UNIT 1

MECHANICS
This topic covers:
1. Rectilinear motion
2. Forces
3. Energy and power

RECTILINEAR MOTION
Rectilinear motion means movement along a straight path.
Distance and displacement
- Distance is the length covered by a body in motion in any direction.
- Displacement is the distance covered in a particular direction.
In the figure below:
ACDB is the distance covered while AB is displacement.

 A to C through B (A to B and then B to

C). In this case, Distance is be 7 meters
(length of the path covered = sum of
length AB and length of BC).
 Displacement is 5 meters in the
direction of AC (Length of line segment
between initial position, A, and final
position, C = Length of the line
segment AC).

pg. 1
- Distance is a scalar quantity while displacement is a vector quantity.
- When an object moves and comes back to the original position, the magnitude of
displacement will be zero but magnitude of the distance will be greater than zero.
- Displacement can be negative – if the movement is in the opposite of reference
direction. Distance cannot be negative.

Speed and velocity

Speed is the rate of change of distance. It is a scalar quantity.
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. Velocity is a vector quantity.
Both are measured in ms-1.

Average and instantaneous speed

Average speed is total distance divided by total time:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑣𝑎𝑣 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Instantaneous speed is the speed at any particular instant in time on a journey.

𝑑𝑠
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙.
𝑑𝑡

Activity 3.1: page 26 – 27

Acceleration
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∆𝑣
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑡
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎= 𝑡

Acceleration is measured in ms-2.

pg. 2
Example 1
In an experiment, a trolley runs down an inclined plane. An interrupter card of length
20.0 cm cuts through the light gates close to the top and the bottom of the slope. The
following results were recorded from such an investigation.
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒑 𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆. 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 𝒔
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆, 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝒔
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔, 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝒔
Calculate:
a) The velocity of the trolley at each stage
b) The acceleration of the trolley
Answer
0.200 𝑚
a) 𝑢 = = 0.67 𝑚𝑠 −1
0.30 𝑠

0.200 𝑚
𝑣= = 1.43 𝑚𝑠 −1
0.14 𝑠

𝑣− 𝑢 1.43 − 0.67
b) 𝑎 = = = 1.5 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑡 0.50

pg. 3
Equations of motion
Equation 1
This equation involves rearranging the definition of acceleration.
𝑣− 𝑢
𝑎= 𝑡

Giving
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

Equation 2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑢+𝑣
𝑠=( )𝑥 𝑡 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
2

Substituting for v gives

𝑢+𝑢+𝑎𝑡
𝑠=( )𝑥 𝑡
2

2𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑠= 2
𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐

Equation 3
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑢+ 𝑣 𝑣−𝑢
𝑠=( )𝑥 𝑡 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡 =
2 𝑎

Substituting for t gives:

𝑢+𝑣 𝑣−𝑢
𝑠=( )𝑥 ( )
2 𝑎

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑠= 2𝑎

Making v2 the subject

𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔

pg. 4
Example 2
(i) A train starts from rest at a station and accelerates at 0.2ms-1 for one minute until
it clears the platform. Calculate the velocity of the train after this time, and the
length of the platform.

Answer
𝑢 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎 = 0.2 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑡 = 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 =?
𝑠 =?
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1, 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

𝑣 = 0 + 0.2 𝑥 60 = 12 𝑚𝑠 −1

1
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2, 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2

1
𝑠 = 0 + 2 𝑥 0.2 𝑥 (60)2 = 360 𝑚

(ii) The train now accelerates at 0.4 ms-1 for the next 540 m. Calculate its final
velocity and the time taken to travel this distance.

Answer
𝑢 = 12 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎 = 0.4 m𝑠 −2
𝑠 = 540 𝑚
𝑣 =?
𝑡 =?

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3, 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

𝑣 2 = 122 + (2 𝑥 0.4 𝑥 540)
𝑣 = 24 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1, 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
24 = 12 + 0.4 𝑥 𝑡
𝑡 = 30 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

pg. 5
Experiment: Determine speed and acceleration, for example use light gates
Measuring speed using light gate method

1. Attach a cart of measured length centrally to the top of the toy car.
2. Air track ensures a frictionless way for the toy car.
3. A gentle push can move the toy car at a steady speed.
4. Arrange for the card to block a light gates beam as it passes through it.
5. Electronic timer measures how long the card takes to pass through the beam.
6. Now calculate the toy car's average velocity as it passes the light gate by:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝑣=
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Measuring acceleration using light gate method

1. A card is mounted on the top of a trolley. The length of the card is measured.
2. One light is set at the top of the track and the second one is at the end of the track.
3. The trolley is given a gentle push to move through the track.
4. When the trolley passes through the first light gate the electronic timer measures the t1
to cross the length of the card.
5. So the velocity at the position of first light gate is measured by velocity.
v1= length of the first card ÷t1
6. During passing the second light gate, if the time measured by electronic timer is t2
then the velocity can be measured by:
v2 = length of the second card ÷t2

pg. 6
7. The time t3 is measured for the trolley to travel from first light gate to the second light
gate by using a stopwatch.
8. Now acceleration is = velocity difference÷t3
= {(length of the first card ÷t1)-(length of the second card ÷t2)} ÷ t3

Free fall and vertical projection

CORE PRACTICAL 1: Finding the acceleration due to gravity by free fall
A system for timing the fall of an object under gravity can allow us to measure the
acceleration due to gravity.
In this experiment, we measure the time taken by a falling object to drop under gravity
from a certain height, and then alter the height and measure again.

If we vary the height from which the object falls, the time taken to land will vary. The
kinematics equations tell us that:
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2

As it always starts from rest, u = 0 throughout; the acceleration is that caused by gravity,
g; and the distance involved is the height from which it is released, h. Thus:
1
ℎ = 2 𝑔𝑡 2
2ℎ
Therefore, 𝑡 2 = 𝑔

Compare this equation with the equation of a straight – line graph:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

pg. 7
We plot a graph of h on the x – axis and t2 on the y – axis to give a straight best – fit
𝟐
line. The gradient of the line on this graph will be from which we can find g.
𝒈

We could find a value for g by taking a single measurement from this experiment and
using the equation to calculate it:
2ℎ
𝑔= 𝑡2

However, a single measurement in any experiment is subject to uncertainty from both

random and systematic errors. We can reduce such uncertainties significantly by taking
many readings and plotting a graph, which leads to much more reliable conclusions.
Safety note: Secure the tall stand holding the solenoid so that it cannot topple over.

From the above experiment;

- The acceleration of free fall on Earth, has a value of 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −2
- In the absence of air resistance, all objects, whatever their mass, will fall freely with
same acceleration.
- Acceleration due to gravity acts downwards towards the Earth.
- If an object is thrown up, it will still be accelerating downwards at 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝒎𝒔−𝟐 .
- If the upward velocity is assigned a positive value, it follows that the acceleration
must be negative.
𝑎=𝑔

Free fall Vertical projection

𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕
𝟏 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒔 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒔

pg. 8
Example 3
A stone is projected upwards with a velocity of 30ms-1 from the ground. Calculate:
a) The time taken to reach maximum height
Answer
At maximum height, v = 0 ms-1
From, v = u – gt,
0 = u – gt
𝑢 30𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑡=𝑔= = 3.06 𝑠𝑒𝑐
9.81

b) The time of flight

Answer
When an object comes back to starting point, vertical displacement is zero: s = 0
𝟏
Using, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
1
0 = 𝑢𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2

𝑡(𝑔𝑡 − 2𝑢) = 0
𝑡 = 0 𝑜𝑟
2𝑢
𝑡= , this is double the time taken to reach maximum height
𝑔

30
𝑇 = 2 𝑥 9.81 = 6.12 𝑠𝑒𝑐

c) The maximum height reached

Answer
At max height, v = 0
Using, 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒔
0 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝑠
𝑢2 = 2𝑔𝑠
𝑢2 302
Maximum height, 𝑠 = = = 45.87 𝑚
2𝑔 2 𝑥 9.81

pg. 9
 d) The velocity with which it lands on the ground
Answer
On return, displacement is zero: s = 0
Using, 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒔
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐

𝒗 = ±√𝒖𝟐 = ±√𝟑𝟎𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔-1

TASK
1. A football is dropped from the top of a building 30m above the road below.
a) Calculate the time the ball takes to reach the road
b) Calculate its velocity on impact with the road
c) State an assumption you have made for these calculations

2. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 8.0ms-1 from a height
of 1.8 m. calculate:
a) The stone’s velocity after 0.5 seconds
b) The maximum height it reaches
c) The time taken for the stone to fall from the highest point to the ground

3. A ball is thrown vertically upwards. Which row of the table correctly describes the
magnitude of the initial acceleration of the ball and the magnitude of the acceleration
when it is at its maximum height?
Initial acceleration Acceleration at maximum height
A 0 9.81 ms-2
B 9.81 ms-2 0
C 9.81 ms-2 9.81 ms-2
D 0 0

pg. 10
HORIZONTAL PROJECTION
- If an object is thrown horizontally, it will start off with zero vertical velocity.
- However, gravity will act on it so that its motion will curve downwards in a parabola
shape, like the stone being kicked in the figure below:

Horizontal velocity (8.2ms-1)

Vertical velocity

s=

ground

- Horizontal and vertical motions are totally independent.

- Here the vertical component of velocity is initially zero but the stone accelerates
under gravity.
- Uniform acceleration means the kinematics equations can be used to find:

Height fallen, s
𝟏
Using 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐,
𝟐
But vertical velocity, u = 0

𝟏
𝒔=𝟎+ 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐

𝟏
Height fallen, 𝒔 = 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐

Range (horizontal distance), d

Horizontally, there is no accelerating forces once the stone is in flight, so it has a
constant speed. Thus, to find, d
𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 but a = 0
𝟐

𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕
Therefore, d = horizontal velocity x time

pg. 11
 Velocity on landing

Where v is the velocity of landing.

To calculate vertical velocity: u = 0

Using, 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒔
2
𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 0 + 2𝑔𝑠
2
𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2𝑔𝑠
If s is given as 60 m, then
2
𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 60 = 1177.2
𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 34.3 𝑚𝑠 −1
By Pythagoras theorem, velocity of landing, v

𝑣 = √8.22 + 34.32 = 35.3 𝑚𝑠 −1

Angle at which the stone is flying on impact with ground

34.3
tan 𝜃 = = 770
8.2

Example 4
A tennis ball is volleyed horizontally at a height of 1.5 m with a speed of 20ms-1.
Calculate the time taken by the ball to hit the ground and the horizontal distance
travelled by the ball.
Answer

pg. 12
 20 ms-1

1.5 m

d
Vertically, u = 0, a = 9.81 ms-2, s = 1.5 m, t =?
𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔= 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
1
1.5 𝑚 = 2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 𝑡 2

𝑡 = 0.55 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Horizontally, u = 20 ms-1 (constant), t = 0.55 sec, s = d =?
𝑑 = 𝑢 𝑥 𝑡 = 20𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑥 0.55 𝑠 = 11 𝑚

Object projected at an angle, 𝜽

trajectory
𝑢 sin 𝜃

𝜃
𝑢 cos 𝜃

pg. 13
- In the vertical plane, the initial velocity is 𝑢 sin 𝜃 and the acceleration is 9.81 ms-2
(downwards).
- As both are vectors, if a positive value is assigned to the initial velocity, the
acceleration and the downward velocities and displacements will have negative
values.
- Neglecting air resistance, horizontal component of the initial velocity, 𝑢 cos 𝜃, will
remain constant throughout the motion.

Task
1. A football is kicked with a velocity of 12ms-1 at an angle of 300 to the ground.
Neglecting any effects of air on the motion of the ball, calculate:
a) The vertical height reached by the ball
b) The time taken for the ball to rise to this height
c) The horizontal displacement of the ball when it falls to the ground

2. A boy throws a ball vertically at a velocity of 4.8 ms-1.

a) How long is it before he catches it again?
b) What will be the ball’s greatest height above the point of release?

3. The boy in question 2 now throws his ball horizontally out of a high window with a
velocity of 3.1 ms-1.
a) How long will it take to reach the ground 18 m below?
b) How far horizontally, should his friend stand in order to catch the ball?

4. Basketball is thrown with a velocity of 6 ms-1 at an angle of 400 to the vertical,

towards the hoop.
a) If the hoop is 0.9 m above the point of release, will the ball rise high enough to
go in the hoop?
b) If the center of the hoop is 3.00 m away, horizontally from the point of release,
explain whether or not you believe this throw will score in the hoop. Support
your explanation with calculations.

pg. 14
 MOTION GRAPHS
1. Distance-time graph and Displacement-time graph

- Consider the motion of a boat in a river. Its respective distance – time and
displacement – time graphs are shown below

- Both graphs show that in the first 15 minutes, the boat moved 150m.
- From 40 to 48 minutes, both graphs show that the boat travelled 120m, but the
displacement – time graph is in the negative region of the y – axis, showing the boat
was moving down river from the starting point.
- During period from 20 – 25 minutes both graphs are horizontal – boat was not
moving.
For a displacement – time graph:

Displacement, s
(m) 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑠
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑡
∆𝑠

∆𝑡

Time, t (s)

pg. 15
For an accelerating object;

Displacement, s
(m)
𝛿𝑡

Time, t (s)

- The gradient gets steeper, which indicates an increase in velocity.

𝛿𝑠
- The instantaneous velocity is the gradient, of the graph at a point on the line.
𝛿𝑡
- To measure the small values of 𝛿𝑠 and 𝛿𝑡 would be difficult and would lead to a large
uncertainty in the measured velocity.
- Drawing a tangent at the point would be more accurate.

2. Velocity – time graph

a)
- Object moving at a constant
velocity over a period of time.
Velocity (ms-
1) - Gradient is zero = no aceleration

Time (s)

b)
- Body moving with uniform
Velocity (ms-1) acceleration.
- Gradient = a constant, hence,
∆𝑣 constant acceleration.
∆𝑣
- 𝑎= ∆𝑡
∆𝑡

Time, t (s)

pg. 16
 c)

- Body is decelerating.
- Gradient is negative, so body is
Velocity (ms- accelerating in the opposite direction
1)
to its motion.

Time (s)

d) A curve shows varying acceleration

Velocity (ms- Velocity (ms-

1)
Increasing 1) Decreasing
acceleration acceleration

Time (s) Time (s)

pg. 17
Finding displacement/distance from a velocity – time graph

Displacement/distance = area under a velocity time graph

Analyze the following velocity – time graph for our boat.

3. Acceleration – time graph

a)
- Object is either stationary or
travelling at a constant velocity.
Acceleration - Either way, the acceleration is zero.
(ms-2)

Time (s)

pg. 18
 b)

- Body moving at constant acceleration.

Acceleration
In this case, the acceleration is positive.
(ms-2)
- Remember, acceleration can also be
negative.

Time (s)

c)

- For a large object falling for a long

period of time e.g a sky diver, the
acceleration will change over time as
the air resistance increases with speed.

Example 1
Describe the motion below

pg. 19
Answer
At t = 0 sec, object is stationary at some position and remains stationary until t = 2 sec
when it begins accelerating. It accelerates in a positive direction for 2 sec until t = 4 sec
and then travels at a constant velocity for a further 2 seconds.

Task
1. Describe in as much detail as you can, including calculated values, what happens in
the bicycle journey shown on the distance – time graph below

2. Describe in as much detail as you can, including calculated values, what happens in
the car journey shown on the velocity – time graph below

pg. 20
Motion graphs for a bouncing ball

The initial displacement (the height above the floor) is positive, as are all upward values
of displacement, velocity and acceleration; all downward values will be negative.

pg. 21
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
- Physical quantities (i.e. things you can measure or calculate) can be classified as either
scalars or vectors.
- A scalar quantity only has magnitude, not direction, but with a vector quantity you
need to state the direction as well as the magnitude. For example, a bag of sugar has
a mass of 1kg, but the force on it due to gravity is 9.8N downwards.
- Common scalar quantities: distance, speed, mass, volume, energy, power.
- Common vector quantities: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force.

FORCES
RESOLUTION OF FORCES

- A single vector (force) can be represented as the sum of two perpendicular vectors
(forces), known as its components.
- Vectors (forces) at right angles can then be treated independently, and can have third
magnitude added to other parallel vectors (forces) if necessary.
- The components of a vector (force) are found by using that vector (force) as the
diagonal of a parallelogram of vectors (forces) or as the hypotenuse of a right-angled
triangle of vectors (forces).

Example 2

A boy is pulling a block with a force of 500N with the horizontal.

a) What force is applied along the surface of the earth?
b) What force is applied upward on the block?
Answer
a) Horizontal component = FH

𝐹𝐻
cos 60 = 500

𝐹𝐻 = 250𝑁

pg. 22
b) Vertical component = FV
𝐹𝑣
sin 60 = 500

𝐹𝑉 = 433 𝑁

Example 3
A block is being pushed at north with force of 3N and at east with force of 4N. Calculate
the resultant force and its direction

Answer

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = √32 + 42 = 5 𝑁

3
cos 𝜃 = 5

𝜃 = 53.10
So the resultant force is 5N at angle of 53.1o from the north.

Parallelogram rule (theorem)

This is a method of finding the resultant of two non – perpendicular forces (or vectors)
by scale drawing.
Draw the two vectors to scale – at the correct angle and scaled to their length represents
the magnitude – starting from the same point. Then draw the same two vectors again
parallel to the original ones, so that they form a parallelogram as shown below. The
resultant force (vector) will be the diagonal across the parallelogram from the starting
point.

pg. 23
 Fig. 1

Task
1. Work out the resultant force on a toy car if it has the following forces acting on it:
 Rubber band motor driving forwards 8.4 N
 Air resistance 0.5 N
 Friction 5.8 N
 Child’s hand pushing forward 10 N

2. As a small plane accelerates to take off, the lift force on it is 6 000N vertically
upwards, while the thrust is 2 800N horizontally forwards. What is the resultant of
these forces on the plane?

3. Draw the scale diagram of figure 1 above, and work out what the resultant force
would be using parallelogram rule.

4. In order to try and recover a car stuck in a muddy field, two tractors pull on it. The
first acts at an angle of 200 left of the forwards direction with a force of 2250N. The
second acts 150 to the right of the forwards direction with a force of 2000N. Draw a
scale diagram of the situation and find the resultant force on the stuck car.

pg. 24
FREE BODY FORCE DIAGRAM
If we clarify what forces are acting on an object, it can be simpler to calculate how it will
move. To do this, we usually draw a free-body force diagram, which has the object
isolated, and all the forces that act on it drawn in at the points where they act. Forces
acting on other objects and those other objects are not drawn. Example is shown below:

Task
Draw a free body force diagram of yourself sitting on your chair.

pg. 25
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
1. Newton’s first law of motion
- States that, a body remains in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless acted upon by an external force.
- A body has “a tendency not to change its state”. This property of a body to maintain
its state is known as inertia.
- The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia. A large mass requires a large force to
produce a given acceleration or deceleration on it than a smaller mass. The larger
mass therefore has a greater inertia.
Examples of effects of inertia:
(i) A coin resting on a thick paper placed over a glass tumbler drops into the tumbler
when the thick paper is pulled.

(ii) When a moving car stops suddenly, passengers are thrown forward.

The passenger in a moving vehicle is also in a

state of motion.
Hence, when the vehicle stops suddenly, the part
of his/her body in contact with the seat, comes
to rest but the upper part of his/her body
continues to move with the same velocity due to
inertia.
Wearing safety belt reduces the effect of inertia.

pg. 26
Momentum, p
- It’s the product of mass and velocity
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
- SI unit is 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
- Momentum is a vector quantity. Its direction is same as the direction of the velocity
of the body.
Task
1. A car of mass 20 tonnes is traveling at a velocity of 144 kmh-1. Calculate the
momentum of the car.

2. A motorcycle is moving at 72 kmh-1. What velocity will double its momentum.

Equilibrium
When a number of forces act on a body and the vector sum of these forces is zero, the
body is said to be in equilibrium.
Example
A 10 kg mass is suspended from a beam using a length of rope. The mass is pulled to one
side so that the rope makes an angle of 400 to the vertical, as shown below:

a) Write expressions for the vertical and

horizontal components of the tension, T, in
the rope.
b) Use the conditions for equilibrium in the
vertical plane to show that the value of T is
about 130N.
c) Use the horizontal component to determine
F
Answer
a) Vertical component of T = T cos 400
Horizontal component of T = T sin 400

b) For equilibrium in the vertical plane:

T cos 400 = mg

10 kg x 9.81Nkg−1
T= = 128 N = 130 N
cos 400

pg. 27
c) In the horizontal plane:
F = T sin 400
= 128 x sin 400 = 82 N

2. Newton’s second law of motion

- States that, the rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the resultant
external force producing the change, and takes place in the direction of the force.

𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹) 𝛼 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

mv−mu
Fα t

mv−mu
F=k ( t
) but k = 1

v−u 𝑣−𝑢
Therefore, F = m ( ) 𝑏𝑢𝑡 =𝑎
t 𝑡

Hence, F = ma

Unit of force
Force = mass x acceleration

= 1 kg x 1 ms-2

= 1 kgms-2 = 1 N
A newton is defined as a force which produces an acceleration of 1 ms-2 when it acts
on a mass of 1 kg.
Example 4
A car of mass 22 400 kg was moving at a speed of 30ms-1 on a horizontal ground.
When the driver applied constant brakes, the frictional force was 30 000N. Calculate:
a) The deceleration of the car
Answer
F = ma
𝐹 −30 000𝑁
𝑎=𝑚= = −1.34 𝑚𝑠 −2
22 400

Deceleration = 1.34 ms-2

pg. 28
 b) The distance moved by the car, after the brakes were applied before coming to
rest.
Answer
𝑣 = 0𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑢 = 30𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑠 = ? , 𝑎 = −1.34𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
0 = 302 + 2(−1.34)𝑠
0 = 900 − 2.68𝑠
𝑠 = 335.8 𝑚

Example 5
A bullet of mass 12.0 g travelling at 150ms-1 penetrates deeply into a fixed soft wooden
block and is brought to rest in 0.015 seconds. Calculate:
a) How deep the bullet penetrates the block.
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
0 = 150 + 𝑎 𝑥 0.015
𝑎 = −10 000 𝑚𝑠 −2
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
1
𝑠 = (150 𝑥 0.015) + 2 𝑥 − 10 000 𝑥 (0.015)2

s = 1.125 m
b) The average retarding force exerted by the wood on the bullet
Answer
F = ma
12
= 1000 𝑥 10 000

= 120 N

pg. 29
 Example 6
A 50 kg mass is acted upon by forces of 30N and 40N which are at right angles to
each.
a) Calculate the resultant force acting on the mass
Answer

√302 + 402 = 50N

30N 50N

40N

b) Calculate the acceleration of the mass

Answer
F 50N
a=m = = 1ms−2
50

Impulse
From Newton’s second law,
mv−mu
F = t

Ft = mv − mu
The product of force and time is called the impulse of a force. It is defined as the change
in momentum.
Impulse = Ft = ∆p
When a force acts on a body for a very short time, the force is referred to as impulsive
force. The result produced is known as the impulse of the force.
SI unit of impulse is Ns.
Its direction is same as the direction of the applied force.

pg. 30
Applications of Impulse
1. A high jump landing ‘pits’ are usually filled with elastic foam mattresses. On reaching
the foam mattresses, a high jumper’s velocity is reduced to zero gradually in a longer
time. This reduces the momentum of the jumper to zero in a longer time period and
thus reducing the force of impact and hence the hurting effect.
If the pit has a cemented floor, the change in momentum would be brought about
abruptly in a short time, causing a high force of impact.

a) On foam mattress b) On cemented floor

Force Force

Time
Longer time Short time

2. A goalkeeper intercepting the ball with arms stretched then suddenly pulling the
hands to move with the ball in its direction reduces the impact.
3. A high jumper flexes his/her knees while landing.

TASK
A car of mass 2 000 kg moving with a speed of 10 ms-1 crashes into the wall and comes to
rest in 0.4 seconds. Find:
a) The impulse
b) The average force exerted on the wall.

3. Newton’s third law of motion

- It states that: to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
- A single force cannot exist by itself. They exist as a pair.
Examples
a) When you pull the bow - string towards you, the reaction force acts on the arrow in
the forward direction. The moment you leave your grip form the arrow, it flies off
from the bow – string.

pg. 31
b) Rocket and jet propulsion
- A rocket propels itself forward by forcing out its exhausted gases. The hot exhausted
gases are pushed out of the exhaust nozzle at high velocity and gain momentum in
one direction.
- The rocket thus gains an equal momentum in the opposite direction. The rate at
which the momentum changes provides the forward thrust on the rocket.
- In the launching of a rocket, it’s the reaction force that lifts the rocket up.
- When the fuel burns, the compressed hot gases are thrown out with a tremendous
force in the downward direction.
- The reaction of this force acts on the rocket in the upward direction and the rocket is
thus accelerated upwards.
c) Flying balloon

More example of Newton’s third law pair of forces:

(Reaction)

pg. 32
 (Action)

(Action)

(Reaction)

The Newton’s third law pair of forces are identical, since:

i) They are of the same magnitude (action = reaction)
ii) They are the same type of force (both are contact forces)
iii) They have the same line of action
iv) They have the same time of action
The newton’s third law pair of forces differ, since:
i) They act in opposite directions
ii) They act on different bodies (action is on chair and reaction is on body due to
chair)

Weight of a body in lift/elevator

(i) Lift at rest or moving with uniform speed
- The acceleration of gravity g is unchanged. So the weight of the body of mass m in
the lift remains mg.

Apparent weight = mg

pg. 33
(ii) Lift moving upwards with acceleration a
- One feels pressed hard to the floor.

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = + 𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝑚𝑎𝑦 = 𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔

𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑎𝑦

Apparent weight = m (g + a)

(iii) Lift moving downwards with acceleration, a

- One feels lighter.

Apparent weight = m (g – a)
TASK
An 80kg man stands on a scale inside an elevator. What is the weight in Newtons that
the scale reads when the elevator is:
a) At rest
b) Moving upwards at a constant speed of 5 ms-1
c) Moving downwards at a constant speed of 8 ms-1
d) Moving with an upward acceleration of 3 ms-2
e) Moving with a downward acceleration of 4 ms-1

pg. 34
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
- States that, when no external forces act on a system of moving objects, the total
momentum of the system stays constant.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡
Linear collisions
a) Inelastic collision – this occurs when two bodies stick together e.g hitting putty on
a wall. Momentum is conserved.
b) Elastic collision – Occurs when bodies collide and bounce off each other after
collision. Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

Example
A bullet of mass 0.005 kg is fired from a gun of mass 0.5 kg. if the muzzle velocity of the
bullet is 350ms-1, determine the recoil velocity of the gun.
Answer
Initial momentum of the bullet and the gun is zero since they are at rest.
Momentum of the bullet after firing = (0.005 x 350) = 1.75kgms-1
0 = 1.75 + 0.5v where v is the recoil velocity
0.5v = - 1.75
V = - 3.5 ms-1 (recoil velocity)
Example
Two trolleys, A and B, are placed on a smooth track so that they are touching. When a
peg is tapped on trolley A, a spring inside trolley A is released and the trolleys move
apart.

(a) Explain why the two trolleys move apart when the spring is released.(2)
(b) Explain which trolley will move off with the greater speed.

pg. 35
mass of trolley A = 0.1 kg
mass of trolley B = 0.2 kg(3)

Answer
a) As the spring is released it extends and applies a force to trolley B(1)

Then due to N3, trolley B applies an equal and opposite force to trolley A(1)

b) Total initial momentum = 0(1)

0.1vA – 0.2vB = 0(1)
vA = 2vB so trolley A has the greater speed(1)

Or
Total initial momentum = 0 (1)
Trolleys will have equal and opposite momenta (1)
Lighter trolley A has the greater speed(1)

TASK
1. A minibus of mass 1500 kg travelling at a constant velocity of 72 kmh-1 collides head-
on with a stationary car of mass 900kg. The impact takes 2 seconds before the two
move together at a constant velocity or 20 seconds. Calculate:
a) The common velocity
b) The distance moved after the impact
c) The impulsive force
d) The change in kinetic energy

2. A boy in a stationary boat on a still pond has lost his oars in the water. In order to
get the boat moving again, he throws his rucksack horizontally out of the boat with a
speed of 4ms-1.
Mass of boat = 60 kg
Mass of boy = 40 kg
Mass of rucksack = 5 kg
a) How fast will this action make the boat move?
b) If he throws the rucksack by exerting a force on it for 0.2 seconds, how much
force does he exert?

pg. 36
MOMENTS
Moment of a force
- This is the tendency to cause rotation. It is calculated from:
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑁𝑚) =
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)

A force acts on a beam fixed at a point.

The moment of a force causes rotation
or, in this case bending.

Example

The calculation of moment only

considers the perpendicular distance
between the line of action of the force
and the axis of rotation, through the
pivot point. When free to rotate, a
body will turn in the direction of any
net moment.

Principle of moments

If we add up all the forces acting on an object

and the resultant force, accounting for their
directions, is zero, then the object will be in
equilibrium. Therefore, it will remain stationary
or, if it is already moving, it will carry on
moving at the same velocity.

pg. 37
- The object could keep a constant velocity, but if the moments on it are not also
balanced, it could be made to start rotating.
- The principle of moments tells us that if the total of all the moments trying to turn an
object clockwise is equal to the total of all moments trying to turn an object
anticlockwise, then it will be in rotational equilibrium. This means it will either
remain stationary, or if it is already rotating it will continue at the same speed in the
same direction
Example 1
In the figure below, we can work out the weight of the beam if we know all other
weights and distances. The beam is uniform, so its weight will act from its centre. The
length of the beam is 100 cm. so if x1 = 20 cm, then x0 must be 30 cm and x2 = 80 cm.
the dinosaur (W1) weighs 5.8 N and the toy car’s weight (W2) is 0.95 N.

In equilibrium, principle of moments: sum of anticlockwise moments = sum of clockwise

moments
W1x1 = W0x0 + W2x2
5.8 x 0.20 = W0 x 0.30 + 0.95 x 0.80
1.16−(0.76)
W0 = 0.30

W0 = 1.3 N

pg. 38
Example 2
Find the moment of force in the figure below

Answer
Moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance

= force x √52 − 32
= 6N X 4m =24Nm

Parallel forces
 Consider a uniform rod below balanced by the forces F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and R which is
the normal reaction on pivot.

 The forces F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and R are parallel.

 For parallel forces:
a) The sum of forces acting on one side of the system is equal to the sum of forces
acting on opposite direction i.e. the algebraic sum of parallel forces is zero.
b) The sum of clockwise moments is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments i.e.
the algebraic sum of the moments of parallel forces is zero.
TASK
A uniform metal rod of length 80cm and mass 3.2kg is supported horizontally by two
vertical spring’s balances C and D balance C is also from one end while balance D is
30cm from the other end. Find the reading on each balance.

pg. 39
 Anti – parallel forces (Couples) and Torque
 Anti – parallel forces or a couple refers to equal, parallel but opposite forces.
 The total moment of anti-parallel forces is the product of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between the forces.

 The turning effect due to two or more forces is usually referred to as the torque. The
unit of torque is Nm (newton meter)
Example 3
Two vertical equal and opposite forces act on a meter rule at 20 cm and 90 cm marks
respectively. If each of the forces has a magnitude of 4.0 N, calculate their moment on
the meter rule about the 40 cm mark.
Answer
Total moment(torque)
= one of the force, F X perpendicular distance between the forces, d
= 4.0𝑁 × (0.9 − 0.2)𝑚
= 4.0 𝑁 × 0.7
= 2.8 𝑁𝑚
Examples of couples
I. Forces applied on a wheel spanner when tightening or loosening a nut
II. Forces applied when opening a water tap

III. Forces applied on the steering wheel of a car when going round a bend

pg. 40
IV. Forces applied on bicycle handle

Centre of Gravity
 Centre of gravity (COG) of a body is the point of application of the resultant force due
to earth’s attraction. It is the point where the whole weight of the body appears to act
from. The resultant force is the weight (𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈) of the body.

Centre of Gravity of Regular Shapes

 The centre of gravity of a uniform body (body with weight evenly distributed) lies at
the body’s geometrical centre. For example, a uniform meter rule balances at the 50
cm mark when suspended.

 The centre of gravity of regular shapes can also be determined by construction e.g.
1. For square and rectangular plates, diagonals are constructed. The point of intersection
is the centre of gravity.

pg. 41
2. For triangular plate, perpendicular bisectors of the sides are constructed. The point of
intersection is the centre of gravity.

Experiment: To find the centre of gravity of a sheet of cardboard (irregular shape).

1. Set up as shown above.

2. Hang the cardboard from a nail using hole 1 so that it rotates freely.
3. Hang a weight from this point using cord so that the weight hangs straight down.
4. Draw a line to represent the position of the cord.
5. Rotate the sheet of cardboard and repeat with holes 2 & 3.
6. The intersection of the two lines represents the centre of gravity of the object.
7. Now repeat one more time to verify that this line also goes through the same point.

Example

A musical instrument called a triangle consists of a metal bar bent into a triangular shape.
The triangle is open at one corner. A full size diagram of a triangle is shown below. The
position of the centre of gravity has been added.

pg. 42
(a) State what is meant by centre of gravity.(1)

(b) Determine the moment of the weight of the triangle about O.

mass of triangle = 0.180 kg(4)

(c) The triangle is now suspended by a thread from O. Explain why the triangle settles in
a position where the base is no longer horizontal.(2)

pg. 43
ENERGY, WORK, POWER AND EFFICIENCY
ENERGY
- Energy is the ability to do work.
- Energy is measured in Joules (J).

Gravitational potential energy (𝑬𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗 )

- This is the energy an object has by virtue of its position in a gravitational field.
- When an object is lifted, work is done against the downward gravitational force i.e
weight.
- The distance moved is the vertical height through which the object is raised.
Therefore,
𝑬𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗 = 𝒎𝒈∆𝒉

Kinetic energy (𝑬𝒌 )

- This is the energy an object has by virtue of its movement/motion.

𝟏
𝑬𝒌 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐

Principle of conservation of Energy

- States that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be transferred.
- This means that in any process:
Total energy at the start = total energy at the end
- As an object rises or falls, 𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 can be transferred to 𝐸𝑘 and 𝐸𝑘 can be transferred to
𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣

pg. 44
 Energy exchange in a pendulum

Bob

∆ℎ

v
mg

- When the pendulum bob is displaced to one extreme, it is raised to a height ∆ℎ.
- The 𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 of the bob increases by mg∆ℎ.
- When the bob is releases, it begins to fall and accelerates towards the midpoint. The
moving bob gains 𝐸𝑘 .
- The 𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 decreases to a minimum value at the lowest point of the swing where 𝐸𝑘
has a maximum value.
- The 𝐸𝑘 is then transferred back to 𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 as the bob moves up to the other extreme.

∆𝑬𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗 → ∆𝑬𝒌 → ∆𝑬𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗

𝟏
𝒎𝒈∆𝒉 → 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 → 𝒎𝒈∆𝒉

Example 1

The car on the fan fair ride below has a mass m and is released from rest at the top of
the track, which is at the height h above the lowest level of the ride. The car reaches
speed v at the bottom of the dip.

pg. 45
 car

a) If h is 20 m, show that the speed of the car should be about 20ms-1.

Answer
1
mg∆h = mv 2
2

v = √2gh

= √2 x 9.81 x 20
= 19.8ms −1 ≈ 20ms −1

b) The speed of the car is measured as 19ms-1. Explain why this value is lower than
the value calculated in (a) above.

Answer
The car does work against frictional forces and air resistance.
Some of the 𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 is transferred to increase the internal energy of the surrounding.

c) Do you expect that the car will pass the next peak, which is at a height of 15m
above the dip? Explain your reasoning.

Answer
The car needs to transfer 75% of its original 𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 to reach a height of 15m.

pg. 46
 The energy transferred from the car to the surroundings on the downward
journey is less than 10% of the 𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 so it is likely that the car will reach the top of
the next peak.
Example 2
A famous scientist Galileo came up with an idea that objects will all fall to the ground at
same rate regardless of their mass. Using the principle of conservation of energy, support
this idea.
Answer
∆Egrav = ∆Ek
1
mg∆h = mv 2
2

𝑣 2 = 2𝑔∆ℎ
v = √2g∆h

The fact that mass divides out to give the relation, 𝐯 = √𝟐𝐠∆𝐡 confirms Galileo’s idea.

Example 3

How high would water from a fountain rise if it were ejected vertically upwards from a
spout at 13.5ms-1?

Answer

Egrav = Ek

1
mg∆h = mv 2
2
𝑣2
∆ℎ = 2𝑔

13.52
∆ℎ = = 9.29m
2 𝑥 9.81

Example 4

A pendulum bob of mass 50g is displaced to one side so that it is raised by 10cm from
the equilibrium position.

(a) Describe the energy changes of the pendulum bob during one complete oscillation.

pg. 47
Answer

Egrav → Ek → Egrav

(b) Calculate the maximum speed of the bob after it is released.

Answer

v = √2g∆h

v = √2 x 9.81 x 0.1 = 1.4ms-1

(c) Explain why this speed, in theory, will be the same irrespective of the mass of the
pendulum.

Answer

Since v = √2g∆h

Speed is independent of mass

(d) Suggest why this may not be the case in practice.

Answer

Air resistance causes the motion to reduce with time.

WORK

- When a force acts on an object and transfers energy, work has been done.
- For example, someone pushes a car, which accelerates and gain kinetic energy. Energy
is transferred from the person to the car as work is done by the person on the car.
Work done = force x distance moved in the direction of the force.
∆𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑠
- 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 (𝐽)

pg. 48
Work done by forces at an angle
F

𝜃
s

- Although work done is scalar quantity, force and displacement are vectors, so their
direction is important.
- If the force and the displacement are in different directions, the force must be
resolved in order to calculate work done.

F sin 𝜃 F

𝜃
F cos 𝜃

- Force, F is resolved such that F cos 𝜃 lies in the same direction as the displacement
- This is the component of the force that is involved in transferring energy.
- The component of the force perpendicular to the to the displacement does no work,
as it does not move in the direction which its acting.
Work done = F cos 𝜽

pg. 49
Example 5

The figure below shows a child sliding down at a constant velocity. Derive an expression
for the work done, if the distance slid is ∆𝒔.

Answer

According to N1, friction is balanced by component of gravity pulling the child down the
slope.

Friction = mg cos 𝜃

F = mg cos 𝜃

Work done is the force multiplied by the distance travelled along the line of force,

Work = ∆s x mg cos 𝜃

W = mg cos 𝜃 x ∆s

pg. 50
Example 6

A car of mass 1 500kg travelling at 20ms-1 is slowed down to 10ms-1 by applying the
brakes. The car travels 30m during braking.

a) Determine the 𝐄𝐤 transferred from the car

Answer

∆Ek = 𝐸𝑘(𝑓) − 𝐸𝑘(𝑖)

= ½ x 1 500 x 202 – ½ x 1 500 x 102

= 2.25 x 105 J

b) Calculate the average horizontal resistive force acting on the car

Answer

Work done = force x distance

2.25 x 105 J = F x 30m

Average force, Fav = 7.5 x 103N

Example 7

A body of mass 1.5 kg is placed on a plane surface inclined at 300 to the horizontal.
Calculate the friction and normal reaction forces which the plane must exert if the body
is to remain at rest.

pg. 51