Muscular System
2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF
LECTRURE#1
7.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR
SYSTEM
Following are the major functions of the
muscular system:
1. Movement of the body. Contraction of
skeletal muscles is responsible for the
overall movements of the body, such as
walking, running, and manipulating objects
with the hands.
2. Maintenance of posture. Skeletal
muscles constantly maintain tone, which
keeps us sitting or standing erect.
3. Respiration. Muscles of the thorax carry
out breathing movements.
4. Production of body heat. When skeletal
muscles contract, heat is given off as a by-
product. This released heat is critical to the
maintenance of body temperature.
5. Communication. Skeletal muscles are
involved in all aspects of communication,
including speaking, writing, typing,
gesturing, and facial expressions.
7.
6. Constriction of organs and vessels. The
contraction of smooth muscle within the
walls of internal organs and vessels causes
those structures to constrict. This
constriction can help propel and mix food
and water in the digestive tract, propel
secretions from organs, and regulate blood
flow through vessels.
7. Contraction of the heart. The contraction
of cardiac muscle causes the heart to beat,
propelling blood to all parts of the body
MUSCLE TISSUE
Muscle tissue has four major functional
characteristics:
1. Contractility is the ability of muscle to
shorten forcefully, or contract. Skeletal
muscle contraction, causes the structures to
which they are attached (such as a bone) to
move. Smooth muscle or cardiac muscle
contraction increases pressure inside the
organ it surrounds, such as the intestines or
the heart. On the other hand, muscle
lengthens passively. Forces that oppose
contraction cause muscle to lengthen.
Examples of these types of forces include
gravity pulling on a limb and the pressure of
fluid in a hollow organ, such as urine in the
bladder. Thus, muscle shortening is forceful
and muscle lengthening is passive.
2. Excitability is the capacity of muscle to
respond to a stimulus. For skeletal muscle,
the stimulus to contract is from nerves that
we consciously control. Smooth and cardiac
muscle fibers contract spontaneously, but
also receive involuntary neural signals and
hormonal signals to modulate force or rate
of contraction.
3. Extensibility means that a muscle can be
stretched beyond its normal resting length
and still be able to contract.
4. Elasticity is the ability of muscle to recoil
to its original resting length after it has been
stretched.
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
A. Describe the microscopic structure of a
muscle, and produce diagrams that
illustrate the arrangement of myofibrils,
sarcomeres, and myofilaments.
B. Describe a resting membrane potential
and an action potential.
C. Describe a neuromuscular junction.
D. Explain the events that occur in muscle
contraction and relaxation.
E. Define muscle twitch, tetanus,
recruitment, and summation.
F. Distinguish between fast-twitch and slow-
twitch fibers, and explain the function for
which each type is best adapted.
G. Distinguish between aerobic and
anaerobic respiration.
H. Compare the mechanisms involved in the
major types of fatigue.
I. Distinguish between isometric and
isotonic contractions.
J. Define muscle tone.
Skeletal Muscle Structure
Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, with its
associated connective tissue, constitutes
approximately 40% of body weight. Skeletal
muscle is so named because many of the
muscles are attached to the skeletal system.
However, some skeletal muscle attaches to
the skin or connective tissue sheets.
Skeletal muscle is also called striated
muscle because transverse bands, or
striations, can be seen in the muscle under
the microscope. Individual skeletal muscles,
such as the biceps brachii, are complete
organs. A skeletal muscle consists of
skeletal muscle tissue, nervous tissue,
connective tissue, and adipose tissue.
Connective Tissue Coverings of
Muscle
• Each skeletal muscle (such as the
biceps brachii) is surrounded by a
connective tissue sheath called the
epimysium or muscular fascia.
• Each whole muscle is subdivided
into numerous visible bundles called
muscle fascicles.
• A loose connective tissue called the
perimysium separates muscle
fascicles from each other.
• Each fascicle is then subdivided into
separate muscle cells, called muscle
fibers.
• A loose connective tissue called the
Endomysium surrounds each muscle
fiber.

Muscle Development
1. Myoblast precursor cells-
mononucleated cells that fuse
together to form a myoblast.
2. Myoblast- “myo” (muscle) “blast”
(young cells) multinucleated,
immature muscle fibers (myocytes).
Accumulates contractile proteins in
the cytoplasm to develop into
mature cell.
3. Muscle Fibers- mature cells that
make up the functional unit of the
muscular system- sarcomere.
• Muscle fibers no longer multiply
maintaining a relatively constant
number after birth. The increase size
is due to hypertrophy in response to
muscle usage.
MUSCLE PROTEINS
Each sarcomere consists of an actin
myofilament and myosin myofilament. The
middle-most region is called the M line that
is found within the H zone all enclosed
inside the A band which is found between
two I band. Each sarcomere is separated by
a Z disk which are seen within each I band.
Muscle Fiber Structure
Muscle fiber is a single cylindrical cell, with
several nuclei located at its periphery.
The largest human muscle fibers can be
almost a foot long; The range is from 1 cm
to 30 cm. They are 0.15 mm in diameter.
Such giant cells may contain several
thousand nuclei.
Sarcolemma
• each muscle fiber contains
many bundles of protein
• cell membrane of the muscle fiber filaments. These bundles are
• has many tubelike inward folds: called myofibrils
Transverse tubules or T tubules
-occur at regular intervals Myofibrils consist of two major kinds of
along the muscle fiber and extend protein fibers:
into the center of the muscle fiber.
1. Actin myofilaments
- associated with
2. Myosin myofilaments.
enlarged portions of the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum called the Terminal cisternae
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
-T tubules connect the • The enlarged portions
sarcolemma to the terminal Sarcomeres
cisternae to form a triad
is the basic structural and functional
Sarcoplasmic reticulum unit of a skeletal muscle because it is the
• The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber has smallest portion of a skeletal muscle
a relatively high concentration of capable of contracting.
Ca2+, which plays a major role in Structures called Z disks separate
muscle contraction. one sarcomere from the next. A Z disk is a
network of protein fibers that forms a
stationary anchor for actin myofilaments to
attach. One sarcomere extends from one Z
disk to the next Z disk.
Actin and Myosin Myofilaments
Actin Myofilaments
-or thin filaments, are made up of
three components: actin, troponin, and
tropomyosin. The actin strands have
attachment sites for the myosin
myofilaments. They resemble two minutes
strands of pearls twisted together.
Composition of Actin (thin) myofilaments:
1. Two strands of fibrous (F) actin
molecules- has active sites
responsible for the formation of
cross-bridge with the myosin light
chains.
2. Series of tropomyosin molecules-
hides the active sites of F actin
molecules.
3. Series of troponin which has three
subunits:
Troponin I (TnI)- binds to actin
Troponin C (TnC)- binds to calcium
Troponin T (TnT)- binds to wounded together and 2 light chains on
tropomyosin each heads of the heavy chain.
Troponin • Heavy chains connect each of the
sarcomere
• molecules have binding sites for
• Light chains interacts with the active
Ca2+
sites of the F actin.
• attached at specific intervals along
the actin myofilaments The myosin heads have three important
properties:
Tropomyosin
(1) The heads bind to attachment sites on
• filaments block the myosin
the actin myofilaments;
myofilament binding sites on the
actin myofilaments (2) they bend and straighten during
• cover the attachment sites on the contraction; and
actin myofilament, which prevents a
(3) they break down ATP, releasing energy.
contraction from occurring.
Myosin myofilaments
Types of Muscle Contractions
-or thick myofilaments, resemble
bundles of tiny golf clubs two types of muscle contractions: isometric
and isotonic.
-The parts of the myosin molecule
that resemble golf club heads are referred Isometric
to as myosin heads.
Are responsible for the constant
Composition of Myosin (thick) length of the body’s postural muscles, such
myofilaments: as the muscles of the back.
1. Many elongated myosin molecules-
composed of 2 heavy chains

Isotonic
(equal tension) contractions have a
constant amount of tension while
decreasing the length of the muscle.
Movements of the arms or fingers are
predominantly isotonic contractions. Most
muscle contractions are a combination of
isometric and isotonic contractions. The
muscles both shorten and have increased
tension.
Concentric contractions
are isotonic contractions in which
muscle tension increases as the muscle
shortens. Many common movements are
produced by concentric muscle
contractions.
Eccentric contractions
are isotonic contractions in which tension is
maintained in a muscle, but the opposing
resistance causes the muscle to lengthen.
Eccentric contractions are used when a
person slowly lowers a heavy weight.
Substantial force is produced in muscles
during eccentric contractions, and muscles
can be injured during repetitive eccentric
contractions, as sometimes occurs in the
• Myotonic muscular dystrophy-
hamstring muscles when a person runs
failure of the muscle to relax after a
downhill.
forceful contraction.
MUSCLE CONDITIONS AND THEIR KNOWN
CAUSES
• Cramps- dehydration and ion
imbalance.
• Chronic muscle pain syndrome-
“myalgia”; idiopathic.
• Hypertrophy- normal in skeletal
muscles; abnormal in cardiac
muscles.
• Atrophy- occurs due to muscle
disuse.
• Myasthenia gravis- autoimmune
disease that competes with
acetylcholine.
• Tendinitis- overuse of skeletal
muscle.
• Fibrosis- deposition of connective
tissue.
• Fibrositis- prolonged skeletal muscle
tension.
• Dystrophy- group of genetic
disorders of muscle degeneration.
• Duchenne- type muscular
dystrophy- alteration of genes that
code for dystrophin.
 Nervous System
LECTURE#2
• The regulatory and coordinating
activities of the nervous system are
necessary for the human body to
function normally.
• The MOST COMPLEX SYSTEM in the
body
• Formed by a network of many billion
nerve cells (neurons), all assisted by
many more supporting cells (glial
cells)
• The nervous tissue is distributed
throughout the body as an
integrated communication network
The nervous system allows for this
in the following ways:
1. Maintaining homeostasis
Trillions of cells work together to
maintain homeostasis
2. Receiving sensory input
Sensory receptors monitor
numerous external and internal
stimuli. We are aware of sensations
from some stimuli, such as sight,
hearing, taste, smell, touch, pain,
body position, and temperature.
Other stimuli, such as blood pH,
blood gases, and blood pressure, are
processed at an unconscious level.
3. Integrating information.
The brain and spinal cord are the
major organs for processing sensory
input and initiating responses. The
input may produce an immediate
response, be stored as memory, or
be ignored.
4. Controlling muscles and glands
the nervous system controls the
major movements of the body by
controlling skeletal muscle. The
nervous system controls the
secretions from many glands,
including sweat glands, salivary
glands, and glands of the digestive
system.
5. Establishing and maintaining
mental activity
The brain is the
center of mental activities, including
consciousness, thinking,
memory, and emotions.
2 GENERAL DIVISIONS
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
• Brain
• Spinal Cord
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
(PNS)
• Cranial Nerves
• Spinal Nerves
• Peripheral Nerves
• Ganglia
DEVELOPMENT OF NERVE TISSUE
• The nervous system develops from
the outermost of the 3 embryonic
layer (ectoderm), beginning in the
3rd week of development
• The process is termed as
NEURULATION
STEPS IN NEURULATION
1. Neural folds and neural groove form
from the neural plate.
2. Neural folds elevate and approach
one another.
3. As neural folds prepare to fuse and
form the neural tube and dorsal
epidermis.

4. The mass of neutral crest cells
initially lies to a newly formed neural
tube.
SENSORY DIVISION (AFFERENT) PNS --- CNS
A. SOMATIC: sensory input perceived
consciously (ex. Eyes, ears, skin)
B. VISCERAL: sensory input not
perceived consciously (ex. Internal
organs and cardiovascular structure)
MOTOR DIVISION (EFFERENT) CNS ---- PNS
A. SOMATIC: motor output controlled
consciously or voluntarily
B. AUTONOMIC: motor output not
controlled consciously
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
A. PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
REST-AND-REPOSE SYSTEM
• Ganglia within or near the
effector organs
• Maintain normal body
homeostasis
B. SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE
• Ganglia close to the CNS
• Controls the body’s
responses during
emergencies and excitement
NEURONS
• Also known as NERVE CELL
• Structural and functional of nervous
system
• 3 MAIN PARTS:
1. CELL BODY/SOMA/PERIKARYON
- Contains the nucleus and most of
the cell’s organelles
- Serves as synthetic or trophic center
for the entire neuron
- Genetic center of neuron
- NUCLEUS: spherical or oval, usually
large, pale staining
- CYTOPLASM: contains Nissl’
granules/ Nissl bodies/ Nissl
substance or chromatophilic
substance, which are basophilic
granules due to abundance of
granular reticulum, and ribosomes in
the cytoplasm
2. DENDRITES
• ETYMOLOGY: “dendron”-
TREE
• NUMEROUS elongated
SHORT PROCESSES extending
from the PERIKARYON and
SPECIALIZED to receive
stimuli from the
environment, from the
sensory epithelial cells or
from other neurons at
unique sites called SYNAPSES
• 200,000 axonal endings can
make functional contact with
the dendrites of a single
large Purkinje cell of the
cerebellum
• Dendrites become much
thinner as they branch
• Nissl granules extend into
the dendrites
3. AXON
• ETYMOLOGY: “AXON”- AXIS
• SINGLE LONE PROCESS
ending at synapses
specialized to generate and
conduct nerve impulses to
other cells
• MOST NEURONS have only
ONE AXON, typically longer
than its dendrites
• Axons may receives
information from other
neurons

• Originate from a PYRAMID-
SHAPED region at the
perikaryon called AXON
HILLOCK
• PLASMA MEMBRANE OF
AXON: AXOLEMMA
STRUCTURAL CLASSES OF NEURONS
• CONTENTS OF AN AXON:
AXOPLASM
TRANSPORT OF MOLECULES WITHIN AXON
1. ANTEROGRADE TRANSPORT
• Organelles and
macromolecules synthesized
in the cell body move along
the axonal microtubules via
kinesis from the perikaryon
to the synaptic terminals
2. RETROGRADE TRANSPORT
• Carries certain
macromolecules taken up by
endocytosis via dynein from
the periphery to the cell
body
1. PSEUDOUNIPOLAR
• Also known as UNIPOLAR
NEURONS
• Single process close to the
perikaryon but divides into 2
branches, with the longer
branch extending to a
peripheral ending and the
other toward the CNS
• EXAMPLES: Cerebrospinal
ganglia
2. BIPOLAR
• Has 2 processes, consisting of
a single dendrite and a single
axon
• EXAMPLES: Retina, Olfactory
epithelium, Spiral/cochlea of
the inner ear, Vestibular
ganglia of the inner ear
3. MULTIPOLAR
• More than 2 processes
• With one axon and two or
more dendrites
• MOST COMMON
• EXAMPLES: Motor neurons
of CNS and Peripheral
autonomic ganglia
TYPES OF NEURON ACCORDING TO
FUNCTION
1. SENSORY NEURONS
• Also known as AFFERENT
NEURONS
• Involved in transmission of
sensory stimuli form the
environment or within the
body
• Transmits impulses to the
CNS
2. MOTOR NEURONS
• Also known as EFFERENT
NEURONS
• Transmits impulses from the
CNS to the effector organ
(skeletal muscle) or form
other efferent neurons that
ultimately supply the
effectors (smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands)
 3. INTER-NEURONS - 20-30nm wide function in the brain (learning and memory)
- Associated neurons that transmit intercellular space that
- most common
impulses from one part of CNS to separates the pre-
neurotransmitter in the
another synaptic and post-
brain
- Their process do not leave the CNS synaptic membranes
b. Gamma-aminobutyric Acid
c. POST-SYNAPTIC CELL
SYNAPSES (GABA)
MEMBRANE
- Synthesized from
- Are sites where nerve impulses are - Contains receptors for
glutamate
transmitted from one neuron to the neurotransmitter,
- Primary inhibitory
another, or from neurons and other and ion channels or other
neurotransmitter in the
effector cells mechanism to initiate a
brain
- Synapses convert an electrical signal new impulse
- Influences muscle tone
(nerve impulse) from the
TYPES OF SYNAPSES c. Glycine
presynaptic cell into a chemical
- Inhibits activity between
signal that affects the post-synaptic 1. Axosomatic Synapse- Axon to Soma
neurons in the CNS
cell 2. Axodendritic Synapse- Axon to
3. MONOAMINES
- It consists of: dendrites
a. Serotonin (pituitary gland)
a. PRE-SYNAPTIC AXON TERMINAL 3. Axoaxonic Synapse- Axon to Axon
- Also known as 5-
- Also known as
COMMON NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND hydroxytryptamine
TELEDENRON
THEIR ACTIONS (5-HT)
MEMBRANE OR
- Various functions in the
TERMINAL BOUTON 1. ACETYLCHOLINE brain related to sleep,
- Contains synaptic - Active in CNS and in both appetite, cognition
vesicles from which somatic and autonomic (learning, memory), and
neurotransmitter is parts of PNS mood
released by exocytosis 2. AMINO ACIDS - Modulates action of
b. SYNAPTIC CLEFT a. Glutamate other neurotransmitters
- also known as SYNAPTIC - excites activity in neurons
GAP to promote cognitive
- -
 b. Dopamine (happy hormone)
- Produces inhibitory
activity in the brain
- Important roles in
cognition, motivation,
behavior, and mood
c. Norepinephrine
- Also known as
NORADRENALINE
- Neurotransmitter of PNS
(SYMPATHETIC DIVISION)
d. Epinephrine (pain killer)
- Also known as
ADRENALINE
- Has various affects in the
CNS, especially the spinal
cord, thalamus, and
hypothalamus
4. NEUROPEPTIDES
a. Enkephalin
- Helps regulate response
to noxious and
potentially harmful
stimuli
b. Substance P
- Assists with pain
information transmission
into the brain
c. Cholecystokinin
- Stimulates neurons in the
brain to help mediate
satiation (fullness) and repress hunger
GLIAL/NEUROGLIAL CELLS
• Supporting cells of the CNS
• Support neuronal survival and
activities
• They do not synapse with each other
• On H and E stain, only the nuclei are
seen while the cytoplasm and
processes of the neuroglia are not
visible
• 6 major kinds of glial cells (4 in CNS;
2 in PNS)
NEUROGLIAL CELLS OF THE CNS
1. ASTROCYTES
• ETYMOLOGY:
✓ “ATRO” STAR
✓ “KYTOS” CELL
• Most important supporting
cells of the CNS
• Most numerous glial cells of
the brain
• Nucleus is spherical, centrally
located and pale staining
•
• Have large numbers of long
radiating, branching
processes
FUNCTIONS:
✓ Helps keep the blood-brain barrier
✓ Regulate interstitial fluid
composition
✓ Provide structural support and
organization to the CNS
✓ Assist with neuronal development
✓ Replicates to occupy spaces of dying
neurons
2 TYPES:
✓ FIBROUS ASTROCYTES: with long
delicate processes; abundant in
white matter
✓ PROTOPLASMIC ASTROCYTES: with
many shorter processes;
predominate in the gray matter
2. OLIGODENTROCYTES
• ETMOLOGY:
✓ “OLIGOS” SMALL
✓ “DENDRON” TREE
✓ “KYTOS” CELL
• Most predominant glial cells
in white matter
 • Processes are less numerous
and shorter
• Smaller and nucleus is round,
small, and dense
FUNCTIONS:
✓ Myelinates and insulates CNS axons
✓ Allows faster action potential
propagation along axons in the CNS
3. MICROGLIAL CELLS
• Removes any microbial
invaders and secretes a
number of
immunoregulatory
cytokinesis
• Originate from circulating
monocytes
• Smaller, denser, and
elongated (cigar-shaped)
• Evenly distributed
throughout gray and white
matter
FUNCTIONS:
✓ Phagocytosis
✓ Protects the CNs by engulfing
infectious agents
4. EPENDYMAL CELLS
• Provided with cilia which
facilitates movement of the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and
long microvilli for absorption
FUNCTIONS:
✓ Lines the ventricles of the brain and
FUNCTIONS:
central canal of the spinal cord
✓ Assist in the production and
circulation of CSF
NEUROGLIAL CELLS OF PNS
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
1. SCHWANN CELLS
• Named after Theodor
Schwann
• Also called as
NEUROLEMMOCYTES
• Found only in PNS
• Forms myelin sheaths around
the portion of only one axon
FUNCTIONS:
✓ Surround and insulate PNS axons
✓ Allow for faster action potential
propagation along an axon in the
PNS
2. SATELLITE CELLS
• Form a thin, intimate glial
layer around each large
neuronal cell body in the
ganglia at the PNS
• Insulate, nourish, and
regulate neurons
✓ Electrically insulates PNS cell bodies
✓ Regulates nutrient and waste
exchange for cell bodies in ganglia
• Major structures comprising the CNS
are:
✓ CEREBRUM
✓ CEREBELLUM
✓ SPINAL CORD
A. CEREBRUM
• Consists of outer cortex of gray
matter and an inner medulla of
white matter
• The most conspicuous cell in the
cerebral cortex in the pyramidal
neurons which functions for the
integration of sensory information
and the initiation of voluntary motor
responses

B. CEREBELLUM
• Composed of an outer and
gray matter of cerebellar
cortex and an inner
cerebellar medulla
• GRAY MATTER OF
CEREBELLAR CORTEX
contains:
✓ Molecular layer
✓ Purkinje Cell layer
✓ Granular layer
• MEDULLARY WHITE MATTER
is composed of:
✓ Myelinated nerve
fibers
✓ Glial cells
C. SPINAL CORD
• Made up of inner core of
GRAY AND an outer core of
WHITE MATTER
• GRAY MATTER: composed
ANTERIOR/VENTRAL HORNS
and POSTERIOR/DORSAL
HORNS joined at the center
by a thin GRAY matter called
THE CENTRAL COMMISSURE,
surrounding the central
canal
• APPEARANCE: COBWEB-LIKE
• The neurons are found in the
gray matter including
• Has 2 components:
neuroglial cells
1. Sheet of connective tissue in contact
• The myelinated nerve fibers
with the dura mater (avascular)
and neuroglial cells are
2. System of loosely arranged
found in the WHITE MATTER
trabeculae composed of collagen
COVERINGS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS and fibroblasts
SYSTEM C. PIA MATER (TENDER MOTHER)
• Innermost meningeal layer
• The skull and vertebral column
• Consists of flattened,
protect the CNs, but between the
mesenchymally derived cells closely
bone and nervous tissue are
applied to the entire surface of the
membranes of connective tissue
CNS tissue
called the MENINGES
• Vascular membrane closely investing
3 MENINGEAL LAYERS the brain and spinal cord
• Composed of loose connective
A. DURA MATER (LATIN: TOUGH tissue with fine elastic fibers
MOTHER)
• Also known as PACHYMENINX
• Dense irregular connective
tissue organized as an outer
periosteal layer
• The dura mater may be
separated from the ARACHNOID
by formation of thin subdural
space
B. ARACHNOID MATER (SPIDER
WEB-LIKE)
• Delicate impermeable membrane
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER 3. HYDROCEPHALUS
• Decrease in the absorption of
• Is a functional barrier that allows
CSF or a blockage of outflow
much tighter control than that in
from the ventricles during
most tissue over the passage moving
fetal or post-natal
from blood into the CNS tissue.
development
• Protects neurons and glial cells from
• ETMOLOGY: (GREEK)
bacterial toxins, infectious agents,
✓ “HYDRO” WATER
and other fluids
✓ “KEPHALE” HEAD
• Helps maintain the stable
• Characterized with
composition and constant balance of
progressive enlargement of
ions in the interstitial fluid
the head followed by mental
MEDICAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE CNS impairment

1. ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
• Common type of DEMENTIA
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
in the elderly
• Affects both neuronal • NERVES: bundles of nerve
perikaryon and synapses fiber
within the cerebrum • GANGLIA: group of cell
• CAUSE: accumulation of tau bodies outside the CNS;
protein forming plaques found in the PNS
along perikaryon and axon • NERVE ENDINGS
hillock regions
2. MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
• Myelin sheaths surrounding
axons are damaged by an
AUTOIMMUNE MECHANISM
that interferes with the
activity of affected neurons
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM LECTURE#3
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
MAIN COMPONENTS:
✓ NERVES: bundles of nerve fiber
✓ GANGLIA: group of cell bodies
outside the CNS; found in the PNS
✓ NERVE ENDINGS
1. NERVE FIBERS
• Analogous to the tracts in the CNS
• Contain axons enclosed within
sheaths of glial cells specialized to
facilitate axonal function
• Sheathed by Schwann cells or
neurolemmocytes
a. MYELINATED NERVE FIBERS
• Axons that are engulfed
along their length by a series
of differentiating
neurolemmocytes
• Nodes of Ranvier/ Nodal
Gaps can be found between
adjacent Schwann cells on an
axon, which renew the action
potential and produce
salutatory conduction which
causes the nerve impulses to
jump and move rapidly from
one node to another anode.
2. GANGLIA
b. UNMYELINATED NERVE FIBERS
A. SENSORY GANGLIA
• Glial cells do not form the multiple
wrapping of a myelin sheath
• Without the thick myelin sheath
• Nodes of Ranvier are not seen along
the unmyelinated nerve fibers
COVERING OF NERVES
• In all peripheral nerves, both
myelinated and unmyelinated are
protected and strengthened by
connective tissue investments
• The loose connective tissue that
encloses the individual nerve fibers
is called endoneurium
• The nerve fibers are grouped into
bundles or fascicles called
perineurium which is made up of
dense connective tissue
• Several bundles of nerve fibers are
enclosed by epineurium, which is
also made up of dense connective
tissue
• Aggregations of nerve cell bodies
outside the CNS
• Ovoid structures encapsulated with
dense connective tissue and
associated with nerves
• 2 TYPES:
• Also known as CRANIO-SPINAL
GANGLIA
• Receive afferent impulses that go to
the CNS
• Associated with both cranial and
spinal nerves
• The nerve cells of these ganglia are
pseudounipolar and relay
information from the ganglion’s
nerve endings to the gray matter of
the spinal cord via synapses with
local neurons
B. AUTONOMIC GANGLIA ▪ When stimulated, an impulse is
SPINES/ ABSENT PRESENT generated and transmitted by the
• ETYMOLOGY: (GREEK) GEMMULES sensory nerves to the brain where
➢ “AUTOS”- SELF
the sensation is perceived.
➢ “NOMOS”- LAW
▪ Proprioceptor senses. Originate in
muscles and joints. Impulses sent to
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PNS the brain enable perception of the
▪ Effect the activity of smooth muscle, position of the body and its parts in
the secretion of some glands, heart • Sensory (afferent) division
space maintaining posture and
rate, and many other involuntary o Nerve fibers that carry
balance
activities by which the body information to the central
▪ Special senses. These are sight,
maintains a constant internal nervous system
hearing, balance, smell and taste
environment (HOMEOSTASIS) • Motor (efferent) division ▪ Autonomic afferent nerves.
▪ Consist of both sympathetic and o Nerve fibers that carry Originates in internal organs, glands
parasympathetic ganglia impulses away from the and tissues, e.g. baroreceptors
▪ Oval-shaped structures with large central nervous system involved in the control of blood
numbers of large and oval nucleus o Two subdivisions pressure ,chemoreceptors involved
▪ Lipofuchsin granules are more ▪ Somatic nervous in the control of respiration and
frequent in these ganglia system = voluntary smell
▪ Surrounded by layer of cells called ▪ Autonomic nervous
satellite cells system = involuntary CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS
▪ The nerve cells are multipolar type categorized by:
SENSORY RECEPTORS
❖ Type of stimulus
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AXON AND • Specialized endings of sensory • Mechanoreceptors
DENDRITE neurons - respond to different
• Thermoreceptors
stimuli (changes) inside and outside
AXON DENDRITE • Photoreceptors
the body.
NUMBER Usually Abundant • Chemoreceptors
• Somatic, cutaneous or common
LENGTH ONE SHORTER • Nociceptors
NISSL LONGER PRESENT senses. These originate from the
❖ Location in the body
GRANULES ABSENT skin- pain, touch, heat and cold.
• Exteroceptors
COLLATERALS/ NUMEROUS
BRANCHES FEW • Interoceptors
 • Proprioceptors
❖ Structure
• Non-encapsulated or
Encapsulated nerve endings
• Lamellar or Bulbous
corpuscles
• Muscle spindles
• Tendon organs
• Joint kinesthetic receptors
STRUCTURE OF A NERVE
CRANIAL NERVE • Somatic reflexes
o Activation of skeletal muscles
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves are
associated with the brain
THE REFLEX ARC
• Reflex – rapid, predictable, and
involuntary responses to stimuli
• Reflex arc – direct route from a
sensory neuron, to an interneuron,
to an effector

• Endoneurium surrounds each fiber

• Groups of fibers are bound into
fascicles
• Fascicles are bound together by
epineurium

CLASSIFICATION OF NERVES

• Mixed nerves – both sensory and

motor fibers
• Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry
impulses toward the CNS
• Efferent (motor) nerves – carry TYPES OF REFLEXES AND REGULATION
impulses away from the CNS
• Autonomic reflexes
o Smooth muscle regulation
o Heart and blood pressure
SPINAL NERVES
regulation
There is a 31 pair of spinal nerves at the o Regulation of glands
level of each vertebrae. o Digestive system regulation
THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
• Second messenger system of the
body
• Uses chemical
messages(hormones) that are
released into blood
Hormones control several major
processes
• Reproduction
• Growth and development
• Mobilization of body defenses
• Maintenance of much of
homeostatis
• Regulation of metabolism
HORMONE OVERVIEW
• Hormones are produced by
specialized cells
• Cells secretes hormones into
extracellular fluids
• Blood transfers hormones to
target sites
• These hormones regulate the
activity of other cells
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
The Chemistry of Hormone
• Amino acid-based hormones
-Proteins
-Peptides
Effects Caused by Hormones
-Amines
• Steroids – made from cholesterol
• Protaglandins – made from highly
active lipids
Mechanism of Hormone Action
• Hormones affect only certain
tissues or organs (target cells or
organs)
• Target cells must have specific
protein receptors
• Hormone binding influences the
working of the cells
• Synthesis of proteins, such as
enzymes
• Activation on inactivation of
enzymes
• Stimulation of mitosis
• Hormones affect only certain
tissues or organs (target cells or
organs)
• Target cells must have specific
protein receptors
• Hormone binding influences the
working of the cells
• Changes in plasma membrane
permeability or electrical state
• Synthesis of proteins, such as
enzymes
• Activation or inactivation of
enzymes
• Stimulation of mitosis

Effects Cause by Hormone

• Changes in plasma membrane

permeability or electrical state
 2. Hormone does not enter the
cell
3. Sets off a series of reactions
that activates an enzyme
4. Catalyzes a reaction that
produces a second
messenger molecule
5. .Oversees additional
intracellular changes to
promote a specific response

Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine

Glands

• Endocrine glands are activated

by other hormones

Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine

Steroid Hormone Action
1. Diffuse through the plasma
Control of Hormone Release
membrane of target cells
2. Enter the nucleus
3. Bind to a specific protein
within the nucleus
4. Bind to specific sites on the
cell’s DNA
5. Activate genes that result in
synthesis of new proteins
Non-steroid Hormone Action
• Hormone levels in the blood are
maintained by negative feedback
• A stimulus or low hormone levels
in the blood triggers the release
of more hormone
• Hormone release stops once an
appropriate level in the blood is
reached
Glands
• Changing blood levels of certain
ions stimulate hormone release
Neural Stimuli of Endocrine
Glands
• Nerve impulses stimulate
hormone release
• Most are under control of the
sympathetic nervous system

1. Hormone binds to a
membrane receptor
 Pituitary Gland
Location of Major Endocrine Organs
• Size of a grape
• Hangs by a stalk from the
hypothalamus
• Protected by the sphenoid bone
• Has two functional lobes
➢ Anterior pituitary –
glandular tissue
➢ Posterior pituitary –
nervous tissue

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

• Six anterior pituitary hormones

• Two affect non-endocrine
targets
- Four stimulate other
endocrine glands (tropic
hormones)
Characteristics of all anterior pituitary
hormones
• Proteins (or peptides)
• Act through second-
messenger systems
• Regulated by hormonal
stimuli, mostly negative
feedback
Growth Hormone (GH)
• General metabolic hormone
• Major effects are directed to
growth of skeletal muscles and
long bones
• Causes amino acids to be built
into proteins
• Causes fats to be broken down
for a source of energy
Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary
Hormones
• Prolactin (PRL)
- Stimulates and maintains milk
production following childbirth
- Function in males is unknown
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH)
- Regulates endocrine activity of
the adrenal cortex
•Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- influences growth and activity of
the thyroid
•Gonadotropic hormones
➢ Regulate hormonal activity of the
gonads
•Follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH)
- Stimulates follicle development in
ovaries
- Stimulates sperm development in
testes
•Luteinizing hormone (LH)
-Triggers ovulation
-Causes ruptured follicle to become the
corpus luteum
-Stimulates testosterone production in
males
• Referred to as interstitial
cell-stimulating hormone
(ICSH)
Pituitary - Hypothalamus
Relationship
• Release of hormones is
controlled by releasing and
inhibiting hormones produced by
the hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus produces two
hormones that are transported to
neurosecretory cells of the
posterior pituitary
• The posterior pituitary is not
strictly an endocrine gland, but
does release hormones
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
Oxytocin
-Stimulates contractions of the uterus
during labor
-Causes milk ejection
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
-Can inhibit urine production
-In large amounts, causes • Produces two hormones: Thyroid
vasoconstriction leading to increased hormone and Calcitonin
blood pressure (vasopressin)
Thyroid Hormone
• Major metabolic hormone
• Composed of two active iodine-
containing hormones:
Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by
thyroid follicles
Triiodothyronine (T3) –
conversion of T4 at target tissues
Parathyroid Glands
• Tiny masses on the posterior of
the thyroid
• Secrete parathyroid hormone
-Stimulate osteoclasts to remove
calcium from bone
-Stimulate the kidneys and
intestine to absorb more calcium
-Raise calcium levels in the blood

Calcitonin

• Decreases blood calcium levels

Thyroid Gland
• Found at the base of the throat
• Consists of two lobes and a
connecting isthmus
by causing its deposition on bone
• Antagonistic to parathyroid
hormone
 Adrenal Glands
• Two glands
Cortex – outer glandular region in
three layers
Medulla – inner neural tissue
region
• Sits on top of the kidneys
Hormones of the Adrenal
Cortex
• Mineralocorticoids (mainly
aldosterone)
-Produced in outer adrenal cortex
-Regulate mineral content in
blood, water, and electrolyte
balance
-Target organ is the kidney
-Production stimulated by renin
and aldosterone
-Production inhibited by atrial
natriuretic peptide
Hormones of the Adrenal
Medulla
• Produces two similar hormones
Hormones of the Adrenal
(catecholamines):
Cortex
-Epinephrine
• Glucocorticoids (including
-Norepinephrine
cortisone and cortisol)
• These hormones prepare the
-Produced in the middle layer of
body to deal with short-term
the adrenal cortex
stress
-Promote normal cell metabolism
-Help resist long-term stressors
-Released in response to
increased blood levels of ACTH
• Sex hormones
-Produced in the inner layer of
the adrenal cortex
-Androgens (male) and some
estrogen (female)
 Hypothalamus and Adrenal
Glands in Stress Response

Pancreatic Islets

• The pancreas is a mixed gland

• The islets of the pancreas
produce hormones:
Insulin – allows glucose to cross
plasma membranes into cells
from beta cells
Glucagon – allows glucose to
enter the blood from alpha cells
• These hormones are antagonists
that maintain blood sugar
homeostasis
 Pancreatic Hormones and -May have other as-yet-un- -Acts with estrogen to bring about
Blood Sugar substantiated functions the menstrual cycle
-Helps in the implantation of an
embryo in the uterus
Thymus Hormones of the Testes
• Located posterior to the sternum • Interstitial cells of testes are
• Largest in infants and children hormone-producing
• Produces thymosin • Produce several androgens
-Matures some types of white • Testosterone is the most
blood cells important androgen
-Important in developing the -Responsible for adult male
immune system secondary sex characteristics
Hormones of the Ovaries -Promotes growth and maturation
• Estrogens of male reproductive system
-Produced by Graafian follicles or -Required for sperm cell product
the placenta Ion
-Stimulates the development
Pineal Gland
of
• Found on the third ventricle of the
secondary female
brain
characteristics
• Secretes melatonin
-Matures female reproductive
-Helps establish the body’s wake
organs
-Helps prepare the uterus to
receive a fertilized egg
-Helps maintain pregnancy
Prepares the breasts to
produce
milk

Hormones of the Ovaries

• Progesterone
-Produced by the corpus luteum
and sleep cycles
 Endocrine Function of the
Placenta
• Produces hormones that
maintain the pregnancy
• Some hormones play a
part in the delivery of the
baby
• Produces HCG in addition
to estrogen, progesterone,
and other hormones
-Problems associated with
reduced estrogen are common
-Growth hormone production
declines with age
-Many endocrine glands
decrease output with age
ENDOCRINE ORGANS

Other Hormone-Producing
Tissues and Organs
• Parts of the small intestine
• Parts of the stomach
• Kidneys
• Heart
• Many other areas have scattered
endocrine cells

Developmental Aspects of the

Endocrine System
• Most endocrine organs operate
smoothly until old age
-Menopause is brought about by
lack of efficiency of the ovaries
 Effect of Growth Hormone
• Greatest production occurs
during childhood
-Lack of GH = pituitary dwarfism
-Excess = gigantism
• •
Addison’s disease
Abnormalities of The Thyroid
• Cretinism- abnormal thyroid
development; short, stocky body
type. Severe hypothyroidism
causes mental retardation
• Myxedema - Hypothyroidism in
adults-lethargy, weight gain, loss
of hair.
• Grave’s disease-
hyperthyroidism; causes
exophthalmic goiter-edema
behind eyes causes bulging;
hyperactivity, arrythmias.
Acromegaly
• Excess production of GH; the
growth plates of bone have
closed so no increased growth in
height.
Feet, hands, and face become
“heavy” in appearance
• ACTH accumulates
causing stimulation of
melanocytes (bronze skin
color).
• Without cortisol, there is
no mobilization of glucose
under stress; can be life-
threatening.
• Hyposecretion of
aldosterone-most serious,
causes hyperkalemia (low
blood potassium) leading
to cardiac arrest
Cushing’s syndrome
• Hypersecretion of the
adrenal cortex hormone,
cortisol is primary problem.
• Results in Diabetes
mellitus from increased
blood glucose;
• Subcutaneous fat
deposited in midsection;
• High blood pressure