l buffering c a p a c i t y o f t h e
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is sufficient t o p r o v i d e t h e r e q u i r e d n e u t r a l i z a t i o n ,
owing to p r o d u c t i o n of c a r b o n dioxide.
Alternative No. 2—simultaneous precipitation. P r e c i p i t a n t is a d d e d d i r e c t
ly t o t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k . T h e p r e c i p i t a t e settles in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier t o g e t h e r
with the activated sludge. It seems t h a t the chemicals d o long-term d a m a g e t o
t h e b i o l o g i c a l cells, a n d t h a t t h e i r o r g a n i c r e m o v a l efficiency is i m p a i r e d t o
s o m e extent. O n the other h a n d , addition of chemicals aids settling a n d c o m
p a c t i o n o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier.
Alternative No. 3—subsequent precipitation. Precipitating chemicals are
a d d e d t o t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier. A n a d d i t i o n a l clarifier is
required to remove precipitated phosphates, thereby increasing capital costs.
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l efficiencies o b t a i n e d a r e s o m e
w h a t h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e for t h e t w o p r e v i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s .
E s t i m a t i n g c h e m i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s for p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l c a n n o t b e d o n e
from simple stoichiometric relationships, because the actual mechanism of
p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l is n o t k n o w n . E m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a v e b e e n d e
v e l o p e d for e s t i m a t i n g c h e m i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d t w o o f t h e s e a r e m e n t i o n e d
next.
1. F o r e s t i m a t i n g F e 3 +
or A l 3 +
requirements,
ε = d + 0.5 l o g ( m / P i ) (8.72)
is t h e initial p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n in w a s t e w a t e r ( m o l e s o f P / l i t e r ) ;
P f t h e final p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n after p r e c i p i t a t i o n o p e r a t i o n ( m o l e s
of P/liter)]; C x a c o n s t a n t w i t h a v a l u e o f 0 . 6 1 4 for F e C l a n d 0 . 6 6 2 f o r a l u m ;
3
Solving for m,
m = p lo - i
( e c l ) / 0
- 5
(8.73)
8.3. N I T R O G E N R E M O V A L
8.3.1. Introduction
N i t r o g e n together with p h o s p h o r u s contributes t o the process of lake
e u t r o p h i c a t i o n . A l s o , n i t r o g e n in t h e f o r m o f N H 4
+
or nitrites (N0 ~)
2
e x e r t s a n o x y g e n d e m a n d b e c a u s e o f its o x i d a t i o n t o n i t r a t e s ( N 0 ~ ) . 3
NH 4
+
-» N 0 ~ - • N 0 -
2 3
(8.74)
T h e s e facts j u s t i f y t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s
p r i o r t o discharge into receiving waters.
F o r d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r s t h e split a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f n i t r o g e n is
relatively c o n s t a n t : N H 4 nitrogen, 50-60%; organic nitrogen, 4 0 - 5 9 % ; and
+
n i t r i t e s a n d n i t r a t e s , 0 - 5 % . I n t h e effluent f r o m a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t ,
m o s t n i t r o g e n is p r e s e n t e i t h e r a s n i t r i t e s o r n i t r a t e s , o w i n g t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e
o f nitrification. N i t r i f i c a t i o n i n v a r i a b l y o c c u r s d u r i n g a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e t r e a t
m e n t a t v a l u e s o f F/M r a t i o less t h a n 1.0. ( O p t i m u m r a n g e o f F/M r a t i o s f o r
t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is f r o m 0.3 t o 0 . 7 ; see C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 5.)
NH 4
+
" T NCV
(8.75)
^ _
T Nitrobacter Tj_
N0 - 2 > N0 - 3
S l u d g e a g e in s e c o n d a r y clarifier is a t least 2 - 3 d a y s , h i g h e r v a l u e s b e i n g
r e q u i r e d a t l o w e r o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e n i t r i f i c a t i o n is p e r f o r m e d e v e n
without addition of the organic c a r b o n source t o help meet denitrifying
bacteria requirements. E n d o g e n o u s respiration provides these requirements,
b u t a d d i t i o n o f t h e c a r b o n s o u r c e is h e l p f u l . A t w o - s t e p n i t r i f i c a t i o n - d e
n i t r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s is s h o w n in F i g . 8.23.
A m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d three-step nitrification-denitrification process is s h o w n
in F i g . 8.24. T h e first s t e p is a h i g h r a t e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s w h e r e 7 5 - 8 5 %
o f t h e c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t e r i a l is r e m o v e d . R e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e a e r a t o r is
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 h r . T h e s e c o n d s t e p is n i t r i f i c a t i o n in t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n
-STEP - S T E P 2:
Nitrification step: Denitrification step:
N H 4 - N O g - N C £ NOil
N 0
NO:
2
ί
clarifier 1
! clarifier
• S T E P I: - S T E P 2:
High rate activated sludge Nitrification step:
process:
Organics - C 0 • H 0
2 2
N H ; * N 0 g *N03
Wastage Wastage
- S T E P 3.-
I
Denitrificotion step:
uermr
Methanol addition
•Np + NoO
Anaerobic Secondary Final
tank clarifier
effluent
No. 3
e n r i c h e d c u l t u r e o f n i t r i f y i n g b a c t e r i a . R e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e a e r a t o r is a p
p r o x i m a t e l y 3 h r . T h e t h i r d s t e p is d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n , w h i c h is a n a n a e r o b i c
o p e r a t i o n , m e t h a n o l b e i n g a d d e d t o p r o v i d e a n a d e q u a t e C/N r a t i o .
2. Ammonia stripping. This process consists of adjusting p H of the
w a s t e w a t e r t o a v a l u e a b o v e 10 ( l i m e is utilized for t h i s p u r p o s e ) , a n d t h e n
a i r - s t r i p p i n g t h e a m m o n i a ( a t p H > 10 n i t r o g e n is p r e s e n t a s N H ) in a 3
s t r i p p i n g t o w e r . N i t r o g e n r e m o v a l efficiencies o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 0 % a r e
o b t a i n e d a t a i r / l i q u i d r a t i o s o f 3 5 0 f t / g a l a n d l i q u i d r a t e s o f a b o u t 3.0 g a l /
3
( m i n ) ( f t ) . R e m o v a l efficiency is i n c r e a s e d close t o 9 8 % w i t h a n a i r / l i q u i d
2
r a t i o o f 8 0 0 f t / g a l . H o w e v e r , r e m o v a l efficiency d r o p s c o n s i d e r a b l y in c o l d
3
weather.
A m m o n i a s t r i p p i n g is e m p l o y e d e i t h e r b e f o r e o r after s e c o n d a r y t r e a t
m e n t . If t h e s t r i p p i n g o p e r a t i o n is f o l l o w e d b y b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t , it is
n e c e s s a r y t o l o w e r t h e p H t o a v a l u e n e a r t h e n e u t r a l p o i n t . T h i s is u s u a l l y
d o n e b y r e c a r b o n a t i o n , i.e., b u b b l i n g t h r o u g h flue g a s c o n t a i n i n g c a r b o n
d i o x i d e . I t is i m p o r t a n t t o leave e n o u g h n i t r o g e n u n r e m o v e d t o satisfy n u t r i
t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s for t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s .
9. Sonozone Wastewater Purification Process 397
of the p a c k i n g elements.
3. Ion exchange. A c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r e s i n ( c l i n o p t i l o l i l e ) w h i c h is selective
for N H 4
+
is utilized i n t r e a t m e n t o f a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e effluents f r o m the
s e c o n d a r y clarifier. T h i s r e s i n is r e g e n e r a t e d w i t h l i m e , a n d t h e r e g e n e r a n t is
r e u s e d after b e i n g a i r - s t r i p p e d o f a m m o n i a i n a s t r i p p i n g t o w e r . T h e c o s t o f
o p e r a t i o n is h i g h , a n d u s u a l l y , t h i s p r o c e s s is n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y feasible.
A n i o n e x c h a n g e r e s i n s a r e u s e d for r e m o v a l o f n i t r a t e s ( N 0 ~ ) . P h o s p h a t e s
3
a n d o t h e r a n i o n s a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e m o v e d . T h e r e s i n is r e g e n e r a t e d w i t h
brine a n d restored by treatment with acid a n d methanol. Pretreatment by
filtration m a y be required in ion exchange processes, thereby increasing costs.
4 . Biological processes, i.e., a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e a n d s t a b i l i z a t i o n ponds,
h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d in S e c t i o n 8.2.1 in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h p h o s p h o r u s
removal.
5. Precipitation processes. S e c t i o n 8.2.2 d e s c r i b e s t h e s e p r o c e s s e s i n c o n
n e c t i o n w i t h p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l . A s f a r a s n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l is c o n c e r n e d ,
p r e c i p i t a t i o n m e t h o d s a r e r a t h e r inefficient, a c c o u n t i n g for less t h a n 3 0 %
removal of total nitrogen.
8.4. A D D E D B E N E F I T S I N N U T R I E N T R E M O V A L
A l t h o u g h initial c o s t s i n t h e p r o c e s s e s s t u d i e d a r e h i g h , t h e r e a r e a d d e d
benefits i n n u t r i e n t r e m o v a l p r o c e s s e s w h i c h in s o m e c a s e s j u s t i f y t h e c o s t s .
A m o n g t h e s e a r e (1) B O D r e d u c t i o n , (2) s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s r e m o v a l , (3) b a c
terial a n d viral r e m o v a l , a n d (4) r e m o v a l o f v o l a t i l e o r g a n i c s .
9. S o n o z o n e W a s t e w a t e r
Purification P r o c e s s
This tertiary treatment process has been developed at the University of
Notre D a m e (Lobund Laboratory), and sonozone plants are commercially
available from the Ecology Division of T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s Industries, Inc.
(Lindenhurst, N e w Y o r k ) . A pilot plant at the University of I n d i a n a with a
c a p a c i t y o f 2 0 , 0 0 0 g a l / d a y is b e i n g u s e d a s a r e s e a r c h m o d e l , t r e a t i n g o n -
c a m p u s s e w a g e . A full-size p l a n t ( c a p a c i t y , 5 7 0 , 0 0 0 g a l / d a y ) is in o p e r a t i o n
at Indiantown, Florida.
Telecommunications Industries, Inc. claims that the sonozone process
provides tertiary treatment at costs c o m p a r a b l e to secondary treatment.
T h e sonozone process combines ultrahigh frequency s o u n d a n d ozone treat-
398 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
A C O 2 + O 2
Sludge 0 3 0 3
t o t h e simplified e q u a t i o n [ E q . ( 8 . 7 7 ) ]
20 3 + C - C0 2 + 20 2 (8.77)
I n tests c o n d u c t e d a t t h e 2 0 , 0 0 0 - g a l / d a y p i l o t u n i t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
N o t r e D a m e , less t h a n 6 0 sec o f s o n o z o n e t r e a t m e n t d e s t r o y e d 1 0 0 % o f fecal
bacteria a n d viruses, 9 3 % of p h o s p h a t e s , a n d 7 2 % of nitrogen c o m p o u n d s .
Effluent p u r i t y w a s j u s t s h o r t o f t h a t o b t a i n e d b y d i s t i l l a t i o n .
I n t h e effluent, o z o n e q u i c k l y r e v e r t s t o o x y g e n . T h i s d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n is
beneficial t o t h e r e c e i v i n g s t r e a m a n d h e l p s s u p p o r t a q u a t i c life. I n c o n t r a s t ,
c h l o r i n e , t h e m o s t l a r g e l y u s e d b a c t e r i a kill, lingers i n t h e effluent a n d b e c o m e s
a p o l l u t a n t itself.
9. Sonozone Wastewater Purification Process 399
Problems
I. F o r the activated carbon column in E x a m p l e 8.2, calculate the residual concentration
(C ) if depth is increased to 10 ft, keeping the same service time. Prepare a plot o f C vs. d e p t h
E E
II. Verify if the carbon adsorption data in the tabulation below are fit by the Langmuir
isotherm. If s o , determine constants Κ and b.
C (mg/liter) A7M(g/g)
10 0.20
20 0.28
30 0.33
III. T h e wastewater stream from a plating industry has the following characteristics: flow
rate, 50 gal/min for 12 hr a day; chemical c o m p o s i t i o n : copper, 30 mg/liter as C u ; zinc, 2 +
Characteristics of cation and anion exchange resins used are as given in the tabulation below.
Cation Anion
Regenerant H S0 2 4
NaOH
D o s a g e (lb/ft ) 3
11.0 4.7
Concentration (%) 5 10.0
F l o w rate [gal/(min)(ft )] 2
0.5 0.5
Exchange capacity 1.5 eq/liter 3.8 lb C r 0 / f t
3
3
References
1. Bohart, G . S . , and A d a m s , E . Q., / . Am. Chem. Soc. 42, 523 (1920).
2. Business Week, " I s Ozone the W a y to Treat Sewage." M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w Y o r k , 1973.
3. Castellan, G . W . , "Physical Chemistry," p. 263. Addison-Wesley, Reading, M a s s a
chusetts, 1964.
4. Chick, H . , / . Hyg. 8, 92 (1908).
5. Eckenfelder, W . W . , Jr., and F o r d , D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
Austin and N e w Y o r k , 1970.
6. K a u p , E . C , Chem. Eng. (N.Y.) 80, N o . 8, 46 (1973).
7. Loeb, S . , "Sea Water Demineralization by Means of a Semi-permeable Membrane,"
Rep. 63-32. Department of Engineering, University of California, L o s Angeles, 1963.
8. Metcalf & E d d y , Inc., "Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treatment, Disposal."
M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w Y o r k , 1972.
9. Sourirajan, S . , and Agrawal, J. P., Ind. Eng. Chem. 6 1 , N o . 11, 62 (1969).
10. Telecommunications Industries, Inc., " A n Introduction to Sonozone Waste Water
Treatment Systems," Tech. Bull. Telecommun. I n d . , Inc., Lindenhurst, N e w Y o r k , 1974.
Appendix
C o n v e r s i o n F a c t o r s from English t o M e t r i c U n i t s
LENGTH
in. χ 2.54 = c m
ft χ 30.48 = c m
ft χ 0.3048 = c m
AREA
i n . χ 6.4516 = c m
2 2
f t χ 929.03 = c m
2 2
f t χ 0.092903 = m
2 2
acre χ 4046.8 = m 2
(1 acre = 43,560 f t ) 2
V O L U M E ( U . S . G A L UTILIZED)
in. 3
χ 0.01638 = liter
in. 3
χ 16.386 = c m 3
ft3
χ 28.316 = liter
ft3
χ 0.02831 = m 3
ft3
χ 2.8316 χ 1 0 = c m 4 3
gal/(min)(ft 2
) X 0.679 = liter/(sec) ( m ) 2
gal/(min)(ft 2
) X 0.004075 = liter/(min) ( c m ) 2
gal/(min)(ft 2
) X 0.2445 = liter/(hr) ( c m ) 2
gal/(min)(ft 2
) X 2445 = liter/(hr) ( m ) 2
gal/(hr)(ft ) 2
X 0.679 = liter/(min) ( m ) 2
gal/(hr)(ft ) 2
X 0.0113 = l i t e r / ( s e c ) ( m ) 2
gal/(hr)(ft ) 2
X 6.79 X I O ' = l i t e r / ( m i n ) ( c m )
6 2
gal/(hr)(ft ) 2
X 0.004075= liter/(hr) (cm ) 2
gal/(hr)(ft ) 2
X 40.75 = l i t e r / ( h r ) ( m ) 2
g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) X 0.0371 = liter/(sec) ( m )
3 3
401
402 Appendix
MASS
lb χ 453.59 = g
lb χ 0.45359 = kg
QUANTITY OF HEAT
B T U χ 0.25198 = kg calorie
B T U χ 251.98 = g calorie
TEMPERATURE
°C = ( l / 1 . 8 ) ( ° F - 3 2 )
Index
A parameter b, definition, 178
parameter b\ definition, 179
Acclimation, 35, 189 ratio 6 7 6 , 179
Activated sludge p r o c e s s , 157-235 typical values of parameters for
batch reactor, laboratory, 164 aerobic biological oxidation, for dif
calculation of S , material balance, 207
0
ferent wastewaters, 185
comparison with e x t e n d e d aeration, 238, recycle ratio, material balance for
239 determination of r e c y c l e ratio of
completely-mixed activated sludge M L V S S , 206, 209
p r o c e s s , 248 relationship b e t w e e n parameters a and
contact stabilization p r o c e s s , 2 4 4 - 2 4 7 a , 175, 177
continuous reactor residence time, calculation for reactor,
formulation, 166 208
laboratory, 189-193 sludge settling, optimum conditions, 185
sampling schedule, 193 sludge volume index, 186
design procedure for activated sludge z o n e settling velocity, 185
plant, 2 1 2 - 2 1 9 sludge yield, total, 183
determination of k (rate constant), 169, step aeration, 233, 247
194, 200 substrate removal rate constant, 167, 220
extended aeration, 2 3 8 - 2 4 4 tapered aeration, 248
factor 1.42, 176 Adsorption, see Carbon adsorption
kinetics relationships, 164 A d v a n c e d treatment, see Tertiary treat
material balance relationships, 169 ment of wastewaters
mathematical modeling, 163 Aerated lagoons, see L a g o o n s , aerated
neutralization requirements, 210 Aeration
nonbiodegradable matter, 165, 169 e x t e n d e d (total oxidation), 2 3 8 - 2 4 4
nutrient requirements, 211 conventional units, 239
o x y g e n utilization, material balance for design criteria for, 241
determination of, 179 nitrification in, 241
parametera oxidation ditch, 239
definition (synthesis phase), 174 settling of sludge from, 241
in different units, 177 step, 223, 247
parameter a, definition (synthesis tapered, 248
phase), 172 units, see Aerators
parameter a ' Aerators, 140-154
definition (oxidation), 172 basic function of, in -aerobic biological
in different units, 177 p r o c e s s e s , 140
parameters for design of aerobic biologi diffusion units, 140
cal reactors, determination by design procedure for aerator s y s t e m s ,
laboratory-scale continuous reactors, 143
189 fine-bubble, 140
parameters for e n d o g e n o u s respiration, large-bubble, 141
178 performance, 142
403
404 Index
Ε G