T EXT BOOK ON T HE -

S T R EN GT H OF MA T ERIA L S

S . E S L OC U M, B E
. . PH D . .

A T I OS IN T H E U N V ER TY
I SI OF C N C NN T
I I A I

E . L . H A NC OC K, M S . .

M E CH N CA I S IN WO R C E T ER P L YT E C H N C N T T T E
S O I I S I U

R E VI S E D E D I T I ON

BOS T ON N E W YOR K G
C H IC A O 1 L O N DON
S E S L OO
. .

A LL R G HT
I S R ES E R VE U
 P R E FA C E

y e ars of e x ten siv e u se oi this book sinc e the app e aranc e of

'

‘ Fiv e ,

the fi rs t e di tion h av e b r ough t to the au tho rs fro m v arious sou rc e s

,

n u merous sugg e s tio n s re l at ing t o i t s i m p rov ement In p art icul ar the

.

au th o rs wish t o ack n owl e dg e t h e i r i n d eb te d ne ss t o Prof e s s o r Irvi ng P .

Church of C o rnell Univ ersity and t o Profe ssor Ge o rg e R Ch atbu rn of .

the U niv er sity of Ne b rask a for th e ir u nfailing int ere s t and f re q u ent
v al u able Sugge st ion s .

To u tili z e the materi al so ob tained the t e xt has b een t horoughly

,

r evis e d .In making thi s re vision the ai m of the au tho rs has b een
twofold : fi rs t t o k ee p the tex t ab reas t of the m os t re c e nt practic al
,

d evelop me nt s of the subj e ct ; and s e co nd t o simplify the method,

of pre sentation so a s t o mak e the subj ec t easily intelligibl e to the

ave rag e t e chnic al st ud e nt of ju nio r grad e as w e ll as t o l e ss en the
’

work of instruction .

Be side s co rre c ting the erro rs ine vi t abl e t o a fi rs t e di tion sp e ci al ,

att ent io n has b een giv en t o amplifying the e x pl anatio n wh ere v er e x

i n e i n usi ng th e book as a tex t has indic ate d i t to be d esi rabl e

p e r e c .

This applie s e sp e cially t o the art icl e s on Poisso n s ratio the th e orem ’

of t hree m o ment s the c alcul at ion of the s tress in curve d memb ers
, ,

the rel ation of Gu es t s and Rankin e s formul as t o the d e sign of sh afts

.

’ ’

subj e cte d to co mbined s tre ss e s etc , .

C onsiderabl e new mat eri al has also b e en adde d In Part I a set .

of table s has been pl ace d at the b eginning of the volu me to facili tate
nu meric al c alcul atio ns Oth er i mpo rt ant addit ions are article s on
.

the d e sign of re enfo rc e d con cret e b eam s sh rink ag e and fo rc e d fi t s the

, ,

d esign of e ccentric ally lo ade d colu mns the d esign and efficiency of
,

riv e t e d j oint s the g ene ral th e o ry of the t o rsio n of sp rings p rac tical
, ,

formulas for the coll aps e of tub e s and an e x ten sio n of the m ethod of
,

leas t work t o a wide vari ety of practic al probl ems This l as t in clud e s .
vi S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

the derivation and applicat ion of tin F raenk e l form ul a for the b endi ng
defl e ction of b eams and al s o a si mple general formul a for the sh earing
,

defle c tion of b eam s ne v er b e fo re publi she d

,
.

N early one hu nd re d and fifty o riginal p r obl e m s h av e a lso b een

add e d t o Part I Th e s e pr oble ms are d e signe d not merely to provide
.

n u m eric al ex ercis e s on the tex t but h av e be e n s el e c te d th roughou t

“ “

with the spe cific purpos e of emphasiz ing the practical importance of
the subj e c t and e xten ding the range of i t s applic at io n as wid ely as
possibl e Many of the m are practical shop proble ms b rought up by
.

s tud ents in the coiiperative engineering cours e at the University of

C in cinnati .

In Part II the re cent adv ance s in the manuf act ure of s t ee l h av e

“

been given sp e cial attent ion in cluding the prope rtie s of vanadium
,

s t eel mangane s e Steel and high spe e d s teel Reenf orced concrete
, ,
'
- .

has al s o re c eiv e d a more ade q u ate treat ment and the chap ter on thi s
,

subj e ct has b een thoroughly re vis e d and m od erni z e d The ch apter on .

ti m b er has also re c e iv e d an eq u ally th orough re vision and cons id erabl e ,

mate ri al on pre s e rv at iv e pro ce ss e s has b e en add e d .

In both the fi rs t e dit ion and the p re s ent re visio n Part I cov ering , ,

the analy t ical t reat me nt f the subj e ct is the wo rk of S E Sloc um

o {
, . .
,

an d P art I I pre s e nting the e x pe riment al or l aboratory sid e is the

, ,

work o f E L H an cock. .

T HE A U T H ORS
 PA R T I —MEC HA NIC S O F MA T E RIALS

C H AP T E R I

EL A S T I C PR OPE R T IE S OF MA T ER IA L S
PA GE S
- Su b j c t m atte
e - r of ,
the s tr e ngt h of m ate ri al s .

c om p r e s si on , an d s h e ar .

o ok e s
’

of m e ta l
d n i n g ff c t of v st
s . H ar e e e s o er r ai n n i g . Fr agil t iy .

—A nn l i n g — T m p
‘

I n i t i l i nt n l t
a er a s r e ss ea . e e r atu r e s tr e s s e s
. . Effe t c
o f l ng t h d i m t
e nd f
, m f c c ti n
a e e r, a or o r o ss s e o . F a tor c of s a e t f y .

W k d n i n p d c i ng st i n
or o e ro u ra

C H AP T E R I I

FU NDA ME NT A L R E L A T I ONS B E T WEEN S T R E S S A ND

DE F OR MA T ION

Re l tiw e n th t c m p n nt
a on s be t
Pl na e e s re s s o o e s . a r s tr a n i . S tr e s s
in difi nt d i c ti n
e re M xi m m n m l t re o s . a u or a s re ss . i nc i p l
Pr a

t
s r e sse s M im m h
. Lin t in ax St u s e ar . e ar s ra . r e ss e ll i p se .

S i m pl h C ffic i nt f p n i n M dul s o f e as l ti c i ty f
‘

e s e ar . oe e o ex a s o . o u o

sh e ar R l t i n b tw n t h el ti c n tant
. e a oM e ee e as c o s s .
- e as u r e o f t in s ra .

C m b i n d b n d i ng nd t
o i n
e e a or s o
-
20 3 4

C H A P T E R III

A NA L YS I S OF S T R E S S I N BE A MS

S y s te m of e q ui val e nt
h y ffl u e B fo ce r s . C o m m on t e or o ex r . er

no l li s m p t i on t b n d i ng m m nt C v t
G n
’
u a ssu d . ur a u re ue o e o e . o se

f B n ul l i R sul t f t ai g h t l i n l w m pti
’
-
q n ue n -
ce o er o s as s u o . e o s r e a .

M m nt f i n t i
o e M m nt of
o i t nc
er aS c ti n m d l o e re s s a e e o o u us

—
. . .

T h o m on t h m m nt f i n t i
e re s G p hi c al m t h d of find
e o e o er a . ra e o

i ng t he m m nt f i n t i a o M m nt f i n t i f n n h m g n u
e o er . o e o er a o o - o o e eo s

se c ti no In t i s ll i p
.
V ti c l erc t i n nd h
a e M i se . er a rea o s a s e ar . ax

m m b nd i ng m m nt
u e Be nd i ng m m nt nd h
o di g m
e . o e a s e ar a ra s .
viii S TR E N GT H OF MA T ER IAL S

Re l ti n b tw n h
a o nd b n d i n g m m nt —D
e ee si g ni n g f b m
e ar a e o e es o ea s .

Di t i bu ti n f h
s r v c tang ula c
o o c ti n D i t i b t i n
s ear o er r e r ro ss se o . s r u o

of h s v c i cul c
e ar o er c ti n C i n w hi c h h
r ari f r o ss se o . as e s s e ar s o

esp c i l i m p t nc
e a Obl i q u l d i n g Ecc nt i c l di ng
or a e . e oa . e r oa .

A nt i p l nd nt i p l
o e a C c t i n A ppl i c t i n t c nc t
a o ar . or e se o . a o o o re e

and m n y c n t c ti on C lc l t i n f p b end i n g t i n by
as o r o s ru . a u a o o u re s ra

m n ea f th cs o cti n — S t e t j ct i
or e —M t i l w hi c h
se o . re s s ra e or e s a er a s

d n t c nf m t H k l w D i g n f en f c d c nc te b am
’
o o o or o oo e s a . es o re or e o re e s

C H AP T E R IV

F L E X UR E OF B E A MS

E l ast ic cu v r e . i i L m t ati on to B e r nou ll i ’

s a s su m t pi on . Eff e t c of

s h e ar on the e as —C nti n
l ti c c v be am ur e .
—B u i l t-i n be am s o u ou s s .

Th m f t h e e m m nt
e or e o W k f d f m t i n —Imp c t
r o e s . or o e or a o . a

a nd i l i nc
res Infl nc e l i n f b nd i n g m m nt Infl u nc
e . ue e e or e o e . e e

l i n f h —M w ll t h m — Infl n l i n f
e or s e ar . c ti n
ax e
’
s e or e . ue ce e or r e a o s .

th m A ppl i c t i n f C ti g l i n th m t
'

C ti g l i an
’ ’
as o s e or e . a o o as a o s e or e o

c nt i n
o b m u ou sP i nc i pl f l
ea t w k G n s . lf m l f r e o e as or . e e ra or u a or
“
fl l d fl c ti n
ex ura G ne l f m l f h i n g d fl c ti n
e o . e era or u a or s e ar e e o
-
8 1 11 9

C H A P T ER V

C OL U MN S AND S T R UT S

c m p iv e t
Natu re —E l
of th y f l n g c l u mn
o r e ss s r e ss u er s
’
e or o o o s

b th n d fi d —
.

C l m n w ith n
o u s In d p n d nt p f f o e or o e s xe . e e e r oo o

f m l f fi ed end —M di fi ti n f E l
or u as or f m l —R n
x s . o ca o o u er s
’
or u a a

ki n f m ul —V l u
e s
’
f th
or m p i i c l c n t nt i n R nk i n
a a es o e e r a o s a s a e s
’

f m l f J hn n p b l ic f m l
or u a . o J hn n t i g ht l i n
so
’
s ar a o or u a . o so
’
s
‘

s ra r e

f m l a C o p m d i fic t i n f J h n n t i g h t l i n f m l
or u . o er s
’
o a o o o so
’
s s ra - e or u a

B m f c n id
ea bl d p t h
s oE cc nt i c lly l d d c l m n
o s e ra e e . e r a oa e o u s

C H AP T E R V I

T OR S I ON

C h afts —Max i mu m t e s i n c i c l h aft —A ngl f

i c ul
r ar s . s r s r u ar s s e o

t wi t i n c i c l
s h f t —P w e t n m i tt d by c i c l a h ft
r u ar s a s . o r ra s e r u r s a s .

C m bi n d b n d i n g and to s i n
o e e R es ili e nc of c i c u l a h ft r o - e r r s a s .

N n i cul - h ft —E ll i p ti c l h ft — R c t n g l nd q e
h ft —T i n g l h ft —An gl f t wi t f h ft i n g n l
o c r ar s a s a s a e a u ar a s u ar

s a s r a u ar s a s e o s or s a s e e ra

H l i c l p i ng
e a G n l t h y f p i l sp ing
s r s . e e ra e or o s ra r s
 C ON T EN T S ix
PA GE S
C H AP T E R V I I

S PHER E S A ND C YL I ND ER S U ND E R U NIF OR M PR E S S U R E

Ho op stre s s . Hoo p te n s i on i n
h oll ow p h e H p te n s i on i n s re . oo ~

h ol l w c i c ul c y l i nd
o r ar L on g i tu d i nal str i n h ll ow c i c u l
er e ss o r ar

c yl i n d e —
.

Di ff nt i l q u at i on f l a t i c c u v e fo c i c u l a c yl i nd
r. e re a e o e s r r r r er .

C u hi ng t e n g t h f h ll ow c i c l
r s s r c yli nde o T hi c k c y l i nd e s ;
o r u ar r . r

L am é s f rm u l s M i mu m t s n t hi c k c yl i n d e u nde u n if m
’
o a . ax s re s I r r or

i nte n l p s
r a B sti ng p e su e f
r e s u re . t hi c k c yl i n de
ur Max i r s r or r .

m um st e i n t hi c k c yl i n d
r ss nd u n if m t n l p s u er u er or ex er a re s re .

T h i c k c yli n d b i l t p f c n c n t i c tu b
e rs u —P c ti c l f m l f
u o o e r es . ra a or u as or

t h c
e- oll ap s O f tu be un de t n l p s — S h i nk g nd f
er ex er c d a r e s su r e r a e a or e
-
1 54 1 78

C H A P T ER V I I I

FL A T PL A T ES

T h e or y of fl at p ate s l . Max i m u m stre s s i n h om og eneou s c irc u l ar

p l ate u n f d
l d er u ni o r m oa — Max i m u m stre s s i n h om og e ne ou s c i rc u
l a p l ate u n d e -c once nt at d l d —D ng
.

r r u s s e c t i n Of ll i pti c l
r e oa a e ro o e a

p l te
a — M i m m t i n h
axom g n e u
e ll i p t i c a l l at
s re ss
p e n d n i o e ou s u er u

fo m l d — M i m m t
r oa .
“
in h m g nax s qu u
p l t n d s r e ss o o e e ou s ar e a e u er

u n if m l d — M i m m tr s i n h m g n
or oa . ax c t ng l pl t u s e s o o e e ou s r e a u ar a e

u nd n if
er u m l d N nh m g n
or pl t ; c nc t St l fl
oa . o -
o o e eous a es o re e- ee oor

p nla e s
—
179 19 0

C H A PT ER I X

C UR VE D PI E C E S : H OOKS , LI NKS , A ND S PRI NGS

Errone ou s ly i f h k s and li nk —B nd i ng t i n i n c u v d
an a s s o
‘

oo s e s ra r e

pi c e eS i m pl i fic t i n f f m l f
. nit t C v d pi c
a of o or u a or u s r e ss . ur e e e o

rect ng l c
a c t i n E ff c t f h p c v t
u ar r os s sen b n d i ng o . e o s ar ur a u re o e

t ng t h — M
s re i m m m m nt i n c i c l p i c — P l n p i l
ax u o e r u ar e e a e s ra

sp i ng
r s
-
19 1 2 0 6

C H AP T E R X

A R C HE S A ND A R C HE D R IB S

I . C GR A P H I C A I A N A L Y S I S . OF F OR E S

C omp osi t i on of f o c e s —E q u i li b i u m p oly g n — A ppl i c t i n f

r r o . a o o

eq u i l i b i u m p lyg on t d t m i n i n g
r o c ti n —E qu i l i b i um p ly
o e er re a o s r o

g no t h g h t w g
rou i v n p i n t E q i l
o i b i u m p o lyg n
e t h u g h t h
o e s u r o ro re
X . S T R EN GT H OF MA T ER IAL S

gi v en p o i nts . A ppl i c ti a on o f equi l i bri lm pol yg n t c lc u l ti n f o o a a o o

s tr e s se s .
- R e at o n l i -
. oi e q u i li br i um p lyg n to b n di ng m m nt
o o e o e

di agr a m

IL -C ON R E T E C AND MA S ON R Y AR C H ES
De fini ti ons and d lin c L in a
on s r u tch cti o n of ar ch es . L oa e . e r ar .

C n d i ti n f
o
tab i l i ty o M i msm c m p
or s i v t L . ax u o ress e s re ss . oc a

ti no f th l i no c h M el ey t h y A ppli c ti n f th
e e ar ar os
’
s e or .
- a o o e

p i nc i pl f l t w k —Wi nk1 c i t i n f t bi l i ty E m
r e o eas or . er s
’
r er o or s a .

p i i l
r ca f m l D iorg ni n g f c
u ash S t b ili t y f b tm ntes o ar es a o a u e s
—
. . .

Obli q u p j c ti n f e chro e o o ar 2 16 230

II I A R . CHED R IB S

c h d i b —T h hi n g d c h d i b —T w —
S tre ss i n ar e hi n g d
r s . r e e- e ar e r . o e

ar c h d i b —S c n d m t h d f c lc l ti ng th p l di t nc
e r e o e o o a u a e o e s a e .

G p hi c l d t m i n t i n f t h l i n
ra a e erc h T mp t ta o o e e ar ar .
- e e ra ure s re s s e s

i n t w hi n g d c h d i b C nt i n
o- e c h d ib fi d t b t h
ar e r . o u ou s ar e r xe a o

e nd — G p hi c l d t m i n t i n f th li n
s ra a c h f c nt i n e er a o o e e ar ar or o u ou s

ar c h d ib T mp t s t
e r . i n c nt i n e c h d ib e r a ur e re s se s o u ou s ar e r
-
2 3 0j 2 4 2

C H AP T ER XI

F OU NDA T I ONS A ND R ET A I NI N G WA L L S
g p w f i l —A n gl f p
B e ari n o er o nd c ffic i nt f f i c
so s e o re ose a oe e o r

ti no B
. i ng p w f p i l
e ar O di n y f n d t i n
o C l mn
er o es . r ar ou a o s . o u

f ti n g M im m th p ax g in t tai n i n g w ll
u e ar r e s s ur e a a s re a

—
oo s . s .

S t bi l i ty f
a t i n i n g w ll
o T hi c kn
re a f t ini ng w ll a s . ess o re a a s 2 43 2 6 2

PA RT II — P H YS IC A L P R OP E R T IE S OF MA T E R IA L S

C H A P T E R X II

IR ON A ND S T E E L

d ct y
Intr o u or i n t t
T e ns C mp o i n t t Fle
es s . o r e ss o es s . x ure

f h ld i n g te n i n p c i m n s — B h v i
.

t t —M th d
es s e o o o f i ns o s e e e a or o ro

an d te l i n t n
s e e sI o n E ff c t f v e t i n on w
. e g h t i n n d m i ld
o o r s ra r ou ro a

t l —R l t i v
s ee . e a e s ret n gt h f l a g nd m ll t t pi c
o S t ngth
r e a s a es e es . re

of i n nd t l
ro a s ee at hi g h t m pe atu es C h a ac ter and pp
e r nc e r . r a e ara
 . Xl

P GE
A S

e x te n s o i n, c om p i r e s s on , and
.
d e

i n to r s i on t e st s p c im n
e e . T or s o

Im p c t t t C ld b n d i n g a es s . o e

t t — Ca t i n
es s . S t i n d i g am fo c t i n
s ro C a t i on i n ra a r r as ro . s r

fi e x u reC t n in h . C t-i n c l m n
as Iro M ll e ab l e c t
s e ar . as ro o u s . a as

i n g — S pe ifi ti n f c t i n —W g h t i n nd tee l
s . c ca o s or as ro . r ou ro a s .

M n f ac t
a u f t l C m p o i ti n
u re f t l
o S t l c ti ng
s ee . o s o o s ee . ee as s .

M du l f l a t i c i ty f t l n d w
o us o g h t i r n S t nd d f m
e s o s ee a r ou o . a ar or

o f t t sp i m e n s
es S p c i fic t i n f
ec w g h t i n nd te l
. e a o s or rou ro a s e
—
2 65 29 6

C H AP T E R X I I I

L I ME , C E ME NT , A ND C ON C R ET E

Q i c kl i me
u . C e m e nt .
—C
r e m e nt t e st s . T e st Of sou n dn e ss .

Test of fine n e ss i g : T t f t n i l t eng t h

. T e st o f t m e i of s e tt n . es o e s e s r .

Sp e d f ppl i c t i n
e f lo d
o C mp
a i n t t a St nd d
o o a . o r e ss o e s s. a ar

spe c i fic at i n f c e m nt C nc t o s M i i n g f c n c r te
or e T t . o re e . x o o e . es s

of c nc to M d l f l t i c i t y of c n c t
re e . o C ind c nc t
u us o e as o re e . er o re e .

C n c te b i ld i n g bl c k s
o re Bfi t f t m p at
u n th t n gtho . ec o e er u re o e s re

of c nc to re e
—
2 9 7 3 12

C H A PT E R X I V

R E E NF OR C E D C ONC R ET E

Obje t o f c r e en or ce f m e nt . C orr os i on o f the m e ta l r e e n or f c e m e nt .

d h i n f th c nc t t th en f c m
A es o o e o re e o e re or e e nt .
- Ar e a of the m e ta l
reenf c m nt P i ti n f th n t l i
or e e . os o o e e u ra ax s in r e en or f c e d c nc t o re e

b m ea S t n gt h f
s en f
. c d c nc t b re o re or e o re e eam s . Lin v i ti n
e ar ar a o

of t B n d b t w n t l nd c n c t
s r e ss . o e ee s ee a o re e . S tr e ng t h f T b m o - ea s

Sh t th n u t l
e ar a i e e ra ax s

C H A PT ER XV

B RI C K A ND B U IL D I N G S T ONE

Li m e stone S and stone C om p r e s s on i te st s o f ston e T ran s

—Ab i —A b pti
. . .

v e r se te sts o f ston e r as on te sts of s to n e s or on te st s

o f ston e .
—B i c k r an d b ickw k C mp
r or . o r e s s on i t e st s of br ick .

Mo du l u s of e l ast i c i ty o f b ick T n v
r ra s e r se te st s of b ick
r . R att l er

—
.

te st Of b i ck
r . A b sor pt i n t t f b i c k
o es o r 326 335
x11 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

C H AP TER XV I

T I MBE R

c
S tru tu re f ti mb A nno l i ng er H . tw d nd pw od ua r s . e ar oo a sa o .

E ff c t Of m i t
e S t n gt h f t i m b
o s ur e . C mp i nt t
re o er . o re ss o es s .

Fl t t
e x u re Sh
es s ing t t . In d n t t i n t t
e ar T n i nt t
es s . e a o es s .
- e s o es s .

E u ro
p n t tea f t i m b T t
es s o m d f t h t n t
erh c.n es s a e or e e e su s .

T t m d by th B
es s a e f F t y
e R c nt w k f th U n i t d
u r e au o or e s r . e e or o e e

S t te
a s F t S vi c
or e s T te d t i m b
er e S t n gt h
. f t
re at d er . re o re a e

ti m b
-
er 33 6 3 55

C H AP T ER X V I I

R OPE , WI RE ,
A ND BEL T I N G

Wi —V ire .
V
re r o
pe . T e st ing p wi
of r o e, r e , an d b lti n g
e . S tr e n gt h
o f wi p
re r o e . S tre n gt h of ma ni l p
a ro e . S tr e n gt h f l
o e at h e r an d

bb b lti ng 3 56 3 63
-
ru er e

A NS WE R S T O P R OB LE MS

I N DE X
 T he re f ere n e s a re c to a rt icl es .

Cl , 0 3, e tc .
, C ons tants of i nt g ti e ra on, 6 7, 8 5 .

De fl c ti
e on, 6 7, 10 7 .

E , E} EC , You ng mo d lu 8
’
,
s u s, .

G, Mod u l us of S h e ar , 33 .

Hi H ors e p w o e r, 99 .

I, LI
, ”
Ip , e tc Mome nt i n ti 4 3 of er a, .

I nfl e nc n mb
u 77 e u e rs , .

C ffi c i nt f c b i c l
oe e p n i n 32 o u a ex a s o ,
.

a C ffic i nt f l i n
oe e p nsion 19 o e ar e x a ,
.

S tati c l m m nt 4 7
a o e ,
.

P, P P k, C onc nt t d f c 5 8 5 8 6 1 71
’

,
e tc .
,
e ra e or e , , , ,
.

R e su l t nt h 53a s ear, .

R ea c ti n f b tm nt 50 1 72
o s o a u e s, ,
.

R i t nc
es s a f i l 168 e o so ,
.

S c ti n m d l u 4 5 170
e o o u s, ,
.

T mp
e t c h ng 19
e ra ure a e, .

V l m 32
o u e, .

W k 73 8 1
or , ,
.

S em i i of ell i p 4 9 59 10 3
{
-ax s se , .
, ,

R d i us f h f t 9 7
a o s a , .

S mi
e i f ll i p 4 9 59 103
-ax s o e se , , , .

R di
a f h ft 9 7
us o s a , .

B re ad th 43 1 04 , ,
.

D i t nc
s a 4 6 4 7 52 170
e, , , ,
.

S y mb ol f diff nti ti n
o e re a o .

Di m t
a f h f t 99
e er o s a , .

D i t nc
s a 52 6 7 1 00 1 6 8
e, , , ,
.

D i t nc
s a f t m fib
e o f mn e x re e er ro e u tra l
E mp i i c l c n t nt 8 9
r a o s a ,
.

E mp i i c l c on t nt 8 9
r a s a ,
.

F ct
a f
or o f ty 1 72 sa e ,
.

H i g h t d p th 66
e ,
e ,
.

C o ffi c i nt f f i c ti on 16 7
e e o r ,
.

C onstant , 1 1 5 , 12 7, 13 2 .

N um b e r, 229 .
x iv

L en tg h di t nc 6 4 7 49 98 5
,
s a e, , , .

P i
o ss o n c n t nt 9
’
s o s a , .

A b t c t n mb
s ra 9 2 9 9 1 70 u er, , ,
.

R ti
a 66
o, .

t
(3 Uni t n m l t SS, 5 2 3 2 5
or a s re
"

, ,
.

P6 , E q i v l nt n m l t
u a e 35 or a s r e ss , .

e tc .
,
U ni t h , 5 2 3 , 25
s e ar
’

,
.

R di
a 4 6 5 6 96
us , , ,
.

R ti
a 16 1 2 2 7
o, ,
.

U ni t d f m ti n 6
e or a o ,
.

R di
a f gy ti n 4 6 4 9
us O ra o , ,
.

C vilin
ur O di n t
e ar c o r113 a e, .

B nd 2 2 9
o ,
.

U l ti m t t n i l
a e t ng th 1 1 7, 16 9 2
e s e s re ,

U l tim t c mp i v t ngth 148

a e o r e ss e s re , ,
14 9 .

U ni t l d 51oa ,
.

W i gh t p c b i c f t 1 71
e er u oo ,
.

V i bl
ar a es .

nt f g v i ty 42
f

C O di n t
o r f a es o ce er o ra , .

An gl 2 5 46 1 71
e, , ,
.

A ngl 6 7 75 1 7 1
e, , ,
.

E mp i i c l c n t nt 9 1
r a o s a s, .

A ngl 171
e, .

C or rec ti n c ffic i nt 6 5
o oe e ,
.

A ngl f tw i t 9 6
e o s ,
.

A ngl 1 72
e, .

R ti b t w n t n i l
a o e nd h ee e s e a s e ar n i g st re n gth ,

A bit
r y i nt g 2 6 8 5
r ar e e r, ,
.

C onstant, 9 9 .

Em p i i c l c n t nt
r a o s a ,

R ti
a f c i c mf
o o n c t di r u e re e o a me te r .

R di
a f c v t
us o 6 7 1 13 u r a ure , ,
.

E mp i i c l c n t nt 1 1 9 2
r a o s a , ,
.

S ymb l f o mm ti n 2 5
o
t su a o ,
.

A ngl f h
e o 33 96 s e ar, ,
.

A ngl f
e o p 16 7 re ose , .
 T ABLE S 0 A ND MAT H E MAT I C AL

I . A V E R A G E V AL UE S OF PH Y S C A C ON S T
I L A NT S
II . OF V A R I OU S S E C T ON
I S

III . or S T A N D A R D I-B E A MS

VI . MO M E N T S OF IN E R T I A AN D SE C T ON
I MO D U L I : RE C TA NG ULA R C R OS S

V II . MO M E N T S OF IN E R T I A AND SE C T ON
I MO D U L I : C
CIR ULA R C R OS S

V III . F O U R -P LAC E LO G A R I TH M S OF N UMB ERS

IX . C ON V E R S I ON OF L OGA R I T HMS
FUN C T O NS O ANG ES
I F L

B E N D N G MO M E N T A N D S H E A R
I DI A G R A M S
 X VII

E
5
E d
a
c 3 f m
o
m
m 5 a
n
E o q 5 8 a n
0 w o
b g 5
;
0 a
1 a
3 3 m
o
2 n d
8 o 6 o £
m 3 b
£
3
.

m 2
E 3 é
S 5 w
p
5 8
w 0
E 5 o 0 ?
mm MAT ER IAL S
6 6 0

S T R ENG T H OF

2 .
'
PO I S S O N S R A T I O

M T ER LA IA

S te e l h d
,
ar

t ct
s ru ur a l

3 . FA C TOR S OF F
SA ETY

M T ER L
A IA

S te e l h d
,
ar

t ct
s ru u ra l

T he ly ti
on ra on a l h d f d t mi ni ng th f ct f
met o o e er e a or o f y i t ch
sa et s o oos e it
ffi c i ntly l g
su e ar e to b i ng th w o k i ng t
r e w ll w i thi n
r s r e ss e the l t i c l i mi t
e as (
se e

A t i cl
r e
 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

T A B L E J II

P
PR O E R T I E S OF S T A N D A R D I-B E A MS

R A DI U S
DE PT H A RE A T H CK
I WI D T H
BE MA PER
S ECT I ON WE B F L NGE
A

F OO T

I n c he s P o u nd s S q [nc hes
. I nc hes I n c hes I nc he s 4 I nc hes 3 I nc hes

23 79 6
.
 XX V ’

T A BL E I V

P
PR O E R T I E S OF N L
S TA NDA R D C HA N E S

I nc he s
 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

T A BL E J

P
PR O E R T I E S OF S T A NDA RD A N G L E S , E QU A L L E GS

I n c he s

25 x 25

35 x 35
xx v iii S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IAL S

MO M E NT S OF IN E R T IA AND SE C T ON MO D U L
I I : RE CTANGU LA R
C R OS S S E C T ON
I

SE CT N IO
M ULU
OD S
 T A BLE S

'
T A B L E V II

MOM E NT S OF IN E R T I A AND SE C T ON
I MO D U L I : C
CIR ULA R
C R OS S S E C T ON
I
 T A BL E V III
C
F O U R -PL A E L OG A R I T M S OF NUMBERS
H
 X
XX I I S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I A L S

‘
T A B L E Ix

C ON V E R S I O N or LO GA R T H MS
I

R E U C T ON
D I G R THM
OF N T U R L L G R THM
C OM M O N LO A I S To A A O A I S

R l f
u e i ng T bl
or u s D i v id th g i v n c mm n l g i th m i nt p i d
a e . e f tw
e e o o o ar o er o s o o

di gi t nd t k f m th t bl th c
s a a e ro p ndi ng n mb h v i ng g d t th i
e a e e or res o u e rs , a re ar o e r

v l
a u e asd c i m l T h m w i ll b th e q i d n t l l g i thm
e a s . e su e e r u re a u ra o ar .

E x mp l
a F i nd th n t
e . l l g i th m c
e p ndi ng t th c mm n l g i th m
a u ra o ar orre s o o e o o o ar

4 9 714 9 .

C OMM O N L G R T HM
O A I S NA T U R L L G R T HM
A O A I S

. 49
. 0 0 71 . 0 16 3 4 8 3 54
. 00 00 4 9 . 0 0 0 112 82 6 6 7
. 4 9 714 9

N A T U RA L
L OG A R I T H M
 T ABL E S X xx iii
T A BL E X
.

F UN C T ON S
I OF ANG ES L

A N G LE C OS EC

C OS EC A NG LE
 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I AL S

b
T A BL E X I

BE NDIN G MOM E NT AND G

S H E A R DI A R A MS
 PART I

MECH ANICS OF MATERIAL S

C H APT E R I

ELAS T IC PR OPERT IE S OF MAT ERIALS

1 . Introdu ctory . In me ch anics

bodie s con sidere d are assume d
all

t o be p erfec tly rigi d ; th at is t o say it is ass ume d that no matter

,

what syst em of forc e s acts on a body the dis tanc e b e t ween any two
re m
,

p oint s of the body ain s u n ch ang e d .

It has b een found by exp erim ent how ev er t h at the b eh avior of

, ,

nat u ral bodie s do e s not v erify this assu m p t io n Thus exp erim ent
.

shows t h at when a body fo rme d of any subs t anc e wh at ev er is act e d

upon by ext ernal forc e s it change s it s sh ap e m ore or less and th at ,

when thi s ch ange of S hap e b e co me s suffi cient ly great the body b reaks .

It has also b een foun d t h at the am ount of ch ang e in sh ap e ne ce ss ary

t o caus e rupt u re d ep ends on the mat eri al of whi ch the body is mad e .

For ins t ance a pie c e of vulcaniz e d r ubb er Will s tretch abou t eigh t
,

time s its own lengt h b efore b reaking whil e if a piec e of steel is ,

stretch e d until it b reaks the e longation pre c eding rupt ure is o nl y

,

from 1 6 t o of it s origin al lengt h

1
.

2 S ubj ect matter of t he strength of material s

.
- S in c e the assump
.

t ion of rigidity upon which m e ch anics is b as e d c annot be ex tende d

to nat u ral bo di e s m at h e m atical analysis alo ne is n ot su ffici ent to
,

d etermine the s trengt h of any giv en s tructure A k nowle dg e of the .

physical prop e rtie s p e culi ar t o the m aterial of whi ch the s tru ctu re is
m ad e is also e ss ent ial .

The s ubj e ct-m atter of the s trengt h of m ateri als th ere fo re con s is ts , ,

of two p arts Firs t a math e matic al the ory of the rel atio n b etw een
.
,

the e xt ernal fo r c e s which act on a body an d its r es ul tant ch ang e of

shape by means of which the dire ction and int ensity of the for c e s
,

acting at an
y poi n t of t he body m ay be c alc ul at e d ; a n d s e co n d an, ,
ex p eriment al d eterminatio n Of tho phy s ic al prop erties such as ,

s trength and e l as ticity of the v ariou s m ate rial s u s e d in co ns tructio n

, .

Al though it i s co nv e nie nt to divid e the s ubj e c t in this way i t ,

,

m us t be un d ers tood th at the t wo p arts are in re ality, in s ep arabl e ; for ,

the math e matic al discussio n involv e s physic al co n stant s which can

be fou nd o nly by e x p eri me nt whil e on the o th e r h and e x pe ri ment
alo n e is po w
, , ,

e rl e s s t o d ete rmi n e the fo r m which S houl d be gi v e n to

cons truction me mb ers in ord er t o s e cure e fficien cy of d e sign wi th

e co n o my of mate ri al .

3 S tres s s train and de formation Wh ene v e r an e x ternal forc e

.
, , .

acts on a body it c re ate s a re sis tin g fo r c e Withi n the body This in .

,

fact is sim ply ano t her way of s tating Newt on s thir d l aw of motion
,
’

th at to e v e ry actio n th e re exis t s a r e actio n e q u al in m agni tud e and

Oppo s i te in dire ctio n Thi s intern al re sis t anc e is d u e to inn u m erable
.

s m all f o r c e s of attract io n e x e rte d b e tw e en the m ol e cul e s of the body

“
,

c all e d mol e cul ar forc e s or stres s es A body subj e cte d to the action
,
”
.

of s tre s s is s aid to be strained and the re sulting change in S h ape is ,

-

c all e d the deformati on .

F mpl
or e x a u ppe, s c pp w i 4 0 in l ng upp t w igh t f 10 lb nd
ose a o er re . o s or s a e o . a

i t t c h d by thi w i g h t
s s re e s t h t i t l ng th b c m
e so i n T h n th
a m f
s e e o es . e e su o

th t
e s re ss e sac t i ng n ny c o s c t i n f th w i
a i 10 l h
r os nd th
se ff c t f t hi
o o e re s .
,
a e e e o s

t
s r e ss i t t i n th w i
s o s ra u nti l i t d f
e m ti n
re i nc in l ng th i
s 1 in
e or a o ,
or re ase e ,
s . .

4 . T ens i on, co mp res s ion, d etermi ne the

and s hear . In o rd e r to
r el atio n b e tw e en the s tre ss e s at an po i nt i n a s o li d body o n ly a
y ,

s mall po rt ion of the body is consid e red at a ti me s ay an infini te si mal ,

cub e Thi s s mall cub e is the n assu m e d to act lik e a rigid body and
.
,

the r e l at io ns b etw e en the s tr e ss e s which act on it are d ete rmine d by

means of the co ndi tio ns of e quilib riu m d e duc ed in m e ch ani cs .

By the p rin cipl e of the re s olutio n of fo rc e s the s tre s s e s acting on ,

any f ac e of such an e l e m e ntary cub e can be analy z e d int o two c om

p o n e n ts o n e p,
e rp e n dicul ar t o the f ac e of the cub e and the o th e r

lying in the plane of the fac e Th at co mponent of the s tre ss w hi ch .

is pe rp en dic ul ar to the fac e of the cub e is c all e d the normal stres s

'
.

If the n orm al s tre ss pull s on the cub e and thus t en ds to in cre as e its ,

di mensions it is c alled tens ion ; if it push e s on the cub e and thu s

, ,

t end s to d e cre as e its di mensio ns it is calle d compres s ion T ension is ,

indicate d by the S ign and co m pre ssio n by the S ign

 E L A S T I C P ROP E R T I E S OF MA T E R I A L S 3

Th at which lie s in the plane of the fac e .

t e nd s t adjoi ni ng po rtio n of the body and ,

for this so n is c alle d the

re a s hear s in c e i ts actio n re s e m bl e s th at of a
,

S h ear s .

s tres s If the to tal s tre ss acting on any c ros s s e ction of

.

divid e d by the areaof the cross se ction the re sult is the ,

u nit of area or unit stre s s In what follow s 10 will be u se d

,
.

to d en o te the u nit n o rmal s tre ss an d g to d e no te the u nit S he ar

. .

Thus if a bar 2 i n squ are is s tretche d by a forc e of 8 0 0 1b the

. .
,

u nit normal s t ress is

8 00 lb .

2
+ 200
4 1I] .

If is subj e c te d to tensio n it is custo mary to assu me th at the

a r od ,

s tre s s I S u nIforml y dis tribute d ov e r any c ross s e ction of the r od .

This assu mptio n how e v er is only appro x im ately corre ct ; for if tw o

, ,

rall e l li n e s are d rawn n e ar the c e nte r of a

p a

r ubb e r te s t pi e c e as a
.

b and cd in Fig 1 A it , .
, ,

is fou nd that wh en the t e s t pi e c e is subj e cted

to ten sio n th es e t wo li ne s b e co m e co nv e x
tow ard on e an o th e r as in dic ate d in Fig 1 B , .
, ,

S howing th at the te n s il e s tre ss is g re ate r n e ar

the e dg e s of the pi e c e th an at the c e nte r In .

s uch a c ase of nonuni form distribution of

s tre ss the s m all e r the are a consid ere d the
,

F 1 IG
n eare r the u nit s tre s s app r o ach es its tru e
.

v alu e That i s to s ay if AP is the stre s s actin g on a sm all are a

.
,

AF th e n in the n o tatio n of the c alculu s

, , ,

AP dP
p = li m
AF ol F

Pro bl em 1 . A p os t 1 f t i n di m t
. pp a e er su o r ts l d a oa of one ton T A s su m n
. i g
t ath the s tre ss is u nif m ly di t i b t d v
or s r u e o er a ny c r os s se c ti on, find the ni t
u

norm a l t s re s s .

P obl m
r e 2 . A s h e ar n i gf c or e of 50 lb . is un if orm ly di t i b s r u te d v o e r a n a re a

4 in . S q u ar e . i d th
F n e u ni t h s e ar .

k “
F or t he f b v i ty d cl
sa l l d im
e o i re an e a r nes s a e ns o ns in t hi b k will b
s oo e e xp re sse d

as a b v ; th t i lb p q i wi ll b w itt
o e a s, . er s . n .
”
e r en e tc .

TT h gh t th i b
r ou k th w d t i
ou dt d s oo e or on s u se o e n ot e t he ne t ton o f 2000 l b .
4 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R IAL S

6 . Unit de f ormati on len gth l is subj e ct e d to tension . If a bar 06

or co mp r e s sio n i ts l engt h is in cre as e d or di m inish e d by a c ertain

,
.

am ou nt s ay Al The ratio of t hi s ch ange in l e ngt h t o the o rigin al

,
.

l ength of the bar is c all ed the unit deformation and will be d enote d ,

by 3 Thu s .

Al
l

In o t her word s the uni t d e formation is the e l ongation or contraction

,

e r u ni t of l en gt h or the p e r ce ntag e of d e fo rm atio n an d s is th e re

p , ,

fo re an abs tract num b er .

P obl m 3 A c pp
r e w i 100 f t l ng nd 02 5 i n i n di m t t tc h
. o er in re . o a . . a e e r s re es .

w h n p ll d by f c f 15 lb F i nd th ni t l ng ti n
e u e a or e o . e u e o a o .

P bl m 4 I f th w i
ro e i n P bl m 3 w . 2 50 f t l ng h w m c h w
e l d it
re ro e as . o ,
o u ou

l ngth n nd th m p ll
e e u er e sa e u

P bl m 5 A v ti c l w d n p t 3 0 f t l ng
ro e . nd 8 i n q
er h tn
a oo e os . o a . s u are S or e s

00 3 74 i n nd l d f h l f t n W h t i i t n i t c nt c t i n ?
. u er a oa o a a o . a s s u o ra o

7 . S train di ag rams .p eriment has A s mentio ne d in A rticl e 1 , ex

h w
S o n t a h t th e e ffe c t of th e ac t io n o f e x te r n al fo r c e s up o n —
a bod y is

to p roduc e a ch ang e in its sh ap e If the body retu rn s to its o riginal .

sh ap e wh en th e s e e xt ernal fo rce s are rem ov e d it is s aid to be el astic ,

wh ereas if it rem ain s d e form e d it is s aid t o be p l as t i c ,

.

For in s tan c e the s teel h airsp rin g of a w atch i s an e x ampl e of an

,

e l as tic body for al tho u gh it is co m p re sse d thou s an ds Of tim e s d aily

,

it retu rn s e ach tim e to its o rigin al sh ap e wh en the c om p re ssive fo rc e

is rem ov e d Wood iron glass and ivo ry are o th er ex ampl e s of el astic
.
, , ,

substan ce s .

A s e x am pl e s of pl as t ic bodie s m ay be tak e n s uch sub stan c e s as

putty l ead and we t clay for such materials retain any s h ap e into
, , ,

which th ey may be pre s s e d .

It has b een fou n d by e x p erim ent th at m o st of the m ateri al s us e d

in e ngine er ing are al m o st p e rf e ctly e l astic if the for c e s actin g on ,

th em ar e n ot t oo l arg e Th at is to say if the e xternal f or ce s do not

.
,

s urp as s a c ertain lim it the p erm an ent d e fo rm atio n although not , ,

z e r o i s so s m all as to be n egligibl e
,
If how e v e r the e x te rnal fo rce s .
, ,

gradu ally in creas e th e re com e s a tim e wh en the body no longer ,

reg ain s its o riginal fo rm co m pl etely upon rem ov al of the stre ss bu t ,

tak e s a p erm anent s et d u e to pl astic d e fo rm atio n If the e x ter .

nal fo r c e s in cre as e b e yo n d t his point the p erm anent (or pl as tic) ,

6 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R I AL S

to ta k e plac e . A t thi s s tage of

periment in dicate d by C on the the ex ,

diagram the m aterial in the neighbo rhood of the place where r upture
,

is to occu r b egin s to d raw ou t v ery rapi dl y and in con s e qu en c e the ,

cross s e ction of the pie ce dimi n ish es at thi s point u ntil ruptu re occurs:
Withi n the portion 0 A of the strain diagram the stress is pro
portional to the d e formatio n p roduc e d, and the material m ay be con
s i d ere d to be p erf e c tly e l as tic For this r e aso n the poin t A which is
.
,

the lim it of p r opo rtio nali ty of stre ss to d e fo rm atio n i s c all e d the ,

el as ti c l i mi t The point B at whi ch the fi rs t sign s of weak ening occur

, ,

is c all e d the y i el d point .

In com merci al te s ting the te s ts are u s u all y co nducte d s o hurrie dly

th at the p o si tion of the poin t A is not n o te d and c ons e qu ently the ,

yield point is Oft en c all e d the el astic lim it The yi e ld p oint howev er .
, ,

i s not the tru e el as tic lim it b e c aus e pl as tic d e fo rm ation b egin s to be

,

m an if e ste d b e fore this point is r e ach e d nam ely as so on as the s tre ss , ,

pas s e s A .

A t 0 the tangent to the s train cu rv e i s ho riz o ntal Th erefore the ’

o rdi nate at thi s point in dicate s the maxim um s tres s pre c eding rup
tu re whi ch is c alle d the ul ti mate s trength of the m ateri al
,
.

8 Hook e s l aw and You ng s modu l u s

.
’
The f act th at withi n the ’
.

e l as tic limit the d efo rm atio n of a body is p ropo rtion al to the s tre ss

pr oducing it was di s cov ered in 1 6 7 8 by Rob ert H ook e an d is th ere ,

fore kno wn as Hook e s l aw It can be s tate d by s aying th at the ratio

’
.

of the unit s tre s s to the uni t d e form ation is a cons tant ; or e xpre sse d ,

as a fo rm ul a ,

wh ere E is a constant c al le d the modul us of elas ti ci ty E is also call e d .

Young s modulu s from the name of the fi rst s ci entis t who mad e any
’
,

practic al u se of it .

Sin c e 3 is an ab s tract n u m b e r E has the sam e di m en sion s as p , .

an d is t h ere fo re e x p re ss e d i n lb Ge om etric ally E is the slop e 2

in . .

of the lin e 0 A in Fig 2 . .

The an sw e rs giv en to the following probl em s w ere ob tain e d by

using the av erage v alu es of Young s m odul u s giv en in T abl e I ’
.

Pro bl e m6 . A s te el c bl a e 500 f t . l ng nd 1 in i n d i m t i p ll d by f c
o a . a e er s u e a or e

of 2 5 tons . H ow mu ch d oe s i t s tre tc h nd Wh t i i t
,
a n i t l ng t i n
a s s u e o a o
 7

Pro bl e m 7 A . Co pp w i er l g nd 0 4 i n i di m t i t t d nd f nd
re 10 f t . on a . . n a e er s es e a ou

p ll f 50 lb W h t i th v l f Y ng m d l
a u o . a s e a ue o ou
’
s o u us

thi p i m nt s ex er e

A ro u nd c t i n p i ll 1 8 f t hi g h nd 1 0 i n i n di m t
as - r o ar a a e er su
p . .

oi 12 t n o H w m ch d
s . it h t n
o nd w h t i
u it ni t n oe s S or e ,
a a s s u co

9 . A w r ou gh t i n b - ro ar 2 0 ft . l ng
o and 1 in . s qu a r e is s tr e t ch d e . 2 66 in .

is t he f c
or e a c ti ng n it o

9 . Poiss on i It has b e en foun d by e x p eriment th at wh en

’
s rat o .

a rod is su bj e c te d t o te nsio n or co m p re ss ion i ts tran sv e rs e di me ns i ons

are ch an g e d as w e ll as i ts l ength For i ns tan c e if a roun d rod i s in .

,

te n sion it i n c re ase s I n l e n gth and d e c re as e s in di am eter wh e re as if

, , ,

the rod is co m pre ss e d i t d e c re as e s in l e ng th an d i n c reases in di am

,

e ter Ex p erim e nt has al s o S hown th at thi s l ate ral co ntractio n or

.

e x p an sion is p r opo rt i on al to the ch an g e in l ength of the bar ; th at

is t o s ay the ratio of the unit l ateral d e form ation to the uni t ch ange
,

1
In length IS co ns t ant ,
s ay T hI S constant IS c alle d Po i s s on s ’
rat o, i
777.

fro m the n am e of its o rig inator .

P ois s on s ratio v ari e s so m e wh at for differe nt m ateri als bu t ordi

’

n aril y li e s b e tw e e n alu e s of thi s r ati o for a n u mb e r of

}3 and V
m ate rial s are giv en i n T abl e I .

Probl m 1 0 W h t i t h la
e t l c nt c ti n f th b in P bl m 9
. a s e e ra o ra o o e ar ro e

P obl m 1 1 A
r e f t t l cyl i nd 1 ft hi gh nd 2 in in di m t b
. so s ee er . a . a e er e ars a

w i gh t f 75 t n H w m c h i it di m t i nc
e o o s; d o u s s a e er r e as e

10 . Ul ti mate F ro m the d e finition giv e n in Articl e 7

s trengt h .
,

the ul t i mate s trengt h of a body i s the g re ate s t u n it s tre ss i t can s tan d

without b reak i ng In c alculating the ul ti mate s tre ngth n o account
.

is tak en of the lateral co ntraction or ex pan sion of the body the ulti ,

mate s trength b ei ng d e fi ne d as the b reaki ng lo ad divid e d by the

original are a of a cross s e ction of the pi e ce b efo re strai n The reas o n .

for this arbitra ry d e fi ni tio n of the ul ti mate s tre ng th i s th at the actu al

lo ad on any m emb er of an engine e ring s tructure usu ally li e s within

the el as t ic li m it of the mate ri al and withi n thi s li mit the ch ange ,

in ar e a of a cr o s s s e ction of the m e m b e r is so s m all th at i t can be

negl e c te d .

T abul ate d v alu e s of the ulti mate s tre ng th of v ariou s materials in

tensio n comp re ssi on and sh ear are giv en in T able I
, ,
.
8 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

Pro bl e m 12 . H ow g r e at a p ll
u c an a co fi e r w i re . 2 in in . di am e te r s t an d w i th
ou t b re a ki ng
Pro bl em 13 . H ow l g ar e mu st a s qu ar e w r ou g h t—
i ron bar b e m a d e to s t an d a

p ll
u of

Pro bl e m 14 . A m ild s te e l pl at e is 9
;
i n t . hi ck . H ow w id e mus t i t be to s tan d a

p ll
u of 1 t on
Pro bl e m 15 . A rou n dw d oo en p os t is 6 i n i n . di am e t e r . H ow g r e at a l d w i ll
oa

it b e ar

11 . El a s t i c l aw . C e rtain
subs tan c e s n o tably c as t i ro n s tone , , ,

c ement an d con cre te do not con fo rm to H ook e s l aw in that the

, ,
’

d efo rm ation is n ot p roportional to the stre ss which produce s it '

.

C on s e qu ently for such subs tanc e s the s train di ag ram is n owh e re a

,

s traight line bu t is curv e d th roughou t as Show n in the curve for

, ,

c as t iron in Fig 2 In thi s c as e the m od ul us of el as ticity ch ang e s

. .

fro m point t o point .

In the repo rts of the U S T e s ting Labo rato ry at the Wate rtown . .

Arse nal the m odulus of e l as tici ty i s d e fine d as the quo ti ent of the
,

—
un it s tre ss by the u nit d e formation mi nu s the p e rm an en t s et Thus .
,

”
1
if 3
’
d enote s the p ermanent s e t, thi s d e fini tion mak e s E ’
s 3

N u me rous p ts h ave b een m ade to d e term ine the e quatio n

attem

of the s train cu rv e for v arious m ate ri al s which do n ot co nform t o

H ook e s l aw and a co rre spon di ng n u m b e r of fo r m ul as or elas ti c l aws

’

, , ,

h av e b een propos e d The one whi ch agree s b e s t wi th e xp eri ment is

.

the e x po n enti al l aw ex p re ss e d by the form ul a ,

"
s p
v ,

wh e re v and a are cons tants d ete rmin e d by e x p eri ment F ro m Bach s .

’

e x p e ri m en ts the v alu e s of v an d 0 w ere found to be s uch that '

for c as t i ro n in t en sion ,

c ast Iron In c om
l
o

for pre s s I On, s

1 0 0 p
o

the u nit s tre ss p b e ing e x pre ss e d in lb /

ih . .
2

H ow e ver al l such e l as tic l aws are at b e s t merely interpol ation

,

form ulas wh ich are appro xim ately tru e withi n the li mits of the
ex p eri men t s fro m which th e y w e re ob tain e d For t hi s re ason i t is .

b e s t to carry ou t all inv e s tig atio ns in the strength o f m at e rials

und er the assum ption of H ook e s l aw and then modify the re s ul t s ’

by a f actor of s afety as expl ain e d in Articl e 2 1 ,

.
 EL A S TI C PR OP E R T I E S OF MAT E R I AL S 9

12 . Cl as si f i cati on of mat erial s . Materials o rdin arily u se d in gi en

ne eri n g constructio n may be divid e d into three class e s ,

plas tic ,

suppl e and e las tic

,
.

Pl as tic materials are ch aracteriz ed by th eir inability to re sis t s tre ss

”

on Ex am pl e s of such mate .

ri als are l ead we t cl ay m o rtar b e fo re s e ttin g e tc

, , , .

S uppl e bodi es are ch aracteriz e d by th e ir l ack of s t iff ne ss In o th er .

S are c ap abl e of u n d e rgoing l arg e am ou nts of

without re ceiving any plast ic d eformation In .

this re spe ct plastic an d supple bodie s ex hibit the two ex tremes of

physic al b eh avior Example s of supple bodi es are rubb er copp e r
.
, ,

rop e c abl e s te x til e f ab rics et c

, , ,
.

El as tic bo di e s compris e all the h ard and rigid subs t an c e s such ,

as iro n s t e el wood gl ass

, ,
s tone etc For such bodie s the plastic
, , ,
.

d e form at io n for any s tre ss within the e l as t ic li mit is so s mall as

to be negligibl e ; bu t wh en the s tre ss su rp as s e s thi s li m i t the pl as tic

d eformatio n b e co me s measurable and gradually in cre as e s until ru p
tu re occu rs This p ermanent d e formatio n is the outward m anife s
.

tati on of a ch ang e in the m ol e cul ar arrang eme nt of the body For .

a s tress wi thi n the e l as t ic li m it the fo rc e s of attractio n b etw e en the

mole cul e s are sufficiently great to hold the m ole cul e s in e quilibriu m ;
hut wh en the s tre ss surp ass e s the e last ic limit the mole cular fo rc es ,

can no lo ng e r main t ain e quili b riu m an d a ch ang e in the re l ati on

b etween the mole cul e s of the body tak es pl ace which results in the ,

body takin g a p e rm anent s et .

Rigid bodi e s h av e the ch aract er of suppl e bodie s wh e n one of

th e ir di me nsio n s i s v ery s mall as co m p ar e d with the o th e rs An .

ins tanc e of this is the fl ex ibilit y of an iron or s teel wire whos e

length is v ery great as co mpare d with its diamete r Fu rth erm ore .

rigid bodie s b e h av e lik e pl astic bodi e s wh en t h e ir te m p eratu re i s

rais e d t o a c e rtain po int For ex am pl e wh en iro n and s te e l ar e

.
,

heate d to a ch erry re dne s s t h ey b e come plastic and acquire the

property of u niting by contact .

13 T ime e ffect
. It has b een fou nd by e xp eri m ent that e l as tic
.

d eformation is m anifeste d simultane ou sly with the appli c ation of a

stre s s bu t th at plas tic d e formation do e s n ot app ear until m uch later
,
.

Thus if a constant lo ad act s for a cons id erable ti me the d eformation ,

 10 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

gradu ally in cre as e s ; and Wh en the lo ad i s re move d the ret urn of

the body t o its origin al co nfigu ration is also g radu al This ph e nom .

en o n of the d efo r m ati on l agging b e hin d the s tre s s which p r od uc e s

i t is call e d hy s teres i s The g radu al i ncreas e in the d e form ation

.

und er cons tant s tress is al s o c all e d the flow of the material ; an d

the g radu al re tu rn of the body to its o rigin al sh ape upo n re m ov al
of the stress i s k n own as elasti c aft erwork Thi s g radu al fl ow which .

occurs un d er con s tant s tre ss appro ach e s a limi t if the s tre s s li e s

b elow the e lastic li mit bu t continu e s up to fractu re if the stre s s is
,

s uffici e n tly gre at .

14 Fat i gu e of metal s
. If a s tre s s l i es w e ll withi n the e l astic lim it
.
'

i t c an be r em ov e d an d re p e ate d as often as d e s ire d wi th o u t causing

r up tu re . If how e v er a m e tal is s tre ss e d b e yon d the e l as tic limi t
, , ,

an d this s tre s s is re m ov e d an d r e p eate d or al tern ate s b etw ee n ten s ion

,

an d co m p re ss io n a sufficie nt n u m b e r Of t im e s it will e v entu ally caus e

, ,

r up tu r e This ph enomenon is k no wn as the fatigue of metal s and has

'

.
,

b een made the s ubj e ct of laborious e xp erim ent by WOhl er, BaIi schi n
"

g e r
,
an d o th e rs
. Th e res ul ts of th e ir e x p eri m ents S how th at the l e s s

the r ang e of v ari atio n of s tr e ss the gre ater the n um b er Of re p etitions

,

or r e v e rs al s of s tre ss n e c e s s ar y to p roduce r up tu re A m ong o th er.

re sul ts Bau s chi ng e r fou n d th at for c as t i ro n with an ul tim ate te n

s il e s tr eng th of lb in the maximu m te nsil e s tre s s whi ch

2
. .
,

co u ld be rem ov e d an d repeate d ind e finitely without c ausing rupture

was and th at the max im um s tre ss whi ch co ul d be

alte rnate d in d e fin ite ly b e tw e en te nsio n an d com pre ssion of e qu al

am ounts without c au sin g rup tu re w as lb / in 2
For o th er
. .

kind s of iro n and s te el Bau s chi nger ob taine d simi l ar re sul ts the ,

limi t of rev e rsibl e stre s s in each c as e agreeing clos ely with the e las tic
limit Fro m thi s we conclude th at the elas tic lim it of a material is
.

m uch mo re i m po rtant th an its u ltim ate s trengt h in d eterm in ing the

s tab ili ty of an e ngin ee rin g s tr u c tu re of which it fo rms a p art .

The f atigu e of m e tal s in di c ate s t h at dislocation of m atte r b egins

.

to be pr oduc e d as s oo n as the e l as tic lim it i s p as s e d an d c ontin u e s ,

u nd er the action of relatively sm all for ce s Thi s is c on firme d by the .

w e ll known fact th at if as the res ul t of a blow a fi ssure or crack is

-
, ,

starte d in a pie c e of gl as s or c ast iron thi s fis s ure will s pre ad with

,

ou t an
y a pp a re nt c au s e u ntil the pi e c e br e ak s in tw o the only way ,
 EL AS T I C P R OP ER T I E S OF MA T E R I A L S 11

of s tepping thi s ten de n cy to S pread b eing by bor ing a small hol e at

e ith e r en d of the fi s su re .

The e x pl an ation of the abov e is th at for s tres s e s within the e l as tic

limi t the te m peratu re of the body is not rais e d and cons e qu ently all ,

t he wo rk of d e fo rm ation is s to r e d up in the body t o be giv en ou t

ag ain in the fo rm of m e ch anic al e ne rgy upo n re m ov al of the s tre ss .

If how e v er the e l as tic li mi t is su rp as s e d the f rictio n of the mol e

, , ,

cul e s sliding on e ach o th er generate s a c ert ain am ount of heat an d ,

the ene rgy thu s tran sfo rm e d into h eat is not av ail abl e for re s to ring
the body to its o rigin al co nfigu ratio n .

1 5 Hard eni ng e f f ect s of ov erstraining

. Wh en such m ateri al s as
.

iron and stee l are stress e d b eyon d the e l astic lim it it is foun d up on ,

re m ov al of the s tre ss th at the e ffe c t of t his ov ers train is a h ard eni ng

of the material and th at this h ard ening in creas e s ind efinitely with
,

tim e . For e x am pl e if a pl ate of s of t s te e l i s cold pun ch e d the

, ,

m aterial s u rrou nding the hole is s e v ere ly strain e d A fter an inte rv al .

of re st the e ffe cts of t hi s ov er strain is manife s te d in a h ard ening of

the m ate ri al w hi ch contin u e s to in cre as e for m onths If the pl at e i s .

s ub s e qu e ntly s tre ss e d the inabili ty of the port ion ov ers traine d to

, .

yield with the re st of the pl ate c aus e s the stre ss t o be concentrate d

on th e s e po rtio n s an d re sul ts in a s e rious w e ak ening of the pl ate
,
.

Oth er p ractic al in s tanc e s of h ar d enin g du e t o ov erstrain are foun d

in pl ates subj e cte d to sh earing an d pl aning arm o r pl ate s pi erce d by ,

cannon b alls pl ate s and b ars roll e d h amme re d or b ent wh en cold

, , , ,

wi re c old d rawn etc ,

.

1 6 Frag ility
. In the solidific ation of me l te d bodie s diffe re nt
.

parts are une qu all y co ntract e d or e x p and e d This giv e s ri se to in .

te rnal s tre ss e s or wh at is c all e d l atent mol ecular act i on and pu ts the

, ,

body in a s tate of s train without the application of any e xternal

forces For in stance if a drop of m elte d gl ass is allowe d to fall i nto
.
,

water the ou tSide of the drop is instantly cool e d and cons e qu ently
,

contracte d whi l e the inside s till rem ain s m olten Sinc e the p art
,
.

wi thin cann ot contract whil e m olten the contraction of the outsi d e

,

cau ses s uch l arge i nte rnal stre ss e s th at the gl ass i s sh attere d .

Bodi es in which l atent m ol e cul ar actio n e x i sts h av e the ch aracte r

of an e x plo s iv e in th at th e y ar e C ap abl e of stan ding a l arg e static
,

s tre ss bu t are e asil y b rok e n by a blow an d for thi s r eas o n th e y are

,
12 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R I AL S

cal l e d b rittle or fragi le The e xpl anat ion of f ragility is th at the vibra
.

tion s c aus e d by a blow are rein force d by the l atent internal s tre ss e s
until rupt ure ensu e s .

1 7 Initi al int ernal s tress

. In c ert ain bodie s s uch as c as t iron
.
, ,

s t one and cem ent a state of internal s tre ss may e xis t without the
, ,

applic atio n of an y e x t e rn al fo rc e This ini tial internal stre ss may be

.

the re s ul t of d e fo rmation c aus e d by pre viously appli e d l oads or m ay ,

be occ asio n e d by t emp erature ch ang e s as m entione d in the pre ce ding ,

art icl e The fi rs t lo ad applie d t o such bo di e s giv e s th em a S ligh t

.

p e rmanent d efo rm atio n bu t und er Subs e quent lo ads th eir b e h avior

,

is com pl etely el as tic The fi rs t lo ad in thi s c as e s erv e s t o reli ev e

.
, ,

the strain d u e t o in i t i al int ernal s tre ss an d con s e qu ently the b e h avio r ,

of the body un d er subs e qu ent lo ads is normal A body which i s free .

fro m internal stress is s aid to be in a state of case a t erm whi ch ,

”

is d u e to Profe s so r Karl Pearson .

18 Annealing
. The p roc ess of annealing metal s consis t s in h eat
.

i ng t h em to a ch erry re d ne s s an d th en allowing th em to coo l slowly .

The effe c t of this p roc ess is t o reli ev e any ini tial int ernal s tre ss or ,

s t ress du e t o ov ers train and put the m at eri al in a stat e of ease

, .

Hard ening d u e to ov erstrain is of f re q u ent occu rrenc e in engineering ,

an d the o nly c ertain re m e dy for i t is ann e alin g If thi s is i mprac .

ti cabl e h ard ening can be p r act ical ly avoid e d by subs titu ting bo ring
,

for pun chi ng s awin g for sh earing etc

, ,
.

19 T emp eratu re s tresses A p r ope rt y e sp e cially ch arac t eris t ic of

. .

met als is th at of e x p ansion with ris e of t emp era tu re The p ropor tio n .

of its l engt h which a bar e x p ands wh en its t emp erature is rais e d one .

d egree is c all e d the coefficient of li near expans ion and wil l be d en ote d ,

by L The following t able gi v e s the v alu e of L for one d egree

.

F ahrenh eit for the substanc e s nam e d .

S te l h d e , ar L 00 00 0 74 .

cc S Of t L . 000006 1
I ron , cas t L . 0 00 00 63
ct w r ou gh t L . 0 0 0 006 8
i b
T m er L 0 000 0 2 8 .

G ni t ra e L 00 000 4 7 .

S nd t n a s o e L 0 0 0 0 06 5 .

If a body is fi x e d to i mmov abl e s upports so th at wh e n the te mp e r

atu re of the body is rais e d th e s e suppo rts p re v ent it f ro m e x p an ding ,
14 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

usu ally near the center b e gins to fiimini sh m ore rapidly t h an e lse
,

whe re This contraction of s e ction inte ns ifi e s the unit s tre ss at thi s

.

point and thi s in turn tends t o a still g re ater re ductio n of se ctio n u ntil
,

finally rupture occu rs .

T h e a p p e a r a n c e of a
bar subj e c te d to a te st of
this kin d is re p re se nte d In
F 3 IG .

Fig 3 The contracte d por . .

tio n A B of the bar i s c alle d the regi on of st ri ct i on The co ntractio n

, ,
.

of the s e ction at whi ch r uptu re occurs is usu ally consid erabl e ; for
s of t s tee l i ts amou nt is f ro m 4 to 6 Of the o rigi nal are a of the bar
. . .

In Articl e 6 the u nit e lo ng atio n was d e fi ne d as the ratio of the

to t al e lo ngatio n to the o riginal l eng th of the bar It has b e en fou nd .

by e xp erim ent how ev er th at the extent of the regio n of s triction

, ,

d e pends on the tran sv ers e dimens ion s of the bar and not on its l ength ,

the regio n of s trictio n in c reasing in e xtent as the tran sv e rs e dim e n

s io n s of the bar i nc reas e C o n s e qu ently if tw o b ars are of q I iVRl e nt
‘

,
.

c ro ss s e ction bu t of diffe rent l engths the region of strictio n will be

,

the s am e for bo th and th ere fo re the u n it e lo ng atio n will app e ar to

,

be l e ss for the lo ng bar t han for the S ho rt on e On the o th er h and .

,

if the two b ars are of the s ame l ength bu t one is thick e r th an the ,

o ther the region of s triction will be long er for the thi ck bar and
, ,

th ere fo re the u nit e lo n

g a ti on of t his bar will

app e ar to be g r e a t e r

th an for the o th er .

The fo rm of cro s s se c
tio n of te s t pi e c e s s u b
e cte d t o t en sil e te s ts
j
has also an i m po rtant
i nflu en ce on th eir e lon 4
F IG.
ti n an d on th eir ul ti
g a o

m ate strength If a S h arp ch ang e i n c ro ss s e c tion o cc u rs at any

.

'

point n on ductil e materials such as c ast iron will b re ak at this s ec

, , ,

ti on u n d er a s m all er u ni t s tre s s th an th e y could o th e rwi se c arry .

Thi s is du e to a gre ater i ntensity of stre ss at the s e ctio n whe re the

ch ange in area occu rs .
 E L A S T I C P R OP E R T I E S OF ‘

MA T E R I AL S 15

For ductil e m aterials

such as w rought iron and mild steel the
, ,

s tri ction ex ten d s ov er a lengt h six or eight t im e s the wid th of the

i ece C o n s e q u ently if the t e s t pi e c e has a fo rm sim il ar to one
p .
,

of tho se repre sente d in Fig 4 in which the l ength AB is le s s th an .

,

s ix or e ight tim e s the wid th Of the pi e c e the flow of the m etal is ,

re s traine d and th e re fo re its ul ti m ate s trengt h i s rais e d This has an .

important b earing on the s trengt h of riv

ete d pl ate s subj e c te d t o te n sil e s train It .

has b e en e x p e rim e ntally p rov e d t h at such

plate s will s tan d a greater t ension t h an
plate s of un ifo rm cro s s s e ction whos e
s e ctio nal ar ea i s e qu al to the s u m of the

s e ctional areas b etw een the riv et hol es .

In A rticl e 1 0 the ul ti mate s tren gt h

was d e fi ne d as the ratio of the m amm u m
’

F 5 IG .

s tre s s to the o riginal s e ctio n al area of

the bar It i s e vid ent f ro m wh at p re ce d e s th e re fo re th at the u nit

.
, ,

e lo ng atio n and the ul tim ate s tre ng th are n ot absolu te qu antiti e s bu t ,

d ep en d on the form of the te s t pie c e and the conditio ns of the te st .

For thi s re as o n it is absolu tely e ss ential t h at the re s ul ts of any t e s t

be acco m p anie d by an accu rate d e script ion of the circu m s tan c es u nd er
which th e y w e re ob taine d The elastic lim it and m odulu s of e las ticity
.
,

on the co ntrary h av e an in t rin sic v alu e ind e p end e nt of th e i r m ethod

,

of determin at ion an d th ere fo re more accurat ely d e fin e the elastic

,

propertie s of any material .

The ten sil e strengt h of long rods is affe cte d in a way diffe re nt fro m .

any of the p re c e ding Sin ce n o m ate rial is p erf e ctly ho m og ene ou s the
.
,

longer the rod the greater the ch anc e th at a fl aw wil l occu r in it some
where If th en by nume rous tes ts of short pie ce s it has b een d eter
.
, , ,

mine d how m uch a m ateri al l ack s of b e ing hom og ene ous the s trengt h ,

of a rod of this materi al of any given l ength can be calcul ate d by

me an s of the th e o ry of prob abilitie s S uch a th e o ry has b een wo rk e d
"
.

ou t by Prof e ss o r C h aplin an d v e rifi e d e x p e rim e ntally

e
.

If one dinien sion of a body is v er y s m al l co m p are d with the '

others as for e x ampl e in l ong wire s or v ery thin plate s the body
, , , ,

c mb l lphi
i

Van N os tr a n d ’
s E ng . Mag .
, De e er , 1 8 80 ; al s o P r oc E ng
. . C l u b, Phi ad e a,

Mar ch
,
188 2 .
16 S T R E N GT H OF MAT ER IAL S

‘
may be pe rmanently d e form e d b elow the elas tic limit
by stresses .

The reaso n for thi s i s th at the s mall e s t dime n sio n of such a body
is of the s ame o rd er of m agnitud e as the d efo rm ation Of one of the
o ther dimen sions and cons e quently H ook e s l aw do e s not apply in
,
’

thi s c as e .

2 1 Fact or of s af ety
. In o rd e r t o assu re absolu te s tabili ty to any
.

struc tu re i t i s cl ear f r o m wh at p re c e d e s th at the actu al s tr e s s e s

occurring in the struct ure mus t not ex c ee d the el astic limit of the
m aterial us e d .

For many m ate ri al s how e v er it is v ery difficul t to d etermi ne the

, ,

el as tic lim it whil e for o t h e r m ateri al s for w hi ch the d e terminatio n

,

is e asi er s uch as iro n and s teel the el astic lim it is subj e ct to l arg e
, ,

variatio n s in v alu e and it is impossibl e to do m ore th an assign wi de

,

limits within whi ch it may be ex p e cte d to li e For thi s reas on it is .

customary to judge the qu al i ty of a material by its ul tim ate s trength

in stead of by its el astic li mit and assum e a c ertain fraction of the
,

ul timate s trength as the allow abl e wo rkin g s tre s s .

The n um b er w hi ch e xp re ss e s the r at io of the ul tim at e s trengt h t o

the wo rkin g s tre s s i s c all e d the fact or of safety Thus .

u l ti m a t e str e n g th
F a ct or o f s a fe t y .

W ork i n g str e s s

No g eneral and ra t ional

of d et ermini ng the f act or of s afet y
m ethod
can be giv en For in the fi rs t pl ac e fo rmul as d e duc e d f ro m th e o re t
.
, ,

ic al consid eratio ns re s t on the assum ption th at the materi al consid ere d

is p erfe ctly el as tic hom ogene ous and is otrOpic — an assum ption w hi ch
, , ,

is never co mpl etely f ul fill e d S uch fo rmul as giv e there fore onl y an
.
, ,

appr o x im ate id ea of the s tate of s t ress withi n the body .

More ov er the form s of cons truct io n mem b ers assu me d for pu r

,

pos e s of c alcul ation do not ex actly co rre spon d to t hos e actu ally us e d ;
al s o c ert ain condition s are u n fo re s een an d th ere fo re u np r ovid e d for , ,

such as the sinking of foun d at ions accid ental shock s etc , ,

.

In met al co n s tr uctio n s ru st is anoth er el em ent whi ch tends to

re duc e th e ir s trength and in tim b e r co n s tructio n s the
,
s am e i s
true of wet and dry rot C are is usu ally tak en to pre v ent ru st and
.

d e cay bu t the pre s ervat iv e pro ce ss es us e d nev er p erfe ctly accomplish

,

th e ir obj e ct .
 E L A S T I C P R OP E R T IE S OF MAT E R I AL S 17

Be side sth e se elements of u ncertaint y e v ery construction is

.

atte n d e d by its own p e culiar cir cu m s tanc e s such as the duration ,

t o be given to it the gravity of an accid ent etc which require s a , , .

,

S pe ci al d e te rminatio n of the f ac t o r of s af et y .

For all th e s e re ason s it is impossible to d efi nitely fix a f act or of

s afety whi ch will fit al l c ase s and the onl y g ui de th at can be giv en ,

as to its choic e is to s ay th at it will l ie b etw een c e rtain limi t s .

A cco rding to Résal f the f actor of s afet y for iro n s teel and ductil e
l e
, ,

metals should be 4 or 3 and ne v er le ss t h an 2 % for h et erog ene ous ,

mate ri al s such as c ast iro n wood an d s to ne the f act o r of s afety

, , , ,

shoul d l ie b etw een 2 0 and 1 0 and nev er be l e ss th an the l att er , .

bl m 2 0 In th U nit d S t t g v nm nt t t f ifl b l t l it w
Pro e . e e a es o er e es s o r e - arre s ee as

f nd th t f c t i n mpl th ni t t n i l t
ou a or a t th l ti c l im i t w
er a sa e e u e s e s re ss a e e as as

l b in
. nd t h t th
.
2 l ti m t t n i l t ngth w
,
a a lb l n W h t m t
e u a e e s e s re as . .
2
a us

th f c t
e f
a f ty b i n d t b i ng th w k i ng t
or o sa e w i thin th l ti c
e or er o r e or s re ss e e as

l imit
P obl m 2 1 In th U ni t d S t t
r e g v nm nt t t f c nc t c b m d
. e e a es o er e es s o o re e u es a e

o f A tl c m nt in th p p ti n f 1 p t f nd t 3 f c m nt nd 6 f b k n
as e e e ro or o s o ar o sa o o e e a o ro e

t n
s o th e,l ti m t c mp i v t ng th f n p c i m n w 883
e u a e o r essnd f e s re o o e s e e as a o

a n th
o p c i m n w 3 2 56 1b /
er s in e If th w ki ng t
e i d t m i n d f m th
as . .
2 e or s re ss s e er e ro e

u l ti m t t ngth f th fi t p c im n by u i ng f c t f f ty f 5 w h t f c t f
a e s re o e rs s e e s a a or o sa e o ,
a a or o

sa e f ty m t b d t d t m i n th m w k ing t f m th th p c i m n
us e u se o e er e e sa e or s re ss ro e o er S e e

P obl m 2 2
r An l v t e b w igh 3 t n .W i t h f c t f f ty f 5 h w
e e a or c a e s o s . a a or o sa e o ,
o

l g m t t l c bl b t pp t th b (U R bl i ng t bl f w i
ar e us a s ee a e e o su or e ca se oe
’
s a es or re

ro p gi v n in P t II )
e e ar .

2 2 Work done i n producing s train

. In con s truct ing the s train .

diagram e x pl ain e d in Article 7 the u nit s tre ss e s w ere plo tte d as

, ,

ordinate s and the corresponding uni t d e formations as ab s cissas The .

au tographic app aratus on a te s ti ng machi n e also giv e s a di ag ram

which repre s ents the strain bu t in which the loads are the ordinates ,

and the co rre s pon din g t o t al d e fo rmatio n s are the absciss as The two .

diagrams are S imil ar up t o the e las tic li mit bu t not b eyond this point ,

for after the el astic li m it is p ass e d the ar ea of cros s s e ction b egi ns to ,

change appre ci ably so that the unit s tre ss is no long er proportional

t o the lo ad If how ev er the unit s tre ss is obtaine d by dividing the
.
, ,

load by the origin al are a of cro s s s e ction withou t tak ing into account ,

the l ate ral d e fo rmation the plotte d s train di agram will be simil ar t o ,

the autographi c lo ad d e fo rm ation di agram -

.

R ésal , R esi s tance d es Materi a u zc , p 195

. .
18 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R I AL S

T heload d form ati on diagram hfi a s pe cial phy sical S ig nific an ce

- e
“

nam e ly th at the ar ea u n d e r the cu r v e up to any poin t re pre s ents the

work done in p roduci ng the s train up to th at point In thi s re spe c t .

the autog raphic s tr ain di ag ram re s embl e s the in dic ato r di agram on a
s te am e ngine

S in c e the e l as tic lim it mark s the l i mi t wi thin w

.

hich the m ate ri al

m ay be con sid e r e d as p e r fe c tly e l as tic the are a u nd er the s t rain cu rv e ,

up to t he el as tic limit repre sents the amount of work which c an be

s to re d up in the fo rm of po te n ti al e ne rgy and is c all e d the re s ili ence ,

of the te st pi e c e Thu s if p d eno te s the u ni t stre s s at the el as tic li mi t

.
,

and F the are a of c r o ss s e c tion the lo ad is F} ? an d h e nc e if Al d e n o te s ,

the total d e fo rm at io n at the e l astic li m i t the w ork do n e u p t o thi s ,

point is 3 p F Al F o m H ook e l aw, Al £

; C o nse qu e ntly the
’
r s ex
5
.

2
1
1 p IF
pre ssion for the res ilien c e b e c om e s , or , S n e i c IF re pre s ents the
2 E 2

3
p V
v olume V of the te t s piec e thi s ,
m ay be w ri tten .
The re s il
2
E
1
I e n ce e r u n It volu me 1
7
1s c all e d the mo dul u of el as ti c res i l ience
p ,
5 15
, s
A

of the m ater ial .

E XERCIS ES oN CHAPTER I

Pro bl em 23 . A g i n
- . w
ght i n b l t f i l d in th t ti ng m c hi n nd p ll
r ou - ro o a e e es a e u er a u

o f lb D i m t t t f th d 50 3 9 i n ; find it l ti m t t n i l t ngth
. a e er a r oo o re a . . s u a e e s e s re .

P obl m 2 4 F
r e i n t l c bl
. d w i th bl ck nd t ckl n th h i t
ou r - . s ee a e s ar e u s e a o a a e o e o s

o f c n w h c p ci ty i t d t 6000 lb W h t i th f c t f f ty (U
a ra e os e a a s ra e a . a s e a or o sa e se

R bl i ng t bl P t I I f l ti m t t ngth f p )
oe
’
s a es , ar ,
or u a e s re o ro e .

P bl m 2 5 A v ti c l h y d
ro e l i c p w i ghi ng 100 t n i pp t d by f
. er a r au ress e o s s su or e ou r

2 % in
- nd c l d
. r ou ll d t l d F i nd th f ct f f ty
o -r o e s ee ro s . e a or o sa e .

P obl m 2 6
r A bl ck nd t ckl c n i t f i
e . t nd o ffl i bl i i h t l c bl
a a e o s s so s x s ra s o ex e - . s ee a e .

IV h t l a d n b pp t d w i th f c t f f ty f 5
oa ca e su or e a a or o sa e o

P bl m 2 7 A w
ro e d n b 6 f t l ng p nd d v t i c lly i f nd t l ngth n
. oo e ar . o ,
su s e e er a ,
s ou o e e

0 13 i n nd . l d f 2 100 lb h ng t th nd F i nd th v l f E f thi b
u er a oa o . u a e e . e a ue o or s ar .

P obl m 2 8 A pp w i i n in di r e . cO er r e 71
, .

m t nd 500 f t l n g i d c n a e er a . o s u se as a ra e

t ll y T h w i i t t c h d w i th f c ro e . e re s s re e a or e

f 1 00 lb w h n th t mp t i 80 F o . e e e era u re s
°
.

F i nd t h p ll i n th w i w h n th t m p e u e re e e e er

i 0 F nd t h f c t f f ty °
t a u re s .
,
a e a or o sa e .

P obl m 2 9 An t nd d h nk i r e . ex e e s a s
F 6 IG
m d f i n d i ll by b i n g
.

g i n a e or a - . r or a .

h l in th nd f 1 0 in l ngth f c l d ll d t l fi tti ng th h nk i nt thi nd

o e e e o a - . e o o -r o e s ee ,
e S a o s a

p tti ng t l t p p in th gh b th (Fig
u a s ee a er S t nd d p i n t p in p f t
r ou o . a ar s a er . er oo .
 ELA S T IC PR OPE R T I E S OF MA T E R I A L S 19

Wh at s z e i h ld b
p in d i n d th t th t ngth f th p i n g i n t h r
s ou e u se or er a e s re o e ,
a a s s ea

t ng th f th d i ll h n k i n c mp
s re in n d th h l o e r s a o r ess o ar ou e o e

Th h d f t m cyl i nd f 12 i i n id di m t i h l d n by
e ea o a s ea er o - h . s e a e er s e o

w r ou g h t i n b l t H w ti g h t h l d t h b l t b c w d p i n d t h t
- ro o s . o s ou ese o s e s re e u or er a

ti g h t n d p u f 180 lb / in u er a r ess re o
2

w ugh t—
. .

3 1 F i nd th d p th f h d f
. i n b l t in t m f i t e e o ea o a ro ro o er s o s

d th t th t n i l t ngth f th b l t m y q l th h i ng
or er a e e s e s re o e o a e ua e s e ar

Pro bl p nd l m d f
em 32 g l t
. T he e u u ro o a re u a or

use d i n n t n mi c l b v t y i m d f
a as r o o a o se r a or s a e o

ni ck l t e l in th p p ti n f
s ee p c nt ni ck l
e ro or o o er e e

to p c nt t l T h c ffi c i nt f p n i n
er e s ee . e oe e o ex a s o

o f t hi ll y i pp i m t ly 1 th t Of t el
s a o s a rox a e
17
a s e ,
1
T,
th t f c pp
a o nd oth t f l mi n m T hi i
er , a 1
2,
a o a u u . s s

t mp d f v l w k t ti ng t 18 0 F nd °
e ere or s e e ra ee s , s ar a a

m
.

g d lly l w i ng t th t mp t
ra ua o f th
er o e e e ra u re o e r oo ,

w hi c h l i mi n t th ff ct f l ti c f t w k
e a es e e e o e as a er or .

Th d c e i tw c mp n ti n t b A
ro arr e s o o e sa o u e s,

a nd B F i g 7,
n f c pp nd th
. th,
f o e o o er a e o er o

t l th l ngt h f t h tw t g th b i ng 10 m ‘

s ee ,
e e o e o o e er e c .

I f th l ng th f th
e e d i 1 m find th l ng th
o f e ro s .
,
e e s o

th twe c mp n t i n t b
o o th t c h ng i n
e sa o u es s o a a a e

t mp
e t h ll n t ff c t th l ng th f th
e ra u r e s a o a e e e o e

p nd l m
e u u .

P obl m 3 3
r R f et th W t t wn A . n l e er o e a er o rs e a
FI G 7
R ep orts U d S s Government R ep orts T ests
( i t t t
.

n e a e on

f Meta ls)
o ,
an d f m th p i m nt l e l t th
ro e ex er e a r su s ere b l d d w typ i c l
t a u at e ra a s tra n i
di g m f
a ra s or mi l d t l w gh t i n c t i n
s ee E in
,
r ou ro ,
as ro ,
a nd t i m b nd c m p t e r, a o u e

ea ch c as e .

P obl m 3 4 A t l w i
r e i n i n di m t
. nd b ,
wi
s ee i n i n di m t re 2
,
1
. a e er a a r ass re . a e er

j i ntly pp t l d f 12 00 lb If th w i w
o su or a f th
oa m l ng t h w h n t h
o . e r es e re o e sa e e e e

l d w ppl i d find th p p t i n f th l d c i d by h
oa as a e ,
e ro or o o e oa arr e e ac .

P obl m 3 5 A n ng i n cyl i nd
r e i 10 i n i n id e di m t
. nd c
e i t m e er s . s a e er a ar r e s a s e a

p r ess u ref 80 lb /i n F i nd t h n m b nd i f t h b l t q i d f t h
o . .
2
e u er a s ze o e o s re u re or e

cyl i nd h d f er w k i ng t in th b l t f 2 0 0 0 lb /
ea or a in or s r e ss e o s o . .
2

P obl m 3 6 F i nd th
r e q i d di m t . f h t p i t n d f h d t l
e re u re a e er or a s or s o ro o ar s ee

f or ap i t n 2 0 in in di m t nd t m p
s o f 1 2 5 lb /
. i n U f ct f a e er a s ea r e ss u r e o . .
2
se a or o

f ty f 8
sa e o .

P obl m 3 7 A i v t
r e i n i n di m t c nn c t tw w gh t i n pl t
. r e hg . a e er o e s o ro u - ro a e s e ac

i n thi ck C mp ai th
. h i ng t ngth f th i v t w i th th c hi ng t ng th f
. o
'
e e s e ar s re o e r e e ru s s re o

th pl t e nd th iv t h l
a e s ar ou e r e o e .
 C HAPT ER II

FUNDAMENT AL R E LAT IONS BET WEEN S T RE S S AND

DEFOR MAT ION

23 . R el at i ons bet w een t he str e s comp onent s

s . In ord er t o d eter
mi ne th e r e l at io n b e t w e e n th e s tr e ss e s an d d e fo r m a t io n s wi t hi n a n

e l a s ti c body i
,
t i s n e c e ss a r y t o m a k e c er t a in a s su m p t io n s a s t o th e

nat reu of th e body a n d t h e m a nn e r in w h i ch th e e x t e rn a l fo r c e s a r e

appli e d to it .

The fi r s t a ss u m p t io n t o b e m a d e I S t h a t t h e m a te r i al of wh i ch th e

body is compo se d i s hom ogene ou s ; th at is to say th at the el as tic ,

prop ertie s of any two s am pl e s tak en from diff e rent p arts of th e body r

are e x actly alik e . If m o re

,

ov er the su rf ace oi the bo dy

,

is contin uous and the ex ter

n al fo rc es are dis tribute d c on

tinu ou sl y ov er this su rf ace ,

or
,
in ot h er wo rds if th ere ,

are n o cracks or o th e r s u d

den ch ang e s of s e ctio n in the

body and the e xte rnal for ces
,

are dis t ribute d ov er a cons i d

e rabl e b e aring su rf ac e it fol

FIG 8 .
,

lows in co ns e qu ence of the

,

abov e as s u m p tio n s th at the d e fo rm at io n at any poin t of the bod y i s

,

a co nti nuou s fun ctio n of the coo r di nat e s of th at point . In oth er

words un de r the above ass um ptions the d e formation at any po int
,

of the body differs only in finitesimal l y from the d e formation at a

n e ighbo ring poin t .

Sin ce by H ook e s l aw the s tre ss is proport ional t o the d efo rma

’

, ,

tio n it foll ows th at the s tre ss is also dis tribu t e d cont inuously
,

th oughout t e body
r h —, th at is that the s tress at any point of the
,

20
22 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER I ALS .

24 . Pl anar s tre s s o murs on one pair of opp os ite f ace s

s t rai n . If no

of the cub e the re s ultant stre sses on the othe r f ac e s all l ie in one of
,

the diam e tral pl ane s This is c alle d the pl anar conditi on of s trai n
. .

Suppo s e the Z— ax i s i s d rawn in the dire c tion i n which n o s tre ss

occurs as shown i n Fig 1 0 Th e n the stre ss e s all li e in the plane

,
. .

paralle l to X O Y and the rel ation b etw e en th e m i s as re pre s ente d in

,

Fig 9 of the pre ce ding article

. .

2 5 S tres s in di fferent di rections A S an applic atio n of pl anar

. .

s tre ss consider a triangul ar p ri sm on which no s tre ss occu rs in

,

the dire c tio n of its l engt h Le t the Z ax i s be d raw n in the di re ctio n

.
-

In which n o s tre s s occu rs an d l e t a d en o te the ,

FI G . 11

in cli ne d fac e of the prism mak e s with the horiz ont al as shown in ,

'
Fig 1 1 Then if d F d en ote s the are a of the incline d fac e AB CD
. .
,

' d en ote the n o rm al an d sh earing s tr e ss e s on t his fac e

’
and p g ,

re sp e c tiv e ly p and 9 can be e x p re ss e d i n te rm s of p by

’ ’
, p a n d g a, y,

means o f the con ditio ns of e quilib riu m Thus f rom 2 hor comp s 0 .
, . .
,

'
dF sin a ’
d F cos a d F i
s na c co s a 0
p g px g .

Simil arly , fr om 2 v ert comps

. . 0,

p d ’
F cos a g
'
d F sin a —p d cos a n s in a 0 .

D ividing by alF , th e s e e quations b e com e

p i
’
s na
’
g cos —p si n
a a
,, g cos a 0,

p
r
cos a g
r
sm a —p c os a
y g s 1n a 0 .
 R E L A T I ON S BET WEE N S T R E S S AN D DE FOR MAT I ON 23

Elim in ating g ’

p
’
Pm sin
z
a
p, cos ’
a 2 q sin a co s a .

1 cos 2a 1 c os 2a
, c os 2
a 2 i
s na co s a S in 2a
2 2
.

Th ere fo re by sub stitu ting th es e v alu e s

, ,

fla
g
I

Sim il arly , by e liminating p from e qu ations ’

()
3 g
’ ii
g
—
pfl
s in —
—
2 a I q cos 2 a .

Pro bl m 3 8
e c t in p i nt in v ti c l c
. At c ti n f b m th
a er a o a er a ros s s e o o a ea e un it
n m or a l t i
3 00 lb i n
s re s s nd th s ni t h i 100 l b / in .F i nd th n .
2
,
a e u s e ar s . .
2
e or ml a

t
s re ss a nd th h t thi p i nt in e s e ar a s o a

pl n i ncl in d t 3 0 t th h i nt l
a e e a
°
o e or z o a .

S l ti n S pp
o u o m ll c b
. u t ose a s a u e cu

ou t f th b o m t th p i nt N (F ig
e ea a e o .

12 T h n by th t h e m i n A t i cl 2 3
,
e e or e r e ,

th w i ll l b nit h
e re a so f i nt n e au s e ar o e

s ity g n th t p nd b tt m f c
o e o f a o o a es o

th c b e I n th p
u e . nt c th e r es e ase , e re

f p
or e , 3 00 ,c p 0 nd , ,
a

q 1 00 lb / i n S b t i.t t i ng t
.h 2 u s u e se

v l in q ti n (2 ) nd
a u es e ua nd o s a a
1 2
p tti ng
u th
a ni t n nn l t e u
F
o a s ress
IG '

a nd ni t h
u n pl n th gh N i ncl i n d t 3 0 t th h i nt l
s ear o a a e rou e a
°
o e or z o a are
’
lb / i Il 2
’
p q . .

26 . Max imu m nor mal s tres s . T he co n di tion that p

’
S hall be a
,
l
—
maxi mum
to e qu atio n
or a mini m u m i s th at
ilZ 0 . A pplyin g this condition

()
4 0 =

wh ence
()
5 tan 2 a

and co ns e qu ently
()
6 a tan
24 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R IAL S

where A is z ero or an
Eq u at ion (6 ) giv e s the angl e s which the pl ane s containi ng the man
mu m and mini mu m n o rm al s tre ss e s mak e wi th the ho riz ont al .

F ro m e qu at ion

cos 2 a = ziz —
pL —p— x

S ubs tituting th e s e v alu e s of S in 2 a and cos 2 a in e qu ation the

m axi m u m an d m ini m um v alu e s of the n o r mal stre ss are found t o be

()
7

2 7 Principal
. s S in ce A in e qu ation (6 ) is an in te ger the
s tre s es .
,

two v alu e s of a giv en by thi s e quation diff er by and cons e ,

qu ently the plane s containi ng the m axim um and mi ni mu m norm al

,

s tress es are at right angl es The maxim um and minimunr n ormal

.

s tre ss e s are call e d pri nci pal stres ses and the dir e ctions in whi ch t hey ,

act pri nci pal d irect i ons

,
.

F rom e qu ation the righ t m e mb e r of e qu at ion (4 ) is e q u al t o

2g ’
But S inc e e qu ation (4 ) is the con ditio n for a maxi mum or min
.

im um v alu e of the norm al s tre ss it is e vident t hat the no rmal stre s s ,

is great e s t or le as t wh en the sh ear is z ero .

The re sul ts of this art icl e can t h ere fo re be s umme d up in the

following th e orem .

T hr ough ea ch
p oi n t o f a body s u b ected
j to p l a na r s tr a i n ther e ar e

two p r i ncip a l di r ecti ons at ri

g ht an
g l es, i n ea ch o f which the shea r i s
zer o .

bl em 3 9
Pro ind th p i nc ip l
. F e r a s tresses and the p i nc ip l di c ti n t p i nt
r a re o s a a o

in v ti c l c
a er a c ti n f b m
ross s e o o a ea at w hi c h th e u nit n m l t
or a i 400 l b /
in
s re s s s . .
2

and th ni t h e u s i 2 50 l h /
e ar ins . .
2

S oluti o n. In t hi p bl m 1s ro e 99: 4 00 lb . in
.
2
, p, 0, and q 2 50 lb . in .
2

T h f
e re ore , f m q ti n
ro
'

e ua o

5
- 1
5 °
a tan 25 or 64 °

and f rom e qu ati on

52 0 lb . in .
2
, 12 0 lb . in .
g
 S T R E S S A N D DE F OR MA T I ON 25

$;
9
a minimu m is that 0 . Applying this condition to e qu ation

—2 g sin 2 a ;

“
p I?
tan 2 a
29

.
comparin g equ ations (5 ) and (8 ) it is evid ent t hat tan 2 a
By ,

f ro m e qu als cot 2 a f ro m There fore the v alu e s of 2 a

,

ob taine d from t hese e qu ations diff er by and h enc e the v alu e s

of a diff er by Therefore the p la nes of ma ximu m a nd mi ni

mu m i ncl i ned 45 to the p l a nes f m a xi m u m
°
shea r a re at o a nd

mi nimu m nor m a l s tr ess .

From e q uat ion

p an
—p 29
sin 2 a = :l: cos 2 a = :l:
’
V 49
(a .

S ubs titut ing th e s e v alu e s of S in 2 a and cos 2 a in eq u ation

the maximum and minim um v alu e s of the sh e ar are found t o be

t o be no tic ed t hat the maxi mum and mini mu m v alu es of the

It is
shear given by e qu at ion (9 ) are e qu al in ab s olut e amount and differ
only in S ign which agrees with the th e o rem s t at e d in Article 2 3
,
.

Pro bl e m 40 i d th
. F n e max mu m i and m i ni m u m val ues of the s h e ar i n P ro b
l em 3 9 , and th i di re c ti
e r ons .

29 . Linear body is straine d in onl y one dire ction the

s trai n
[
. If a ,

strain is s aid t o be li near For instanc e a vert ical post supporting a

.
,

weight or a rod un d er tension is subj e cted to lin ear strain The

, ,
.

uni t normal stre ss and unit sh ear acting on any incline d s e ction of
a body s traine d in thi s way c an be obt aine d by supposing the ax e s

of coordinate s drawn in the principal dire ctions and putt ing g 0

'

and p qu t io s d Th s v lu s lso b
0 in e
,
a n ()
2 an e e a e can a e

deriv e d indep end ently as follows ,

.
26 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IAL S

Consid er an e e l mentary
dr awn in the dire ction of line ar strain The stre s se s acting on
.

the p ris m will th e n be as shown in

Fig 13 Let d F d enote the are a of
. .

the in cl ine d f ac e Th en the area of

.

the v e rtic al f ac e is d F sin a Re s ol v .

ing p int o co m po nent s p aral l e l to p '

a,

re s p e ctiv e ly the co n ditio n s of

’
and
g ,

e quilib riu m are

’
sin a d s in a
F I G 13 . p ,c ( F ) p d F ,

p a, cos a (d F s in a
) g d ’
F
or, dividing by dF ,

( )
10 p
’
p ,
sin z
a, S in 2a .

’
dg
From the c ondI ti on 0, I t Is fou nd th at the m ax imu m S hear
d;
occurs wh e n a an d i ts v alu e is

’
C on s e qu ent ly , th e re is she ar
°
For a 0 or g 0 . no in
pl ane s parall el or p erp en dicul ar to the dire cti on of the line ar strai n .

Pro bl em 41 w gh t i n b
. A rou - ro ar 4 in . w id e and em t hi ck
. is subj c t d t e e o a

p llu of 10 to ns W h t i th ni t h
. a s e u s e ar and u n it n o rm a l s tre s s on a pl n i ncl in d
a e e

at 3 0 to the
°
i f th t i n P A l
ax s o e s ra
‘
so

wh at i s the m i m m ni t h
ax inu u s e ar

the b ar

30 . S t re s s el lip s e . Suppos e
t h at an el ementary triangul ar
prism is cu t ou t of a body su b
d o pl anar s train so th at
j ec te t ,

two sid e s of the p ris m co incid e

with the prin cip al dire ctions .

Then by Article 2 7 the S h ears

,
F
,
14 IG .

in th e s e two s id e s are z ero Now .

l et the ax es of coOrdinates be d ra wn in the princip al dire ctio n s and ,

re solv e the s tre ss ac ting on the in cli n e d f ac e of the p ris m int o

 R EL A TI ONS BE T WE E N S T R E S S A N D D E F OR MA T I ON 27

c omponents p arall el to the ax e s ins tead of int o normal and shearing

s tre ss es as h e re tofore Then.
,
fro m Fig 1 4 i f dF d eno t e s the area of
.
,

pid F pmd F s i n a ,

pd pd cos a ;

whi ch is the e qu ation of an e llipse wit h s e mi axe s p m and p the -

g,

co ordinates of any point on the ellip se b eing p ; and p 5 C onse

'

quently if the stre ss acting on the in clined fac e of the prism 18

,

c alcul ate d for all v alue s of a and ,

the s e s tre sse s are repre s ente d in

magnit ud e and dire ctio n by line s
radi ating f ro m a co mm on c enter ,

the locus of the e n ds of t h e s e

line s will be an e ll ips e c alle d the
s tress ell i p se
(Fig .

3 1 S i mpl e s hear
. If a body is
.

compress e d in one dire ction and

F 15 IG
e q u ally elo ngat e d in a dire ctio n at
.

righ t angl e s t o the fi rs t the s t rain is pl an ar

,
In thi s c as e if the ax e s .
,

are d rawn in the p rin cip al dire c tio ns g 0 p n d th e stre ss

p a
"
, , a, g ,

ell i ps e b e co m e s the ci rcl e

pg pf pi .

More over the normal s tre ss in the pl ane s of m axim um or mini

,

mu m sh ear is z ero ; for by subst it ut ing in e qu at ion (2 ) the valu e s

of S in 2 a an d 0 0 s 2 0: ob t aine d from e qu ation
/ the no rm al s tre s s

—
in the pl ane s of maxim u m or minim u m sh ear is fou n d to be gi
and t his is z er o sin c e
p p a,
.
Rf
g ,

S ubs t itu t ing g O and p p in e qu at ion

,c
A rticl e 2 8 the ,
,

maximu m or min im um v alu e of the S h ear in the p re s ent c as e is

i a .;
28 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IAL S

h
t at i s to the i nte n si ty of s pl of z e r o n o r m al the he ar in the anes
say
.

s tre ss is e qu al to the m axim u m v alu e of the n orm al s tre s s .

To giv e a g e om etrical re prese m .

tati on of the con dition s of the

probl e m suppos e a sm all cub e cut ,

out of the body with its fac e s

di r e ction s
Then the onl y s tre sse s
.

acting on the in clin e d f ac e s of

this cub e are sh ears e qu al In

am ount to the p ri n cip al s tre s s e s .

The s train in thi s c as e is c all e d

si mpl e s hear .

s m all cub e i s C o nv e rs ely if a

F 16 IG .
,

subj e cte d to si mple S h ear as indi ,

c ate d in Fig 1 7 te n sil e s tr e s s e s e qu al in am ount to thi s s h e ar occu r

.
,

in the di agonal pl ane A C of the cub e and compre ssiv e s tre sses Of ,

lik e am ount in the diagonal plane B D . .

bl m 4 2 T h t l p p l l h f t
Pro e . e s ee ro e er s a of a

t m hi p i
s ea s u bj c t d t
s ssh i ng t e e o a e ar s re s s of

lb /in F i nd th m x i m m t n i l
. .
2 e a u e s e s tre ss

i n th h ft
e s a .

3 2 C oe ffici ent of
. ex p ans i on . C o nsid e r
an infinit esim al prism of dimensions d a ,

d g dz and suppos e t h at un d er s train

, ,

th e s e di men sio ns b e co m e else awd a ,

dg s dg dz s dz
,
where 3 s s are , x,
me n 17
y z ,, ,

the u ni t d e fo rmatio n s in the dire c tio ns of the e dge s of the prism

.

Th en the volu me of the prism b e comes

V dV (d sx d x
) d
(g d d sz d z )
y g) (
x s z ,

or, n e gl e cting in finitesi mal s of an or d er high er t h an the fi rs t ,

V + d V = (1 sx s sz ) d cd dz
z
g .

Le t K s, s
,
32 . The n the change i n the volu me of the prism
du e to the s train is
30 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

Pro bl
W h t f c w i ll p l l th h d ff th b l t in P bl m 43 if th
em 44 . a or e u e ea o e o ro e , e

h ad i f th m thi ckn
e s o th n t
e sa e ess as e u

Probl m 4 5 A g i n e i v t c nn ct tw pl t w hi c h t n mi t t n On f
.
- . r e o e s o a es ra s a e sI o

2 500 lb A mi ng th t th h
. ssu i u n if mly di t i b u t d v
a th c c ti n
e S e ar s or s r e o er e r oss se o

o f th i v t find th nit h
e r e ,
n th iv t e u s e ar o e r e .

Probl m 4 6 A n y b e i d i gn d t c
. y l d f 15 t n
e e ar s es e o arr a oa o o s .

b th s i
e f th p in t b
e ze o f g in t h e o e sa e a a s s e ar

N T E C n id
O th p in i n d
. o bl h
s nd
er m th t thi
e h i nif mly ou e S e ar , a ass u e a s s ear s u or
di t ib t d v th c
s r u e cti n f th p in
o er e r o ss se o o e .

34 R el at i on bet w een the el a s t ic cons t ant s S uppos e cub e is

'
. . a

subj e cte d t o co mpre ssive s tre ss on

of opposite faces Th en if the .

,

ax e s of X an d Y are d rawn

in the di re ct ion of the s train ,

p
-
,c p ; a n d t he s tra
,
i n is
one of S i m pl e sh ear as ex ,

plaine d in Art icle 3 1

'

“
Le t ac d en o te the l e ngt h
of an e dg e of the cub e b e fore
s train Un d er the s trai n the
.

cub e b eco me s a parall el opi

F I G 19 .

p e d i t s i,n c r e as e in l en g th
in the dire ction of the —
X axis , du e to the te nsil e s tre ss p b eing x,

5 an d its in cre as e in l eng th in this di rection d u e to the m

”

; , co

ep
r at
pre ssiv e stre ss p m, b e i ng ,

mE
Th ere fore if d x d enote s , the t ta o l increas e in l ength in the di re c
tion of the X — ax i s ,
$
1 790

E mE
m+ l
or, sin ce p g,
mE
a
,

By on of the s train the angl e between the di ago nal s is increas e d

re as

by an am ou nt an d th e re fo re the angl e b et w e en a di ago nal an d a

sid e is increas e d by 5? F ro m the righ t triangle AB C (Fig .

2
T hi s ass um e s t h at the mo d l u u s of el ast i c i ty i s the s am e for t e ns i on as f or c om

p r e ss oni .
 S T R E S S AND DE F OR MAT I ON 31

1 tan

1 tan

cc 5
< is assu me d t o be v ery s mall , tan a ppro x i mat ely ,

By d efini tion ,

3
;
Th ere fore

( )
1 1 G
m E ,

whi ch p ss es
ex re the re al tio n b et w een the e a l sti c con stan ts G,
and m .

Pro bl
m 4 7 F rom the
e . v l a u es of G and E, gi v en i n A rt i cle 22 , d i
e te rm ne

v lu
a e of m f or c ast i ron .

35 . Meas ure of general the unit d e formation 3 is tak en

stra n i . In ,

as the me asu re of a s train The c alcul at ion of 3 how e v er involv e s

.
, ,

a k nowl e dge of the m odulus of el as t icit y E and for many m ateri als ,

the l att er is difficul t to d e t erm ine To obvi at e this difficulty any

.
,

giv en s train may be comp are d wit h a lin ear s train which is pro
du ced by a unit s tre ss e q u al to the m axim um allowabl e unit s tre ss .

The s tress whi ch wo ul d pr oduc e t his linear s train is c all e d the

equival ent a
s tr s s .

To ill ustrat e the applic at ion of this method consider a pl anar ,

s train in whi ch p and p d eno t e the princip al s tre ss es and s 3

1 2 , , 2

the corr e sponding uni t d e fo rmat ion s Th en by H ook e s l aw the ’

.
, ,
32 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

stress p 1
a cting alone woul d p rod u ce a unit d e formation in the dirc o
P1 ,
‘

t ion in whi ch it a cts of am ount s z : and a lso a late ral uni t d e for
l
E
of i
s1
m ation th t his amou nt ,
n am el y or
m m mE
a cting alone would produc e a u nit d e form ation in its own
'

direc tion of
£
am ou nt
2 an d a d e formation ight gle s of am ou nt
2 2
3 at r an or
2
3

52
7
,
H enc e the to tal d efo rmat io n in the direc tion in which p1 a cts ,

s ay is
£1 12
9
( )
1 2
E
i1
mE
’

and simil arly the t otal d e fo rmation in the di re ction in which p 2

a cts is

£2 pl
( )
13
E
d1:
2
mE
_
Now l e t p d enote the line ar stre ss which acting al ofie WU Md
, , ,

produce the sam e u nit d e formation s or s ; that is to say p i s the ,c y , ,

e quiv al e nt l ine ar s tre ss which would h av e the s ame e ffe c t so far as

d eformation i s con c e rne d as the co mbine d effe ct of p and 10 Then 1 2

an d e quating th e se v alu e s of s, and s

,
to t hos e
giv en by e qu ations (12 ) and
( )
13 a bove , we h av e

( )
14 10 5 12 1 1 53
1
0. or p .
=p , i —p 1
, .

The v alu e of the e quiv ale nt s tre ss c an thus be calculate d dire c tly
from the two principal s tre ss e s In o r d e r that the s train be s afe the
.
,

gre ater of the two v alu e s of p found fro m e qu ation (14 ) m u s t n ot

,

e x c ee d the max im u m allo wabl e u n i t s tre ss .

In the c as e of sim ple sh ear (Articl e 3 1) the p rin cip al stre ss e s are
e qu al in am ount to the sh ear bu t of oppo s ite S ign ; th at is ,

p] 9 , pg 9 °

There fo re in s ert ing thes e v alu e s in e qu ation (14 ) we h ave

,
in thi s c as e
1 m+ 1
P = 21
e
7
 R EL A T I ON S BE T WEEN S T R E S S A N D D E F OR MA T I ON 3 3

m
m+ l

If, the wo rking s tre ss in tensi o n or com pre ssion is subs tituted
for 10, the allo wabl e S h e ar is giv e n by this r el atio n .
6

Prdbl e m 4 8 . i d th v l
F n e a u e of the e qu iv l
a e nt s t r e ss bl
i n P ro e m 39, and c mp
o ar e

It w i t h th e p i nc i p l t
r a s r e ss e s .

36 . C ombined bendi ng of the mo s t i mportan t

and t ors ion . One
S of the p re c e ding p arag raph is t o the c alcul atio n of the

s tre s s in a b eam subj e cte d si mult ane ously to b en ding and

Le t the ax is of
d rawn in the dire ction of the axis of the
X be
b eam Th en on any cross se ction Of the b eam th ere will be a n ormal
.

s tre s s p d ue to b ending and a she aring s tres s g du e to to rsio n

a, , ,

whil e the s tre s s b e tween adj ac ent lo ngitudinal fib e rs i s z ero ; th at is

‘

p g
0
: Th e r e fo re.f ro m e qu ation the p rin cip al s tre ss e s are
,

C on s e qu e ntly , fro m e qu atio n the e qu iv al ent s tre s s is

_ m —l
15 p . p s i
2 m

sign b etw e en the te rm s d e p end s on which of the t wo v alue s

The
for p in e qu ati on (14 ) is chos en
,
Evid e ntly th at S ig n should be .

chos en which will giv e the mos t u nfavo rabl e v alu e of p Thu s on e
.

the te nsio n S id e of a sh af t subj e cte d t o com bin e d b en ding and to rsion

the positiv e S ign should be chos en an d on the co m p re s s ion S id e the ,

n egativ e S ign .

If m 3— which s the b es t app ro x i mate v alu e to u se in g e n eral

5 i ,

e qu ation (1 5 b e co m e s
)
2
+ 93
1,
0 p, 9 1 .

Many howe ve r
ccu sto med to as sume 2 5 for Poi sson s ’
en
gi n e e rs , ,
are a .

ratio m akin g m
,
4 T he re ason for u s ing this v alu e i s p rob ably th at
.

the m odulu s of rigidi ty G for m ost m at eri als is roughly e q u al to 4 E ; .

th at I s ,
G . 4 E,
34 S TR EN GT H OF MA T ER I AL S

which by e qu ation (1 1) is e qui val eras to assuming m 4 . For this

valu e of m e qu ation (15 ) be c ome s

bl m 4 9 A n d t l h f t d f t n m itting p w b
Pro e . t r ou
n s ee s a us e or ra s o er ears a ra s

v l d A t th m t d ng
e rs e oa c ti n th n m l t
. d t b ndi ng i
e os a e r ou s se o e or a s r e ss ue o e s

5000 lb / in nd t h
. h d t t i n i 8000 lb /
.
2
,
ina C lc l t th i nt n i ty
e s e ar ue o or s o s . .
2
a u a e e e s

o f th q i v l nt t
e e u a e s r ess .

XER CIS ES ON CHAPT ER II E

Probl m 5 0 I n eb i l pl t th t n i l t i n th di cti n f th i f
. a o er a e e e s e s re ss e re o o e ax s o

th h ll i 2 t n p q
e S e s i nc h nd th hOOp t
o s i 4 t n p
er s q
u ar e i nc h ,
a e s r e ss s o s er s u are .

C lc l t th
a u a e q i v l nt l i n t n il
e e t u a e e ar e s e s r e ss .

Probl m 5 1 A t e p i nt i n t i n d m t i l th p i nc i p l t
. a o 0 s ra e a er a e r a s r ess e s ar e

9 000 lb / i t n il. n d 5000 1b /

h .
2 l n c mp
e si v F i n d th i nt n i ty nd di
e, a . .
2
o r e ss e . e e s a re c

t i n f th
o o l t nt t n
e r es u pl n i ncl i n d 4 5 t th i f th t n i l t e
a s r e ss o a a e e
°
o e ax s o e e s e s r ss

a nd p p ndi c l t th pl n w hi c h h n t
er e u ar o e a e as o s r e ss .

Prob l m 5 2 At ep i nt in th c c t i n f g i d t h i c mp i v
. a o e r oss s e o o a r er ere s a o r e ss e

t f 5t n /
s r e ss o i n n m l t th c o sc ti n nd h i ng t
.
2
or af 3 t n / in
o e r oss s e o ,
a a s e ar s r ess o o s .
2

i n th pl n e f th c ti n F i nd th di cti n nd m nt f th p i nc i p l
a e o e se o . e re o s a a ou s o e r a

s tr e ss es .

Pro bl e i p i nt i n h f t th i h i ng t
m 53 At a f 5 000 lb /
c e r ta n ln o aS a er e sas e ar s re ss o . .
2

i n th en pl
f th c a c ti n n d t n i l t
e o f 3 000 lb /
e in p
r oss s e ll l t th o ,
a a e s e s r e ss o . .
2
ara e o e

i f th h f t F i nd th di c ti n nd i nt n i ty f th m i m m h
ax s o e s a . e re o a e s o e ax u s e ar .

Probl m 5 4 S lv P bl m 5 1 g p hi c lly by d w i ng th
e . ot ll i p t c l e
e ro e ra a ra e s r ess e se o s a

a nd c l i ng ff t h
s a q i d t o e re u re s r ess .

P obl m 5 5 I n
r e h f t d f t n m i tti ng p w th m i m m h i ng
. a s a u se or ra s o er e ax u s e ar

t i i ng f m t i n l t i n i 5000 lb /
s r e ss , ar s in F i nd t h n m l
ro or s o b ndi ng
a s ra ,
s . .
2
e or a ,
or e ,

t
s r ess it n l c y if th w ki ng t i l i mit d t
ca a so lb /
arr in f t n i n e or s re ss s e o . .
2
or e s o

or c mp i n nd t 80 00 lb /
o re ss o in f h ,
a o . .
2
or S ear .
 C HAPT ER III

ANALY SIS OF S T RE S S IN BEAMS

3 7 S y stem
. of equ i v al ent f orce s .t heory of b eams d eal s in
The ,

n e ral wi th the s tre ss e s p roduc e d in a p ris m atic body by a set of

g e ,

e xte rnal fo r c e s in s tatic e q uilib riu m Ordi narily th e s e fo rc e s all l ie

.

in one pl ane ; in thi s c as e it is p rov e d in m e ch anics t h at th e y can be

repl ac e d by a singl e fo r c e acting at any giv en poi nt in this pl ane ,

an d a m o m e nt . TO b al anc e t his e qui val ent sys t e m of e x ternal fo r c e s ,

the s tre ss e s act ing on any c ross s e ction of the b eam must al s o co ns i st
of a S ingl e fo rce and a mo ment the po int of applicatio n of thi s single
,

force b e ing conv enient ly chos en as the

center of gravity of the cross s e c tion .

The following sp e ci al c as e s are of fre

qu ent occurrenc e .

If the m o ment is z ero and the singl e

forc e through the center of gravit y of a
cr oss s e ct ion act s in the dire ct ion of the
axis of the b e am the s t rain is S i m pl e t ens ion
F 2
1° 0 °

or compres s i on ; if it is p erp e n di cul ar t o the ax is of the b eam the s train

,

is simple s hear .

If the singl e fo rc e is z er o and the pl ane of the m o m ent p ass e s

through the ax is of the b eam pure bendi ng s t ai n occu rs ; if the S ingl e
,
r

force is z ero and the pl ane of the m om ent i s p e rp en dicular to the

ax is of b
the e a m a t wis
,
tin g -strain c alle d tors ion is produce d Th es e .

two c as e s are i ll us trat e d in Fig 2 0 A and B

.
,
.

If the pl ane of the m o ment fo rm s an arbitrary angl e with the axis

of the b e am the m o m e nt can be re solv e d in to two co mpo ne nts wh o s e
,

pl anes are parall el and p erpendicul ar re sp e ctiv ely to the axi s Of the
b e am In this cas e the s train consists of co mbine d b ending and torsion
.
.

If the S ingl e f or c e t hr ough the c ente r of gravity is inclin e d to the

ax is of the b e am it c an be res olv e d i nt o two c
,
om p on e n ts — on e in the
,

35
36 S TR EN GT H OF MA T ER IA L S

dire c tion of the is c all e d the a x i a l wa d i ng

ax , , an d the oth er r en
p p
e

d icul ar t o the ax i s c all e d the shea r

,
.

38 . C ommon theory of p ractical c as e s of fl ex u re . In the m ajo rity

of fl ex u re (or b en ding) of b eams the e x tern al for ce s acting on the ,

b e am all l ie in one plane t hr ough its ax is and are p erp endicul ar to

thi s ax i s The S ingl e fo rc e th rough the c ente r of gravity of any cr o s s
.

s ection is th en p e rpe n dicular to the axis of the b eam an d the pl an e of ,

the m om e nt p ass e s th r ough this axis The the o ry b as e d on the ass u mp .

tio n of this co n di tion of s train is c all e d the common theory of fl ex ure

*
.

3 9 Bernoul li s as su mpti on In ord e r to ob tain a s tarting po int for

.
’
.

the analy sis of s tre ss in b e am s the arbi trary assu mp tion i s mad e th at ,

a cr oss s ecti on o f the bea m whi ch wa s p l a ne

bef or e fl exu r e re ma i ns p l a ne af ter fl exu r e .

This assump tio n was fi rs t m ad e by Be rn oulli ,

and sin c e his ti m e has fo rm e d the b as is for

al l inv e s tig atio n s in the th e o ry of b e am s ]

t

4 0 Cu rv atu re du e t o bendi n g m om en t . .

The e ffe ct of the e xte rn al m o m ent on a b e am

o riginally s traight is to c aus e its ax i s to be
co me b ent in to a curv e calle d the elas t ic curve , .

S in c e by Be rn oulli s as su m ption any cr oss

’

, ,

se c tion of the b eam re main s id entical with

it s elf du ring d e formation any two consecu ,
F 21 IG.
tiv e c ross s e c tion s of the b e am whi ch we re , ,

p erp en dicul ar to i ts axI S b e fore fl ex u re will re main p erp endicular t o

it af te r fl e x ure an d will th ere fo re inters e c t in a c ent e r of cu rv atu re
,

of the el astic curve as shown in Fig 2 1 , . .

T he fib ers of the b e am b etwe e n th e s e two cro s s s e ctions w e re o rigi

nally of the s ame l ength A f te r fl exu re how e v e r it will be fou n d th at .
, ,

the fib e rs on the co nv e x sid e h av e b e en l eng th ene d by a c ert ain am ount

AB whil e thos e on the co n c av e sid e h av e b ee n sho rtene d by an am ou nt
,

T h c mm n t h e o y ffl o l incl d th f ll w i g
eor o m p ti (1) th
ex u r e a so u es e o o n ass u on s : e as

su mpti n th t H ko l wi t
a oo(A t 8 nd 11 ) (2 ) th
’
e s a mpti n th t pl
s r ue cti
r s . a e a ss u o a a ne s e o ns

rem in pl n (A t
a a (3) th n gl ct f v ti c l h
e r . d f m ti n (A w a nd
e e e o er a s e ar e or a o r

(4) th m p t i n th t d l i
e a ss u q ol t d ; (5 ) th a m pt i n t h t t h c m p
s e ua iv m d o x e a ss u o a e o re s s e o u

lus i s e
q l t th t n il m d l f l tic ity ; (6) th n gl ct f c nj g t ff ct f m
ua o e e s e o u us o e as e e e o o u a e e e ro

th t n v c mp i n (A t
1 St _
e ra s e rs e o r e ss o r .

V n nt h h wn th t B n ll i
. e a as S m pti n i i g
o ly t a nly f erc t in
ou
’
s as s u o s r or ou s ru e o or er a

f m fc
or s o c ti n F m t i l w h i c h c n f m t H k l w h w v i t i
r oss se o . or a er a s o or o oo e s
’
a , o e er, s

su ffi c i ntlye ct t ex a lt pp im t ly c ct
o a s s ure res u s a rox a e orre .
 S T RE N GT H OF M AT ER IAL S

an d t h erefore

Bu t the di stan ce of the c enter of gravity

of Z (or ne utral ax is ) is giv en by

There fore sin c e , y d F 0, y m us t be z er o , and conse qu ently the

n eu tr a l a xi s p a ss es thr ough the cen ter o f g r a vi t

y f o the secti on .

43 . Moment of inert ia . For e quili b riu m, the m o me nt of the nor

m al s tre ss e s acting on any cross s e ction must equ al the m o ment of
the ex t ern al forc e s at thi s s e ction There fo re if M d enote s the
.
,

m o m e nt of the e xternal fo rc e s or external bending moment as i t is

, ,

c al l ed ,

or, fro m
fi’ y d F
’
= M .

The integral d e p ends only form of cross s e ction

’
y d F on the the ,

an dis call ed the moment of inertia of the cross s e ction with re s pe ct to

the ne u tral ax is .

Le t the m o ment of in ert ia be d en o te d by I Th en .

and, cons e qu ently ,

( 7)
1

Thi s formul a giv e s the intensit y of the normal s tre ss p at the di st ance 0

f ro m the n e u tral ax is d u e t o an e xt ernal b ending m o m ent M I f

y0 ,
.
 89

(18 )

Equ atio n (1 8) giv e s the maxi mum normal s tre ss on any c ross s ection
of a b eam ,
an d is the fun d am e ntal fo rmul a in the co mm o n t h e o ry of

fl e x u re .

bl em 5 6 F i nd th m m nt ct ngl h igh t h and b d th

h

Pro . e o e of i ne rt ia of a r e a e of e re a
l
{
ba b t g v i ty i p ll l t
ou a ra ax s ar a e o i ts b ase .

It
2

Pro bl i d th m m nt f i n ti f
e m 57 . F n e o e o er a o a tr i ngl e of b
a ase b and a l ti t d
u e h
ab t g v i ty i p ll l t it b
ou a ra ax s ar a e o s ase .

Probl m 58 F i nd th m m nt f i n ti
e .
f e o e o er a o

a c i cl f di m t d b t g v i ty i
r e o a e er a ou a ra ax s .

Probl m 59 Th e t n l m m nt cti ng
. e ex er a o e a

on ct ngu l
a re c ti n 12 in d p nd 4 in
a ar se o . ee a .

w id i e f t lb
s F i nd th t n th . . e s re ss o e

t m fib
e x re e er .

S l ti n M
o u o f t lb
. in l h
: . . . .
,

bh3
Iz 5 76 i n 4
12
" Me
3 750
I F IG 2 3
.

44 . Moment of resi stanced e fine d as . The moment i

of res s tance is
the m om ent of the int ernal s tre ss e s which b al ance s the e x te rnal m om ent
M A ccording to this d efinition the m oment of re sis tance is sim ply
.

p I
e

sinc e M Therefore if p is , the m ax im u m a llowable u nit s tress

p l
for any material the moment ,
of re sist ance d etermin e s the
e

maxim um t e x e rna l b ending m oment whi ch can be s afely c arrie d by

a b e am of this m at eri al .

In wh t f lla o ows , g ra v ity axi s w ill b e u se d as an a bb vi ti

re a on f or i th
ax s rou gh
the c ente r o f g ra vity .
40 S T R EN G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

i n t nc c n id n k b m
F or s a e, o s nd 4 i n w id
er a F m T bl I
oa ea
‘
8 i n d e ep . a . e . ro a e ,

th l ti m t c mp
e u a e i v t ngth f timb m y b t k n 7000 lb /
o re ss e s re in nd or er a e a e as . .
2
,
a

th l ti m t t n i l t ngt h
e u a e e s 1b / in
e s re Th f i ng f ct f f ty
as . .
2 e r e or e , u s a a or o sa e

o f 8 th ,
f ni t t
e sa e i p u 8 75 lb / i n F th b m nd c n id ti n
s r ess s . .
2 or e ea u er o s e ra o

I i h nd 4 in C n q
.
4 a nt ly t h m
e i m m b ndi ng m m nt w hi c h
. o se ue ,
e ax u e o e

th b e m ea n b cap ct d t c y f ly i
e ex e in lh
e 3 1 12 f t lb
o arr sa e s . .
,
or . .

Probl m 6 0 F i nd th m m nt f
e . i t nc f c i cul c st i n b m 6 i n
e o e o r es s a e o a r ar a - ro ea .

i n di m t a e er .

P obl m 6 1 F i nd th m m nt f
r e . i t nc f C n g i t l I b m N B 1
e o e o r es s a e o a ar e e s ee - ea
,
o .
,

w i ghi ng 80 lb /
e ft . .

P obl m 6 2
r e C mp th. m m nt o f i t nc f
ar e c t ng l b m
e o e s o re s s a e o a re a u ar ea

8 i n x 1 4 in in c
. . c ti n w h n pl c d n d g nd w h n pl c d n i t id
r oss s e o ,
e a e o e e a e a e o s s e .

45 . S ecti on modul u s . In A rticl e 4 3 the m ome nt of in ertia was

d e fin e d as the integral
2
I y d F .

From this d e finitio n it is app arent th at the m om ent of i nertia de

pend s for its valu e solely on the f or m of the cro ss s e ctio n Since it .

is in d e p end ent of all o th er considerations it may th erefore be calle d ,

- '

the s hape factor in the s tr eng th of mate ri al s .

Sin c e e d en o t e s the dis tan c e of the e x tre m e fib er of a b eam fro m

the n eu tral ax is t he r atio I i s also a fu nctio n of the sh ap e of the

,
e

cross s e ction , an d for thi s re a so n is calle d the sect on i modu l us . Le t

the s e ction m od ul us be d eno te d by S Th . en S I , an d the ex p re s

e
Si on for the m om e nt of re s i s t anc e b e come s
M p S .

Thi s e x pre ss e s the fact th at the s treng th of a b eam d epen d s j ointly on

the fo rm of cross s e c tio n an d the ul ti mate s tre ng t h of the m ate ri al

Pr obl m 6 3 F i nd t h
e cti n m d l i f th cti n g i v n i n P bl m 5 6 5 7
. e se o o u or e se o s e ro e s , ,

and 58 p c ti v ly
res e e .

P obl m 6 4
r eC mp th . cti n m dul i f
o ct ngl 10 i n hi g h nd 4 in
ar e e se o o or a r e a e . a .

wi d nd f n 4 in hi g h nd 10 in w id
e, a or o e . a . e .

46 . T heore ms on the moment of inert i a

following is a s um . The
m ary of the m os t us e ful th e o rem s co n c erning the m o ment of i ne rti a .

The p roof s can be foun d in any stand ar d te x t-book on m e ch anic s .

A
( ) L e t [ d e n o te the m
9
o m e nt of in e rti a of an y c ro s s s e c tion with

re s pe c t t o a ravi ty ax is se e foo tn o te p he m o m ent of inertia

g ( I t , .
n
 T R E S S I N BE A M S 41

tw o ax e s , and F the area of the cross s e cti on Then .

B
( ) Ev e ry s e ction has two ax e s thro u gh its c ent er of gravity call e d ,

pr i nci pal ax es such ,

t h at for on e of t h e s e the m o m e nt of in e rti a is

a m axi m u m an d for the o th e r is a

,

minimum Let the prin cip al ax e s be

.

tak en for the axe s of Y and Z re

spe ctiv el y Then if I and I d enote
.
, ,

the mom ents of in erti a of the s e ction

wi th resp e ct t o th e s e ax e s and 1 , ,
F 24 IG
denote s the m o m ent of in erti a with
.

re sp e ct to an ax is in cli ne d at an angl e a to the axi s of Z ,

I, L
z
cos a I, sin 2
a .

C
( ) The m o m e nt of inertia of a compound se ction about any axis is
e qu al to the s u m of the m o m e nts of inertia abou t thi s ax is of the

v arious parts of which the compoun d s e ction is compo s e d .

D
( ) Th e m o me nt of in erti a of any s e ctio n with re sp e c t to an ax i s

through its c enter of gravity and p erpendicular to its plane i s c all e d

the pol a r moment of i nert i a The pol ar .

m oment of inertia is d e fi ne d by the

e q u at io n

where r is
distan ce of the infini
the
te simal area d F f ro m the c ent er of
gravity of the s e ction .

Si n c e r y z " 2 2
,
F ro 2 5 .

y d
2
F z
z
dF , wh e nce
(2 1)
E
( ) Le t I
I
d enote the m o ments of in e rtia of any se ction with
an d I2
re s pe c t to its p rin cip al ax e s Th e n I I I an d con s e qu e ntly
.
p I 2 , , ,

If the ax e s of Y d Z n t p incip l
an ar e th o r a ax e s , en

I I c a I in y dy d
z os 2 a y s
2 a z z .
42 S TR E N GT H OF MA T ER I AL S .

( )
2 2

t h at is to s ay , oments of ine rtia wi th re spe ct t o any

the su m of the m
two re ctangul ar ax e s in the pl ane of the s e c tio n is co ns tant .

F T he n u m e ric al v alu e of the m o me nt of in erti a is e xp re ss e d as

( )
the f o urth power of a unit of l engt h Th ere fore the qu antity is
F
.

_ _b the s qu are ofgth c all ed the radius of

al e n

gy rati on and will be d enote d by t The

, .

r adius of gy ratio n is t hus d e fin e d by the

e qu at ion

Fm 26 t h at is t o
.
s a
y the squ are of the radius ,

of gy ration is the mean of the squ are s

of the di stanc e s of all the e le ments of the figure fro m the axis
’

The m eaning t o be att ach e d t o the radius of gy ration is th at if

‘

the to tal are a of the figu re was con cen trate d in a singl e poi nt at a
dis tanc e t fro m the axis the m o ment of inertia of this singl e particle ,

about this ax is would be e q u al t o the giv e n mome nt of inerti a .

Pro bl em 65 i d th
. F n e mom e nt of i n ti er a of the re ct ngl
a e i n Pro bl e m 56 b
a ou t

i ts b as e , and a so l th c e orr e s p ndi ng di u

o ra s of g y tira on .

3 2 3
h
i bh
S oluti on . 1,
12 () E
2 3 vs

bl m 6 6 F i nd th m m nt f i n ti f
Pro e . e o e o er a o

th b v c t ngl b t g v i ty i i ncl i n d
e a o e re a e a ou a ra ax s e

t n n gl f 3 0 t it b 0
a a a e o o s ase .

P obl m 6 7 F i nd t h m m nt f i n ti
r e . f e o e o er a o a

r ct ng l
e a t ip c h t h t h w n i n F ig 2 6
u ar s r ,
su as a s o .
,

ab t g v i ty i p ll l t i t b
ou a ra ax s ar a e o s ase .

P obl m 6 8 P v th t th m m nt f i n t i
r e . ro e a e o e o er a

of T h p
a -sc h th t h wn i n Fig 2 7 b t
a e , su as a s o .
,
a ou

a g v i ty i p ll l t th b i gi v n by th
ra ax s ar a e o e ase s e e

ex p in
r e ss o
3 3
bh (b b ) d3
’
bh
’ ’

3 FIG 2 7
.

Pro bl e m 69 . i d th p l
F n e o ar mom ent of i n ti er a and r a di u s of gy ti
ra on of a c i cl
r e

of di a m e te r d a ou b t n i th a ax s r ou gh i ts c e nt er .
 AN AL Y SI S OF S T R E S S IN BE AMS 43

4 7 Graphical method
. of findi ng the moment of inert ia . If the
s ect ion is not co mpos e d of sim ple curv e s
cir cle s it is often difficult to find the
,

moment of inertia by means of the calcul us Wh en such difficultie s .

aris e the following grap hi c al method may be us e d t o adv antag e

-
.

To explain the met hod consider a p articul ar cas e such as the rail ,

s h ape shown in Fig 2 8 and suppos e th at i t is re q uire d to find the

.
,

center of gravity of the s e ct ion and also it s moment of inertia about

,

t o the web The fi rst s tep is to draw two

.

a lle l t o the re quire d

g r avi t y axis at any ,

co n v e n i e n t d i s t an c e
ap art say Z,
.

If the s e c t ion is sym

metric al about any axis ,

such as O Y in the fig
u re it is s u ffi cient to
,

co n sid e r the po r t io n
on either sid e of t his
axis ,say the p art on

the righ t of OY in the

pre s ent case .

Now suppos e th at
the cross s e ctio n is di
F G 28 I .

v i de d into narrow s trips

parallel to AB and CD ; l et 2 d enot e the l ength of one of th es e strips ,

and dy its wid th Th en if for each v alu e of z a l ength 7 is found

,
]
,

such t hat
z

any point P on the boun dary of the original s ect ion with coo rdinate s ,

z and
y will b,e tr an sfo rm e d int o a poi nt P ’
wi th c oor dinate s z an d y
’
.

Suppo s e thi s p roc e ss is c arrie d ou t for a su fficient num b er of points ,

and th at the point s P so ob t aine d are joine d by a curv e as shown

’
,

by the dotted line in Fig 2 8 Let F d enot e the area of the original
. .

curv e and F the area of the transfo rme d curve both of whi ch can
’
,
44 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER I AL S

ea sily be measure d by m eans of a plani meter Al so l et .

s tat i c moment of the o riginal s e ctio n wi th re s p e c t to the

where the s tatic m o ment an area with re sp e c t to any ax s i is

d e fine d by the inte gral

in which y is the di s t ance of an infinitesimal area dF from the given

axi s. T he s tatic m o m ent is thus e qu al to the are a of the s e ction
m ultipli e d by the di s tan c e of its c enter of gravit y from the given
axis . Then
’ ’
zd
y y l z ely lF

But, from the abov e d e finition ,

N = cF ,

where c is the distanc e of the center of gravity of the original se c

tion f ro m the line AB The re fo re cF lF whence

’
.

c l
§ y

whi ch d etermine s the posit ion of the c enter of gravity .

To find the moment of inertia mak e a se cond transformat ion by

,

construct ing for e ach z a value such that

’

Then the points P on the fi rst tran sfo rme d curv e are transforme d
’

into a s erie s of poin ts P on another cu rve shown by the b rok en

’

"
,

line in Fig 2 8 Let the area of thi s s e con d curve be d en ote d by F

. . .

Then since z
,
’
z
’ 2 an d z
’ 9
z we have z ”
z9 C ons equ ently,
l
.
l l 2

1 :
W E fl
g zd y = 1
2
z
”
dy PF ”
,

whi ch giv e s the m oment of inert ia of the original s e ct ion wi t h re spe ct

t o the line AB .
46 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R IAL S

C o n s e qu e ntly the inte nsi t y of the

,
u fibe r s tre ss c an be co n sid e re d to

v ary di re c tly as its distance fro m the ne utral axis ov er the entire
cross s e ctio n of the b e am provide d the area of the steel is increas e d
,

in the rat io If, th en, the d epth is k ept cons t ant , the b readt h
mus t be in creased in this rat io ,
and the cross s e ction t hus ob tained

F IG 3 0 .

will app ear as shown in Fig 3 0 Th erefo re if I d enotes thafi oment . .

, ,

o f i ne rti a of this m od ifi e d s e ct io n the s tre ss in the e xtreme fibe r is ,

giv en by the formul a

F IG 3 1 . F IG 3 2
.

Probl e c t ng l c nc t b m 14 in d p nd 8 in w id i nf d
m 70 . A re a u ar o re e ea . ee a . e s re e or ce

by tw g in q
o - t l . d pl c d 1 in f m th b tt m
s u are s ee ro h w n i n F ig 3 1
s a e . ro e o o ,
as s o . .

A ssum i ng th t th ti f th m d l i
a f l ti c i ty f t l nd c nc t i
e ra o o e o u o e as o s ee a o re e s

E 8 E C 1 5 1 find th m m nt f i n t i
z
,
f c e c ti n f th b m b t
o e o er a o a r oss se o o e ea a ou a

g v i ty i p ll l t th b
ra ax s ar a e o e ase .

S l ti n Inc
o u o i ng th
. f th t l i n th
re as t 15 1 it b c m
e are a o in e s ee e ra e ,
e o es .
2

T he ar e
a f th c nc t i ncl ud d i n th
o e m h o i ontal t i p w i th the stee l is
o re e e e sa e r z s r
 47

the b re a d th of the l w fl ng
o er a e of the e u
q i v l
a e nt h o mo

2 9 l in. .

T he d i c
stan e of the c e nte r of g v i ty
ra of hi q i v l
t s e u a e nt se c ti n b l w th t p
o e o e o

is f ou n d to be ih .
,
and i ts m om e nt o f in ti b er a a ou t th g v i ty
e ra i OZ i ax s s

49 . Inert i a . ell ip s e qu ation (2 0) by F and expressing

. Dividing e

the re sult in term s of the radi i of gy ratio n by m ean s of e q u atio n

l

ti = tz + ty sm
2 2 2 2
‘

cos a a,

where t, and dii of gyration with re sp ec t t o the ax es of

t, are the ra

Y and Z r e sp e c tiv e ly and t is the radius of gy ratio n with re s p e c t to

, a

a gravi ty ax is incline d at an angl e a to the ax is of Z .

t”t
Now l et l he length d e fine d by the l tion Then
2
a re a

t,
It,
t, —“ It‘
an d subs tit u ting the s e valu es of t an d t in e qua
7 t
tion it be domes
i 2
l t
cos 2
a
2

ti

or, dividing by ti ,

This is the e qu ation of an elli ps e

with s emi ax e s t and t calle d the
-
, , ,

inertia el l ips e the c oor dinate s of

,

any point of the cu rv e b eing t cos a

and 1 sin a .

By means tia ellips e

of the iner
the mo ment of inerti a with re
/

spect to any gravity axis AB (Fig .

F m 33.

3 3 ) can be ob tain e d as follows .

The e qu ation of a t angent to the ell ips e

( z
’
IS - 1, or

'
3 3// 0
g 2
(2 5) zz
’ 2
b a
2
a b
48 S T R E N GT H or MAT E R IAL S

is prov e d in analytical ge ometry th at in o rd e r t o re duce the lin ear

It
e qu atio n Az + B y C 0 to the normal fo rm z cos 8 + y sin 8
: c 0 , , ,
'

it is ne ce ssary to divid e throughou t by V A A pplying this

2 2
B .

th e orem to e qu atio n it be co me s
i 2
g/
g
2 +

wh ere

m
S ubs ti tutin g th e s e v alu e s pre ssion z
fi
2 2 2
in the ex a c os b sin 8 , it
,
'

be co me s 2 4 l2
a bz

/
l2 § ’2 4
z b 9 z b 7

—
.

7r
whenc e sin ce ,
2
a
2
cos
2
8
,
b 2
s in
2
sin a 8
,
a
2 z 2
b cos z
a .

Sinc e the s e mi axe s of

- the inertia elli pse are a t, and b t, , t his
ex pressi on b e co mes
f cos a c
2
t, Si n a
2
ti
z
,

or, comparing this e xpres smn wi th e qu atio n

c ta .

The dius of gyration corre sponding to any gravity axis AB can

ra

e
. th e re fo re be found by d rawi ng a tang ent t o the
inertia e lli ps e p aralle l t o AB and measu ri ng the
T ,

dis tanc e of this tangent from the c ente r .

Sinc e the i nert ia e lli p s e is co ns tructe d on the

I princip l r di of gy r tion as semi ax e s it can
a a i a be -
,

d rawn on all the o rdinary fo rm s of cross s e ction ,

and wh en thi s is do n e the m e thod giv e n abov e

I greatly simplifi es the calculation of the m oment

of inertia with respe c t to any gravity ax is which
m 34 g ,
is not a pri ncip al ax is .

Probl em 7 1 F m th C n g i . ro h nd b k f t u c tu l te l th p i nc ip l
e ar e e a oo o s r ra s e e r a

radii f gy ti n f T h p N 72 i 3 in by 4 in
o ra o o -s a e, oin . nd 59 i n ,
s ze . .
,
are . a . .

C n t u c t th i n ti
o s r ll ip (Fig
e er a e se .
 AN A L Y S I S OF S T R E S S I N B E AMS 49

C arne gi e b m N B I- eain d e p nd w i ghi n

, g o . . e a e

42 ra dii of gy ti n 5 95 n f
ra o n i p p ndi c l t
ar e . I . or a ax s er e u ar o

we i n f or
. n
a i c i nc id nt w ith w b t c nt C n t c t
ax s o e e a e er . o s ru

the ne rti i ll i p
’

a e se .

Pro bl e m 73 . F or a C am b i ch
d p th f w b 7 in w idth f
r a anne l ,
No C 2 1 ,
.
‘

e o e .
, o

fl nga es i n t hi ck n
.
,
f w b 63 i n th di f g y ti n b t n i p
e ss o e . .
,
e ra us o ra o a ou a ax s er

p e nd i c ul ar t th w b t c nt
o e i ei n ; th di t nc
a f t h c nt
e f g v i ty
er s . e s a e o e e er o ra

f ro m outs id f w b i 58 i n nd th di f g y ti n b t n i th gh
e o e s . .
,
a e ra us o ra o a ou a ax s r ou

the c e nt e r o f g v i ty p ll l w i th c nt l i n f w b i 56 i n C n t u ct th
ra ar a e e er e o e s . . o s r e

Pr o bl m 68 6 9 e s , ,
an d 70 d i g p hi c lly
e t e r m ne ra a the rad n o f

i t h g h th c
ax s r ou e e nt e r of g v i ty nd i ncl i n d
ra a e at 3 0 to the
°

i n ti ll i p
er a e se .

50 . V e rt ical react i ons and s hear . Un d e r the

u m ptio ns of the as s

c omm on th e ory of fiex u re the , e x tern al f or c e s actin g on a b e am al l

l i e in the s am e v ertic al pl ane . Th ere fo re sinc e the b eam is as s um e d

,

su m
of the re actions of the su p
ports mu st e qual the t otal
load on the b eam .

For instanc e consid e r a ,

simpl e b e am AB of l ength l ,

which is support e d at the Fm 3 5 .

e nd s and b e ars a s ingl e c on

ce ntrate d lo ad P at a di s tan c e d fro m A Fig L d

( e t R an B .
, 2

denote the reactio ns at A and B re sp e ctiv ely The n fro m the ab ov e .

, ,

a + m =fl

To find the value s of R 1

and R 2 , ta k e m o m ents about e ither end , sa
y A .

Then

Al so, since

If
y cr oss s
an e c t io n of a b e am is t ak en ,
the stre s s e s acting on this
se ction must re duce to a s ingl e forc e and a moment as e x plai ne d in ,
 50 S T R EN GT H or MA T ER I AL S

A rticl e 3 7 simple b eam place d horiz ont ally and support ing a
. For a

s ys te m of v e rtic al lo ad s the pl an e of the m o m ent is p erpe ndi cul ar to

,

the pl ane of the s e cti on and the singl e fo r c e is a v ertic al sh ear lying
,

in the pl ane of the s e c tion Th ere fo re sin c e the po rtio n of the b e am .

,

on e i th e r s id e of the s e ctio n m us t be i n e quili b riu m the v ert ical ,

sh ear is e qu al to the alg e braic su m of the e xternal forc es on eith er ‘

sid e of the s e ctio n Thus if the po rtio n of the b eam on the l e ft of

.
,

the s e ctio n is co nsid ere d the v ertical sh ear on the s e ctio n is e q u al

,

t o the r eac tion of the l e ft support min us the s u m of the lo ads on the
le ft of the se ctio n .

P obl m 75 A b m 10 f t l ng b
r e . u nifeam l d f 3 00 lb / ft .F ind th o e ars a or oa o . . e

v ti c l h
er an c ti n 4 ft f m th l f t pp t
s e ar o a se o . ro e e su or .

S l ti n T h t t l l d n th b m i 3 000 1b T h
o u o . e o a f oa inc th l d i
o e ea s . e re ore , s e e oa s

u nif m c h c ti n i qu l t 1 50 0 lb T h l d n th l f t f th c ti n i
or ,
ea re a o s e a o . e oa o e e o e se o s

3 00 x 4 12 00 lb T h f th v t i c l h
. n th cti n i 150 0 12 00 3 00 1b
e re o re e er a s e ar o e se o s .

P obl m 76 F i nd th v ti c l h
r e . t th c nt nd nde f th b m in th
er a s e ar a e e er a e s o e ea e

p c di ng p bl m
re e ro e .

P obl m 7 7 A b m 12 f t l ng b
r e . l d f1ea nd 3 t n t di tanc
. fo e ars oa s o ,
a o s a s es o

2 5
,
nd 7 f t
,
a p c ti v ly f m th l f t pp t F i nd th v ti c l h
. res e e ro t i th e e su or . e er a s e ar a e er

nd f th b m nd l so t e o e ea ,
a a a a

p int b tw n c h p i f l d o e ee ea a r o oa s .

51 . Max i mu m b e ndi ng
moment . The e xt ernal b en d
i ng m o ment at any point of
b e am is d e fine d as the s u m a

of the m o ments about the ,

ne u tral axis of a c r oss s ec

tion through the point of all ,

the e xte rnal fo rc e s on e ith er

F G 36 side of the s e ction Thus if

I .
.
,

the portio n of the b eam on

the l e f t of the s e ction is consid ere d the e xt ernal m om e nt at this point ,

is the m o m ent of the reaction of the le ft support about the neutral

‘

axi s of the s e ctio n min us the s u m of the m o m e nts of the lo ads

,

b etween the l e ft support and the s e ction abo u t the s ame neutral ax is , .

F or e x am pl
i n F ig 3 6 the m om e nt o f R I
e, . b
a ou t the ne u tra l i
ax s of the cti se on
mm i s B a ,
. and the m ome nt of P 1 a ou t the b s am e ax s i is P 1 (a: dl ) . Th f ere ore
the tota l e x te rn a lm ome nt a c ti ng on the se c ti on mm is
M : R l cc P 1 (x dl ) .
 ANA L Y S I S OF S T R E S S I N BE AMS 51

As h
anot e r e x am pl c n id e, b m f l ngth 1 b ing nif m l d f
o s er a ea o e e ar a u or oa o

d n th b mi wt nd c h
‘

amou nt w per u ni t f l ng th
o T h n th t t l l
e . e e o a oa o e ea s ,
a ea
0 3
re a c ti on is 1- Th f th m m nt t p int di t nt f m th l f t pp t i
e re o re e o e a a o s a a: ro e e su or s
2

—
IIl l
L . . f
i

2 2 2

hi
F rom t l i
s re a t on i t is e v id e nt t h at M is z e ro f or a: 0 or I, and atta ns i it s max i
l
m m v l
u a ue f or a
: ; that is to s ay , the be ndi ng mom ent i s z e ro at e i th e r e nd of
5
th b m
e ea and a i
max mu m at the c e nte r .

F ro m fo rm ula M p S given in Art icl e 4 5 it is evid ent that

the , ,

the maxim u m v alu e of the s tre ss p occu rs wh e re the b en ding m o ment

M is a maxi mu m Ordin arily the maxi m u m b endi ng m o ment pro
.

duce s a gre ater s train th an the maxi mu m sh ear ; t h ere fore the s e c t ion
at whi ch the m ax im u m mo m e nt occu rs is c all e d the dang erou s sect i on ,

sinc e it is the s e ction at whi ch the mate rial is m ost s ev e rely s traine d ,

and co ns e qu e ntly the one at which rup tu re may be e x p e c te d to occur .

In o rd e r to fin d the maximu m b ending s tre ss in a b eam the formul a ,

M p S I s w ri tt en
M
S

The maxi m u m b endi ng s tre ss is th en ob t aine d at onc e by si mply

divi di ng the maxi m u m b en ding m o m ent by the s e ction m odulus .

Pro bl em . c
78 A re tan u ar oo en e am 14 f t on , 4 i ng l w d b
e , and 9 i n ee . l g . w id . d p
be ars a if d u n o rm l oa p ii
of 7 5 l b / i d
i
f t F n the os t on and amou nt of the m ax mu m
. .

b nd ing
e m ome nt .

P obl m 79 F i nd th m
r e i m m b nd ing t
. i n th b m i n th p c di ng
e ax u e s ress e ea e re e

p bl m
ro e .

P obl m 8 0 A C mb i I b m N B 3 3 w hi c h w i gh 4 0 lb /
f t i 15 ft
‘

r e . a r a - ea o . e s . . s .
, , ,

l ng nd b
o a i ngl c nc nt t d l d f 5 t n t i t c nt F ind th m i
e ars a s e o e ra e oa o o s a s e er . e ax

m m b ndi ng t
u i n th b m t k i ng i nt
e cc nt th w igh t f th b m
s ress e ea ,
a o a ou e e o e ea .

52 . s hear di agrams In g eneral the b ending

Bending moment and .
,

moment and sh e ar v ary f ro m point t o point alo ng a b eam Thi s .

v ari ation i s Shown graphically in the following diagrams for s ev eral

'

different sys te ms of lo ading .

A
( ) S i mp l e bea m bea r i n
g a si n
g l e concen tr a ted l oa d P at i ts cen ter

(Fig . Fro m sy mmetry the re a ctions R, an d R2 are ea ch e qu al

1
to - Let mn be an
y s e ction of the b eam at a dis tan c e a: fro m the
2
left support , and consid er the portion of the b e am on the le ft of thi s
52 S T R E N GT H or MA T E R IA L S

For a se ctio n on the

ight of
r the c e n te r
b ending the
m o m ent i s R (l 2
x and the sh e ar
)
is B 2
C o n s e q u en tly the be n din g
.
,

m o ment v ari e s as the o rdinate s of

a tri angl e b e i ng z e ro at e i th e r sup
,

ort an d attainin a m ax i m u m

v alue of a at the c e nter ,

whil e
4
sh ear is constan t fro m A to B
the ,

an d al s o co n s tan t bu t of o pposi te ,
F 37 IG
sign fro m B to C
.

.
,

The di ag ram s in Fig 3 7 r e p re s ent the s e v ari ation s in be nding

.

m o m e nt an d s h e ar along the b eam u nd er the assu m e d lo adi ng C on .

se qu ently if the o r din ate s v e rtic ally b en e ath B are l aid off t o s c al e
,

to repre s ent the bend ing m ome nt an d s h ear at thi s poin t the b e n din g ,

k_
mom ent and sh e ar at any
l h
o th e r point D of the b eam A

are fou n d at o n c e f r o m the

di ag r a m by d r awi n g t he
o rdinate s E F and E X v e rti
cally b e neath D .

B B ea m bea r i n a si n l
( ) g g e

con cen tr a ted l oa d P at a di s

ta nce c
f ro m '

one s up p or t .

The re a ction s in thi s c as

'

are

He nc e the b ending m oment Fm . 38

54 S T R EN GT H or MA T E R I A L S

The b en ding m o ment diagr am is th erefo re a

2
wl
M ‘
CI
— wh i ch Is I ts m ax i mu m v alu e . T he
8
sh e ar diagrams are therefore as re pre sente d in Fig . 40 .

(E B ea m

an
p
s .

ten d ov er a distanc e
c an d be of am ou nt

Th e n the t o tal lo ad
is we The re ac tions
.

of the supports are

the s am e as though
the lo ad was c on cen
trate d at its c ente r
of gravity G Th ere .

fore if d d eno te s the

,

dis tan ce of G fro m

the l e f t suppo rt ,

Al s o, theb en ding m o ment diagram s for the portions AB and CD are

the s ame as though t he lo ad was con c entrate d at G an d are th ere ,

fore the s traigh t lin e s A H and D K int ers e ctin g in the point T
’ ’
,

v ertically b eneath G (Fig .

F rom B to 0 th e re is an additional b ending m o ment du e to the

uniform lo ad on this portio n of the b e am Thu s if L MN is the p ara
.
,

boli e mom ent diagr am for a b eam of l eng th L N or c the o rdinate s ,

to the li ne E X mus t be in cre as e d by t hos e to the p arabol a L MN ,

giving as a complete moment diagram the line A H JKD ’ ’

.
 55

Analyt ic ally , if ac deno te s the dis tance of any s e cti on f ro m the le ft

‘

support e qu at ion s of the t h ree po rtio n s A II II JK and KD o f

’
, the , ,
’

O< w < d

we (l d) w

wcd (l —x) c
d + < x < l
l 2

bl m 8 1 C n t c t th b nd i ng m m nt nd h di g m
Pro e . o s ru e e o e a s e ar a ra s f or a c ant il v
e er *

b i ng ingl c nc nt t d l d P t th nd
e ar a s e o e ra e oa a e e .

P ob l m 8 2 C n t c t th b ndi ng m m nt nd h
r e . di g
o s ru e e o e a S e ar a ram s for a s impl e

b m b ing tw q l c n n
ea e ar o e ua o ee

t t d l
ra e d t q l di t nc
oa s a e ua s a es

f m th c nt
ro e e er .

53 . R e l at i on bet w e e n A

shear and bendi ng moment .

C o nsid er a b e am b earing sev

eral co n ce nt rat e d lo ads P
Fm 42 1,
.

P 2,
etc at dis t an c e s d
.
,
d l , 2,

fro m the l e ft support Tak e any s e ction mn at a distanc e ac .

fro m the le ft support and conside r the port ion of the b e am on the
,

left of this s e ction Then if Q d enote s the t o tal she ar on this s e ction
. ,

Q= R 1
_
i
b ending m o m e nt at mn is

M : Il l a; —
Z 0
P (
a: d) ,

where the sum mat ions includ e all the lo ads b et ween A an d the

s e ction mn .

A c nti l v
a i b m whi ch i f m d i nt w ll
e er th
s a pp tea s ra e o a a or o er su or at one e nd and

p j ct
ro e tw d f m t hi
s ou pp t ar ro s su or .
56 S T RE N GT H or MA T E R I AL S

Diff e rentiating M with ?

'

re spe ct to a

dM
d oc
There fore
dM
( )
2 6 a ,

h at
t i s to sa
y ,
the s hea r a t a ny p oi n t o
f a bea m is the fir s t d if fer en ti a l

coe fi ci en t o f the bend i ng m omen t at tha t p oi n t .

If the b eam is uni forml y lo ad e d , as in D

( ) of the pre ce ding
?
wee
art icle Q B ,
wr an d M ,
R 90 fr o m whiche qu ation (2 6 )
1
2
res u l ts as b e fo re .

Fro m e qu ation (2 6 ) it foll ows th at if the be nding mo ment is c on

s tant the sh e ar is z ero ; and co nv e rse ly if the sh e ar is z ero the bend ,

d z”
i ng m o me nt is con stant . Bu t 0 is the condi tio n th at the
d ac
b ending m ome nt shall be e ithe r a m axi mu m or a minim um . Gon s e
qu ent ly ,
at a
p oi n t wher e the bendi ng m om en t p a sses thr ough a m a xi
mu m or mi n i m u m v a lu e the s hea r is z er o a nd conversel
y This . .

th e o re m is ill u s trate d by the b e ndi ng m o ment and shear diagram s in

the p re c e ding p ar agraph .

5 4 De si g ning of beams
. In d e signing b e am s the p robl em is to
.

find the tran s v e rs e di mens ions of a b e am of giv en l ength and giv en

'

materi al so th at it sh all b ear a giv en lo ad wi th s afety

,
.

In o rd e r to solve this probl e m the fo rmul a M p S is w ri tte n,

M
I 7

Th en fro m the give n l oading the maxim u m v alu e of M is d etermi ne d

, , ,

and by dividing the ul ti mate s tre ngt h of the m ate ri al by the p rope r

factor of s afety the s afe u nit s tre s s p b e co m e s k nown The quoti ent .

of th es e two giv e s the s e ction m od ul us of the re quire d s e ction .

In the h andbooks issu e d by the v arious s tr uctural i ron and s te el

compani e s the s e ction m odul i of all the s tand ard s ection s are tabu
,

l ate d If th en the b eam is t o be of a s tand ar d sh ape its siz e is

'

.
, , ,

found by Sim ply looking in the tabl e s for the value of S whi ch corr e
s p ond s m os t clos e ly to the calcul at e d v alu e i
f
the valu e chos en ,

P
 AN A L Y S I S or S T R E S S I N B E AM S 57

b eing e qu al to or greate r t han the calcul ate d v alue in ord er to i ns ure

saf e ty .

If the s e c tion of the b eam is to be of a sh ap e not liste d in the

handb ooks the dime ns ion s of the s ection m us t be found by tri al
,
‘

Thus a s e ction of the re quire d sh ape is assu me d and it s s ectio n ,

mod ul us c alculate d fro m the relation

If the v alu e of S t hus found is t oo great or t oo s mall the dimensions ,

of the s e c tio n are d e c re as e d or in c re as e d and S ag ain c alcul ate d , .

Pr ocee din g in thi s

way the dim en sion s
,

of the s e ctio n are '

ch an g e d u nt il a
v alue of S is found
which is approxi
mately e qu al to the
calcul ate d valu e E
f
l
,

10

bl m 8 3 D i gn
Pro e . es

a t l I b
s ee m 10 f t - ea ,
.

l ng t b
o ,
o nif m
e ar a u or

l d f 1 50 0 lb /
oa o ft n g . F
.
,
43 e IG .

l ti ng it wn w igh t
ee s o e .

P obl m 8 4 A b i l t b m i t b c m p
r e . d f tw t l c h nn l pl c d n
u ea ,
s o e o os e o o s ee a e s a e o

ed g nd c nn c t d by l tti c i ng W h t m t b th i f th c h nn l if th
e a o e e a . a us e e s ze o e a e s e

b m i t b 18 f t l ng nd b
ea s o e l d f 10 t n t it c nt th f c t f
. o a e ar a oa o o s a s e e r, e a or o

f ty b i ng g i v n 4
sa e e e as

P obl m 8 5
r C mp
e th t ngth f . p i l of 10 b rd
o c h 14 ft l ng 1 ft
ar e e s re o a e oa s, ea . o ,
.

w id nd 1 in thi ck w h n th b d
e, a . p i l d h i nt lly nd w h n th y
,
e e oar s are e or z o a ,
a e e are

pl c d cl t g th n d g
a e os e o e er o e e .

P obl m r D i gn
e c t ng l w d n c nti l v t p j c t 4 ft f m
es a re a u ar oo e a e er o ro e . ro a

w ll nd b
a a l d f 50 0 lb t i t nd th f c t f f ty b i ng 8
e ar a oa o . a s e ,
e a or o sa e e .

P bl m 8 7 A
ro e c t ng l c nti l v p j c t di t nc I f m b i ck w ll
. re a u ar a e er ro e s a s a e ro a r a

a nd b i ngl b n nt t d l d P t it nd H w f m t th i nn nd f
e a rs a s e o ce ra e oa a s e . o ar us e er e o

th c nti l v
e a b i mb dd d i n th w ll i n
e er d th t th p
e b tw n thi nd
e e e a or er a e re ssu re e ee s e

a nd th w ll h ll n t
e c d th c hi ng t ngth f th b i ck
a s a o ex ee e ru s s re o e r

S l ti n L t b d n t th w id th Of th b m nd x th di t nc i t
ou o . e e t nd i nt
o e e e ea a e s a e ex e s o

th w ll
e F a q i l i b i m th
. or e c ti n b tw n th b m nd th w ll m t n
u r u e re a o e ee e ea a e a us co

i t f v t i c l f c nd m m nt If p d n t th i nt ni ty f th v ti c l
s s o a er a or e a a o e . a e o es e e s o e er a
58 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R I AL S

s tress , and i t is ass u me d to be u n if orm ly Qi s tri bu te d o e r v the area bx, p a ba P;

P
w h nc p 5 ( F g 43 )
e e
‘

a
s ee i .
,
a .

S i mi l ly l t p
ar d n t th,
m i m
e m i n tb
n i ty f e o e e ax u e s o the s tress f mi ng th t
or e s ress

c pl T hen t ki ng m m nt b t th c nt 0
ou e .
,
a o e s a ou e e er of the p ti n A B inc th
or o ,
s e e

t
s re ss f m i ng th
or c pl i l di t i b t ed v ou th e s a so s r u e o er e are a bit , w h ve a e

)
bid 3:
’ and M : P l
12 2

M
— e
T h f
e re or e , su b s ti tu ti n g In the f ormu a l 19 we h v a e
I

l ) l )
a: a: a
:
P l 6P l
2 2 2
br a but2
12

pb i pa
M 2

—
0
21

ba:

A s a nu me r ic l a e x am pl e of the ab v l t l 5 ft 6 0 in P 2 00 l h b 4 in
o e, e . .
,
.
,
.
,

and p 60 0 1b .
/
in .
2
(for or din ar y b i ck w k) S lv ing th b v q ti n by th
r or . o e a o e e ua o e

f mu l f q d ti c or a or ua ra s,

bp

w h nc by b ti t ti ng th b v v l
e e, su s u e a o e a ues ,

a
: in .

J
5 5 Di stribut i on of s hear ov er
l [ .

l cros s secti on Con rectangu ar .

sider a cross s e ction of a re ctan

gul ar b eam at a di s tanc e cc fro m
the l e ft support as MN R S in Fig 4 4
E G 44 ,
.
,
1 .

and l et P be a poin t in thi s cross

s e ctio n at a dis tan c e g fro m the n e u tral ax is Then by e qu ation .

,

A If the cross
Article 4 3 the u nit n orm al s tre ss at P is p
,
?
Ba ch , E l as ti ci ta t u . F es ti g ke i ts l e hr e , p 4 30 . .

1 F or a b i fc r e ou r se i n the S tr en t o f Mate r gh il
a s the re ma i nd er of t hi c h pt
s a er may
b e om tt ed i .
’
 AN AL Y SI S OF S T R E S S IN BEAM S 59

se ction fro m this position p arallel to its elf a di stance d ac

i s mov e d ,

say to the positio n E F GH in the figu re the rate of ch ang e of wi th

p ,

re spe ct to a: is

dx d I

diff erence b et ween the no rmal stress e s act ing on t hes e two
”

adj ac e nt c r oss secti dn s te n ds to shov e the poi nt P in a di re ctio n

the axis of the b eam and t his t en d ency is re sis te d by

,

s tress of intensit y 9 at P also p arallel t o the axis of

,

“
the b eam Therefore since the re sultant normal s tress on the area
.
,

B CEF is dp ; dF , and the re sultant shearing st re ss on the area

AB CD is gbdtc ,

dp dF gbd w .

\
S ubs tit u ting the valu e of dp from e quation (2

n gbd zc ;

(2 8 )
bI

Formul a (2 8 ) applie s t o any cross s e ction bound ed by p arallel side s .

In Articl e 2 3 it was p rov e d th at wh ene v er a sh earing s tress acts

along any pl ane in an el a st ic solid t here is alw ays another she aring
,

stress of e qu al intensit y acting at the s ame poin t in a pl ane at right

angl e s t o the fi rs t C ons e qu ent ly formul a (2 8 ) al s o giv e s the intensity
.
,

of the s tre ss at any point P in a di rection perpendicular t o the ne utral

axis of the s ec t ion .

For a r ecta ngu l a r cr oss secti on

2 2

bydy = b l
l 0
60 S T R EN GT H or MAT ER I A L S

Fro m e quation it i s e vid en t tlh t for re ctangul ar s e c tions the

s h ear is z er o at the top and bo ttom of the

increas e s toward the c e nte r as the ordinate s to a parab ola . For 0 0,

2
h
g atta n i s i ts max i mu m v alue , na me ly 9
,
g— (Fi g
I
. At the top

an dbotto m wh ere the n o rmal b ending s tre s s is

z e ro and at the c ente r wh e r e the n ormal s tre ss is
,
z er o the

maxi mu m .

FIG . 45

Si nc e the of the p arabola

are a

A B C i s ghq the av e rag e s tr e s s i s

,

g g/ g g
-
h h an d co n s e
, qu e ntly t he

m ax im u m un it s tre s s g is 3 av e rage
unit s tre s s .

5 6 Dis t ribu t ion of s he ar ov e r

.

F 46 IG
ci rcu l ar cr oss s ect i on For a re c
.

tangul ar c ro s s s e c tion the sh e ar p arall el to the n eu tral axis is z er o ,

bu t for a circul ar cro s s s e ctio n thi s i s n ot the c as e Le t Fig 4 6 rep . .

re s en t a ci r cul ar c ro s s s e ctio n s a the c r o s s s e c tio n of a riv e t sub

y ,

cte d to a v e rtic al S h ear an d l e t it be r e quir e d to fin d the dire c t io n

j e ,

an d int en s ity of the sh e ar at the e x tre m i ty N of a hori z ontal l in e

'

MN If the s tre ss at N has a n or mal co mponent th at is a co mpo

.
, ,

n en t in the dire c tio n ON i t m u s t h av e a c om po ne n t of e qu al am oun t

,

th rough N pe rp en dicul ar to the pl an e of the c r o ss s e ctio n th at i s

‘

, ,

in the dire ction o f the axis of the riv e t (A rticl e C o n s e qu ently ,

S in c e the riv e t re c e iv e s n o s tre ss i n the dir e c tion of i ts axi s the s tre ss ,

at N c an h av e no n o rm al co m po ne nt an d i s th e re fo re tang enti al .

Si mil arly the s tre s s at M is tangenti al and S in c e the lin e MN i s

, ,

horiz ontal the tangents at M and N mus t mee t at s o m e point B on

,

the v e rtic al di amete r which i s tak en for the Y— ,

ax i s T he s tre ss at .

any poi n t K on the Y ax i s mus t ac t in the di re c tio n o f t his axi s an d

-
,
62 S T RE N GT H OF MA T ER IAL S

2
b 2
or, since h 2
r
4
,

his e qu ation g is proportional

In t to b, an d h en c e the max im um
v alu e of q is at the ce nter wh ere b 2 r . H en ce

Qm a x

The max im u m u ni t sh ear on a cir cul ar cross s e ction is t herefore

e qu al to
4
3;
of i ts av e rag e v alu e .

5 7 C as e s in w hich shear i s of especial i mp ortance In A rticl e 5 3

.
.

it was shown t h at at points wh ere the n o rmal b ending s tre ss is a

’

maxi mum the shear is z e ro .

For thi s reason it is usu

ally su ffi cient to di mension

maxi mu m b endi ng stre ss

s af ely wit hout regar d to
the sh e ar H ow e v er in
.
,

certain c as e s of which the ,

following are e xampl e s it ,

F IG 4 7
is ne c e ss ary t o calc ul ate
.

the shear also , an d co mbine i t wit h the b en ding s tress .

For an I-b eam the s tatic m o ment S n e ar ly as g reat dire ctly

under the fl ang e as for a s e ction through the ne utral axis and th ere
fore by formul a
, the sh e ar is v ery l arg e at this point as S hown ,

on the sh e ar di agram i n Fig 4 7 H e nce the sh e ar and b en ding

. .

s tre ss are both l arg e und er the fl ange and the re sult ant stre s s at ,

this point m ay in so me c as es e x cee d th at at the ou te r fib e r

, , ,
.

Again if a b e am i s v ery S ho rt i n co mp ariso n with it s d e pt h or if

, ,

the materi al of w hi ch i t is mad e o ff ers s m all r e sis t an c e to sh e ar in

c ertain dire ctions as in the c as e of a wood en b eam p arall e l to the
,

grain a sp e ci al inve stigat ion of the sh ear m us t be made For instanc e

consider a re ctangul ar wood en b eamof l ength l bre adth b and d e pth h
, .
,

, , ,

b e aring a single concentrat e d load P at its center Th en the t o tal .

 A NAL Y SI S or S T R E S S I N BE AMS 63

M h
“
BP l
I 2 2 bi t

— nd
2
bh
Al so , S i nce Q 2
a n the maxi m um uni t shear i s

if .

4 bh

Now l et d eno te the ratio b e tw een the t ensil e stre ngth in the dirco
1c

t ion of the fib e r and the sh earing s trengt h p arall el to the fib er .

er th at the b e am sh all be e q u ally s af e ag ai ns t n o rmal

aring s t re ss p re
g or , ,

3 Pl
2
2 bh

2 l
h

Ingeneral is not great er th an 1 0 If K 1 0 l 5 h

,
it .
,
. C ons e qu ently ,

if the l engt h of a b eam is gre ater th an 5 ti me s its II

K 7 I
1
d e p th the sh e,ar is n ot lik e ly to c aus e r up tu r e .

Pro bl em 88 . T he b en di ng m ome nt and s h e ar at a c e r ta n i

p i nt in C n g i I b m N B 2 f th dim n i n
‘

o a ar e e - ea
,
o .
,
o e e s o s

g i v n i n F ig 48
e M .f t lb nd Q ,
arelb . . a .

res p c ti v ly C lc l t th m im m n m l t
e e . a nd thu a e e ax u or a s ress a e

e q i v l nt t
u a e f p int di c tly nd th fl ng nd
s ress or a o re u er e a e, a

c mp th v l w i th th n m l t in th t m
o ar e ese a u es e or a s ress e e x re e

S oluti on . F rom the C arne g i h ndb k th m m nt f

e a oo ,
e o e o

i n ti
er a of thiS /se c tion a b t n t l i p p ndi c l
ou a e u ra ax s er e u ar

to the we b i s I : in C n q ntly th n m l
.
4
. o se ue ,
e or a

s tres s in the e x tre me fi b er is

14 6 6 5 .

and the norm a l s tress at a p i nt P

o u n er d the fl ng
a e is F IG 4 8

14 66 5 .
64 S T R EN GT H or MA T E R IAL S

Ne gl c ting th
e e r ou n e ddc orne rs

f 44 l n 3
d 7 y dy . .

q
C onse u e nt ly f
,
ro m f ormu a l i h
the u n t s e ar at P is
71

1 5 ’ OOO (4 4 )
2 ?

M f1.

At p i nt P th
the o ,
f
e re or e , p a, lb / . in .
2
, py 0, and q
He nc f mf m l
e, ro or u a A rt i cl e 2 6,

I
; W1 ( 2
pg
,

To c lc l a u ate the e u q iv l a e n t s tr e ss i t is n e c ess ar y to find the p inc ip l

r a s tre sses ,

whi c h f are , ro m the a b v

o e,

pl lb / in. .
9 and p2 2

He n c f
e, ro m f or mu a l Ar t i cl 3 5 e ,
f or m the e qu i v al ent s tress at P is

p,

58 . Obli qu e
l oading If for any cros s s e ction the plane of the
.
, ,

e xt ernal b en din g m o m e nt do e s n ot p as s th r ough a p ri n cip al ax is of

the s e c tio n the lo adin g i s s aid ,

to be obli gu e In this c as e the .

b ending m o ment M can be re

s olv e d in t o co m po ne nts p arall e l

to the p rin cip al ax e s name ly , ,

M c os a and M sin a wh ere a ,

is the angle whi ch the pl ane

co ntain ing M m ak es wi th one
F 49 IG .

of the prin cip al axe s .

For m ateri al s which co nf orm to H ook e s l aw it has b e en foun d

’

th at the stre s s d u e to s e v er al s ets of e x ternal for c es c an be c alcul ate d

for e ach s et se p ar ately and th en co m bine d in to a singl e res ul tant .

This i s calle d the l aw of s uperpos ition A pplying thi s l aw to the .

pres ent c as e ,

M co s a M sin a
S, S,

where e
11,
ez are the distanc e s of the e xtrem e fib ers of the b eam fro m
the ax es of Y and Z re sp e c tiv e ly an d S S are the co rresponding
, , , ,

se c tio n m od ul i .
66 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R I AL S .

—
“2 2
2

If the point B lie s on the e lli p s e 1 1, its coo rdinate s mII st

,

s atisfy t his e quation , and , cons e quently ,

(3 2 )
Z
_
y
l2

2
b

In this cas e the ne utral axi s p ass e s through a point on the elli pse
diametrically opposite to B ; for if z ’
g ar e subs t i t u t e d for g ,
’

and z i n e qu atio n it is e vid ent th at the condi t ion (3 2 ) is s at isfi e d

2

5 point is
’
The tange nt to the lli ps e ’
e
5
at the z , g
r

i —
yy
z
1, which is id entic al with e qu ation C ons equ ently ,
a b
if B lies on the inertia elli pse the ne utral axi s corresponding t o B is
,

tangent to the e lli ps e at the point di am etric ally opposite to B .

F rom e qu ation the slop e of the tan

gent is foun d t o be z ’
bz
2 ,
(1
g

t h en
point B m ov e s out along a radi us
If, , the .

'
CB z and g inc reas e in the s ame ratio and
’
, ,

cons e qu ent ly the slop e is cons tant ; that is t o

say if B m ov e s ou t along a radius the n e u
, ,

tral axis m ov e s p aral l el to its elf .

'
A s z and g in creas e z and g m us t d e
’
,

'
creas e for the products zz and gg m ust be’
,

constant in ord er to s atisfy e qu ation

F 50 IG '
There fore the farther B is from the ce nter of
gravity the nearer the corre sponding ne u tral axis is t o the c enter
,

of g ravity and vic e v e rs a

, .

If in Fig 5 0 T N is the ne ut ral axi s co rre spon din g to B it fol

, .
, ,

low s from the abov e th at CB C T is a constant wherever B is on the

, ,

line B T Bu t if B lie s on the ellips e the corr esponding neutral axi s

.
,

is tangent t o the e llips e at the point diame— tric ally opposite to B and ,
2
in thi s c as e the abov e p roduct b e com es (F M Th ere fore .

(3 3 )
From this rel at ion the po s itio n of the ne u tral
, ax is c an be det ermined
when the position of the poin t B is given .
 AN AL Y S I S or S T R E S S I N BEAMS 67

60 Antipol e
. t he orem s in the pgece ding p ara
and anti pol ar . The
graph prov e that i i the point of applic atio n of an e cc entric lo ad l ie s
outsid e on or wi thin the inertia e llips e the corre spondin g ne utral
, , ,

axi s cu t s thi s e llips e is tange nt t o i t or li e s wholly ou tsid e it

, , .

This relation is analogous to th at of pol e s and polars in analytical

e o metry e x c e p t t h at in the p re s e nt c as e the point an d i ts co rre
g ,

spondi ng lin e l ie on opposite s id e s of the c ent er in s tead of on the

s ame sid e For thi s re ason the point in the pres ent cas e is c alle d
.

the ant ipol e and i t s co rre spon di ng lin e the ant ipol ar
, .

The fol lowing t h e ore m is analogous to a w ell kn own th e o re m of -

pole s and polars .

If the antipol e mov e s along a fi x e d s traight lin e the antipol ar ,

revolv e s abou t a fi x e d poin t C onv ers ely if the antipol ar re volve s

.
,

about a fi x e d point the ant ipol e m ov e s alo ng a fi x e d s t raigh t lin e

, .

If the antipol e m ov e s t o infinity the antipol ar or ne utral axis , , ,

pass es through the c enter of gravity of the s e ction whi ch is the ,

o rdinary c as e of pu re b ending s train The b endin g m o me nt in this .

c as e can be consid ere d as d u e to an in finite si mal fo rc e at an infinite

distanc e from the c enter of gravity .

If the antipol e coin cide s with the c ent er of gravity the n e utral ,

axis li e s at infi nit y which mean s t h at the s tre ss is u nifo rm ly dis

,

tribute d ov er the cross s e ct ion .

Sin ce the s tre ss e s on opposit e sid e s of the ne utral axis are of Oppo
site sign ii the ne utral ax is cut s the cross s e ction stress e s of both
, ,

signs occur (i e bot h tensio n and co mpre ssion) wh ere as if the ne utral
.
,

ax is li e s ou t sid e the cr oss s e c tion the s t re ss on the s e c tio n is all of

,

the s am e sign (i e e ith er all t en sion or all com p re ssion)

. . .

6 1 C ore s ection Let it be re quire d t o fin d all position s of the

. .

point of applic at ion of an e ccentric lo ad such that the stres s on

the cross s e c t ion sh all all be of the s ame sign From the pre ce ding .

articl e the con dit io n for this is th at the n e u t ral axis s h all n ot cu t
,

the cross s e ction If t h en all po ss ibl e l ine s are d rawn touchin g the
.
, ,

cross s ection or h aving one point in co mm on with it and the anti ,

pole s of th e s e line s are foun d the locus of t h es e antipol e s will form

,

a clos e d figure c all e d the core s ecti on

,
.

For a point wit hin or on the boun d ary of the core s e ction the ne u
tral axi s lies entirely withou t the cross s e ction or at most touch es it , , , ,
68 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R IAL S

and cons equ ent ly s tre ss of only ono s ign o ccurs For a point without .

the co re s e ct ion the corre spo ndin g ne u tral ax i s cu ts the c ros s s e c tion
an d i t is subj e c te d to s tre s s e s of bo th sig n s .

Probl m 9 0 C n t ct th c r
e . o s ru e o e se cti on f or a re ct ng l c
a u ar r oss s e ct i on of b re a d th
ba nd h i g h t h (F ig
e .

3
S l ti n F m P bl m 56 I
o u o . ro ro e , z
$ 2
and the c orr es p ndi ng dii f
o ra o

C onse qu e nt ly ,
the se m i -ax es f th i n ti
o e er a
F 12
h b
ell i p se ar e t an d t,, Ha v i ng c onstru ct d e the in ti er a e ll i p se , the

v ti c
er es of the c ore se c ti on w i ll be a nti p l o es of th l i ne es P Q QR, ,
RS , and SP .

FI G 51 . FIG . 52

F rom A rt i cl e 59 , the i d by th l ti n OA OE OH
an t ip lo e of P Qi s e te rm n e d e re a o
2
,
or ,
i
si nc OE Z nd OH t
e
l
a i l ly OC — nd OB OD 9
:
z
-
h
OA E S mi ar ,
L
a .

2 6 6 6
Th us th c c ti n i th h mb A B C D f w hi c h th v ti c A B C D
e or e s e o s e r o us ,
o e er es , , ,
ar e

th e anti p l f th l i n
o es oP Q P S S R QR e p c ti v ly nd th id A B B C
es , , ,
res e e ,
a e s es , ,

DA th
ar e nti p l f th p i nt P S R Q
e a o ars o p c ti v ly e o s , , ,
re s e e .

P obl m 9 1 C n t c t th c
r e . c ti n f th T h p in P bl m 71
o s ru e or e s e o or e -S a e ro e .

S l ti n S i l i n
o u o n b
. d w n w hi c h w i ll h v tw
x es c a em p i nt i n m
ra a e o or or e o s co

m n w i th th p i m t
o f th T—
e h p w ith t c ing i t n m ly P Q QR R T
er e er o e s a e ou r oss ,
a e , , , ,

T U US ,
nd S P F i g
,( a T h v t i c A B .C D E f t h c c tei n er es , , , ,
’
o e or e se o ar e

th n th
e nt i p l
e a f th i l in o es o p cti v ly e se s x es r es e e .

P obl m 9 2
r C n t c t th c
e . c ti n f th I b m i n P bl m 72
o s ru e ore s e o o e - ea ro e .

P obl m 9 3
r C n t c t th c
e . ti n f
o th c h nn l i n P bl m 73
s ru e ore s e c o or e a e ro e .

P obl m 9 4
r C n t c t th i n t i
e . ll i p nd c
o s ru cti n f ci c l c
e er a e se a - or e s e o or a r u ar r oss

se c ti n o .

62 . Appl ication to concret e and mas onry s tructi on Sinc e con

con .

cret e an d masonry are d esigne d to c arry o nl y co mp ressive s tre ss es it ,

70 S T R EN GT H or MAT E R I AL S

du e to pure b endi ng strai r e adily c alc ul at e d by me an s of

?
n can be

the co re s e ction as follows

,
.

S uppos e the e x t ernal be n ding m oment M li es in a pl ane pe rpen

di cul ar to the pl ane of the cros s s e c tion and int ers e cting it in the
line MM Then assuming that M is du e t o an infinitesim al force
.
,
,

whos e point of applic ation is at an infinite dis tan ce from O in the

dire ction OM the antipol ar of thi s point will be the di ameter of the
,

inertia ellips e con jugate t o MM It is prove d in analyt ic al g e o metry

.

th at the tang ent at the e nd of a di am eter of a co nic is p arall e l t o the

conjugate diameter Th ere fore if B T is tang ent t o the inertia elli pse
.
,

at B an d N N is d rawn th rough 0 p arall e l to B T N N wil l be the

, ,

diameter con jugate to MM Since the .

g rea t e s t s t re ss occu r s on the fib e r m os t

T di s t ant f ro m the neu tral axis the maxi ,

mum s tre ss will occur at P or R Through .

P draw P A p arall e l t o N N and inters e ct

—
,

ing MM in A Th en fro m Articl e 5 9, .

,

2
OA OK : 7
0 3 ,

taking the proj e ctions of OA OK

or, , , and

OB on a lin e perp en dicul ar to N N ,

F I G" 54
OK s in a = (OB
2
e .
sin a ) ,

where e is the p erp endic ul ar distanc e of P A f ro m 0 But OB sin a .

is the distanc e of the t angent B T from O and by Article 4 9 thi s , , ,

distance is the radius of gyration t co rre spon ding t o the axis NN .

Therefore
I
K = t
'
2
34 e -O Si n a 4 .

F
where F is the are a of the s e ction and I is its mom ent of inert ia ,

with re sp e ct to N N The co mpo nent of the e x te rnal m o ment M per

.

p e nd i c u l ar to N N is M sin a Hence e q u at ing this to the int ernal

.
,

mo ment ,

( )
3 5 M sin a
(n )

where p is 0
the stre ss at the di stanc e e from the ne utral axis Sub .

s titu tin
g i n e qu at io n (3 4 ) the v alu e of I ob t aine d fro m e qu ation
n
 AN AL YSI S or S T R E S S IN B E A M S 71

e M s in a
OK s in a
.

,
e 0

O
1°F

M o

F OK

If, in the h an dbooks issu e d by iron and s te el comp anie s the ,

inertia elli ps e and co re s e ction w ere drawn on each cr oss s e ction

tabulate d the c alcul ation of the
,

maximum b e ndin g stre ss by for

mul a (3 6 ) would be ex tremely
simple re quirin g merely the
,

measu re ment of the dis tanc e OK .

Probl em 9 5 C lc u l t th m i . a a e e ax

mum b ndi ng t e in P bl m 89 by s ress

F 55 ro e
IG .

m n f th c
ea s o c ti n e ore se o .

S luti n T h l di ng i
o o . p s nt d i n F ig 5 5 in w hi c h th p ti n B C
e oa s as r e re e e .
,
e or o

i u bj c t d to pu
s s e b nding t in F m P bl m 8 9 M
e re e f t lb nd s ra . ro ro e ,
: . . a

F :48 F m th di g m f th c ro c t i n d wn t c l OK i f nd
e a ra o e ore se o ra o s a e, s ou

to me u 9 in T h e f
as re f mf m l
. .
p 55 55 lb i n
er ore , ro or u a 0 . .
2
.

64 . S tress t ra j ectories . In Art icl e 2 7 the

prin cip al stre ss e s at any
poin t in a body w ere d efined as the max im um and minim um no rm al
stress e s at thi s point Lines whi ch ev e rywhere h av e the dire ction .

of the prin cip al s tre ss e s are c all e d stres s trajectories .

In o rd er t o d et ermine the s tre ss t raj e ct orie s a nu m b er of c ross ,

s ect ions of the body are tak en and the shear and normal s tre ss cal ,

c ul ate d for a num b er of point s in e ach s e ct ion The dir e ctio ns which .

the prin cip al s tre ss e s at th e s e point s m ak e with the ax is of the body

can th e n be fou n d by fo rmul a Art icl e 2 6 as e x pl aine d in Prob ,

l em 3 9 The s t re ss t raj e c t ori e s are thus d etermin e d as the env elop es

.

of th e s e t angent s .

Since the p rin cip al s tress e s at any poi nt are alw ays at right angl es ,

the s tre ss t raj e ct ori e s con s titu te a f ami ly of o rthogonal curv e s .

6 5 Material s whi ch do not conf orm to Hook e s l aw The p re c e d

.
’
.

ing articl e s of t his ch apte r are b as e d on H ook e s l aw and cons e qu ently

’

the re sults are applicabl e o nly t o m at e ri als which conform to this

l aw such as s teel w rought iro n and wood Oth e r materi als such as
, , ,
. ,

cast iron s t one brick c ement and concrete are so lacking in hom o
, , , , ,

g en e ity t h at t h e ir physic a l p r op e rt i e s are v e ry u n c e rt ai n d iffe ri ng not ,

72 S T R E N GT H or MA T E R I A L S

only for diff e rent s pe ci mens of the m ate ri al bu t al s o for diff e r e n t por

tio ns of the s am e s pe ci m en For this reas on i t is im po ssibl e to apply

.

to s uch m ate rial s a g e n e ral m e thod of analy s i s wi th any as s u ran c e

th at the re s u l t s will app r oxi m ate the ac tu al b e h avi or of the m ate ri al .

For p rac tic al purp ose s ho w e v e r the b es t m e thod i s to c alcul ate the
, ,
.

s tre ng th of such m ate rials by the fo rm ul as d e duc e d abov e an d th e n ,

m odify the re s ul t by a f ac to r of s af e ty so l arg e as to in clud e all

p rob abl e e x c ep tions .

T he b eh avi or of c ast i ron is m o re un c e rtain th an that of any o th e r

m ate ri al of c onstructi on an d i t m u s t th e re fo re be u se d wi th a l arg er
,
;

f ac tor of s af ety If two pie ce s f ro m the s am e s p e ci men are s ubj e cte d

.

to te n s il e s train an d t o c r os s b en din g s trai n re sp e ctiv e ly it will be

-
,

f ou nd th at the ul ti mate streng th d e duce d fro m the cro s s b en ding -

tes t i s ab ou t twic e as gr e at as th at d e d u c e d f r o m the te n s il e te s t

'

The re as on for thi s i s th at the n e u tral ax i s d oe s n ot p ass th r ough

the c ente r of g ravi ty of a c ro s s s e c ti o n lyi ng n e ar e r the c ompre ss mn ,

“
th an the te nsion s id e an d al s o b e c au s e the s tre sses in cre as e m or e
‘

s lo wly th an th e ir di s tan c e s f rom the n e u tral ax i s If th e n it b e co m e s .

, ,

n e c es s ar y to d e sign a c as t i r o n b e am the ul ti mat e te n sil e s treng th

-
,

u s ed in the c alc u l ation S hould be th at d e du c e d f ro m b e n ding te s ts .

For m ate ri als such as co n c re te s ton e an d c e m en t the m o s t , , ,

r atio n al m e thod of p r o c e du re i s t o i n tr oduc e a c orr e c tion co e ffici ent

7; i n fo rm ul a
( )
1 8 and p u t

19 n

wh e re i t has b e e n foun d by e x p erim e nt th at for granite 7 9 6 for 7 .

,

s an d s ton e 7 1 8 4 an d for co n c r e te ;
.
,
7

6 6 De s i g n of re enf orce d concret e be am s

. S in c e c on cre te i s a m ate .

r i al which do es n ot co nf orm t o H ook e s l aw an d m o r e ov e r do e s n ot

’

ob e y the s am e e l as tic l aw for t e n s io n as for co m p r e ss io n the e x ac t ,

analy s is of s tre s s in a pl ai n or r e en fo r c e d co n cr e te b e am wo ul d be
'

m uch m ore c om plic ate d th an th at ob tain e d u n d e r the ass u m p tio ns of

the co mm o n th e o ry of fl exu re The phy s ic al p r op e rti e s of con cre te
.
,

h ow ev e r d e pe nd so l arg ely on the qu ality of m ateri al and w ork man

,

s hip th at for p r ac tic al p u rpo se s the c on di ti on s do n ot w arran t a ri

, g
or ou s analy s is . T he followi ng s i m pl e f ormu l as al th ough b ase d on ,

F p p l F ti g k i t l h
o , p 144
es e s e re , . .
74 S T R E N G T H or MA T E R I A L S

S ince the total d epth of the be am h i s h c

c
e, , we h ave th e re fore , ,

cc h cc \/
n whe n c e ,

an d , s i m il arly ,
h whe nc e

Nowby e qu ating the

,
e x te rn a l m o ment M to the
s tre ss couple we h av e ,

or

wh en c e by solving
,
for the u nit stress e s p ,
and p

1
r.
x n /
or , solving o ne of th e s e two l ion s
r e at for h, s ay the fi rs t ,

(1 x /
fi) .

o rdinary co ncre te n may be tak en as 2 5 Al so u sing a fact or

For .
,

of s af ety of 8 the working s tre ss p b e co me s p = 3 00 lb /

,
in Substi c c
. .
2

tu ti ng th es e n u m eric al v alu e s in the abov e the form ula for the d e pth ,

of the b eam in term s of the ex tern al mo ment t ak e s the simple form

V M
2
4:

h b e ing ex pre ss e d in inch e s ,

and M in inch pou nds pe r inch of width
of b eam .

Probl e m 96 . A pl i n c nc t l b pp t d n tw id nly h
a o re e s a ,
su 12 ft
or e o o s es o ,
as a - .

s p an and c i
arr e s a l d f 2 00 lb /
oa o ft F i nd t h
.
q i d thi ck n
.
2
e re u re ess .

S olution . T he l di 4g
oa s nd h nc f t i p 1 i n w id
a th m e i e or a s r . e, e ax

M i f 3 600 i n 1h C n q ntly th
l z
mu m moment i s .
q i d d p th h i
. o se ue e re u re e s
8
 75

For concrete b eam the tensil e s trength of the concrete

a re nforcedé
may be negle cte d Let F and E d e no te the m oduli of e las ticity for
.
c ,

concre te and s te el re s pe ctiv ely and l et ,

if n . Then if x d eno t e s the dis tan c e

of the ne utral ax is fro m the t op fib er
Fig t h e assu m p tion s in t his c as e
( .
FI G 5 7
.

are ex pre ss e d by the re l at ion s

”Pa
a =h
1.
0 ” 0
2.

Now if F deno te s the are a of s tee l re én forc e m e nt pe r uni t wid th of

R = p sF and Rc z g p x

and cons e qu ently sinc e ,

R0 : R8 ,

M
‘

More ov er qu ating the , e e x te rna l m o ment M to the m o ment

s tress couple we h av e ,

M= p
é
~ ~

c
a or M =p 8
F

Subs t ituting the v alu e of x in e ith er one of th es e ex pre ssions ,

say

the fi rst , we h ave

l pc
h
np c

2 pa wn.

whence s olving , for h,

76 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

For practical wo rk assu me n 1 5 37 5 0 0 lb / in (fac tor of Safety , 0

: . .
2

of an d p lb in (factor of s afety of 2
S ub st i tuting th e se
the abov e the re sul ts tak e the s i m
. .
,

n um e ric al valu e s in ,
ple form

h = -1 1 6 V M , h = 3 w,

L , w =6 0 F ,
180

d 1

wh ere H d enote s the to tal d e p th of the b eam in inch e s d is the diam ,

e te r of the re enfo r c e m en t in i n ch e s an d M is the e x tern al m o m e nt in ,

inch pound s per inch of width .

In d e sig ni ng b eam s by th e s e formul as fi rs t find h th en F an d , ,

finally 11 .

blP ro e m 97 f c d c n c t l b pp t d n tw id nly h
. A r e e n or e o re e s a ,
su or e o o s es o ,
as a

l 2—
ft p .n snd ca i a l d f 2 00 lb / ft F i nd th
ar r e s a q i d thi ckn
oa f l b
o . .
2
e re u re ess o S a

a nd f m t l
ar e a o enf c m nt p f t f w id th
e a re or e e er oo o .

Sol ti n A i n th p c di ng
u o . s mpl th m i m m m m nt i M
e re e 3 6 00 i n lb exa e, e ax u o e s : . .

h
C n q
o sen tly ue 1 1 6 V M ,
i n l . F — in p i nc h f w id th .
,
a so .
2
er o , or
1 80
i
38? f w id h _ 464 in /ft ; nd h n c t h di m t
0

2
in p
2
t f er t oo o f th n
. . . a e e e a e er o e re e

f c m nt i d 4 i f
or e e s nd d p c d n f t p t F i n lly th t t l
n . or rou ro s s a e o e oo a ar . a ,
e o a

d p th f l b i H z
e o s a a 4 s in y 8 in .
,
sa .

An inte re sting applicatio n of th e se formulas is the co mpari so n of

the c alcul ate d po s i tio n of the ne u tral ax is in a re én force d co ncr ete
b eam with th at d etermine d e x peri mentally It has b een shown by .

e x p e ri m e nt th at wh e n a re enfo r c e d c onc re te b e am is lo ad e d m i nu te
'

crack s app ear e x tending upward fro m the bottom showing th at prac ,

tic ally al l the ten s ile s tre ss i s c arri e d by the re en fo rc e m e nt To ~

.

ren d e r thi s m o re obvious b efo re the co ncre te is pu t in pl ace one or

mo re shee ts of p aste bo ard v ertic al ly in the m old in which the b e am
, ,

is m ad e e x t e n di n
,
g co m ple tely acro s s the mold and upward f ro m the
bottom to within a d i stance of the top at le ast e qu al to the value of
a: giv e n by the abov e f or mul as This e liminate s e ntire lythe ten s il e .

s tre ng th of the con c re te which is the as s u mption upon which the ,

ab ov e f orm ul as are b as e d ; and w he n the b e am i s lo ad e d the e x ten

sion of the re enforcenie nt daus es a c rack t o appe ar pl ainly al ong the

'
78 S T R EN GT H or MA T E R I A L S

bl m 10 0 F i nd th p p d im fi i n f
Pro e w ght i n c nk h af t
. e ro er e s o s or a r ou - ro ra s of

di m n i n h wn in Fig 6 0 f
e s o s sc nk th t f 1 500 lb nd f c t
o . or a ra rus o . a a a or of

f ty f 6 sa e o .

Probl m 1 0 1 A w ght i n p i p 1 i n i n e . rou - ro e . e

l t n l di m t nd 1 i n thi ck p j ct 6 ft f er a a e er a
1 3 . ro e s . ro m
w ll F i nd th m i m m l d i t n pp t a a . e ax u oa ca su or at

the o ute r e nd .

Pro bl em 10 2 . T he yk o e of an hyd rau l ic p r e ss

f c i ng g
u se dfn h ft i
or f t h f m nd
or e ars o s a s s o e or a

di m n i n h wn i n Fig 6 1 T h y k i h i n
e s o s s o . . e o e s or z o

t l wi th g v p th t th h f t t b fi tt d l i
a ro o e u ,
so a e s a o e e es

FI G 6 0 .
i n th g v h wn i n pl n i n th fi g
e roo Th
e , as s o a e ur e . e

m i 3 2 i n i n di m t
ra nd
s nd wt p u a e er a u er a a er ress re
“
.

o f 2 50 lb /in F i nd t h
. .
2 e d ng u c ti n f th y k nd th m i m m tre
a e ro s se o o e o e a e ax u s ss

at t hi c ti ns se o .

Probl m 1 0 3 D i g n
e c nc t c n d i t 7 f t q
.
i n id tes pp t c n a o re e o u , . s u ar e s e, o su or a o s

cent t d l
ra e d f 1000 lb p l i n f t nd d t m i n th i nd p c i ng f
oa o . er e ar oo . a e er e e s ze a s a o

th enf c m nt
e re or e e .

P obl m 1 0 4 A 10 l n I b
r e w i ghi ng 4 0 lb /
.ft i pp t d n tw t tl 1 5 ft
- .
- ar e . . s su or e o o re s es .

ap t A c h i n bl ck c y i ng l t n l d h ng t th c nt f th b m
ar . a o arr a - o oa a s a e e er o e ea .

th f ct
e a f f ty
or o sa e .

P L N
A E ND E L EV T N A IO
FI G . 61

Pro bl m 10 5 T h h yd l i c p nc h h wn in Fig 6 2 i d i gn d t p nc h
e . e rau u s o . s es e o u

a
g i
-h
h l i n g in pl t T h di m n i n f th d ng
. o e a - . c ti n A B
a e . e e s o s o e a e r ou s s e o ar e as

g i v n i n th fi g
e F i n d th m i m m t
e ur e t t hi. c ti n e ax u s r ess a s se o .

Probl m 1 06 T h l
e d n t ck i 8 t n q lly di t i b t d b tw n
. e oa o a c ar ru s o s, e ua s r u e e ee

th tw w h
e l (Fig
o Th
ee s l i f c t t l F i nd i t di m t f
. f ct e ax e s o as s ee . s a e er or a a or

of f ty f 1 5
sa e o .

P obl m 1 0 7 T h fl
r e f n di n y d w ll i ng i a m d t c y l d f
. e oor o a or ar e s ssu e o arr a oa o

50 1h / ft
. nd .pp t d by w d n j i t 2 n by 10 m in cti n p c d 16 m
2 a
i s su or e oo e o s s i . . se o ,
s a e .

a p t on cent
ar F i nd th g t t ll w bl
e rs . p nf f c t f f ty f 1 0e re a es a o a e s a or a a or o sa e o .
 A N A L Y S I S OF S T R E S S IN BE A MS 79

Pro bl w d n gi d
e m 10 8 pp ti ng th b i ng p t i ti n in d w ll i ng
. A oo e r e r su or e e ar ar o s a e

i m
s d
p f f
a e u2 l n by 10 l n j i t
o t n dg
ou r nd p i k d t g g
-
th F i nd th - o s s se o e e a s e o er

m f q l t ngth
. .
. e
Si ze of t l I b a s ee - ea o e ua s re .

P obl m 1 0 9
r A f ct y fl
e i m d t c
. y l d f 2 00 l b /
a ft
or nd i oor s ass u e o ar r a oa o . .
2 a
s

su pp t d by t l I b m f 1 6 ft p n nd p c d 4 ft p t n c nt
or e s ee s ea Wh t
s o . s a a s a e . a ar o e e rs . a

i Ib mi q i df
s ze - ea s re u re or a

f c t f f ty f 4
a or o sa e o

P bl m 11 0ro F i n d th
e . e re

q i d i
u re f q s ze o w dn a s u ar e oo e

b m f 14 ft p n t c y n
ea o . s a o arr a

ax ai l t n i n f 2 t n nd
e s o o o s a a

u nif m l d f 100 l b /
or ftoa o . .

P obl m 1 1 1 A
r e enf cd . re or e

c nc t b m 10 i n w id nd
o re e ea . e a

2 2 in d p h . f eel i in as ou r - .

rou nd b w i th c nt 2 i n
ars e e rs .

b v th l w f c T h
a o e e o er a e . e

sp n i 16 f t T h b m i
a s . e ea s

simply pp t d t th nd su or e a
F 62 e e s .
IG .

F i nd th f l d p l in e sa e oa er e ar

f tfoo w k i ng t
or a i n th c n c t
or f 50 0 nd
s r e ss l find th t n i l e o re e o a a so e e s e

t
s ress in th enf c mnt e re or e e .

P bl m 1 1 2 A
ro e enf c d c nc t fl p i t c y l d f 2 00 lb /
. re ft
or e v o re e o r s o arr a oa o . .
2 o er

a s p n f 14 ft F i nd th q i d thi ckn f th l b nd
a o . f th enf c
e re u re e ss o e s a a ar e a o e re or e

m nt f
e w k i ng t or f 5 0 0 lb /
or l n i n th c nc t nd
s r e ss es o lb /i n i n th . .
2 e o re e a . .
2
e

re enf c m nt : or e e

P bl m 1 13ro A e nf c d c nc t b m f 16 ft p n i 18 i n d p 9 i n
. re e or e o re e ea o . s a s . ee ,
.

wid nd h t pp t nif om l d f 1 000 lb p l i n f t D t mi n th

e, a as o su or a u r oa o . er e ar oo . e er e e

am nt f t l
ou enf o c m nt q i d b t h v c nt 2 in b v l w f c
s ee re or e e re u re ,
ar s o a e e e rs . a o e o er a e

f b m o ea .

P obl m 1 14 F i nd t h m xi m m m r e . e a u o

m nt nd m im m h nd k t c h t h e a ax u s ear , a s e e

h nd m m nt di g m f c nti s e ar a o e a ra s or a a

l v b m 8 ft l ng w i ghi ng 2 0 lb / ft e er ea . o ,
e . .
,

w it h c nc nt t d l d f 2 00 nd 3 00 o e ra e oa s o a

lb t 3 nd 5 ft p cti v ly f m th . a a . r es e e ro e

f nd re e e .

P ob l m 1 15 F i nd th m i m m m r e . e ax u o

m nt nd m i m m h nd k t c h th e a ax u s e ar , a s e e

h nd m m nt di g m f c nti s e ar a o e a ra s or a a

l v b m 12 f t l ng c y i ng t t l e er ea . o ,
ar r a o a

n if m l d f 50 lb / ft nd n n u or oa o a co ce
F 63
. .

IG
t t d l d f 2 00 150 nd 400 lb t
.

ra e oa s o a . a
, ,

di t nc f 2 4 nd 7 ft p cti v ly f m th fi d nd
s a es o , ,
a . r es e e ro e xe e .

P obl m 1 1 6 A b m 3 0 f t l ng c
r e i c nc nt t d l d f 1 t n t th l f t
. ea . o ar r es o e ra e oa s o o a e e

e nd t n
, t th c nt o nd 2 t n
s a t th i g ht nd nd t n tw upp t
e e e r, a o s a e r e ,
a res s o o s or s ,

o n 4 ft f
e m th l f t nd nd th th
. ro 6 f t f m th
e e i ght nd S k tc h th h
e a e o er . ro e r e . e e s e ar

a nd m m nt di g o m nd find th m
e im m h
a ra nd m i m m m m nt
s a e ax u s e ar a ax u o e .
80 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

Probl em 1 17 . A b e am 2 0 ft . l ng b
o e ar Qa u nif orm l doa of 100 lb
p e r ne ar oot
. li f
and r es ts on two su pp ort s 10 f t . a p t ar an d 5 ft . f ro m the en d s of t he b
e am F n . i d
t he i
m ax m u m m o m e n t and s h e ar , an d s k tc h th h
e e s e ar and m om e nt di g a r ams .

bl
i d th m i m m m m
Pro e m 1 18 F n . e ax u o e n t a nd m ax i m u m s e ar, h k t c h th
and s e e

sh di g m f
e ar and m om e nt a i mpl b ra s or a s e e am 10 ft . l ng b
o ,
e ar i ng t t l nif m
a o a u or

l d f 1 00 lb p l i n f t nd c n c nt
oa o . er e ar oo a o e rat e dl d oa s of 1 t on a t 4 f t f m th l f t
. ro e e

end nd 2 t n t 3 ft f
a m th i g ht nd
o s a . ro e r e .

N OT E ON S H EA R AND MO M E N T D I A G R A M S

i p t nt t b bl t k tc h di ly by i n p c ti n th h
I t is m or a o e a n d m m nt
e o s e re a s e o e s e ar a o e

di g m ca ra p ndi ng t ny g i v n l di ng T c q i thi b i l i ty it i nly

s orr e s o o a e oa . o a u re s a s o

n c e y t b v t h c h c t i ti c f t
e s s ar o o se r f e c h di g m T h m im
e ara er s e a ur e s o su a ra s . e or e

p t nt f th
or a o f ll w e s e ar e as o o s

Th l p f t h m m nt c v i q l t t h h
e s o e o e F m thi th f ll w i ng
o e ur e s e ua o e s e ar . ro s, e o o

c ncl i n
o us o b t i bl s ar e o a na e .

W h th m m n t i m i m m t h h i
e re e o e N t h w v th t f
s a ax u e s e ar s z e ro . o e, o e er , a or

c nc nt t d l d th m m nt h n c lc l m i m m I n thi c w h th
o e ra e oa s e o e as o a u us ax u . s as e , e re e

m m nt h
o eit g t t v l
as th sh p th
r e a es gh bc th
a ue ,l p f e s e ar ass e s r ou z e ro e au s e e s o e o

th m m nt di g
e o mn c
e i ly c h ng f m p i ti v t n g ti v t thi p i nt
a ra e e ss ar a es ro os e o e a e a s o .

W h th m m nt i c n t nt th h i
e re e o e s o s a e s e ar s z e ro .

F nif
or a um l d th m m nt di g m i
or p b l nd th h di g m
oa e o e a ra s a ar a o a a e s e ar a ra

i
s a n i ncl i n d l i n w h 1 p i
e q l t th l d p ni t f l ngth M th m at
e ose s 0 e s e ua o e oa er u o e . a e

i ll y t hi m n t h t t h p
ca s eab l i c v wh
s a 1 p c h ng e nif mly f m
ar a o a s a ur e ose s 0 e a es u or ro

p i nt t p i nt
o o o .

F c nc nt t d l d th m m nt di g m i b k n t i g ht l i n nd th
or o e ra e oa s e o e a ra s a ro e s ra e, a e

s h di g m i
e ar a ra i f h i nt l l i n t p
s a se r es o or z o a e s or s e s .

F nif
or u m nd c nc nt t d l d c mb i n d t h m m nt di g m i
or a o e i
ra e oa s o e ,
e o e a ra s a se r es

o fp b l i c c nd th h di g m i
ar a o ar s , a i f i ncl i n d l i ne s l p i ng t p
e ar a ra s a se r es o e es or s o s e s .

A t th nd f i mpl b m th m m nt i lw y
e e s o a s e ea e o e s a a s z e ro .

W h th m m nt di g m c
e re e oth i th l ti c c v
e c nt l i n f
a ra r oss e s e ax s , e e as ur e or e er e o

th b em h ea p i nt f i nfl c ti n th t i t y th b m i c v d pw d
as a o o e o a s o sa ,
e p
ea s ur e u ar 0 11

o n id f thi p i nt nd c v d d wnw d th th id S c h p i nt i
e s e o s o a ur e o ar 0 11 e o er s e . u a o s

c ll d p int f nt fi
a e a o T h t n il
o t
co c h ng f m th b tt m t th
ra er ur e . e e s e s r e ss a es ro e o o o e

t p o n pp i t id f p i nt f nt fl
o o os e s nd
es o c h p i nt a th f o o co ra ex u r e , a su o s ar e e r e or e

o f p c i l i m p t n c i n th c
es e a f
or a enf c d c nc t b m
e th enf c
e as e o re or e o re e ea s , as e re or e

m nt m t lw y f ll w th t n i l
e us a a t s o o e e s e s r e ss .

Th b t nd d by th h di g m p t ny p i nt i q l t th m
e ar e a s u e e e s e ar a ra u o a o s e ua o e o

m nt t t hi p i nt i nc i
l l1
e a s Q nd th f M f Qd
o ,
s e
dd:
- a e r e or e a
c .
 2 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

M yd x
Insertin g in this ex pre s sion the vhl u e of 3 jus t found ,

wh ence
d
EI

Le t the ra diu s of cu rvature C F of the elas tic curv e be d enote d by p .

Th en d d x and ins e rting thi s v alu e of d B in the abov e e qu ation

, ,

it b e co m e s
EI
M

F ro m the diff e renti al c alculus the ,

radius of curvature of an
y curve
can be e xp re s s e d by the fo rm ul a

But sin ce the d eformation of the b eam is assu me d to be s mall, the

slop e of the tange nt at any point of the elastic curv e is s mall ; th at
—
3
3
is t o say ,
is infinite simal and consequ
,

—
a:
—
in comp ison with z
EI
ar

1
gl Un d er thi s as s u mptio n p and there
wh ence
M d g 2

2
d ie

the l stic curve

e a .

In wh at follows the
e x t ern al b en din g m o

ment M is assum e d to
be negativ e if it ten ds

F IG 65.

of the b e a m u n d e r
consid eration in a clock wise direct ion , and posit iv e if the revolution
is counter clockwis e
- .
 83

Pro bl em 1 19 i d th
. F n e e qu at on of i th l ti c c v nd th d fl c ti n
e e as ur e a e e e o at the
c e nte r of a s i mpl b m e ea of l ngth l b i ng i ngl c nc nt t d l d P
e ,
e ar a s e o e ra e oa at i ts
c e n te r .
5,

S olu ti on . T he l ic c v
e as t ur e in t hi c s as e c i
ons s ts of two b r an ch es, AB and BC

( g
F i .

C ons id er the p rti

o on of the b e am on the l ft
e of any s e c ti on mn, di s tan t a: f ro m

the l f t pp t
e su or ThnM e R 13: — 1 J

x, an d c onse qu e ntly the diff e re nt a i l

§
.

e qu a ti n f th b
o o e ra nc h A B of the l ic c v
e as t ur e is

d2 y P a:
2
Inte g ting twi c
ra e,
P 552
d a: 4

P 5133
Ol a: 02 .

12

Z
?
!
At B, 11: and 0, i c
s n e the tan g e nt at B is h i or z onta l b ti t ti ng th
. Su s u e se
a: 2
vl fi i g l 0 ; h nc 0 C
’
a u es In the rs t nte ra ,
Cl At A , a: 0 and y 0
e e 2 . on

se qu ently , the e u at q i on o f the l ft h lf

e a of the e l ti c c v
as ur e is

P‘
”
3 2
48 E 1
( 1

d fl c ti c h nce
‘

T he e e on D at the e nte r is the v al u e o f y for a: e

H 3

48 E1

d fl c ti n f
e ec nt i l v o or a a e er A
Of l ngth l be ing in ,
e ar a s

gl c nc nt t d l d P t RI
‘

e o e ra e oa a

e qu ati on of the e l as ti c cu rv e
F I G 66 .

t i on i mpl b m f
f or a s e ea o

l ngth l b i ng ingl c nc nt t d l d P t di t nc d f m th l f t pp t
e ,
e ar a s
’
e o e ra e oa a a s a e ro e e su or .

S l ti n T h
o u l ti c c v i n thi c c n i t f tw b nc h A B nd B C
o . e e as ur e s ase o s s s o o ra es , a
’

P (l d) a:
( g
.
Fi F. p i nt i n A B di t n t f m t
or ah l f t pp t M o
l
s a a: ro e e su or ,

Th f e e re or

Inte g ting tw i c
ra e,
P (l d)
84

At A , a
; 0 and y 0 ; t e re h f ore 02 O . In or d er to d i
e te rm ne 0 ; i t is c
ne essa r y
to find the e qu at i on of B C .

Ta k i ng a se c ti on o n the i gh t
r of B, M

I nte g ting t wi c e
ra ,

0 3 33 04 .

At h
t e re ore 0 4 f
Now at B b th b
o c h f th
ra n es o e l i c c v h v th
e as t ur e a e e sa me din t nd th
or a e a e

sam e s o lp e . Th fe re or e , p tti ng u a: d i n th b v i nt g l
e a o e e ra s and e q ti ng th l p
ua
“
e s o es

tw b nc h
“
a nd o r din ate s of the o ra es ,
5

—P (l —d ) d 2

2 l l 2
P (l d) d3 Pd Id 2 d3
6 l 1 ( 2 6 ) c3 d

So lv i ng th ese tw o e qu ati ons s im l t u ane ous ly f or 01 and C s,

Pd
2 l d l d 1.
6,

_
Pd
2 12 d2 .

Sub ti t ting th
s u ese v l a u es of 01 a nd 0 3 in the a b v i nt g l
o e e ra s , q i
the e u at on of t he
b nc h A B b c
ra e om es , a ft e r re d c ti
u on ,

(2 1d d2 x2 ) ,

and the e qu ati on of BC bc e om es

P d (l at) 2 1a: —d 2
932 )
6 EIl

S n i c l d i n t t th c nt f th b m th m i m m d fl c ti n w i ll
e the oa s o a e e er o e ea ,
e ax u e e o

occ in th l ng
ur gm nt M v e t th p i nt f m
o e r se i m m d fl c ti n th
e . ore o e r, a e o o ax u e e o e

i nt l th t i i — 0 T h f
t ng nt i h
a

n ti l c
e s
iiZ
or z o q ti ng t a th fi t di ff
,
a s, . e re or e , e ua o z e ro e rs e r-
r

e affi c i nt f th b n c h A B
oe e o e ra
,

O:
P (l d) x2 P
—d ) (l —d) ;
2 1 6
86 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

Fig . 6 8 , the shear will slide thes e layers one upon anot h er
ten d to .

By H ook e s l aw the am ou nt of this sliding for diffe re nt l ay ers wil l

’

B al s o v ary as the o rdi n ate s to a p arabol a

r
,

b eing z ero at top and botto m and a maxi

mum at the ce nte r There fo re if the .
,

e lo ng at io ns an d contrac t io ns of the fibe rs

d u e to b endin g s tre ss are co mbine d with

the slidin g du e to sh ear the re sul t ant ,

d e formation of the prism will be as rep

F 69 IG
r e s ente d in Fig 69
.

. .

6 9 Ef f ect of shear on the el as ti c cu rv e In addition t o the hori

.
.

z ontal sh earing stre ss ac ting at any point in a b e am th ere is a sh e ar ,

ing stre s s of e qu al inten sity acting in a v ertical di re ction The effe ct .

of this v ertical shear is t o slid e each cross s e ction pas t its adj acent
-

cross se ction as repre s ente d in Fig 70 and

,
.
,

thu s i ncre as e the d e fl e ction of the b e am .

In A r ticl e 8 3 a g en e ral fo rmul a is d e riv e d

by m ean s of which the sh e aring d e fl e ction
can be c alcul ate d in any giv e n c as e It is .

found how ev er th at in al l or dinary c as e s the

, ,

D
sh earing d e fl e c tion i s so s mall th at it can be
n egl e c te d in co m p ari s o n wi th the d e fl e c tion
,

du e to b en ding s train The point to be re .

m e m b ere d th e n is th at the s h earing de fle c

'
, , F m 70 .

tio n i s n egligibl e bu t n ot z ero .

In pre ci se l aborato ry e x p erim ents for the d ete rmination of Youn g s

’

m odul us it sho ul d alw ay s be as c ertain e d wh eth er or not the sh e aring de

form ation can be negle cte d withou t affe cting the pre cision of the re s ul t .

70 Bu ilt in beam s
.
- I f the e nds of a b eam are s e cured in such a
.

way as to be imm ov abl e the be am is s aid to be buil t ia Ex am pl e s of

,
- .

buil t-in b e am s are foun d in re enfo rce d concrete construction in whi ch ,

all p arts are m on olithic Thus a floor b eam in a building constructe d

.

of re enforce d concrete is of one pie ce with its suppo rt ing girders and ,

cons e quent ly its end s are imm ovable .

Sinc e the tangent s at the e nd s of a buil t in b eam are horiz ontal -

,

0 at h e s e point s
t . Also, fro m Fig . 7 1 , it is obvious that the
 87

having two points of infle ction ,

A and B . At th es e points the curvature

o s q uently the b en d
an d c n e

ing m oment is also z er o ,

FIG 71 .

F n i d th e e qu at on ofi l ic the e ast cu rve and the i

m ax mu m d e fl e c
ng th I, fix e d t b th nd nd b
a o e s a e ar n i g a un if orm oa l d
of w lb .

M a and Mb d e note the m ome nts at the su pp orts ( g

F i . T he

ve rt1cal re a ct i ons a t pp t
the s u or s a re ea ch e q u al to
wl
2
C onse qu e nt ly ,
the b ndi ng m
e om e nt at a p i nt di
o s tan t a
; f ro m the l f t pp
e su ort is

wlx wzz:2

2 2

F I G 72 .

Inte g ting
ra
,
-
fil a x
l

dy dy
At A , m: 0 and h f 0 ; t e re ore 01 0 A t B, a: =l and h f
0 ; t e re o re
7 7
.

( 2: (1 :
wl2
M a Su b ti t ting thi v l
s u s a u e of M a i n th b v i nt g l
e a o e e ra and i nte g ting g i n
ra a a ,
12
w l z 2
a
s wlx 3

24 12

At A , a: Oand y 0 ;t h f
e re o re 02 0 . C onse qu e nt ly ,
the e qu ati on of the e l asti c
c v
ur e is , ft
a er re d c ti
u on ,
88 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

Q
P u tt n i g c
c ln t hi s e qu at on, i the max i mu m d e fl e c tl on 18 f oun dt o be

A t the p int o s of i nfl c ti e on

w h nc e e

zz i . 2 12 l or 788 1,
2 V IE ‘

whi c h are the di c

p i nt f i nfl c ti n f m th l f t upp t
s tan e s of the two o s o e o ro e e s or .

P obl m 1 2 7 m f l ngt h l i fi d t b t h nd A b
nd b i ngl n
'
r e . ea o e s xe a o e s a e ars a s e co

cent t d l d P t di t nc d f m th l f t nd F i nd th d fl cti n t th
ra e oa a a s a e ro e e e . e e e o a e

p i nt f ppl i c ti n f th l d
o o a a o o e oa .

P bl m 1 2 8 ro F m th e l t f P bl m 12 7 find th d fl cti n t th p i nt
. ro e r e su o ro e ,
e e e o a e o

of ppl i c ti n f t h l
a d w h n th l d t th c nt
a o o e oa e e oa 1s a e e er .

P bl m 1 2 9 A c nc t g i d
ro e 16 f t l ng 1 8 i n d p
. n d 1 2 i n w id
o i re e r er . o , . ee ,
a . e s

reenf c d by tw 1 in tw i t d q
or e t l d n i t l w f c nd b
o - . s e s u al e s ee ro s e ar s o er a e, a e ars

a u nif m l d f 2 50 lb p
or l i n i nc h T h m m nt f i n ti f th q i v
oa o . er e ar . e o e o er a o e e u

l nt h m g n c ti n b t i t n t l i (A ti cl 4 9 ) i f nd t b
e ou s e u ra ax s ou o e
'

a e o o e se o a ou s r e s

z 72 3 0 i n F i n d t h m i m m d fl c t i n
e .
4 e ax u e e o .

71 . Conti nu ous beams

continuous b e am is on e whi ch is su p . A
porte d at s e ve ral points of its le ng th an d thu s e x ten ds continuously ,

ov er s e veral Ope ning s If the re actions of the s ev e ral supports w ere .

k nown the di s tributi on o f s tre s s in the b eam and the e qu ation of

,

the e l as tic cu rv e could be fou n d by the m ethod s e m ploy e d in the

pre ce ding articl e s The fi rst s te p th ere fore is to d e termine the .
, ,

u nknown re actio ns Ge ne ral me thod s for d e termini ng thes e will be .

e x pl ai n e d i n A rticl e s 7 2 7 8 8 0 an d 8 1 T he two followin g prob , , , .

l e m s illus trate spe cial methods of treating the two s i mple case s
co nsid ere d .

Probl m 13 0 A b m 5 e mp ly pp t d t it c nt nd nd nd b
. ea 1 Sl su or e a s e er a e s, a e ars

a ingl c nc nt t d l d P t th c nt f c h p n A mi ng th t th
s e o e ra e oa a e e er o ea s a . ss u a e

su pp t t th
or s m l v l find th i
are c ti n nd th qu ti n f th
a e sa e e e ,
e r re a o s a e e a o o e

l ti c c v
e as ur e .

S l ti n L t
o u c h p n b f l ngth l nd
o . em th i gi n f c di n t
ea s a e o e ,
a ass u e e or o oor a es

a t 0 (F ig C n id th p . ti n f th b m n th i gh t f
o c tion mn
s er e or o o e ea o e r o a se ,

l
di tant f m 0 T h n if
s a: ro . e ,

—x —B
(é )
l
P g (l
90 S T R EN GT H OF MA T ER I AL S

w h nc e e
6
3
Pl
48

T he e qu at ons of i b th b nc h f th l ti c c v
o n w d t m in d
ra c pt
es o e e as u r e are o e er e ex e

h t th
t a e re a c ti n R i ti ll nkn w n S i nc B i
o 3 s s m d t b n th
u m l v l
o . e s ass u e o e o e sa e e e

w i th 0 i t ,
s or din t i a eTh f t d t mi n R p t = l
s z e ro .
in e r e ore , o e er e 3, u a:

eq ti n
ua o w h nc e
R P
e
s-
3
'

TG
o

F r om s ymm t y R e r 1 R3 . T h f
e re ore

R2 2P ( I
R R 3)

Pro bl e m 13 1 . D e t e rm in e t he re a cti ons of the su pp t f or s or a b m ea si m pl y

su pp t d or e at its c e nte r and e n d s , and b ear n i g a u
‘

n if m l d
or oa of w lb p . e r u ni t

o f l ng th
e .

S olu ti on . I f the e nd su pp or ts w e re re m o e v d th b m w ld c n i
,
e ea ou o s s t of two
c ant il v
e e rs , AB and BC ( g
F i . ea ch of l ngth l nd b i ng nif
e a e ar a u orm l d
oa .

F I G 74 .

wl4
F r o m P ro bl em 1 2 3 , the d fl c ti
e e o n at the e nd o f su ch b m i D
a ea B ut th
s e
8 EI
’
.

re a c ti on B3 ( or R I ) m u s t be o f su ch am ou nt as t c
o nt c t thi d fl c ti n ; nd
ou e ra s e e o a ,

f ro m Pro bl m 12 0 th d fl c ti n t th
e ,
e e e o a e end of a c nti l v b i ng i ngl c n n
a e er e ar a s e o ee
3
R l
t rate d l dR D
oa Th f
3 1s
3
e re ore
3 E1 '

R3l 3
wl4
’
SEI S EI
’

w h nc
e e
R3 gwl .

F rom s ymm t y e r ,
RI R3 . C onse qu ent ly ,

R2 2 wl (R 1 + R 3 ) n .

Ha v i ng f nd th ou e re a c ti ons of pp the su or t s , the e qu at ons ofi the l ic c v

e as t u r e s can

be d t min d
e er e as i n the p c ding p bl
re e ro e ms .

72 . T heorem of three moments ) The h e orem of three m o ment s

t
is an a lgeb raic relation b etween the b en ding m om ent s at thre e con
s e cu tiv e pi e rs of a co nt in uous b e am . The th e ore m i s du e t o Clapeyron ,
 “
91

an d fi rs t appe are R end u s for De c e m be r, 1 8 5 7 . T he

following of the th e ore m for the cas e of

t hre e conse cu tiv e piers of a c ontinuou s b e am at

the s ame he igh t ,
an d l e t Ma , JlI b, M C
an d R a , R b, R d e n o te the b en d
C

ing m o ments

points res
pe c

of the two sp ans

conside re d w w ,
l ,
2

the u ni t lo ads on
‘

th e m, and Q 2 Q3
]
, .

Ra p e ctiv ely wi th a s i mil ar n o tatio n for the oth e r s upports Th en

re s ,
.
,

t ak i ng A as o rigin the diffe renti al e qu atio n of A B i s

,

2 2
d y w1 x
M a
u

2
dy $
M 3
” Q 1
C1
dx 2 6

f
4
—
2
wl x
El y M 1 a
3
+ Q f — ”
a
+ 0 1 90 + C 2 °

2 6 24 :

0 and 0; h e nc e C2 0 At B , x = l an d y = 0 ; h ence
y : : .

_
1
_
1
6 24
( Pg
In e quation if a: l E]
Ta: , M Th e re f ore
.

— M
w l
Ju b a Qq
2

d enote s the slop e of the l

e as t ic curv e AB

e qu ation
92 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R I AL S

1
as
5
S i mil arly, by t aking the o rigin at C
’
an d r e ck o ning b ack w ar d tow ard
B , it will be found th at

( )
4 6 M1 ; M , Q2l 2
and

cu Ma+
g en

Equ ating the v alue s of from e qu ations (4 5 ) an d (4 and c limi

i g Qi
n at n
’
and Q; f ro m the re sul ting e quation by mean s of e q uations
( )
44 and

M ll a
Mbl l
‘

whenc e
M a
l l 2 M b (11 l z) M c
l z

which is q uir e d theorem of three moment

the re s .

If the b e am e xte n ds ove r n suppo rts this th e o re m fu rni sh e s n 2 ,

e qu atio n s b e tw e e n the n mo m ents at the suppo rt s the re m ain ing two ,

e qu atio n s n e c e ss ary for solutio n b e ing fu rni sh e d by the te rmin al con

ditions at the ends of the b eam .

bl m 13 2 A c nti nu b m f
Pro e . o ou s ea o two e qu al
‘

sp n b a s ears a un if orm l d
oa

t ndi ng c nt i n
ex e ly v b th p n
o u ous o er o s a s . i d
F n the b nding
e mome nts and re ac

ti n
o t th
s a pp t e su or s .

S l ti n I n th p
o u o .nt c w w e r e se ase l z w, l l lg l, and Ma M e 0 . C on
seq ntly th th
ue ,
m d c te eore re u es o

m )
2 11m :

wh nce e

F ro m e qu ati on

wh e nce
94 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER IA L S

s tress form s a m o me nt e qu al to M? Thi s m o m ent i s z ero when fi rs t

applie d and gradu all y i n c re as e s t o i ts full v alu e i ts av e rag e v alu e
, ,

b eing % M Th ere fore the work d one by the n orm al s tre s s on gthis
.
'

c ro s s s e c tion i s
111 d
.

2 B]

H e n c e the t o tal w ork of d e f orm ation for the e n t re i be am is

Pro bl e ppl i c ti n f th b v find

m 13 5 . As an a a o o e a o e, the d fl c tie e o n at the c e nt e r

f mp l b m of l ng t h l b i ng i ngl c nc nt r ate dl dP at t he c e nt e r
‘

o a s1 e ea e ,
e ar a s e o e oa .

S l ti n L t D d n t th d fl c ti n t t h c nt T h n th l w ork
‘

o u o . e e o e e e e o a e e er . e e e x t e r na -

o f d f m ti n i
e or a o s

At a p i nt di t
o s ant a: f ro m the l ft
e su pp or t the b ndi ng m
e om e nt is M
2
c onse q n
uetly t h e i n t e r na lw k or of d e fo r m ati on i s

T h f
e r e o re 1FD w h nc e e D
2

Pro bl i d th i nt
e m 13 6 F . n e e r na l w k f d f m tior o e or a on f or a rec t ng l w d n
a u ar oo e

b m 10 f t l ng 10 i n d p
ea . o , . ee ,
a n d 8 i n w id w hi c h b
. e, e ars a u nif m l d f 2 50 l b
or oa o .

p f t f l ng th
er oo o e .

74 . Imp act silience I f the s tres s li e s withi n the el astic

and re .

li mit of the mate rial the body re tu rns to its origin al sh ape upon ,

re m ov al o f the e x te rn al fo rc e s an d the i nte rnal wo rk of d e fo r m atio n ,

is give n ou t agai n in the fo rm of m e ch an ic al energy T he intern al .

w o rk of d e fo r m atio n is thu s a f or m of po te ntial e nergy and f ro m ,

this p oint of vi e w i s c all e d re s il i ence T he wo rk do ne in s train ing a .

u ni t volu m e of a m ateri al to the el astic li m it i s call e d the modul us

of e l a t i c res i l i ence o f the m ate ri al
s .

It i s th e re f or e r e p re s ente d by the are a u n d e r the s train cu rv e up

to the e l as tic li m i t or e x pre s s e d as a fo r m ul a
, , ,

l i m it )
2

M od . e la5 . r e sl
‘

l '
l e 11 c c
( s t re s s a t e l a sti c

2 m od u lu s of e l a s t i c i ty
 FL E X U R E or BE AMS 5

is suddenly applied
whe n a body fall s to a b e am , as

m g q ui ckly ov er a
m uch gre ate r th an it would be if
u all y for in this c as e the full am ou nt of ,

the lo ad is applie d at the s tart ins te ad of gradu ally i n c re asi ng fro m ,

z e ro up to this am ou nt S in ce the l oad i s not su fficie ntly great to .

c ause the b eam to retain thi s d e fl e cti on the re silienc e of the b eam ,

c aus e s it to vibrate b ack and forth until the e ffe ct of the shock dies
aw ay The S U Q
. QQQ AEEM QQQ L Q I
m
J PEQ
study of it s effe ct is of espe cial importanc e in d e signing machine s
E and the
W
W
,

railway b ridg e s or an co n str uctio n li abl e to shock s

y ,
.

If a si m pl e b eam d efl e c ts an am ou nt D u nd e r a lo ad P sudd e nly

appli e d the wo rk of d e fo rm ation is P D
,
If the b e am d efl e cts the .

same am ount und er a lo ad P gradu ally applie d the wo rk of de for

’
,

matio n is P D H en c e
’
.

P
’
= 2P .

In oth er words the s train produce d in a b eam by a lo ad applied s u d

,
“
d enly is equivalent to the s train produc e d by a lo ad twic e as great
applie d gradu ally In practic al work P i s assu m e d to be about 3 1
’ 3
)
.

inste ad of 2 P for it is impossible to apply a lo ad in stantane ou sly at

,

the m o st d ange r ous s e ctio n .

If a body of w e ight P f alls on a b e am f rom a h eight h and pro

duc es a d efl ectio n D the wo rk done by P is P (h D ) Th ere fo re ,
.
,

if P is the am ount of a static lo ad wh ch would produc e the s ame

’
i
d e fle ction
m m
,

P = P
5 D + .

In o rd e r to find P fro m t hi s e qu ation D m us t be e x pre ss e d in term s

’

of P ’
and its valu e subs titute d in the abov e e x pre ssion b efore s olving
’
for P .

P ro bl e b i t l I b m N B 33 i 12 f t l ng nd 10 in d p
m 13 7 . A C am r a s ee - ea
,
o .
,
s . o a . ee ,

and h m m nt f i n ti
as a b t n i p p ndi c l t th w b f
o e o in er a a ou a ax s er e u ar o e e o .
4
.

W h t i th m i m m l d th t n f ll n th c nt f th b m f m h i gh t
a s e ax u oa a ca a o e e er o e ea ro a e

of 6 i n w i th t p d c i ng
. t g t th n
ou ro lb /
in if 75 p c nt f th
u a s ress re a e r a . .
2
,
er e o e

k in ti c n gy f th f ll i ng b d y i t n f m d i nt w k f d f m ti n
e e er o e a o s ra s or e o or o e or a o

S l ti n L t P d n t th w i g h t f th f ll i ng b d y nd P th m nt f ’
o u o . e e o e e e o e a o a e a ou o a

t ti c l
s a d w hi c h w l d p d c th m w k f d f m ti n T h n i nc th
oa ou ro u e e sa e or o e or a o ; e ,
s e e

P l M P l 41 1 ’
e
’
e 9
m m nt t th c nt
o e f th b m i M
a e p e w h n
er o P e ea s , e ce
I 4I l 4 e
96 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R IAL S

be ing t ti c l d P t th c nt i D 1
d fl c ti b eam
{3514 ’
T he e e on of a ar a s a oa a e e er s

bl m b ti t ti ng i n thi th v l f P D A m i ng
’

(Pro e or , su s u
12 E
s e a ue o ,
6
ss u

E lb in nd pl c ing p l nd by th v l g i v n in th p bl m
. .
2
,
a re a , ,
a c e a u es e e ro e ,

D . 2 8 8 in .

C onse qu ent ly ,
the w k or of df e or mati on is

W
$ 52; 2 44 2 111 lb
2
: 1 1) . .

T h f
e re ore , f rom the e qu al i ty t P ’
D P (h D) , we h v a e

2 44 2 . 75 P (6
w h nc e e
P 5 18 lb .

Pro bl em 1 3 8 F r om . w h t h i ght a e c an a w ight f h l f t

e o a a on f lla on the m idd l e

of the b e am i n the re p c ding p bl e ro e m w i th t p d c i ng

ou ro u a s tres s g re ate r th na

line for bending moment A s a lo ad m oves over a

Infl u ence .

structure the b ending m oment and shear at any given point change
contin uously Thi s varia .

tion of the b e n ding mo m ent ,

shear or any simil ar func ,

tio n at a giv e n fi x e d point

du e to a m ovi ng lo ad can be
re p re s ente d g rap hi c ally by

a cu rv e or s traigh t li n e)
(
calle d an influence l i ne 1

F 77
To
IG
ob.
t ain the influ e n ce

line for b en ding m om ent for

a simpl e b e am of l e ng t h I l et d d en o te the dis tan c e of the giv en point
,

A fr o m the l e ft s uppo rt 0 and a: the distan c e of a m ov abl e lo ad P fr o m

,

0 Fig Th if is ight of A
P x
) h enc e
( e n
. P , on the r , R, and
l
the m o ment at A is
P (l —an
d
.

Now l et P be a unit lo ad (say one poun d or one ton) . Th en

For a b i fc
r e ours e the re ma i d
n er of t hi ch pt s a er may b e om itt d
e .
98 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

d Ma
F or a m ax mu mi v l
a u e of M a, 0 , in w hi c h c as e
d a:

P 2 tan 3 P 1 tan a .

T hi q s e u a t oni m ay be w i tt
r en

”
C B 0 0
’ ’

f ro m w hi c h by c mp i ti
,
o os on

PI
0 C
’ ’

w hi c h i s the c it i
r e r on i
f o r m ax mu m m om e nt at A . E xp r e sse d in w d
or s, the m oment
a t a ny p oi nt A i s a m axi mu m whe n the uni t l oad on the whole sp an is equ a l to the
u nit loa d on the s ma l l er s eg m ent .

Infl u ence line f or s hear To ob tain the influ enc e lin e for
.

l et I d, ,
and 90 h av e the s am e m e ani ng as i n the pre c e ding
articl e The shean at .
fi

"
point A is e qu al to the re
ac tio n at 0 and for a uni t ,

lo ad thi s react io n is
l —x
1

v alu e s of R for If, th en, the I

F 79 IG
all v alu e s of x fro m d to l
.

are l aid off as o r din ate s the loc u s of t h e ir e n ds will be the s traigh t
,

li ne B A (Fig ’ ’
S i mil arly for a u ni t lo ad on the l e ft of A the she ar
.
,

at A i s neg ativ e, an d i ts am ou nt is R, f 1 which i s the e qu a

l
t ion of theight line O A Si nc e the sl op e s of the two li n es
s tra
’ ”
.

A B and O A are e qu al th e s e lin e s are p arall e l The influ en c e lin e

’ ’ ” ’
.
,

for s h e ar i s th e n the b rok e n lin e 0 A A B

,
’
,
’ ’ ’
.

A s a l oad co me s on the b e am f ro m the right the sh e ar at A gradu

ally i n crease s f ro m the v alu e z e r o for the lo ad at B to the v alu e A E
’

for the l oad j u s t to the righ t of A A s the l oad p as s e s A the sh e ar at .

thi s point sudd e n ly d e c re as es by the am ou nt of the lo ad thus be com ,

ing ne g ativ e and th e n in cr eases u ntil the lo ad r e ach e s 0 wh e n it

, ,

ag ain b e co m es z er o C o ns e qu ently the s h ear at A d u e to a lo ad P at

.
, ,
 FL E XU R E or BE AM S 99

C, is foun d by mul tiplyin g P by the o rdinate to the infl u

C dire ct ly u n d er 0
’
at , .

Pro bli d th p i ti n f y t m f m v i ng l d n b m th t
e m 14 0 . F n e os o o a s s e o o oa s o a ea so a

_
th he s t ny p i nt A h ll b
e ar a m im m a o s a e a ax u .

S l ti n L t th i nfl nc l i n f
o u o th p i nt A b
. e p nt d in F ig 80
e ue e e or e o e as r e re s e e . .

Al l t Pso nd P b tw
e c n c ti v l d d the d i t nc b tw n th m nd P
I a 2 e o o se u e oa s , s a e e ee e ,
a
’

th l t nt f ll th l d n
e re s u a o a e oa s o

th b m S i nc A E i th
e ea . e
’
s e

m im m ax din t t th i nfl
u or a e o e u

e nc l in th m im m h
e e, e ax u s e ar

a t A m t cc w h n n f
us o ur e o e o

th l e d i j t t th i gh t f
oa s s us o e r o

A S pp
. th l
u dP i j tos e e oa 1 s us

t tho igh t f A T h n P
e r o . e as I

p A th
as s e s h t A i d e s e ar a s su

d nl y d c
e d by th m nt 1
e re as e e a ou

P I If th l
. d c nti n t e oa s o ue o

m v o t eth l f t nti l P
o e e u 2

re ac h A th h i g des ,
e s e ar s ra u

ally i nc d by th m nt re ase F 80 e a ou IG

P d t n
’
i nc th
a a di n t
,
s e e or a e

u nd c h l d i i nc
er ea d by th m nt d t n C n q ntly i th P
oa s re ase e a ou a a . o se ue ,
e er I or

P t A w i ll g i v th m
2 a im m h t t hi p i nt cc ding
e e ax u s e ar a s o a or as

PI 2 P d tan a ;
’

or , s n e i c tan a a cc di ng or as

B y m e ans hi c i t i n it of t s r er o ,
c an be d e te rm ne i d in any giv en c ase w hi c h of two
c onse u c ti v l d w i ll g i v th g
e oa s e e reater s h e ar a t any p i nt
o .

77 . Max w el l lo ad is b rought on a beam it’

s the ore m . Wh en a

cau s e s e ve ry point of the b eam to d e fl e ct the am ount of this d efle c .

tio n for any poi nt b ei ng the co rre sponding o rdi nate t o the e l astic
curve If th en a nu mb er of lo ads re st on a b eam the d efl e cti on at
.
, , ,
/

an
y poi n t of th e b eam i s the s u m of the d efl e ctio n s at thi s poi nt du e

to e ach of the lo ad s tak en s e p arately .

For e x ampl e if two lo ads P and P re s t on a b eam at the points , I 2

A and B r e sp e ctiv ely the d e fl e ctio n at one of th e se points say A is , , ,

co mpo se d of two parts namely the d e fl e ctio n at A du e to P and the , , I

d e fl e ction at A du e to P Si mil arly the total d efl e ctio n at B is com 2

.
,

pos e d of the p artial d efl e ctions du e t o P and P respe ctively I 2

.
1 00 S TR E NGT H or MAT E R IAL S

'
Maxwell ’
s theorem, wh en modi fied so as to a pply to b eams state s,

that if u ni t loa ds r es t on a bea m at two p oi n ts I a nd K ,

at I d u e to the u ni t l oa d K is equ a l to the d eflection a t K

at

the u ni t loa d at I . The followin g simple proof of the th e o re m

to F iippl .
le
a

C onsider a s im ple b eam b earing unit lo ads at t wo points I an d K

Fig L e t the d e fl e c tio n at K d u e t o a uni t lo ad at I be d e n o te d
(
-

“
.

by J the d e fl e ction at I du e to a unit load at I by

, e tc the .
,

s e cond sub s cript in each cas e d eno ting the point at whi ch the uni t
load is applie d and the firs t subscript the poin t for which the num be r
,

give s the d efl e ction Thus d eno te s the influ ence of a uni t l oad
.

at K on the d e fl e c tion at I .

For thi s re as on the q u antity

is call e d an i nfluence num
her .

If the lo ad at I is of
m ount
'

a the d efl e ct ibfi at

FI G 8 1 .
I is t hat at K is JH P ”

e tc .

Now suppos e th at a lo ad P is b rough t on the b e am gradually at ,

the poin t I Then its av erag e v alu e is 5 P the d efl e ction und er the
.
,,

lo ad is J P and conse qu ently the wo rk of d e formation is 5 P

1 1. , ,

A fte r the lo ad P attain s its full v alu e suppos e th at a lo ad P is

, ,c

b rought on gradu ally at K Then the av erage v alu e of thi s lo ad is .

b u t sin c e P k e e ps its ful l v alu e du rin g thi s s e co n d d e fl e c t ion

§ P k , , ,

the wo rk of d e fo rmation in thi s m ov e me nt is P P ) 1

7
P (J P ) , k k kk k .

The re fore the t ot al work of d efo rmation fr om bo th d efl e ctions is

Evid ent ly the

s ame amount of work would h av e b een done if the
lo ad P had fi rst b e en applie d and t hen P The e xp re ssion for
,c , ,
. the
t otal work obtaine d by applying the lo ads in thi s o rd er is

Therefore e quating , the t wo ex pre ssion s for the wo rk of d e formation ,

which proves the t h e o re m .

F es ti g kei ts lehre , p 197. .

 ‘ t

i
G

t . .
S TR E N GT H or MA T E R I AL S
0

S inc e for an
y point I the fraction is proportional to (the

d enomi nato r b e ing const ant) the e las tic cu rve i s c all e d the i nfluence
,

li ne for react i ons .

For a nu mb er of con c entrate d lo ad s P P P the sam e m e thod 1, 2 ,

o

, ,

appli e s R in thi s c as e b e ing given by the e qu ati on

, ,

__p 1 + — J2
2 + +
J"
b
Pn
Jbb Jbb Jbb
or, m or e bri efly ,

‘
l

To d etermine the reaction s for a b eam cont in uou s ov er four sup

ports and b e aring a single co nce ntrate d lo ad P at any po int I s uppo s e ,

the two middl e suppo rts r em ov e d Th en if a unit lo ad is pl ac e d at B .

curv e d rawn the or di nate ,

to this cu rv e at a ny poi nt

I is the in flu en ce nu mb e r
7 Sim il arly by pl acing 1 -.
,b ,

3
a u ni t lo ad at C an d c on 4

stru cting the co rre s po n ding

F 83 IG
e l as tic cu rv e the i nflu e n c e
.

nu m b e r is ob tai ne d Now the reaction R m ust be of such am ount

.
,

as to c o u nterac t the d e fl e ctio ns at B d u e to a lo ad P at I an d a lo ad

B at C
,
There fore
’
.

Si mil arly the rea ction R 3

m us t be of such am ount as tocounteract the
d e fl e ctio ns at 0 d u e to a lo ad P at I an d a lo ad R 2
at B Th ere fore
.

By Max well s t h e o re m ’

,
J, ,
} J, and Jo, J, c . Making th e s e s u bsti

tu tions an d s olving the abov e equ atio ns si m ul tane ously for R 2

an d R

B2 = P

R, P
 f FL E X U R E OF BE AMS 1 03

C astigl iano theorem C o nsid er b eam b earing any nu mb er

’
79
‘

. s . a

of conc entrated lo ads P 1, P 2 , P u, act ing eith e r v e rtic ally upw ard

d efl e ctio n of P is incre as e d I
F I G 84
.

of P by the am ount
2
e tc where J etc are i nflue nc e .
, ” ,
.
,

nu mb e rs Th ere fore the work of d e fo rmatio n is increas e d by the

.

d W = P IJ, ,d P , P J dP .;

dW
dP t .

fo rming thi s
In ex pre ss io n the work done by d P its elf has b e en ,

ne gl e c te d s inc e it,
is infi nite si mal in comp arison wit h th at done by
P 1, P 2, e tc

“
.

Nowf ro m Maxw ell s the o re m

,
’

,
J . Th e refore the abov e e xpre s
sio n b e co m e s d W
dP .

The ight m emb er of t his e q u ality how e ver is the total d efl e ction
r , ,

D at the point I du e t o all the lo ads C o n s e q u ent ly the abov e ex p re s

, , .

sio n may be w ri tten

dP 1
.

Sin ce the wo rk of d eformat ion W is a fu nction of al l the lo ads and

n ot of P o nly, t hi s l att e r e x p re ssio n should be w ritte n as a p arti al
,

d erivative t hus
aW
6P 0

an d form it is the algeb raic s tatement of Castigl iano s th e orem

in t hi s
’
.

Ex p re sse d in word s the th e o re m is : T he d efl ecti on of the p oi nt of

,

a
pp li ca ti on f
o a n ex ter na l
f or ce a cti ng on a bea m i s e u al
q to the p a r

ti a l d er i va ti ve f
o the wor k of d ef or ma tion -wi th r es
p ect to thi s f or ce
.
1 04 S TR E N GT H or MAT E R I AL S
.
80 . Applicati on of Castigl i ano ’
s theorem to continu ou s beams .

C astigli ano s the ore m o ds s til l an oth er me ans of d etermining the

aff r
’

un kn own react ion s of a continuous b eam ; for the re actions may be

in clud e d among the lo ads on the b eam and sinc e the points of applica ,

tion of th e s e re actions are assu m e d to be fi x e d th e ir d efl e ctions are z ero , ,

There fo re if P , is one of the reactions D

, c
0 and con s eq u ent ly , ,c ,

aw
i n,

A condit ion e quat ion of thi s kin d can be found for e ach react ion and ,

from the sys tem of simul tane ous e qu ations so obtaine d the u nkn own
re act ion s ma b e calc ul te d Th e following p robl e m s ill u s trate the
y a .

applic atio n of the t h e o

re m .

bl m 1 4 2 A nif mly
Pro e . u or

l d d b m f l ngth 2 l i
oa e ea o e s

pp t d t i t _c nt nd
su or e a s . e er _ a

nd e F i nd th r c t i n
s . f e ea o s o

th pp t by m n f G
e su or s ea s o as

tig li n th m ’
a o s e ore .

FIG . 85 S l ti n L t w d n t th
o u o . e e o e e

ni t l
u d n th b m (F ig
oa o e ea .

F rom s ymm t y e r ,
P1 P3 . A l
so , by t ki ng m a ome nt b tB
s a ou ,

F or a p int in th
o e first o p ning
e at a di stan e a: c f ro m the l f t pp
e su ort ,

m 2
M P 1 33
2
c onse QII e ntl y ,

1
1 M z
d a: P il i’ l4 w2 l 5
[
1 l
2 0 E1 2 EI 3 4 20 ]
w k
T he or of df e or mati on f or the h h lf
ot e r a of the b ea m is of the s ame a mou nt .

Th f
e re ore the tota lw k or of df
e orm a ti n i
o s

_
_ P 13 3
n i

]
1 u
1
E1 3 4 20

“]
i c
S n e P 1 is a func ti on of P 2 , the p ti l d i v tiv
ar a er a e of W w i th res p ct t
e o P 2 is

W 1 2 P1 l 8
aP 1
L
R
[
5 70

an E1 3 aP z 4 6F 2
106 ST R E NG T H OF MAT E R IAL S
0
S n i c PI —
aP l
l, and h nce e
m
e
a

W
a 1 13 P 1 l 3 1 7 wl 4
2 EI { 3 6

Pu tt n i g O, and s u b ti t ti ng f
s u or P I i ts vl a ue in te rms of P2 ,

3 3 wl

)
13 Z 3
P2 P2 l 0
3 2

81 . Pri ncipl e of l east w ork . D iffe rentiating parti ally with

?
to P , .
both m em b e r s of the e qu ation
2
7
D , , we hav e

8
2
W an,
8P ,

A s the lo ad increas e s the d efl e ction increas es , and vic e v ers a_There .

f ore sinc e,
an d BP , hav e the s ame sign , is po sitiv e an d hen c e
2 i
7

2
8
is also positiv e . Bu t, f ro m the di fe rent al f i calc ul us ,
1 i

3W
2

0 an d l?
E
aP .

l t

are the con dition s th at W sh all be a mi nim u m . C o n s e qu ently, the

re a ctions of a continuous b eam c alculate d fro m , the condi tion

2? i
O,

ar e s uch th at th e y mak e the work of d eform atio n a minim u m .

In A rticl e 7 3 i t was poi nte d ou t th at the inte rnal w ork of de for

m ation is a fo rm of po te nti al e nergy The abov e is thu s a spe ci al .

c as e of what i s kn own as the principl e of leas t work the g e ne ral s tate ,

m ent of thi s p ri n cipl e b e ing e x pre s s e d by the following th e o re m

For s ta bl e e u i l i br i u
q m the p oten ti a l ener
gy o f an
y s
y s te m is a

mi ni mu m .

i mp ortanc e of the pr inciple of l eas t wo rk is du e to the fact

T he
th at i t is a g ene ral me ch anical p ri ncipl e affo rding a g e n eral sol u tion ,

of all probl em s involvin g the s tatic e quilib riu m of e las tic s olid s Its .

m o st u se ful applic ation p e rh ap s is to probl e m s which are oth er

, ,

“
vvi s e s tatic ally in d ete rminate t h at is to say p robl e ms in which the
, ,
 10 7

unkno w n q u antiti e s i nvolv e d i s g re ate r th an the nu mb e r

f u rni sh e d by the ordinary co ndi tion s of e quilib rium .

of any p roble m of thi s nature by the m eth od

of least wo rk is as follows : Fir s t e x pre s s the wo rk of d e f orm ation
or po te nti al en e rgy ) in te rm s of the u nk n own qu anti ti e s which i t i s
(
re uire d t o d ete rmine Th e n the co ndi tio n t h at this e x p re s s i on shall
q .

be a mini mu m re s olv e s its elf into the co ndi tion th at the p arti al
d erivative s of the potential e nergy with re sp e ct t o e ach of the u n
known s i nvolve d shall be z ero In this way we ob tain e x ac tly as .

many e qu atio ns as u nk n o w n s fro m which th e s e u nk n own ,q u anti ti e s

may be fou nd .

Thus if W de no te s the work of d efo rmation and P P P the 1, n

unknown qu antiti e s to be foun d fi rs t e xpre s s W as a f u n ction of ,

th e se u nk n ow n s say W(P
, Th en the conditi on for a
,,

mini mu m is d W= 0 or e x pre ssing the to t al diffe renti al at W in te rm s

, ,

of its part ial d e riv ative s with re s pe c t t o the v arious u nknowns ,

3W aW
dP ‘ + —d P + + up o
.
2 ,
eP , 31 1
,

ssu me d t o be ind e pen d e nt 111 o r d er for thi s

P "are a ,

r e l ation to be sati s fi e d id e ntic ally th at is for all v alu e s of P P , 1, 2 ,

P the co e ffici ents of clP

n’
dF d P m us t all be z er o ; th at i s
, , n ,

We h ave ,
h ere fore
t ,
n e qu ations from which to d ete rmine the n
unknowns P P 1 ,
-P
, , , .
n

Be fo re applying thi s p rin cipl e it i s n e c e ss ary to fin d an e x p re s s i on

for the wo rk o f d e format io n of e l as tic solid s subj e c te d to dire ct s tre s s
or t o b en ding s tre ss .

1 Di rect s tres s C on sid er a pris matic bar of l eng th l an d c ross

. .

s e c tio n F
,
whi ch is subj e c te d to a dire c t s tre s s e ith e r tensi on or ,

co mpre s si o n; of intensity p Th en from H ook e s l aw .

’
108 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

0
or if P d enote s
l
the t ta o l lo ad t h en sinc e ,

1
p
g an d s

be co me s i E, wh ence Al £ If, th e n , the lo ad is applie d

AlF
g radu ally the averag e fo rc e acting on the bar during d ef ormation
, ls

P and co n s e qu ently the wo rk of d e fo rm atio n in this c as e is

l ,

l
2 FE

d i s tres s The wo rk of d e formation of a prismatic b eam

.

2 . Be n ng .

s ubj e c te d to a b en din g m o m e nt M has b een fo und in Articl e 7 2 to be

1”
l Wd ’
a
e

2 E1

pplic ation of the me thod of le ast wo rk will now be illus trate d

The a
'

'
by a numb er of si mpl e probl ems Probl e ms 1 4 2 and 14 3 Articl e 8 0 .
, ,

an d A rticl e s 82 and 8 3 are also applic ation s of this p r in ciple .

Probl m 144 T h
e . re e C arne gi e I- b ea ms , No B 8 0 , . pl c d 4 ft p t c
are a e . a ar a ross

an o p ni ng 2 5 f t wid
e . e . A c ross hi c
t e r e nt e rs is pl c d n th I b m f th m
a e a o er - ea o e sa e

di m n i n th fi t nd p n
e s o s as e rs ,
a u o ,

t h c nt
e f thi c
e b m th
er o s r oss ea e re

t l d f 10 t n F i nd th
r es s a oa o o s . e

g t t t
r ea e s w hi c h cc in
s res s o u rs

ny m mb
a f t h c n t c ti n
e er o e o s ru o .

S olu ti on . L e t the a mount of

w hi c h i c i d by
the l d oa at E, s arr e

GK b d n t d by P (Fig ,
e e o e .

T h n th l d n AB nd E F
e e oa s o a

t G nd K p cti v ly a ch a res e e are e a

q l t 2 nd th l d n C D
e ua o ,
a e oa o
2
i lb P s . .

Now t he w k f d f m ti n f
or o e or a o or a s i mpl b m f l ngt h l b i ng i ngl
e ea o e e ar a s e

c nc
o e ntr ate d l d P t i t c nt i
oa
’
a s e er s, f m P bl m 13 5
ro ro e ,

’2
P l3

96 E l

T h f
e re ore , s n e i c the l d
oa on AB or
'
E F is B ,
the w k
or of df e ormat on i f or e i th er
2
of h
t ese b e ams is
1 10 ST RENG T H OF M AT ERIA L S
u p i gh t i
r s of c r oss s e c ti on F1 and has a u
m d ul u s E 1 , an d the b c ra e s

c c ti
r os s s e on F2 an d mod u l us E s h ow t h at t he l d oa R c ar r e i d by th e

g i v n by
e

3
4 s in aF
2
E 2
Fl E ,

bl m 14 7 A pl tf m 12 f t 18 ft i n i nd w ighi ng 1 t n i ppo t d
Pro e . a or . . s ze a e o s su r e

at th c n e by f w d n l g c h 8 i n q
or e rs A l d f 5 t n i pl c d
ou r oo e e s, e a . s u ar e . oa o o s s a e

n thi pl tf o m 4 f t f c h f tw d j c nt dg H w m c h f th l d i '

o s m a r . ro ea o o a a e e es . o u o e oa s

c i d by c h l g
ar r e ea e

P obl m 1 4 8 A b m 20 f t l ng i
r e pp t d t c h nd nd t p i nt d i
. ea . o s su or e a ea e a a a o s

t nt 5 f t f
a m th l f t nd I t c . ro i l d f 180 lb t th l ft nd nd f
e e e . arr e s a oa o . a e e e ,
a o

12 5 lb t p i nt d i t nt 6 f t f m th i ght nd F i nd th
. a a o s acti n f th . ro e r e . e re a o s o e

pp t su or s .

P bl m 14 9 T w b m pp t d h wn ro e . o ea s ar e s u or e as s o

i n F ig 9 0 th l w b m ti ng on fi d nd p .
,
e o er ea r es xe e su

p t nd th pp b m ti ng n th pp t or s , a e u er ea re s o r e e su or s ,

t i t c nt nd nd Th pp b m c i a s e er a e s . e u er ea arr e s a

F 90 nif m l d F i nd t h c nt
IG . l d t n m i tt d t u or oa . e e er oa ra s e o

th l w b m e o er ea .

P obl m 1 5 0 A fl i t h d (
r e c m p i t ) b m c n i t f 3 in I b m w i ghi ngc e or o os e ea o s s s o a - - ea e

6—
. .

7 % lb f t nd . 4 in i n t i mb
. a th I b
a m b i ng pl c d nd n t h t h w d n
- . . e r, e - ea e a e u er ea e oo e

b m nd t h t w
ea ,
a h ng f m c n by w ght i n t p r ni jh
e o ar e u ro a ra e a rou - ro s ra a ou e

m idd l A c bl i t h n l p d v
e . a th nd
e f t hi fl it h d b m 2 } f t d i t nt
s e oo e o er e e s o s c e ea 1 . s a

f m th c nt n c h id nd l d f 1000 lb pp t d by t h l p F i nd
ro e e er o ea s e, a a oa o . su or e e oo .

th t t l l
e d c i d by c h b m
o a oa arr e ea ea .

P obl m 1 5 1r T h k i ng p t t
e h wn in . e os ru ss s o

F ig 9 1 i f m d
. f i ngl b m A C ti ng
s or e o a s e ea r es

o n pp t t A nd 0 nd t
su or s a d t t h c nt a a r u s se a e e er

w i th t t B D pp t d by t w t i d A D
a s ru ,
su or e o e ro s

a nd D C D t mi n th l d R c i d by th st t
e er e e oa ar r e e ru
F 91
.

IG
BD wh n l d P i pl c d t di t nc f m A
.

e a oa s a e a a s a e 0 ro .

S l ti n L t R d n t th
o u o t. i n B D T h n if h d n t
e t h l ng th f th
e o e e s re ss . e e o es e e o e

t
s ru t BD nd d t h l ngth f c h t i A D nd D C th t
a e in A D
e DC i o ea e, a ,
e s re ss or s

Rt
n I c h nd t h d c t t
ea ,
n A BC
a L t F F F d n t th c
e i re s r ess I lS e
1, 2, 3,
e o e e ross
2 h 41 7.

se c ti n o f A C AD nd B D
ar e as o p c ti v ly T h n th t t l w k f d f m
, ,
a re s e e . e e o a or o e or a

ti n d
o t di c t t
,
ue i n th v io rem mb i s re sse s e a r ou s e e rs , s

R 2 11

In a ddi ti n t thi o o s i t is l
a so n e c ess ar yt c o o ns id er w k the or of d f m ti
e or a on d u e to
t he b ndi ng t
e s r ess in A C . At a p i nt di t
o s ant a; f m A thi
ro s is asf ll w o o s

EL
[
I
F or 2: b twe e en A z and P ,

I
f or 2: b twe een P and B, Mp 3 Pc
(; $ ) x,

f or a: b twe ee n B and 0,
£3
0 ) a .
 111

- w>
i l
W
_
a
0 t o the sum of h p vi g
t e se e x r e s s i o ns
,
and s ol n
aR
‘

t he r esu l ti ng e qu ati on f or R , we h v fi n lly

a e a

2 3
3 01 4 C

3 3
l Z
2 2
E3 17 3
2 11 15 2 17 ,
16 h E 1 F 1 48 E I

Pro bl e w d n b m 12 in d p 10 in w id nd 2 0 f t l ng b tw n
m oo e ea . ee ,
. e, a . o e ee

su ppo t i enf c d by t l d 2 in in di m t nd c t i n t t 3 i n
r s s re or e a s ee ro . a e er a a as - r o s ru .

sq nd 2 f t hi gh t h w h l f
u ar e a . m i ng k i ng p t t
,
e F i n d th
o e t in ch or a os r u ss .
-
e s r es s ea

m mb d
e ter nif
ue m l d f 12 00 lb f t v
o a u or th nti oab m o . . o er e e re ea .

82 . General formul a f or fl ex ural defl ecti on ordinary m eth od . The

of d etermining fie x ural de fl e c tion is by com pu ting the o rdinate to
the e l as tic cu rv e at the re qui re d poin t e ach c as e r e qui ring se p a ,

rate tre atm e nt. A g e ne ral fo rm ul a for fl e x u r al d e fl e c tio n how e v e r , ,

may be obtained by applyi ng the m eth o d of l e as t wo rk in the fo rm

of C astigli ano s th e orem ’
.

Fro m A rticle 73 the work of d eformation du e to b ending is

gi v e n by M d a: 2

2 EI

Now in o rd er to apply Castigl iano s th e o re m to thi s e x pre ssion ’

,

ass um e a co n c e ntrate d lo ad K appli e d to the b e am at the p oi nt

whos e d efl e ction is de sired and l e t thi s load be s ub se qu ently re duce d

,

to z e ro Le t .

M m o m en t at a
ny ction d ue t o given lo ading
se ,

M ’
m om e nt at any s e c tion d u e to a u ni t l oad at a giv en point .

Th en for a lo ad K at the give n point the m o m ent at any se cti on du e ,

to this l oad b e co m e s KM and h e nc e the t o tal m o ment d u e to the

’
,

giv en lo ading and the as su m e d lo ad K is

M + KM ’
.
1 12 S T R EN GT H OF MA T ER IA L S
.
Th ere fo re the a bove ex pre s sion for the work of d e formation now

b coo me s '
(M + KM d
2 EI

By C as tig l iano s
’
t h e o re m the a c tu al d e fle ction D B du e to
loadi ng o nly is

and henc e applying thi s to the ex pre s s ion for W B,

we h av e

2 (M + KM ) ;
or, si mplifying ,

which is the re quire d ge neral formula for fle xu ral d efl ection Al l .

le
a

the o rdi nary fo rm ul as for the fl e x u ral d efl e c tio n of b e ams u nd e r

v arious lo ading s and wi th diff e re nt methods of suppo rt are si mply
s p e cial c as e s of thi s g e ne ral fo rm ul a as illus trate d by the follo wi ng ,

e x ampl e s .

Pro bl e m 1 53 . F n i d d fl c ti n t th c nt f i mpl b m
the fl e xu ral e e o a e e er o a s e ea of

c ons tant c ross s e c ti n nd b i ng i ngl c nc nt t d l d P t th c nt

o a e ar a s e o e ra e oa a e e er .

S oluti on . H e re M — nd pplyi ng ni t l d t th p i nt w h d fl c ti
P a:
a a a u oa a e o os e e e on
2
d i d name ly th c nt M C n q ntly
3
’
is e s re ,
e e e r, o se ue ,

2 P m dx 2
P l3
F z
f 4 El 48 E l

Pro bl e i d th fl
m 15 4 l d fl c ti n t
. F n e e xu r a e e o a the c e nt e r of a s i mpl b e ea m
c n t nt c
o s a c ti n b i ng unif m l d v
ross s e o e ar a or oa o er t he e nt re s i p an .

wl m a:
2
a:
S l ti on I n thi c
o u M nd M
s ase a
’
°
C ons e qu e nt ly
5
.
,
2 2

wlo; 2
wa s
5 wl 4
i
)
?

f(
x

o 4 4 E1 384 E 1

h f ml i d t P f
T is or u a s ue o ro e s sor F rae n kl e , b ut it i s b l i v d th
e e e at the a b ov p f e roo

has ne v b f b n gi v n
er e ore ee e .
11 4 S T R EN GT H OF MA T ER IA L S

T o find the d fl cti

e e o n at t he c e nte r , w e haw t h f
e re o r e

wlzc wax
:
2 2
wl wlcc
2 2 12 2

M ’
f( ro m Pro bl em

an d , c o ns e qu e nt ly ,
z
5 wl3 wl 2
wla: 2
wl
‘

wise ?
m 3

>
z

f(
2 x a:
DB at Ge nte r d¢c z

E1 0 96 16 16 24 4 4 S8 4 E I

for sh e aring d efl e ction of b e am s may al s o be ob taine d by the method .

of l e as t wo rk For thi s pu rpo se l e t WS d en o te the wo rk of d e form a

.

tio n du e to s h e ar and G the sh e ar m odulus

,
Then if g, d enote s the .

unit sh earing s tre ss H ook e s l aw for sh ear reads

,
’

a
() I G
,

an d the u nit w ork of she aring d e form ation for an in fi ni te simal p aral
l el op ipe d of u ni t volu m e b e co me s
’

d WS =
1
d q? d
9 1¢ V V
2 2 G

Th erefo re s inc e d V = dF d x
, , the t o tal work of shearing d e fo rmation
for the e ntire b e am is

2 G

d etermine the sh e aring d efl e ctio n assu m e a con c entrate d

Now to ,

load K applie d to the be am at the point who se d efl e c tion is de sired ,

and h avi ng us e d K as re quire d by C as tigl ian o s th e o re m l e t i t be

‘ ’

sub s equ ently re duce d to z ero .

For thi s pu rpo s e l e t

Q o l sh ear on any variable s e ctio n d u e to the giv en lo ading

t ta ,

sh e ar on any v ari abl e s e c tio n du e to a u ni t lo ad at a giv e n poin t

’
Q ,

u ni t sh e aring s tre ss d u e to t o tal sh e ar Q as abov e

q ,

un i t sh e ari ng s tre s s d u e to sh e ar Q
’ ’
9

Th en for a co nc entrate d lo ad K at any given point the she ar onany

se c tio n i s QK an d the u ni t sh e ar at a v ari abl e point d u e to this lo ad
’
,
 S 1 15

lo ading an d the
“
as su me d con centrate d lo ad K b e come s
21
= 2 + 2 K ’

Hence the ex pre ssion for the wo rk ofshe aring d e fo rmatio n now b e com e s

Now by C as tigl iano s th e ore m the

’
ctual sh earing d efl e ction
a du e to

Perfo rmin g the indicate d diff ere ntiation an d s ubs ti tu tio n , we h av e

t he re fore

2 G K= 0

To simplify this ex pre ss i on ,

as s ume the s traigh t-line l aw of dis tribu

Q wh e nce
I

ion of
t s tr e ss , name l 1 i final l

which is the re quire d g eneral formula for sh earing d efl e ction The .

me thod o f applying thi s g e neral fo rmul a is illu strate d b e low *

.

S pecial Cas e I Beam of con stant re ctangul ar cro ss s e c tion of

.

heigh t It .

F ro m e qu ation A rticl e 5 6 the unit sh ear at any point of a ,

cross s e ctio n bounde d by p arallel sid e s is

Q

an d f rom e qu ation for a re c tang u l ar cros s se ction of h e ight It

this b e co m e s

F or app l ic ati ons o f h

t is hd
met o to b e am s o f v bl c
ar i a e ros s s e c ti o n s e e a rt i cl e by
S E S
. . lc
o um , in Jou rna l F rankl i n I ns ti tu te , A p ri l , 19 1 1 .
1 16 S T R EN GT H or MA T E R IA L S

S ubs titu tin g thi s value of g in the s e cond inte gral of the general
fo rm ul a ,
it b e come s for the s p e cial cas e unde r consideration

baly

H ence the formul a for the shearing d efl e ction re du ce s in thi s case

to the s im pl e inte gral

Pro bl e m 15 7 . D e te rm in e t he s i g d fl c ti n t th c nt f impl b m
h ear n e e o a e e er o a s e ea

of c onstant r e c t ng l c
a u ar r oss se cti n d t i ngl c nc nt t d l d t th c nt
o ue o a s e o e ra e oa a e e er .

S oluti on . L tP d n t
e e o e the oa l d t c nt T h n th t t l h on ny s cti n i
a e er . e e o a s e ar a e o s

P
2

A l so assu m i ng a un it l d oa at the p i nt w h
o ose d fl c ti on i
e e s to be d ete mi ned r ,
name ly
t he c e nt e r , we h vea
1
7 .

Su b ti t ti ng th
s u e se v l
a u es i n the a o bv f e or mu l a, the s h i g d fl cti
e ar n e e on D 3 is

To d e te r m i n th l ti v m nt
e e re a e a ou s of the s h e ar n i g and fl e xu ral d fl c ti
e e ons ,

ass u me the re a l t i n b t w n t h tw m
o e ee e o od u li G and E as G §E . T h en

H en c e the r e at l iv v lb ndi ng d fl cti n d p nd in t hi

e a u e of the s h e ar n i g and e e e o s e e s s

cas e on th q f th ti
e f th d p t h f th b m t i t l ngt h T h
s u ar e o e ra o o e e o e ea o s e . us

if h ll D 12 D ; if h
, l D
5 : OS D ; if h
. 1 DB OO75 D t l
ra a 3 : .
B
1
2 6 , 5 : .
B, e c .

Th l ti v di m n i n f w hi c h th h i ng d fl c ti n c
e re a e e s o t b sf i mp t nc
or e s ear e e o ease s o e o or a e

are th i ly d t mi n d
u s e as e er e .
1 18 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R IAL S

o r ass u m n i g ,
as a b v o e, t h at G g E a nd d efi oti ng t he d p th
e of t he b ea m by h 7,

t hi b c
s e om es
D3 5 h 2

DB 3 () I

F or ci c l c
a c ti n t h f
r u ar r oss s e o ,
e r e or e , h i g d fl c ti n i f l
t he s e a r n l ti v i m e e o s o e ss re a e

p t nc f
or a g i v n ti f d p t h
e or a e ra o o e to l ngth th n f
e c t ng l c c ti n
a o r a re a u ar ross se o .

Th if h
u s, l D 0 16 D t 1
16 , S .
B, e c .

E XER CIS ES ON CHAPT ER IV

bl m 159 I n b i ldi ng c n t c ti n th m i m m ll w bl d fl cti n

Pro e . u o s ru o e ax u a o a e e e o

pl t d c i l i ng i fi f th p n A fl i pp t d n 2 i n x
as e r e e s s
t,
o e s a . oor s su or e o .

j i t 14 ft p n nd p c d 16 i n p t n c nt
o s s, . s a a F i nd t h m im m l d
s a e . a ar o e e rs . e ax u oa

p er s
q f t f fl
u ar e f c i nood t h t t h
o d fl c t i n m y n t c
oor s u r a ed t h or er a e e e o a o ex ee e

am nt p c ifi d
ou s e e .

P obl m 1 6 0 D t m i n t h p p
r e p c i ng c nt t c nt f 12 i h t l 1
. e er e e ro er s a e er o e er or -
. s ee »

b m w i ghi ng 3 5 lb /
ea s ft f
e p n f 2 0 f t nd nif m fl l d f 100 lb /
. . ftf or a s a o . a a u or oor oa o z
2

in d th t th d fl c ti n h ll n t c d fi f th p n
or er a e e e o s a o ex ee
t,
o e s a .

P obl m 1 6 1 On
r nd
e f b m i b i l t i nt w ll nd th th nd i p
e e o a ea s u o a a a e o er e s su

p t d t th m l v l by p t 12 f t f m th w ll T h b m c i _
.

or e a e sa e e e ni f m a os . ro e a . e ea a u
ar r e s _ or

l d f 1 00 lb p l i n f t F i nd th p i ti n nd m nt f th m i m m
oa o . er e ar oo . e os o a a ou o e
'

ax u

m m nt nd l
o e f th m a i m m d fl c ti n
a so o e ax u e e o .

P obl m 1 6 2
r On end f b m i b i l t i nt w ll nd th th nd t
. e e o a ea s u o a a a e o er e re s s

on p p 2 0 ft f m th w ll t th m l v l T h b m b
a ro . ro c nc nt t d
e a ,
a e sa e e e . e ea e ar s a o e ra e

l d f 1 t n t p i nt 8 ft f m th w ll F i nd t h p iti n nd m nt f t h
oa o o a a o . ro e a . e os o a a ou o e

m i m m m m nt nd l
ax u f th m o i m m d fl c ti n
e a a so o e ax u e e o .

P obl m 1 6 3
r A i mpl b m f l ngt h l c
e . i di t i b t d l d w hi c h v i
s e ea o e ar r e s a s r u e oa ar e s

u nif m ly f m 0 t n
or nd t w lb p ni t f l ngth t th th F i nd th
ro a o e e o . er u o e a e o er . e

m i m m d fl c ti n
ax u e e o .

H N T N t t h t i n th n t ti n f A t i cl 6 7
I . o e a e o a o o r e ,

4
d y
l dp
oa er un i t l ng th e

g
—y
EI l p
s o e of e as t l ic c v ur e,
a
:

E Iy EI d fl c ti n e e o .

I n the p r e s e nt c ase , ta k ing th e or i gi n a t th l i g h t nde e ,

(1 4
31 we
i
dat l
‘

w hi c h m ay be nt e i g r at e d t b t i n th d fl c ti
o o a e e e on .
 FL E X U R E or BE A MS 1 19

Pro bl e m 16 4 . A b e am of u n if o r m s tr e n gt h i n w h s o e os e m o m e nt of r es s tan e i c
‘
is i n the s a me c ons tant r at o i to the b ndi ng m m nt th
e o e rou
g hou tf so t h at t he s kin
S h w th o at in or d er f or c nti l v e b i ng i ngl c nc nt t d l d t th
a a e r e ar a s e o e ra e oa a e

e nd to be if m of u n or s re t ngt h if t h d p t h i c n t nt th pl n f t h b
, mm t
e e s o s a ,
e a o e ea us

b t i ng l
e r a ; wh u ar e re as if th b d th i c n t nt th id l v ti n f th b m
e re a s o s a ,
e s e e e a o o e ea

m t b p
us b lic e ar a o .

Probl m 1 6 5 A t c t e l t l h f t 8 i n i n di m t nd 5 f t l ng b tw n
. s ru ura s ee s a . a e er a . o e ee

b i ng c i 2 5 t n flyw h l m id w ay b tw n th b i ng F i nd th m i m m
e ar s ar r es a - o ee e ee e e ar s . e ax u

d fl cti n f th h f t c n id i ng i t
e e o o i mpl b in
e s a ,
o s er as a s e ea .

Probl m 1 6 6 A w eght i n b 2 i n q i b nt t
. i g ht ngl 4 ft
ro u - ro ar . s u ar e s e o a r a e .

f m n nd T h th nd i th n i mb dd d i n c nc t bl ck th t i t t nd
ro o e e . e o er e s e e e a o re e o so a s a s

u p i g ht w i th th 4 f t l ngth h i nt l I f th p i gh t p j c t 12 f t b v th n
r e . e or z o a . e u r ro e s . a o e e co

c t nd l d f 3 00 lb i h ng t th nd f th h i nt l m find th
re e a a oa o . s u a e e o e or z o a ar , e

d fl c ti n t th nd f thi m
e e o a e e o s ar .

P obl m 1 6 7 A c nt i l v
r e f l ng t h l i l d d nif mly A t w h t p i nt f
. a e er o e s oa e u or . a o o

i t l ngt h h
s e l d p p b pl c d S pp ti ng th b m t th m l v l th
s ou a r0 e a e ,
u or e ea a e sa e e e as e

fi d nd i n d t d c th b ndi ng t
xe e ,
or m ch er p i bl nd w h t
o re u e e e s r e ss as u as os s e, a a

p p ti n f th l ad i th n c i d by th p p
ro or o o e o s e arr e e ro

Probl m 1 6 8 A c nti n e b m t nd v th p n f 2 0 ft 4 0 ft nd
. o u ou s ea ex e s o er ree s a s o .
,
.
,
a

30 ft nd c.
,
i nif m l d f 3 1 nd 2 t n p l i n f t n th th
a ar r e s u or oa s o , ,
a o s er e ar oo o e re e

s p n p c ti v ly F i nd th d ng
a s re s e c ti n n d t h
e c ti n f th pp t
. e a er se o s a e re a o s o e su or s .

P obl m 1 6 9
r A c i g p i ng i 2 % f t l ng nd i b i l t p f t l l v
e . arr a e s r s . o a s u u o s ee e a es

ea c h 2 in w id nd g in thi ck H w m ny l v
. e a q i d t c y c nt l . . o a ea e s ar e r e u re o ar r a e ra

l d f 1000 lb w i th f ct f f ty f 4 nd w h t i th d fl c ti n nd
oa o . a a or o sa e o ,
a a s e e e o u er

t hi l s d oa

H N T C n id
I th m t i l p
. d t i n th f m f t i ngl f c n t nt
o s er e a er a s rea ou e or o a r a e o o s a

d p th 3 i n nd v y i ng w idth fi d t th b
e 4
. a nd c yi ng th l d t th p
ar xe a e as e a arr e oa a e a ex .

Al c mp w ith P bl m 16 4
so o ar e ro e .
 C HAPT E R V

COLUMNS AND S T R UT S

84 . Natu re of comp re s s v e i s tre s s . Wh en

pris matic pie ce of a

l engt h e qu al to se veral tim e s its b re adth is subj e cte d t o ax ial c om

pression it is c all e d a col umn or strut the word colu mn b eing use d t o
, ,

d e signate a co mpre ss ion m e mb er pl ace d v e rt ically and b e aring a s tatic

lo ad ; all oth e r co mpre s s ion me mb e rs b e ing call e d stru ts .

If the ax is of a colu mn or s t ru t i s n ot p e rfe ctly s traight or if the , ,

lo ad is not applie d e x actly at the c enters of gravity of its e nd s a ,

b endin g m o me nt i s produc e d which te nds to m ak e the column defl e ct

sid e w ays or buckle The s ame is tru e if the material i s n ot pe r
,
.
”
i
w

fe ctl y ho m og e ne ous c ausing c e rtain p arts to yie ld m ore th an o th e rs

, .

S uch l ate ral d e fl e ctio n in cre as e s the b endi n g m om ent an d con se ,

qu ently incre ase s the ten d en cy to buckle A com pre ssion me mber is .
,

th ere fo re in a di ffe re nt co n di tio n of e quilib riu m f ro m one subj e cte d

,

to ten sion for in the l atte r any d ev i atio n of the axi s fr o m a s traigh t
,

li ne tends to be dimini sh e d by the s tre s s instead of in cre ase d .

The old e s t th e o ry of colu m n s is d u e to Eul e r and hi s form ul a is ,

s till t he stand ard for co mparison Eul er s th e ory how .

’

e v e r is b as e d upo n the assu m p tio n s th at the colu mn is

,

pe rfe ctly straight the material pe rfe ctly ho m oge ne ous

, ,

an d the l o ad e x actly c e nte re d at the e nds —ass u mp ,

tio n s which are ne v e r e x actl y r e al iz e d For p rac t ical .

purpos es the re fore it has b een fo u nd ne cess ary t o

, ,

m odify Eul e r s formu l a in s uch a way as to b ring it

’
.

into acco r d with the re sults of aetu al e x p eriments as ,

e x pl ai n e d i n the fol l owm g articl e s .

8 5 Eu l er s theory of l ong col u mns

.
’
C on sid e r a long .

colu mn subj e cte d to ax ial lo ading and ass u m e that ,

FIG 92
the colu mn is p e rf e c tly straigh t an d ho m og ene ou s and
.

th at the l oad is applie d e x actly at the c ent e rs of g rav ity of it s end s

12 0
12 2 S T R E N GT H or M AT E R IAL S

or, e x p anding ,

cos 0 ,
cos

Now for conv eni en c e l et the cons tants in thi s i nte gral
by A, B , and C re sp e c tiv ely ; th at i s t o s ay l e t ,

I
608 02 ; B i gs l
; G

Th en the g e n era l integral b e co me s

y = A s in C c + B
o c os C oa

At the en ds 0 andwhe re
X ,
as O an d l y , 0 . S ubs titut ing th e s e
v alu e s in the abov e in te gral ,

B O, and A sin Gl 0 .

Sin c e A and B canno t both be z er o ,

sin Cl O whence
Mr
- 1
Cl S in 0 ,

where A is an arbitrary integer Now l et A tak e the s mal lest v alu e .

possibl e namely 1 and sub stitute for 0 its value Then

, , .

which is Eul er s formul a for long columns

’
.

Un d e r the lo ad P give n by thi s form ul a the colu mn is in ne u tral

e q uili b riu m ; th at is to s ay the lo ad P is ju s t s u ffici e nt t o c aus e i t
,

to re t ain any l ate ral d e fl e c tio n which m ay be giv en to it For this .

re as o n P is c all e d the cr i ti ca l l oa d
. If the lo ad is l e ss th an thi s .

critical valu e the column is in stabl e e quilib riu m and any l ateral
, ,

d efl e ction w il l disappear when its caus e is rem ov e d If the lo ad .

e x c ee ds this c ri tic al v alu e the colu m n i s in un s tabl e e quilib riu m and

, ,

the sligh t e s t l ateral d e fl e ctio n will rapidly i n c re as e u ntil ruptu re

occur s .

86 C ol u mns with one or both ends fix ed The above d e duction

. .

of Euler s fo rmul a is b as e d on the assum ption that the e nds of the

’
 C OL U MN S AN D S T R U T S 12 3

colu mn are free to t urn ,

and t he re fo re formul a (4 8 ) a pplie s only to

colu mn are rigidly fi x e d against

a

points of infl e ction say B and D , .

me try the tangent to the e l astic cu rv e at the c enter 0

,

m ust be p arall e l to the o riginal position of the ax is of

the colu mn A E and t h e re fore the portio n A B of the
,

e l as tic cu rv e m us t be sy mm e t ric al with B C , and C D

with D E C on se qu ently the points of infl e ction B and

.
, ,

D occu r at one fourth the l engt h of the colu mn fro m

,

e i th e r e nd The critic al lo ad for a colu mn wi th fi x e d

.

en ds is t h e re fo re , the s ame as for a colu m n with f re e

,

ends of h alf the l e ngth ; wh e n c e f or fixed en d s Eul e r s

’

, ,

formul a b e co me s

(4 9 )

C olu mn s wit h fl at d s, fi x e d again st l ateral m ov e m ent are usu ally

en ,

re g ard e d as coming un d e r fo rm ul a the te rm s fi x e d e nds and

fl at ends b e ing us e d int e rch ang eably .

If one en d of the colu mn is fi x e d and the oth e r end i s free to turn

,
,

the e l as t ic cu rv e is appro xi m ate ly re p re s ent e d by the lin e B C D E i n

Fig 9 3 Th e re fore the critic al lo ad in thi s c ase is ap
. .

prox im ately the sam e as for a colu mn with both e nds

free of leng th B CD th at is of l ength e qu al to 3 B E
, , ,
-

or 2 l ; wh en c e for a colu mn with one end fixed a nd the

3 ,

o ther f r ee Eul e r s fo rm ul a b e com e s

’

2
9 EI
'
11
(5 0 ) P 2
a ppro x im ately .

4 1

87 . Indep endent p roof of f ormu l as f or fi x ed end s .

The re ul t s
s of the pre ce ding article can be es tabli sh e d
inde pend ently as follows .

S uppos e bo t h ends of the column fi x e d again s t t u rn

F G 94
ing by a m om ent 111 at each suppo rt Th en the m o m e nt
I .

at any point C dis t ant c c fr o m 0

, (Fig i s M M P y and .
O ,

there fore the e qu ation of the e l astic curv e is

12 4 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER I AL S

Pr oc e e ding as in Articl e 8 5 , the general integral of thi s e

qu at i on is

foun d to be

y A si n B cos
P

in whi ch A and B are un d etermine d con stants . For a O an d l,

y O, an d 0 . There fore by substituting the s e v alu e s

,
in
,
the

general integ ral , the follo wing l ions

re at are ob t ai ne d

A = O, B :

Fro m t h es e conditions

and sin

whence

and cons equent ly

2
4 7r EI
2
1

which is form ul a (4 9 ) of the pre c e ding articl e .

S uppos e one end of the colu mn is fi x e d and the other

f re e t o tu rn and l et P d en ote the horiz ontal fo rce ne ce s
, ,

s ary t o k e e p the fre e end from lateral m ove ment (Fig .

Then the m o ment at any point C is M P y P at and h ,

the e q u at ion of the e l as tic curv e is

The general integral of thi s e qu ation is

F IG 9 5
.

+B c os
 26 S T RE N GT H OF MAT E R I AL S

colu mns of ordinar e

For e re re the lo ad P
"
y l ngth th fo , ,

so me where b etwe en p F and the v al u e giv en by Eul e r s fo rmul a ’

.

C o ns e qu ently to ob tain a g e n eral fo rmul a which sh all apply t o

,

colu mns of any l ength it is onl y n e c e ss ary to e x p re ss a co ntinuo us

,
2
7T EI
l ion b etw e e n p F
re at an d Such a re at l ion is furnish e d by the
e qu atio n

(5 1)
1 +p F

For wh e n l 0, P F
p , and wh en l b e co me s v ery large P appro ache s
2
77
'
EI
the v al u e
2
Mo re ove r ,
for interm e diate v alu e s of I this formul a
Z
,

giv e s valu e s of P co n sid erably l e ss th an given by Eul e r s fo rm ul a thus ’

ag re e ing m o r e clos e ly with e x p e ri m e nt .

8 9 R ank ine s f ormu l a

. Al though the abov e m odific at io n of
’
.

Eul er s fo rm ul a is an i mp rov e me nt on the l atte r i t do e s not y et

’

ag re e clo s ely e n ough wi th e x p e ri m e nt to be e nt ire ly sa t iSfadtory .

T he re aso n for the di s c re p an cy b etw een the re sul ts giv en by this

form ul a and thos e obtaine d f ro m act u al te sts is th at the as s u mpt ions
upon w hi ch the fo rm ul a is b ase d nam ely th at the colu mn is perfe ctly , ,

s traigh t the m at e ri al p e r f e c tly ho m og e n e ous

,
an d the lo ad appli e d ,

e x actly at the c ent ers of gravity of the e n d s are ne v e r actu ally ,

re ali z e d in p rac t ic e .

To obtain a m ore accurat e formul a t wo e mpiric al con st ant s will ,

be intr oduc e d int o e qu atio n Thus for fi xe d e nds l et , ,

wh ere f y are arbitrary cons tants to be d e te rmine d by e x pe ri ment

and ,

an d t i s the l e ast radius of gy ratio n of a c r oss s e c tio n of the colu mn .

This fo rmul a has b een ob t aine d in diffe rent w ays by Gordon Ran ,

ki ne Navie r and S chwarz

,
*
A m ong German writers it i s known as
, .

*
ki R an f m l n b d i v d i d p d ntly f E l
ne s
’
or f m l i th by
u a ca e er e n e en e o u er s
’
or u a e er
m i g t h t th
as s u l ti c c v
n m d by t h c t
a l i f th c l m i i id
e e as ur e as su e e en er ne o e o u n s a s nu s o ,

or by m i g th t th m i m m l t
as s u nl d fl cti D t th c t f th c l mn i
a e ax u a e ra e e on a e e n er o e o u s

l wh l th l gth f th c l mn b t l t W dth
2
g v by th p
0

i en D e ex r es s i on , e re
Q

18 e en o e o u ,
Q

i s e as
0

i ,

and i n mpi i c l c n t
f. a t
e
b r a o s an .
 ST R UT S 12 7

and A merican text-books it is

F or blocks fail by crushing g is ,

he re fore
t the ulti mate co m pre s sive s trength of the m aterial .

R ankine s fo rmul a tak e s

’

t fix e d )

(p o s i tio n fi x e d b u t
, no t
d i r e c t i o n)

90 . V al u e s of the e mpiri cal cons tant s in R ank i ne ’

s f ormu l a .

The v alu e s of the e mpiric al cons t ants f and g in Rankine s formul a , ,

’

h ave be en e xpe rimentally d et ermine d by H odgkinson and Christie

with the foll owin g re sult s .

For h ard steel , g f

For mild s teel , g f

For wrought i ron , g f

For c ast i ron , 9 f

For timb er, f

2
9 1h il l -,

Thes e const ant s w ere d et ermine d by e xp eriments u po n colu mns for

which 2 0 4 2 0 0 and th ere fo re can only be re lie d upo n t o
,
t
12 8 S T R E N GT H OF MAT ER I AL S

furnis h rel iabl e re s ul t s when the d ith ensions of the column li e within
th e s e li mi ts .

A s a fact o r of s af e ty t o be us e d in applyin g the formul a Rankine ,

re co mm e n d e d 1 0 for ti mb e r 4 for iro n u n d e r d ead lo ad and 5 for

'

, ,

ir on u nd e r m oving lo ad .

P obl em 170 A
r l id nd c t i n c l mn w i th fl t nd i 1 5 f t l ng and
. so ,
r ou ,
as - r o o u a e s s . o .

6 i n i n di m t
. W h t l d m y b p ct d t c u
a e er . pt a oa a e ex e e o a s e ru u re

Probl m 1 7 1 A q e w d n p t 12 f t l ng i qu i d to upp t l oad

. s u are oo e os . o s re re s or a

of 1 5 ton W i th f c t f f ty f 10 w h t m u t b th i f th p t
s . a a or o sa e o ,
a s e e s ze o e os

Probl m 1 72 T w m di m t l C m b i I b m
e . N B 2 5 w i g hi ng
o e u s ee a r a - ea s, o .
,
e

lb /.ft j in d by l tti c w k t f m c lumn 2 5 ft l ng H w f p t

.
,
are o e a e or o or a o . o . o ar a ar

m t th b m b pl c d c nt
us e ea t c nt s in d th t th c l umn h ll b f
e a e ,
e er o e er, or er a e o s a e o

equ l t ng th t
a s re i t b ckl i ng i n i th i l pl n
o re s s u e e r ax a a e

P obl m 1 73 F
r e m di m t l C m b i . ngl N A 10 1 3 i n by 5 in i n
ou r e u s ee a r a a es , o .
,
. .

i h v th i 3 i n l g i v t d t
s ze, a e e r i n pl t t f m n I h p d bu i l t
- . e s r e e o a - . a e s o as o or a -s a e

c l mn H w w id m t th pl t b i n d th t th c l um n h ll b f q l
o u . o e us e a e e or er a e o s a e o e ua

t ngth t
s re i t b ckl i ng in i th
o res s i l pl n u e e r ax a a e

91 J s paraboli c f ormu l a
whi ch F ro m the m anne r in
’
. ohn on s .

e qu ation (5 1 ) was obtai ne d an d m odifi e d by the intr o aft e rw ard

"
duction of the e mpiric al co n stants f and y it is cl e ar th at Rankine s ,

formul a s atisfi es the re quire ments for v ery long or v ery sho rt col
u mn s whil e for tho se of in te rm e di ate l ength i t giv e s the av e rag e
,

valu e s of e x peri mental re s ults A si mpl e form ul a whi ch ful fil ls .

th e s e s am e re qui re m ents has b e e n giv e n by Prof e s s o r J B John son . .

,

and is c all e d J ohnson s p arabol i c formul a

’
.

If e qu at ion (52 ) is writte n

P
F
1 f

an d h en is written and a:
g Rankine s fo rmul a b e come s
’
t y for p , for ,

9
z
1 f uz

For this cubic e qu ation John s on sub stitute d the parabola

in whi ch a; and y h ave the s ame m eaning as bov e and 8 and e are
a ,

e mpiri cal co n s tant s T he cons tants 8 and . e are th en so chos en t h at

13 0 S T R E N GT H or MA T E R IA L S

'
graphic al repre sentation of the q el ation b etw e en Euler s formul a
A ‘
’

Ran kin e s fo rm ul a J B John s o n s p arabolic fo rm ul a an d T H J ohn

’ ’

,
. .
, . .

son s s traigh t-li ne fo rmul a (cons ide re d in the ne xt articl e) is give n

’

in Fig 9 6 for the c as e of a w o gh ir o n column with hing e d e n d sfl

. r u ,
t- ‘

V LU E 1
t
A S or

F G 96 — W u g h t I n C l u mn (p i n nd s)
I . . ro - ro o e

1 , E ul e r
’
s f or mu l ; 2 T H J h n t ight-l i f m l ; 3
a ,
. . o n so
’
s s ra ne or u a ,
J B Jo nson
. . h ’
s
p b l i c f m l ; 4 R nk i n f m l
ar a o or u a ,
a
’
e s or u a

Probl m 1 74 A h ll w w gh t i n c l mn w i th fl t nd i 2 0 f t l ng 7 in
e . o o r ou - ro o u a e s s . o ,
.

i nt n l di m t nd 10 i n t nal di m t C lc l t i t l ti m t t ngth by
er a a e e r, a . ex e r a e er . a u a e s u a e s re

R nk i n nd J h n f ml nd c m p lt
’ ’
a ne s a th o so s or u as , a o ar e e re su s .

P bl m 1 75 C mp t th
ro e l ti m t t ngth f th b i l t c l mn in P b
. o u e e u a e s re o e u o u ro

l m 1 72 by R nk i n
e nd J h n n f m l nd c m p
a th
’
lt
e s a o so
’
s or u as , a o are e re s u s .

92
J s. s i i f
ohn on sor mu l a By m e an s of an e x h au s t iv e
’ -
t ra g ht l ne .

s tudy of ex pe rim ent al d ata on colum ns Mr Tho mas H Johnson has , . .

s hown th at for colu mns of m od erat e l e ngth a s traigh t lin e c an be

m ad e to fit the plo tte d re s ults of colu mn t e s t s as e x actly as a cu rv e .

H e has th e re fo re pr opos e d the fo rmul a

F o r a m o re e x te ns iv c omp ar son o f i t h f or m u as s e e l Jo h ’
F ra me d S tr u ctu res ,
—
e es e ns o n s
8 th cd .
, 190 5 , pp .
—
1 59 1 71 ; al s o Tr ans A m er S oc Gi v E ng
. . . . .
, V ol . XV , pp 5 18 536
. .
 131

t ight line t angent to Eul er s curv e T hi s form ul a has the merit

a S ra
’
.

of g reat sim plicit y the o n ly obj e c tion to i t b e ing th at for sho rt

,

colu mn s it give s a v alue of P in e x c e ss of the ac tu al b reaking lo ad .

The rel atio n of this formul a to t hos e which p re c e d e is shown in

The constants v an d 0
'
in formul a (5 3 ) are co nne cte d by the relatio n

wh ere for fi xe d ends n 1 for free en ds n 4 and for one e nd fi x e d , ,

and the o th e r f re e n

The t abl e on p age 1 3 2 giv e s the sp e cial fo rm s assu me d by John

son s straight-line formula for v arious materials and method s of e nd
’

support l
.
ae

The limi t for u s e in thi s c as e is the v alu e of for the poin t

at which Joh nso n s s traigh t line b e co m e s
’

tang ent t o Eul er s cu rv e

’
.

bPro l e m 1 76C mp t th l tim t t ngth f

. o u e e u a e s re o

th c l mn in P bl m 10 4 by R nk i n nd J hn
’
e o u ro e a e s a o

t i gh t l i n f m l nd c m p th lt
’ -
son s s ra e or u as , a o ar e e r e su s .

P obl m 1 7 7 A c l mn 18 ft l ng i f m d by
r e . o u . o s or e

j i ning th l g f tw C n g i t l c h nn l N C 3
o e e s o o ar e e s ee a e s, o .
,

w ig hi ng 3 0
e by tw pl t c h 10 in w id o a es ea . e

and 4 i n thi ck h w n i n F ig 9 7 F i nd th f
.
,
as s o . . e sa e

l d f thi c l mn by J hn n t igh t l i n f
oa or s o u o so
’
s s ra - e or

m l i ng f c t f f ty f 4
u a , us a a or o sa e o .

Probl m 178 A w eg h t i n p i p 10 f t l n g
. rou - ro e . o ,
F IG 9 7
.

and f i nt n lo nd t n l di m t
er a 3 in nd
a e x er a a e er . a

4 in p c ti v ly b
. re s l d f 7 t n Wh t i
e e ,
e ars a oa o o s . a s the f ct
a f y
or of s a e t

Tr ans A mer S oc Gi v E ng
. . . . .
, 1 886 , p . 5 30 .
132 S T R E N GT H Q M A
FT ER I A L S

KI N D OF CO
0

LU M N L I MI T F OR USE

Har d s te e l
F l at e n d s 33 7

H i ng d e en s d 4 14

R ou n d en d s 5 34

Mi ld s te e l
F l at e nds 1 79

H ing d e en s d 220

R ou n d en s d 2 84

W rou gh t i n ro

F l t nd a e s 12 8

H ing d e en s d 1 57

R ou n d en d s 2 03

C ast i ron

F l at e n d s 438

H i ng d e en s d 53 7

R ou n d en s d 69 3 2

F l at e n d s 28

93 . s modificati on of Johns on s s trai g line f ormul a In

Coope r ’ ’
ht- .

hi s stan d ard b ridge s p e cific atio ns , Th e odo re C oop er has adopte d J ohn
s o n s s traigh t-lin e fo rm ul as m odify in g th e m by the i ntroduc tio n of
’

a f acto r of s af e ty Thus for me diu m s te e l C ooper s p e cifi e s th at the

.
, ,

following formul as sh all be us e d in calcul ating the s af e lo ad .

For cho rds

l
3 0 for liv e lo ad s tre ss e s ,
t
l
60 for dead l oad
‘
s tre ss es .

t
184 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER I AL S

kin d is to d etermine its relativ e s e mfi ty ag ains t f ailure as a c olu mn

and failu r e by b e n ding Th at is to s ay fi rs t de te rm ine its factor of s afety
.
,

ag ain s t f ailur e as a colu mn un d e r the giv e n colu mn

load Th en consid er i t as a b e am an d find the e quiv

.

al ent b e n d i ng m o me n t which would giv e the s am e

factor of saf ety Finally co mbine this e quiv al e nt

.
,

b ending m om ent with th at du e to the e ccentric

lo ad and calculate the u nit s tre ss fro m the o rdinary
,

b eam fo rm ulas .

To ill us trat e the me thod suppo s e that a colu mn ,

1 8 ft long is com po s e d of tw o 1 2 in I b e am s e ach

.
-
.
-
,

w eighi ng 4 0 an d c arr ie s a colu mn lo ad of 2 0

to n s at i ts upp er end and al s o an e cc entr ic lo ad of

‘

F 98
IG .

1 0 t o n s with e cc entricity 2 ft as shown i n Fig 9 8 .

,
. .

A s s u m ing th at the colu mn has fl at en d s an d u s ing Joh ns on s

’

s traigh li t- n e fo rm ula P =F _1 7 9 l
the factor of s afe ty
2
g i
a a nst colu mn failure is

1 79
F ac tor of sa e tf y
6 0 0 00
2 3 » 17 3
N ow co nsid er the column as a b e am and find the e quiv al ent c entral,

lo ad K co rre spo nding t o the f ac tor of s afe ty just foun d namely

'
,

The m ax i m u m m ome nt in a si mpl e b e am b earin g a con centrate d lo ad

K at the c e nt e r is M 5
; H en c e fro m the b eam formul a M= £
f
?
1 I
we h av e 13— wh ence
1

7
H
A
le

A s s u m ing the ulti mate strength of the mat e ri al to be

we h av e
I =

e 6 in .
,
 13 5

an d 111 8

52 2 0 lb .

lo ad I ;
a c ting p aralle l to the ax is of the colu mn
ontal reaction H at e ith e r .

om e nt at the c en t e r d u e to a ,

El
the ax is of the b e am ,
is, how e v e r ,
H

e quival e nt m o m ent at the c ente r n ow b e come s

4
+ 5
4 2 4 2

5220 x 2 16 x 24

in . lb .

max i m u m u ni t s tr e ss i n the me m b e r b e co m e s

6367

which co rre spond s t o a f act o r of s afe ty Of ab out 9 .

If this facto r of s afe t y is l arg er th an d e si re d as s u m e a s mall e r ,

I b eam and re p eat the c alcul ation s

- .

A m e thod sub s tan ti all y e quiv al e nt to the abov e i s t o as s u me th at

the s tre ss in a c olu mn i s re p re s e nte d by the e m pi ric al f ac to r i n the
colum n form ula u se d Thu s for a short block the actu al co mpre s sive
.
,

s tre s s p is giv e n by the re l atio n P F wh i n th c olu m n

p e re as : e ,

'

fo rm ula u s e d abov e ,
n am e ly P : F 500 179 the s tre s s 12i s

replac e d by
fraction
the e mpiric al f ac tor 179
5 . C on se qu en tly , the

1 79
13 6

re pre s ents the re duc tion in s treng th of the m e mb er due to its sli m
ne s s and me thod of lo adin g ; or wh at am ou n ts to the s ame thing the
, ,

e quiv al e nt uni t s tre ss i n the colu m n i s

l
1 79 -

A pplyi ng thi s me thod t o the n u m eric al probl em given ab ove , we

hav e F :

an d
1 79 x
1 79
;
H en c e the e qui v alent stre ss in the column is

/
3 0 x 2 000
x 1 36 3 4 7 0 1b 1n

Also , the b e nding s tre s s p roduc e d by

,
the e cc entricity of the lo ad is ,

P 2d 2

C o nse qu ently , by this me thod the to tal

,
s tre s s in the column is found
be
lb /
t0
3 4 70 2 92 8 63 98 in
. .
2

If a fo rm ula of the Ran kine -

Go r do n typ e is u s e d ,
n ame ly ,

P
F

the e qui v al ent s tre s s 1,

9 in the colu mn , du e to the given lo ad P , is

wh ere u d enotes
,
the ul ti mate co m pre s siv e s tren gth of the materi al ,

as abov e .
 C HAPT E R VI

T OR S ION

96 . shaft s When a unifo rm circul ar sh aft su ch as

Ci rcul ar .
,
.

s hown in Fig 1 00 i s twi s te d by the appl ic at ion of m o m e nts of oppo

.
,

site sign s to its e nds e v e ry straight lin e AB p arall e l t o its axis is

,

d e form ed into p art of a h elix or screw thr e ad A C The strain in thi s

, , .

c ase is one of pure she

0 16 3 7 The angl e d) is call e d the angl e of s hear (com p are Articl e
.

is p roportion al t o the radius B D of the sh aft The angl e 0 is c all e d the

”
.

ang l e of twi s t and is pr opo rtio nal t o the l eng t h AB of the S h aft
,
.

F IG . 1 00 FIG . 10 1

'

97 . Max i mum s tress in i

s haft s C onside r a s e ction of
c rcul ar .
,

length dog ou t fr o m a ci rcul ar sh aft by pl ane s pe rp e ndicul ar to its

ax i s Fig L e t d d d e n ote the angl e of twis t for this s e c tion
( . .

Th en sin c e the angle of twis t is propo rtional t o the

,
of
shaft d d : 0 d oc l ; wh enc e
,

d9 : 0

Also , if (t and d9 are e x p re ss e d in circul ar me asu re ,

B0 :
1
() -AB (pd x,

B0 d 9 -B D rd9 .

The refo re
 13 9

to h at is to say the u ni t she ar is pro

r ; t ,

c e nte r b e ing z e ro at the c e nte r

,

at the c ir cu m f e re n c e .

e sh e ar at the ci rcu mf e re n c e an d

the sh af t th e n the sh e ar g at a di s tan c e r

,

giv e n by the fo rmula

Lot 111, d enote the e x te rnal twi sting moment Th en s i nce .

,
i ll , m u st
be e qu al to the i nte rn al m o m e n t of re si s tan c e ,

r
wh ere Ip i s the pol ar m o ment of in erti a of the se c ti o n
.

4
7 D
For a soli d Ci r cular s h aft of d i ameter D ,
Ip an d c on s e qu e ntly
;9

M ta 16 M,

For a h ollow circular shaft of e x tern a l di amete r D an d i nte rn al

diame te r d , I, (D
4
an d h ence

56
(D ’1 "
)
'
77 d

98 Ang l e o
f wis
t t in i
c rcul ar s haf ts F ro m e qu ati on
"
. .

l
e i :
9
Gr Ga

The re f ore ,
for a so lid ci rcular s h aft f ro m e qu ati on ,

4
77 D G
'
14 0 S T R EN G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

and for a hollow cir cul ar sh af t from e qu ation ,

( )
5 8
G (D
f
‘ "
d )
'
77

If M,
is k nown and 9 can be m e asure d e qu ations (5 7) and (5 8 ) can ,

be us e d for d e te rmin ing G If G is k n own and 0 m easure d th e s e .

,

e qu atio n s c an be us e d for fi n ding M in thi s way the ho r s e powe r ,

which a rotating circu l ar s h af t is trans m itting can be d ete rm ined .

Probl m 19 0 A t l w i e 2 0 i n l ng nd 1 8 2 i n i n di m t
. s ee i t w i t d by
re . o a . . a e er s s e

a m m nt f 2 0 i n lb T h
o e nglo f tw i t i th n m
. . u d nd e a e o s s e e as re a

0 18 W h t i th v l
°
f G d t m i n d f m t hi
a s e p im a ue o e er e ro s ex er

Pr obl m 1 9 1 I f th engl f tw i t f. th w i i n P bl m 19 0 i 9
e a e o h w s or e re ro e s ( o

g t i th t i n l m m nt c ti ng n th w i
re a s e o rs o a o e a o e re

99 . Pow e r trans mitt ed by i

c rcul ar shaft s . Le t H be the n um b er
of hors e pow e r trans mitte d by the sh af t and n the nu mb e r of rev ol u ,

tio n s i t m ak es p er m in u te Then if g is the fo rc e acting on a p articl e

.
,

at a di s tanc e r f r o m the c e nte r the m om e nt of thi s fo rc e i s gr an d , ,

conse qu e ntly the to tal m o me nt trans mitte d by the sh af

Al s o the ,
distan c e trave le d by g in one mi n ute i s 2 WM ,
and there
fore the t o tal wo rk tran s mitte d by the S h af t is

2 wr nn .

Si n c e 1hors e pow er ft lb . . m in . in . lb . min the .

,

to tal wo rk done by the sh af t is

W : H in l b mi n . .
/ .

Th ere fore
2 7rn r
n = W : H,

2 WM ”, H ;
wh enc e
H
5 in . lb .

2 77 72. n

Th ere fore if it is ,
require d to find the diameter D of a solid ci rcular
s h af t which sh all tran s m i t a giv e n ho rs e pow er H wi th s afe ty th en ,

fro m e qu ation 16 M 3 2 1 000 H

” 8
WB ”D
14 2 S T R E N GT H OF .
MA T E R I A L S

The re fo re if , D i s the di am e te r of t he shaf t at C , the n or m a l s tre s s

on the e x tr e m e fib e r d u e to b e nding i s

32 Mb
.

1?
3
7r D

an d the s h earing s tre s s on the e x tre m e fib e r d u e to torsion ds

1 6 III ,
3
WD

Th e re is also a sh earing stre ss of am ou nt P di stributed ove r the

cro ss se ctio n th rough 0 bu t sinc e it is z e ro at the ou te r fib e r i t d oe s
, ,

n ot e nte r i nto this c alcul ati on .

F ro m A rticle 2 6 the v alu e s of the prin cipal str es s e s are

,

an d f ro m A rticl e 2 8 , the m ax i m u m or m i ni m u m s he ar is

In se rting in th e s e pres s i on s ex t hev alu e s of

p an d
g b tai n e d ab o
ov e ,

the prin cip al s tre s s e s and the m ax im u m or m i ni m u m sh e ar are i n ,

the pre sent case ,

M
( b i V M2 M 3) (calle d Rank in e ’
s f orm ula) ,

i V M i M ? (c all e d Gu e s t s fo rm ul a)
’
z z .

The quiv alen t stre ss

e m ay a s l o be f ou nd Thus from e qu ati on
.
,

A rticl e 3 6 as s u m ing m ,
3 % i ts v alu e i s foun d to be

— 16
3
M b :1: V M 1,
2
M 3] (c alle d S t V e nan t s .
’
f ormul a) .

7TD

It is e vid ent th at S t V enant s fo rm ula is si mply a re finem ent on

.
’

R ank ine s as bo th giv e the p rin cip al n ormal s tr ess e s Wh e reas Gu es t s

’ ’

, ,

f orm u l a i s e ss entially diff e rent s in c e i t give s s h ear H ence in d e sign

,
.

i ng m e m b e r s subj e c te d to bo th b e ndi ng an d t o rs io n try bo th Gu e s t s

’

an d R ank in e s or S t V e nant s ) fo rm ul as wi th the s am e factor of

’ ’

( .

Saf e ty and th e n u s e Which e v e r giv e s the l arg e r di m en sio n s to the

,

constructio n .
 T OR S I ON 14 3

Pro bl e . l h f
m 19 6 A s tee s a t 5 m i n d ame te r i s r e n a
,
r an o f 1 2 in
. i d iv by c k .

t h w
ro , i h
the m ax m u m t r u s t o n t he r an e n 10 t ons I f the o u te r e ce o f t he kbi g . dg
s h ft b
a e ar n i g
is 1 1 i n r o m the en
. f
te r of the r an p i n, c
a t i s the e u
q a e nt c k wh iv l
l ng b tw n b i ng nd 4 i n in di ‘

o e ee e ar s a . am e te r

i t c nt I f th t n i n i n th b l t s e er . e e s o e e on t hi s

th h f t m k 80 v l ti n p mi n t w h t i th
e s a a es re o u o s er u e, a s e m ax i
mu m s t r e ss i n the s h f t nd h w m ny H P i it t n mi tti ng
a a o a . . s ra s

*
10 1 . R e si l i ence i
s haft s In A rticl e 7 4 the re silien c e of
of c rcul ar .

a body was d e fi ne d as the i nte rn al wo rk of d e fo rm ation For a s olid .

circular sh af t this inte rnal w ork is

'

W 4 2116 :

wh e r e M, i s the e x ternal t wi s ting m o m ent an d 9 i s the an gl e of twi st .

$2
3 I
W
i
F ro m e qu ati on 9 an d fro m e qu atio n M g
,

T h e re fo re the total r es ilie nc e of the sh aft is

2 I2
1 WB 9 Z
W ’
—M 9
-
,
.

2 16 G

an d conse qu ently the m e an re s ilien ce pe r u nit of v olu m e is

W q

10 2 i ular s haft s The abov e inv e stigation of the distribu

. Non -
c rc .

tion an d in te n si ty of torsional s tre ss appli e s o nly to sh af ts of circul ar

s e ction For o ther forms of cro s s s e c tion the re sul ts are e ntire ly dif
.

fe rent e ach f orm h avi ng its o wn p e culi ar dis tribu tio n of s tre s s
,
.

For any fo rm of c ros s s e c tion wh ate v e r the s tre ss at the boun d ary ,

m us t be tange nti al For if the s tre s s is n ot tang en ti al i t c an be

.
,

re s olv e d i nto two co m pon ents on e tang enti al an d the o th e r n or m al ,

to the bou n d ary ; an d in Articl e 2 3 i t was s hown th at such a n orm al

’

component would ne c e s sit ate force s p aralle l to the ax is of the s haft ,

which are e x clud e d by hypothe si s .

Si n c e the s tre ss at t he bou nd ary m u s t be tang enti al the cir cul ar ,

s e c tion i s the o nly one for which the s tr e s s i s p erp e n dicul ar to a

radius v e cto r Th ere f ore the circul ar s e ction is the only one to which
.

the abov e d e v e lop m e nt appli e s an d c on s e qu e ntly i s the o nly f orm o f ,

For a b ief c
r o u r se the re m a in d e r of thi s ch ap te r m ay b e o i d
m t te .
1 44 S T R EN GT H OF MA T ER IA L S

c ro s s se ction for whi ch Bern oull i

’
s ss u mpti on
a holds tr ue . Th at is to
h cir cu l a r section is the only or m o cross s ecti on whi ch r em a i ns
sa
y,
t e f f
p l a ne u nd er a tors i ona l s tr a i n .

T he subj e ct of the dis tribu tion of s tre ss in non circular sh afts has -

b e en in v e s tig ate d by S t V en ant and the re s ul ts of his inv estig ation s

.
,

are s u mm ari z e d b e low

(A rticl e s 1 0 3 —1 0 6 in clusiv e
) .

10 3 Ellipti cal s haft For a sh af t the c ro s s s e ction of which i s an

. .

elli p se of s e m i ax e s a an d b the m axi m u m s tr e ss occu rs at the en d s

-
,

of the mi nor axi s ins te ad of at the en ds of the maj or axis as might

, ,

be e x p e cte d T he un it s tre s s at the ends of the min or axis is gi v en

.

by the fo rmul a 2 M
qmax — t

2
’
7Ta b

an d the an gle of twis t p er u ni t o f l eng th is

M , (a 2
b
”
)
3 s
17 a b G

The to tal an gle of twis t for an e lliptical sh aft of l engt h l i s th ere fore

M , (a + b ) l 2 2

49 .

3 3
77 a b G

Pro bl e m 19 8 . T he i se m ll i p ti c l h f t 3 i n
-ax es of t he c r oss s e cti on of an e a s a ar e .

a nd 5 i n . r es p c ti v ly W h
e t i th di m t
e . f c i c l h f t f q l t ngt h ?
a s e a e er o a r u ar s a o e ua s re

10 4 R ect ang ul ar and s qu are shafts For a sh af t of re ctangul ar

. .

c ro s s s e cti on the m axi mu m s tre ss occurs at the c e nte rs of the longer

s id e s i ts v alu e at th e s e point s b e ing
,

( )
6 1 Qm ax . 68 . 45

inwhich h i s the lo ng er and b the shorter s id e of the

angl e of twis t e r uni t of l eng th i s in thi s c as e
p , ,

M h
2 2

01 3 3
Gh b

For a squ are sh aft of sid e 6 th e s e formu

l as b e come

M2
Qm a x 4 8
$
0

01
14 6 S T RENG TH OF M AT ER I A L S

fo rc e s P ac ting in the d re c tiono f the ax i s of the cylind er (Fig

i
t wo .

Then the b e nding m o m ent at any point of the spring is M P r If .

the radiu s r of t he coil i s l arg e in co m p ariso n wi th the di am e te r of .

the wi re an d if the s prin g i s cl o se ly wou n d the pl an e of the ex te rn al

, ,
.

m o m ent M is v ery ne arly p erp en dicul ar t o the ax is of the h e lix an d ,

cons e quently the b ending s train can be as s u me d to be z ero in com

paris o n with the to rsional s train Un d er thi s as su m ption the m axi
.

mu m s tre s s i s foun d f rom e qu ati on

,
t o be

,
2 Mt 2 P r
q q m ax 3 3
7ra na

S im il arly , the m ax i m u m s tre s s in a s p ring of squ are or re c tangular

foun d by sub stitutin g M P r in e qu ati on s (6 1)
.

cross se ctio n c an be
an d

To
ount by whi ch the S prin g
find the am

is e x ten d e d or c om pre ss ed l et d d be the ,

an gl e of twi s t for an e l e men t of the h e lix

of l en gt h all Th en (Fig if AB is the

. .

ax is of the sp rin g a point M in thi s ax is ,

in the s ame ho ri z o ntal pl an e wi th the el e

F 10 4
IG .

ment all is displac e d v e rtic ally an am ou nt

MN r ow i n the di re c tio n of the axis Therefore the total ax i al .

co mp re s s ion or e x tens ion D of the spring i s the s u m of all the i nfini

tesi m al di s pl ac e m e nts r ate for e v e r y e l e m en t all ; wh e n c e

F ro m e q u ati on 0

2 Pr
There fore d9 4
d l, an d c on se qu ently
'
77 a
'

in which I is the l ength of the h elix .

If n d en o te s the nu mb er of tu rn s of the h e lix th e n u n d e r , ,

the

ab ov e as s u m p tio n th at the slop e of the h e l ix i s s m all l 2 ,

7rr n

app r o x i m ate ly an d h e n c e
,
 T OR S ION 14 7

“
s
4 P r n
pp rox i mate ly
a .

a G

The sili enc e W of the s pring is e qu al to one h alf the product of

re

the f orc e P multipli e d by the ax i al e xte nsion or co mpre ss ion of the

2 2
1 P l
W= —P D
r
4
2 vr a G
'

Pro bl e m 2 03 . h l i c l p i ng i c m p d f 2 0 t n f t l w i
A e a s r s o os e o ur s o s ee re . 2 58 i n i n
.

di m
a e te r , the di m t f th c i l b i ng 3 i n I f th p i ng i c mp
a e er o e o e . e s r s o r e ss e d by a

f c
or e o f 50 l h .
,
w h t i th m i m m t i n th p i ng i t i l c mp
a s e ax u s r e ss e S r ,
s ax a o ,
i
r ess on and

i ts r es i l i nc e e

s piral s pring s T he g eneral the o ry of the

'

1 08 . General t heory of .

cylind ri c S piral Spring subj e cte d to bo th ax ial lo ad and t or qu e has

many impo rtant applic ation s i n phy s ics an d e ngin e er ing as for ex , ,

am pl e in the h e lic al s p r in g tran s m i s s io n dy nam o m ete r now co ming

,
-

into g eneral u se by re as on of its ability to me asure pow er with ou t

,

ab s o rbing i t .

To analyz e the mos t g en e ral c as e suppo se th at an ax ial l oad P is ,

applie d to the sp ring an d al s o a to r q u e M the p os itiv e dire c ti on of P ,

b eing cho sen as th at which will produce e longation of the S pring an d ,

the positiv e dire c ti on of III as th at which will in c re ase the n u mb e r ,

of c oil s A l s o l et .

al e lo ng atio n of S p ring ,

1
() a n gul ar r o tatio n of s ri n g
p ,

r r adius of coil s i e di stan c e f r om c e n te r o f wi re to ax i s ,

. .
,

angl e of s pi ral pi ch angl e )

a
( t ,

l = l eng th of wire
tor q u e
,

A to rs i on al rigidity ,

angl e o f tw i s t pe r u ni t l e ng th

b e nding m om e nt
fl ex u re p er un it l e ng th of wi re

N ote th at if E You ng s m od u lu s an d G S h e ar m odul u s m odulus

I

(
’

of rigidity ) th en B E I wh er e I d en ote s the s tatic m ome nt of ine rti a

, ,

of a c ro ss s e ctio n of the wire with re s pe ct to its ne u tral axi s bu t th at ,

A is not e qu al to GI wh e r e 1 d en o te s the p ol ar m om e nt of in e rti a of a

, p,

cro ss s e c tio n of the wire T he tr u e v alue s of A for v ariou s c ros s s e c

—
.

ti on s how e ve r m ay be f ou n d f rom A r ticl e s 1 0 5 1 0 8 in conne c tio n

, ,

with the above d efinition and are su mmari z e d in the following table :
' ’ ’ ’ '

,
14 8 S T R E N G T H or MA T E R I AL S

S H P
A E
T O R S IO N LR
A I G XD I T Y F LE U R L R
X A IG I D I T Y

7rd
4E

A rt 1 04
.

+
1
b

G s
bh3

A rt 104
.
15 0 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

A ngle of t wi st pe r u nit of l ength

M Sm ,
“M co ,
sa

F l e x u re pe r u ni t of le ngth

about its i
ax s , t he se qu antitie s m u s t ne x t be pro je cte d b ack on the
X and Y ax e s . Mak ing thi s proj e ction (Fig we .

FIG . 10 7

R otatio n a b ou t v e rtical ax s i O Y p er u ni t length of wire .

III , co s a M i ,
s na

Rotati on a b ou t h oriz ontal ax 1 s 0 X p er unit l ength of wire

_
M i ,
s na M, c os a
A

Mu ltiplying ch of th e s e e x pres sions by thelength of the wire

ea ,

S i m plifyi ng we h av e fin ally
,

2 2
cos a 8 111 a
¢ = Jll bl s m a c os a

s
Jll , lr i n a c os
 T OR S I ON 151

o
In c as e the S pi ral s are v e ry fl at .
,
r
o m ay be as s um e d to be zer o , an d

the abov e e x p re s s ion s th e n re duc e to

Case II . R o tatio n of en ds pre ve nte d ,

ie
. .
1
<) 0 .

th e n Substitut e this v alue of AI , in the a

c e qu ation and find a: in te rm s .

Pro bl e m 204 . A ss u m e qt 0 and a F n i d a .

S o lu tion . Su b ti t ti ng th
s u e s e nu me r ic l v l
a a u e s of s a nd a i n t he e x
a .
p i
r es s on

z
i 2

< ) (
l 1 c os a s n a
+ M tl
'

qt z fil bl s rn a c o s a
A B B A

and so lv i ng t h e r es u l t i ng i
e q u at o n for Mt we ,
h va e

A —B
A + B

Su b ti t ti ng thi v l
s u s a u e of Mt i n the e qu at on i
2 2
i

(
00 8 a s n a
23 lI l
J M t lr s i n a cos a
A B
we h v fi n lly
a e a

2 Mblr 2 P l7 2 ‘

A + B A +B

S pecial Cas e 111 longation pre ve nte d i e x O

. A x ial e ,
. . .

T his c as e applie s t o the h elic al spring tran sm i s sio n dy nam om ete r -

me ntione d abov e In this c as e fi rst find M in term s of M f ro m the

.
, ,

e qu atio n x 0 an d th en substitu te this v alu e of 111 in the cf) e qu ati on

, ,

and find g t i n term s of Ill ,

Pro bl e m 205 h l i c l p i ng t n m i i n d yn m m t
. A e a -s r ra s ss o a o e er is ma d e of 1 55 t u r ns
}

of f l
A -i n . st e e l wi th m n di m t f th c i l b i ng l i n
re , e ea a e er o e o e
1
7f .
,
an d the r e b i ng 2 t n e ur s

of wi re per i nch C lc l t th t q
. a q i d t p d c
u a e e or ue re u re o ro u e an a ng l d fl c ti n
u ar e e o

of

S oluti on . c n t nt A nd B f
F r om t he ta l e the b
ci c l c o s a s .
a or a r u ar r oss s e cti on a r e
4 4
e Ed
nd B _ t i ng t h v l i n th q ti n
1 7r
A a In 0 se r e se a ues e e ua o a: ,
and assu m
32 64
in
g the re a l ti n b tw n th l ti c m d l i t b G g E th
o e ee lt i
e e as o u o e ,
e r esu s

s i n a c os a
Mb V
JIt -

5c 2 2
os a 4 s 1n a
1 52 S T R E N G T H or MA T ER IA L S

F r o m the gi v en di m e ns ons i it is f ou n d th a w 7 °
and c onse qu ently
Mb . 0 2 5 13 Mt .

I ns e rt n i g t hi v l s a ue i n the e qu ati on and al s o mak i ng d . 2 5, l

and E the r es u lt of s o lv i ng f or M, is

Mt in . lb .

E XER CIS ES ON CHAPT ER VI

Pro bl em 2 06 . F n i d t he di am e t e r of a s t ru ct u ra l tee
-s l en gi n h f t te s a o tr ans m t i
9 00 H P . w i th f c t f f ty f 10
. at 75 R P . . M . a a or o sa e o .

P obl m 2 0 7 F i nd th f c t
r e f f ty f . w g ht i n h ft 5 i n i n e a or o sa e or a r ou - ro s a .

di m t w hi c h i t n mi tti ng 6 0 H P t 12 5 R P M
a e er s ra s a

l —t l h f t i 60 f t l ng nd i q i d t t n m i t
. . . . .

P bl m 2 0 8 A t c t
ro e . s ru u ra s ee s a s . o a s re u re o ra s

500 H P w i th f c t f f ty f 8 nd t b f ffic i nt ti ffn

. . a a th t th
or o sa e o a o e o su e s e ss s o a e

a ngl f t i n h ll n t c d 5 p f t f l ngt h F i nd i t di m t
e o o rs o s a o ex ee .
°
er oo o e . s a e er .

P bl m 2 0 9ro U nd th e m c ndi ti n i n P bl m 2 0 8 find t h

. i f
er e sa e o o s as ro e e s ze o

a h ll w h f t if th t n l di m t i tw i c th i nt n l
o o s a e ex er a a e er s e e er a .

P obl m 2 10 A h ll w w
r e g h t i n h f t 9 in in t n l di m t nd
. o o ro u - ro s a . ex er a a e er a

2 i n thi ck i
. q i d t t n m i t 600 H P w i th f c t
s re u ref f ty f 10 A t w h t o ra s . . a a or o sa e o . a

s p d h l d it b n
ee s ou e ru

P bl m 2 1 1 A h i n t l t l h f t 4 i n in di m t
ro e . nd 10 f t l ng b
or z o a s ee s a . a e er a . o e

tw n c nt
ee f b i ng c i
e p ll y w i ghi ng 3 00 lb nd 14 in i n di m t
e rs o e ar s ar r e s a u e e . a . a e er

T h b l t n t h p ll y h
e e t n i n
o f 50 lb n th
e l ck id nd 1 75 lb n
u e as a e s o o . o e s a s e a . o

t h d i v i ng id
e rF i d th m i m m c mb i n d t
s e . in th h ft n e ax u o e s r e ss e s a .

P bl m 2 12 ro A n v h ng t l c nk c
e i m i m m th
. t n th c
o nk
er u s ee ra arr es a ax u rus o e ra

p in f 2 t n o L ng t h f c nk 9 i n ; di t n c f m c nt
o s . e f p i n t c nt o f ra . s a e ro e er o o e er o

b i ng 5 in D t mi n th i f c nk nd h f t f
e ar . e er f c t f f ty f 5 e e s ze o ra a s a or a a or o sa e o .

P obl m 2 13r A p p ll e h f t 9 in in di m t t n mi t 1000 H P t 90

. ro e er s a . a e er ra s s . . a

R P M I f t h th
. . t n th
. c w i 12 t n d t m i n th m i m m t
e r us o in e s re s o s, e er e e ax u s r e ss

th h ft
e s a .

P obl m 2 14r A nd t l b
e 2 i n in d i m t . pp t d t p i nt 4 ft
r ou s ee ar . a e e r, s u or e a o s .

a p t d fl c t 0 2 9 i n nd
ar ,
e c nt l l d f 3 00 lb nd tw i t
e s . in
. l ngth
u er a e ra oa o . a s s a e

f 2 4 ft nd t w i ti ng m m nt f 1500 f t lb F i nd E G nd P i ti
’
o . u er a s n o e o . .
, ,
a o ss o s ra o

f orth m t i l ( eA ti cl a er a se e r e

P bl m 2 1 5 I f P
ro nd Q d n t
e th ni t t . t th l ti c l i mi t f a e o e e u s re ss es a e e as s o a

P
m t l n t n n nd h
a e ri a i p c t v ly h w th t w h n
e s 1o 1 th m t
a l w ll
s e ar re s e i e ,
S o a e e a e r 1a 1

P Q
f l n t n n wh
ai 1 wh n
e 1 t W 11 f l n h
s 1o ,
w h n bj c t d t m
e r e as e i 1 ai l s e ar , e su e e o co
Q
bi n d b ndi ng nd t
e i n i p c ti v f th l ti v v l
e a f t h b ndi ng nd
or s o ,
rr e s e e o e re a e a u es o e e a

t w i ti ng m m nt
s o e s .

S l ti n C mb i ni n g R nk i n
o u o nd G
. t o f m l w h v a
’
e s a ues
’
s or u as , e a e

-
P q
‘
 C HAPT E R V II

Y
S PHE RE S AND C LINDER S UNDE R UNIFOR M PRES S UR E

10 9 . s tre s s When a hollo w sphere or cyli n d er i s subj e c te d

H0 0 p .

to u nifo r m p re s s u re as in the c as e of ste am boil e rs s tand i p e s g as

,
p , , ,

wate r and s team pip e s fire tub es e tc the eff e ct of the radi al p re s
, , , .
,

s u re is to p roduc e s tre s s in a cir cum f ere nti al dire c tio n c all e d hoop ,

s t re s s
. In the c as e of a cylin d e r clo se d at the e n d s the p re ss u re on ,

the e n d s pr oduc e s lo ngi tudinal s tre s s in the s id e w all s in addi tio n to

the hoop s tre ss .

If the thick n ess of a cylind e r or S ph ere i s sm all as com p are d wi th

its di am e te r it is c all e d a s hell
, In an aly zin g the s tre s s in a thin
sh ell subj e c ted t o un if orm r ess u re f sfi é
c

h
’

p as

th at du e to w ate r steam or gas it m ay be , , ,

as s u me d th at the hoop s tre ss is dis tribu te d

u n iformly ov er any cro ss s e c tion of the Shell .

Thi s assu mp tion will be mad e 111 wh at fol low s .

110 Hoop t ensi on in holl ow s phere C on

. .

s id er a sph e ric al s h ell subj e c te d to u n iform

F 1 08 IG
i nte rnal pres sure an d s uppo se th at the sh e ll
.

i s cu t into h emi sph e re s by a di am e tral pl ane (Fig Th en if w .

,

d e note s the pres s u re per unit of are a wi thin the shell the re s ultant '

2
n tl
''
w
f orc e acting on e ith e r h e misphe re is P wh ere d is the radi us
of the s ph ere If p d en ote s the un i t ten sil e s tre ss on the circul ar
.

cro ss s e ction of the sh ell the total s tre s s on thi s c ro s s s e ction i s m lhp
, ,

app ro xi m ate ly wh ere h i s the thick ne ss of the s h e ll

,
C o n s e qu ently .
,

which giv e s the hoop tensio n in term s of the radial pre s sure .

F ro m sy mmetry the s tre ss is the s ame on any diame tral cro ss

,

se c tio n Th ere fore the e quiv al ent s tre ss at any p oint of the sh ell is
.

1 54
 155

m — l wd
m 4h

If the v alu e of m is ass u me d to be t his ex pre s si on for 10 ,

b e c om e s

p ,
h

Pro bl e m2 2 1 .g H ow r e at i s the s tr e s s in a c ppo er s ph 2 ft ere . in di am e t e r an d

. 25 of a n i nc h t hi ck nd ,
u e r an i nt e r na lp re s s u r e o f 1 7 5 lb /
in . .
2

111 . Hoop t ensi on i n holl ow

i ul ar cy linder In the c ase of a c rc .

cylindrical S h ell its e nd s hold the cyli n dric al p art tog eth er in s u ch
,
‘

a wa s t o reli e v e the hoop t e nsio n at e i th e r e x tre m i ty S uppos

y a e .
,

the cyli n d er con s id e re d i s so far re m ov e d

influ en ce of the
e n d con s traint c an be as s u m e d to be z e ro .

S uppo s e the cylin d er cu t in tw o by a

pl ane through its ax is and co nsid er a se c ,

tio n c u t out of e i th e r h alf cylin d er by two

pl anes p erpendicular to the ax i s at a dis ,

tan c e ap art e qu al to c (Fig Th en the .

F 109 IG
r e s ul tant i nte rnal p re ss u re P on the s trip
.

u n d e r co n sid e ratio n i s P = ccl w an d the r es u l tan t hoop te n s io n i s

,

2 ehp wh ere the l etter s h av e the s am e m e aning as in the p re c e ding

,

articl e C on se qu e ntly caw

. 2 chp wh en c e
,

d iv
(6 4 ) 2 h

If the longi tudinal s tre ss is z e ro p p , ,

.

This re s ult is applic abl e to sh ell s u n d er b oth i nn e r and ou ter p re s

sure if P i s tak en to be the e xc e ss of the inte rnal ov er the ex ternal
,

pre ssure .

P obl m 2 2 2 A c t i n w t p i p i 2 4 i n i n di m t nd 2 i n thi ck
'

r e . as - ro a er e s . a e er a . .

W h t i th g t t i n t n l p
a s e r e a es w hi c h i t n w i th t nd
er a r ess u r e ca s a

1 12 . Long i tudinal
s tre ss in holl ow ci rcul ar cy linder If the en d s .

of a cyli nder are f asten e d to the cyli n d ric al p art the in tern al pre s ,

s u re ag ain s t the e n ds p r oduc e s l ongi tudi n al s tre s s e s i h the s id e w all s .

In this c as e the cylin d rical p ar t is subj e c te d bo th t o hoop te nsio n

and to l ongi tudin al te n sio n .
1 56 S T R E N G T H OF MA T ER I A L S

To find the am ount of the l ong t u dinal ten si on co n side r a cr o ss

’

s e c tio n of the cylin d e r n e ar i ts c e nte r wh e r e the influ en c e o f the e nd ,

r e s train t s can be as s u m e d t o be z er o Fig Th e n the r

( .

IA pressure on e ith er en d is

an d the res ultant l ongitudin al s tre ss on

the cro ss s e ction is wdhp Th ere fore .

2’
7T d w
m lhp ; wh en ce p 217i
T hi s i s the s am e fo rm ul a as for the
FIG 1 10
s ph e r e which w as to be pe cte d
.

,
ex ,

c
s in e the cro s s se ction is the s am e in both c as e s .

If p , deno tes the longitu dinal s tress an d p the ,

hoOp te n sio n, th e n
Wd wd
’
and , con s e qu ently , the e qu i val en t stre ss p ,
is
4h 2h
1 2 m —1 w ol
pe z
ph
c —
E 4 m h
If m 3 4, thi s b e com e s
wd
p a
. 425
h

Fo rmul a (6 5 ) is the one to be us e d in fin ding

the te ns il e stre s s in a thi n cylin d er s ubj e cte d to
unifo r m inte rnal pressu re in whi ch the e nd s ,
.

h eld tog e th e r by the body of

the cylin d e r an d not by ind e
.

p end ent s tay s or fi x e d s u p

ports .

P obl m 2 2 3 A n l v t d w t r e . e e a e a er

t nk i cyl i nd i c l i n f m w i th
a s r a or

h m i p h i c l b tt m (F ig
a e s er a o o .

T h di m t f th t nk i 2 0 f t
e a e er o e a s .

nd i t h i g h t 52 f t
a cl i v f
s e .
,
ex us e o

t h b tt m I f th t nk i t b
e o o . e a s o e

b i l t f w g h t i n nd t h f
u o rou ro a e ac

t f f ty i t k n t b 6 w h t
or o sa e s a e o e ,
a

h l d b th thi ckn f t h b t
s ou e e e ss o e o

t m pl t nd l o f th i n th
a es , a a so o ose e

F 11 1
IG . b d y f t h t nk n i t b t t m
o o e F m 1 12
a e ar s o o ,

NO T E F m l (6 3 ) d (6 5 ) g i v th q i d thick
. or u as an f t h pl t p v id d
e e re u re ness o e a es, ro e

t he ta n k i w it h t j i t T h b i g p w f t h i v t t th j i t h w v i i n
s ou o n s . e e ar n o er o e r e s a e o n s, o e e r, s,

g e ne ra l th
, id ti n whic h d t mi
e c on s e ra o t h t h ick n f th p l t
e er (A t 12 2 ne s e e ss o e a es r .
158 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER I AL S

b ending m o ment M ’
. Th en if , p d e no te s the r adius of

A rticl e 6 6 ,
1 M ’

p E]

the

flattene d f orm as the re s ul t of an additional b endi ng m om ent III ,

and

l et p ’
d e no te the corre sponding radius of curvature .

1 M ’
M
’
p EI
C ons e qu e ntly,
1 1 M
( )
6 6 '
E1
p P

F ro m the di ff e rent i al c alculus ,

If the d e formation is s m al l ,
is infi nite si mal , and
da
m ally from a ; Th erefo re negle cting infinite sim al s of
.
,

th an the s e con d the ex pre s sion for p beco me s

,
’

3 2
CL
I
P
e
a
2
ol a

an d, cons e qu ently ,
1 1 1 d
z
,

2 2
P a a ala

S inc e p a and t h ere fore

1 1
’
P P

C om p arin g e qu at ions (6 6 ) and

z
1 d r
(6 8 ) a
Z
’
O

tl a
2

T he si g n 4; i s u se db c e aus e the c lc l
a u u s ex p i
res s on fo r p
’
c i
o nta ns a s q u a r e r o ot in
the nu me r ato r
 SP H E R E S A N D C Y L IN D ER S
'

159

measu re d di ally Th en
ra .

r = a i m
or,if i t I S assu med to be positiv e wh en it lie s outsid e the circle and

neg ativ e wh en i t li e s in sid e ,

r n a .

Diffe rentiating both sid e s of this e qu ation with re s p e c t to a,

ol r al
l
ol a d o:

Al so if all is the leng th of an infi nite si mal

,
ar c of the circl e ,
a cl a (l l .

Subs t itu tin g th e s e v alu e s in e qu atio n it b e co me s

z
d u

which is the re q uire d different ial e qu ation of the el as tic curv e in the
curvilinear co or dinate s l and i t
'

1 1 4 ; C ru shi ng strength of holl ow ci rcu l ar cy li nde r A s a c ontinu

'
.

atio n of the p re c e ding articl e l e t it be re qui re d

,

to find the e x t e rnal p r essu re w hi ch i s ju s t s u fh

cient to cau s e the cylin der to retain its fl attened 13

fo rm or i n o ther word s the c ritical ex t ernal p res

, , ,

s u re ju s t p re c e ding coll aps e .

In Fig 1 1 4 l e t OA and 0 B be ax e s of sy mm etry ;

.

th en it is sufficie nt to co nsid er m erely the qu ad rant

A OB . Le t 0 d en ote the l e ngth of the ch or d A C F m 1 14 , .

and l et w be the u ni t e x te rn al p re ss u re Th en for .

a s e c tio n of the cyli nd er of u ni t l e ng th the e x te rn al p r ess u re P on

the cu rv e d s trip A C is
P we .

Now l et MO d en o t e the b ending m o ment at the point A The tang e n .

ti al fo rc e at this point i s e qu al to the re sul tant p ressu re on 0 A or wb ,

.

C o ns e qu ent ly the b en din g m o m ent M at the po i nt C is

—we
‘

M = M0 + wb AD ~ Jll o + w .
AD
16 0

In the triangl e 0 A0 ,

0
2
+ b
2 —2 b -AD ,

from whi ch 2
c b 2
r
2

6A D
2 2

M
H enc e 2

M 2 MO 1
,
.

S ince r u + a and a = b — u

M = M0 + —a — 2 a u
2

_M + —
—(u
w
O 0
2

S in c e bo th infini te sim al u
it an d u () are u or the diff e ren c e b e tw een
( , 0

the ab s olu te v alu e s of u an d n i s ne gligibl e in co m p ari s o n wi th 2 a

) o
.

T here fore M M, wa
:
(
u no ) ,

and, cons e qu ently ,

the differential e qu ation of the el astic cu rv e b e com es
2
al u
MO wa (
u no ) .

The general inte gral of thi s differential e qu ation is fou nd to be

M,
( )
70 u u o -l + Cl s m l + 02 cos
wa
in which O and C are the und etermine d co ns tants of integrati onj
'

l ,

This m ay be v erifi e d by subs tituting the integral in the abov e diff er

e nti al e qu atio n .

To d etermine 0 and 0 it i s Only ne c es s ary to m ak e u s e of the

, 2

t e rm n a i l conditio ns at A an d B . At the point A, l O, 0, an d

u no . S ubs titu ting th e s e valu e s in e qu ation (70 ) an d its fi rst d e riv

at iv e , it is foun d th at
MO
and 02
wa

T h rou gh ou t t hi di c i
s s u ss on it s h ld b b
ou e or ne 1 n m in d th
q u ant t at no i s a n e g ti v
a e iy .

J h on Or d i n a r y a nd P ar ti a l D ifie re n ti a l E qu a ti o ns , 3 d e d
—
1 S ee o nson , T r ea ti se .
,

p p 85 86
. .
162 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

Pro bl em 227 . In a b b i l th mb
fire -tu e o er e e s a re o f d wn
ra l 2 in i nt n l
s te e ,
. er a

di am e te r and 4 in . thi ck W h t i th f c t
. a s e a or of s a e t f yf or a w ki ng g g p
or au e res

s u r e oi 2 00 lb /
i. h 2 .

1 15 . linders Lamés f ormul as C onsid era t hick circul ar

T hi ck cy
’
.

cylin d er of e x te rnal radius a and internal radi us 6 whi ch is subj e cte d ,

to the actio n of ei th e r internal or exte rn al u nifo rm p res s ure or to , ,

both Suppos e a s e ction i s cut out of the cylin der by two plane s pe r
.
.

cu l ar t o the axi s at a u ni t s di s tan c e ap art an d co n sid er a s mall

’

p e n di ,

s e c t o r A B C D o f angl e a cu t out of the ring so ob t ain e d as show n ,

i n Fig l 1 5 Le t p d en o te the tang ential s tre ss or hoop stre ss acting on

. .
, , ,

thi s in fi nite sim al el e m e nt p the radi al s tre s s ac ting on the inne r s u r

, ,

f ac e AD and p ti th e radial s t re ss ac ting on the oute r su rf ace B 0

, p , ,
.

FIG . 1 15

Th en the int ernal and external radii b eing r and r alr re spe ctiv ely ,

the l ength of A D is r a an d of B C is (r ol r a
) S i nc e the wid th .

of the pi e c e is un ity the re sul tant radial fo r c e acting on the pie ce or

, ,

the differen c e b et w een the p re ssu re on the inn e r an d ou te r su rf ac e s ,

i s (p dp ) (r
,
d r) a pr
r a Th e r e fo re si n c e the r e sul tanr
t of the .
,

hoop stre s s in a radial dire ction i s (p a) ai r i n o rd er that the radial h ,

s tre s se s sh all e quilibrate

“
,

dr) pr r a
ph a dr ;

0 1 3 11 6 3 16 0 2 11 8 infini te s i m al s of an or d er high e r th an the s e cond ,

n d r r cl
p , m et ;

which may be w ritten

( )
74 (p )
T
r ph’
 16 3

lin d er
is subj e cte d to a u niform lo ngitudinal stre ss the longitudin al de for ,

matio n m u s t be co ns tant throughout the cylin d e r The l ongitudinal .

d e formatio n ho wev e r i s du e t o the lateral action of p and p and is

, , , k ,

1
1 or
(p m wh1ch m d e no te s Poi ss on s ’

777i ,

cons tant Th erefo re if this

.
,
ex pre ssion is constant , p , + 19, m u st
ce = k
p + ph
r ’

w h e re h is
cons tant C on se qu ently p
a h an d s ub s titu ting
.
, ,

this value o f p in e qu at ion (74 ) and m ultiplying by r it b e comes

, ,

z
lcr cl r 2 rp d r
'

r
r ol
p r ,

at

E
l;
(

E
2

in which 0, is the con stant of integratio n ; whenc e

k C,
( )
75
2 7
,

Al s o ,
Si n e c p, h p
h C
(76 ) ph
2

Now suppo s e th at the cylin d er i s subj e cte d t o a uniform internal

pres s ure of am ount i ) p er u nit of area an d also to a u nifo rm ex ternal
f
, ,

pre ssu re of am ou nt to pe r u nit of area Then 19 ,

to wh en r a .
, , ,

an d p ,
wh en r = b Subs tituting th e s e v alu e s in e q u atio n
‘

k
2 5 b
wh ence 2 2
h (w 2 2
a , ( ure a
” 2 2 2
6 a a 13

Th ere fo re s ub stitutin g th ese v alu es of

,
0, an d h in e qu ations
th e y b e co m e
2 2
wea 2
w ,b a
z
b (w ,
w,
2 2 2 z z
a b ( a b ) r

2 2 z 2
w, a
f
w ,b ot b (w e
164 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I A L S

which give the ra dial h oop s tre sSes in a thick cylind e r s ub je cte d
and

e x te rnal p ress u re Equ ation s (7 7) are k n own as

'

to inte r ns ? and .

Lamé s for
mulas
’
.

1 16 . Max i mum s tress in thi ck cy linde r under u niform interndl

p ress ure C o nside r a thi ck ci rcular cylind e r which is subj e cte d o nly
.

to i n te rnal p re s su re Th e n w 0 and e qu ations (77) b e co me .

, ,

( )
78 n 1 n .
a
2
—b 2

S in c e p , i s g ive the hoop stre s s in thi s c as e is ten sion

ne at , .

S inc e 19 ,
and p bo th incre as e as r d e cre ase s the max im u m
, , s tre ss

occu r s on the inner su r f ac e of the cyli n d er wh ere ,

2 2
w, 6
i
= b, = w and
a
)
r p r, , p
L
z —0 2

2
w,
C le aring the l atter of fractions h av e
% i whe nce
”
, we 2
the
h
we
thic kn e ss of the t ub e ,
h a b, is given by

h =b
h

Mo re ove r , the eq uiv alent s tre s s for a point on the inne r surf ac e of
the cylin d e r is
wt
P [(m 1) h
2
(m 1) a
2
]
.

m (a 2
b)
?

If n
a the a bsolute v alue of the e quiv alent s tre s s be co mes
we
(
2
8 0 ) p a
a
,
b
2
b

This may a s l o be w ri tte n

2 2 2 2
7b + 1 3 a a + b 3 a

—b _b —0
. .

p 43 :
2 2
w 2 2 2 2 pk + 3 w °

a a 611

Pro bl i d th thi ckn n c

e m 22 8 . y t gi v t t l l c m ti v cyl i nd
F n e e ss e e ss ar o e o a s ee o o o e er

of 2 2 i n i nt n l di m t
. if it i q i d t w i th t nd m i m m t m p
er a a e e r, s re u re o s a a ax u s ea r es s u r e

of 1 50 lb / i n w i th . f c t f f ty f 1 0
.
2 a a or o sa e o .

P obl m 2 29 I n f
r e cycl g ngi n th cyl i nd i f t l w i th n i nt n l
. a ou r- e as e e e er s o s ee a er a

di m t f 6 i n nd th i ni ti l i nt n l p
a e er o .
,
i 2 00 1b /
a in b l t W i th
e a er a r e ssu r e s . .
2 a so u e .

a f c t f f ty f 1 5 h w thi ck h l d th w ll f th cyl i nd b m d
a or o sa e o ,
o s ou e a s o e er e a e

Probl m 2 3 0 T h t l cyl i nd
e f n hyd . l i c p h n i nt n l di m t
e s ee er o a r au r ess as a er a a e er

of 5 in nd n
. t n l di m t
a af 7 i n W i th
ex er f c t f f ty f 3 h w g
a a e er o . a a or o sa e o ,
o r eat

an i nt n l p
er n th cyl i nd
a w i t h t nd
r e ss u r e c a e er s a
16 6 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER I A L S
‘
119 . T hi ck cylinders buil t up of concentric tubes From equ a .

tio n s it is e vid e nt th at in a thick cylin d er subj e c te d to inte rnal

p res s ure the stres s is gre ate st on the insid e of the cylin d er and
”
,

de creas es tow ar d the outsid e In or d er to e qu aliz e the s tress thro u gh

.

o ut the cylin d e r and thu s ob tai n a m o re e co n o mic al u s e of m ate ri al ,

the d evic e i s re s o rte d to of fo rm ing the cylin d e r of s e v e ral co n c entric

tub e s an d producin g an i ni ti al co m p re s siv e s tre s s on the inne r o ne s .

For i nstan c e in co ns tr ucting the b arre l of a cann o n or the cylin d er

, ,

of an hydrau lic pre s s the cylind er is built up of two or m ore tub e s

, .

The outer tu b e s i n thi s c as e are m ad e of s o m ewh at sm all e r di am e ter

th an the i nner tub es and th e n e ach is h eate d u ntil i t has e x p and e d
,

sufficiently to be sl ippe d over the one ne x t s m alle r In cooling the .

,

m etal of the ou ter tu b e co ntracts th u s p r oducing a co mp ress iv e stre ss

,

in the inn er tub e and a tens il e s tress in the outer t ub e If th e n thi s .

, ,

co mpo site tub e is s ubj e cte d to inte rnal pre s sure the fi rst effe ct of ,

the hoop tensi on thu s p roduc e d i s to reli e v e the ini ti al compre s s iv e

s t re s s i n the inner t ub e an d i n c re as e th at in the ou te r t ub e Thu s .

t he res u ltant s tre ss in the inne r t ub e i se qu al to the diffe ren c e b etw e en

the i niti al stre s s and th at d u e to the inte rnal p re ss u re wh ereas the ,

re s ul tant s tre ss in the ou te r tub e is the s u m of t h e s e two In thi s .

way the s train i s di stribu te d m o re e qu ally th roughout the cylin d er .

It is e vid ent th at the gre at e r the n u m b er of tub e s u s e d i n building

up the cylin d er the m ore ne arly can the s train be e qu aliz e d
,
.

T he p re c e ding discu s si on of the s tre ss i n thick t ub e s can al s o be

appli e d to the c alcul ati on of the s tre ss in a r o tatin g disk For e x ampl e .
,

a g rin ds to ne is s train e d i n p re ci se ly the s am e wa as a thic k tub e

y
und er int ernal pre ssu re the lo ad in thi s c ase b e ing du e to c entrifugal
,

fo rc e inst ead of to the pres sure of a fl ui d or gas .

1 2 0 Practi cal formul as for the coll ap s e of tubes under ex t ernal

.

ss m ly is of s re ss in thin t ub e s du e
’

p r e u r e
. A or e rig orou s an a s the t ,

t o e x ternal pre s s u re th an th at giv e n in A rticl e 1 1 4 using Poi ss on s

’

“
, ,

1
— of tran s v erse to longitudinal d e formation giv e s ,
the fo rmul a 9

Lo v e Ma th
,
. The ory f
o E l as t .
, V ol II , p p 308 3 16
. .
— .
 C Y L IN D E R S 16 7

Thi s form ula ho we ve r is b ase d on the assumption s th at the tub e is

, ,

pe rf e c tly sy mmetric al of uniform thick ne s s and of ho m oge n e ous

, ,

m ate ri al — con ditio n s which are n e v e r f ul ly reali z e d in co mm e rci al

,

hub e s F ro m re c ent e x p e ri m e nts on the collaps e of tub e s h ow e v er

.
*
, ,

sibl e to d e te rm ine the p racti c al li mi tati on s of thi s for

’

m odify it by a m ethod si mil ar to th at by which the

,

Go rdo n Ranki n e colu m n fo r m ul a was d e duc e d f ro m E ul e r s fo rm ul a

’
-

A r ticl e s 8 8 ob ai n a ratio n al fo rm ul a which s hall n e v e r

( a
,
s t o t
the l e s s co n fo rm cl o s e ly to ex p eri m e ntal re s ul ts By d e te rm i ni ng the .

el lip tici t y or devi ati on f r o m r ou n d ne s s an d the v ari atio n in thick

, ,

n e s s of the v arious t yp e s of t ub e s cov e re d by the te s ts m e n ti on e d

abov e it i s fou n d th at by i ntr oduci ng em piric al con s tan ts the rati on al

,

formul as c an be m ad e to fit ex p erimental re s ults as clo s ely as any

e m pi ric al fo rm ul as wi th the adv antag e of b e ing u nli m ite d in th e i r
,

rang e of ap pli c ati on j T he fo r m ul a so ob tain e d is

2 E G

where ‘

h av erag e thick nes s of tub e in in ch e s ,

D m ax i m u m o u t s id e diam e te r In m ches ,

1
PoI S S On s ra 1ot . 3 for s te e l ,
m
l -w ld d s l boil r flu e s
C . 69 for a
p e e te e e

. 7 6 for cold-d rawn s eaml e ss s te e l fi ne s ,

7 8 for d rawn s e aml e ss b ras s tub e s .

s imilar p r oc e du re for thick t ub e s practic al

.

a . 02 3 a

C ar m an , R e s i st of ll p Uni I ll B ll V l III N
T u be s t o C o a se , 17 S t w v u o o e a rt ,
—
.
. . .
,
.
,

C oll ap P r es s L ap -
. . W ld d St l T b
e e T n ee 1 906 pp
u es ,7 30
”
82 0 ra s .
,
. .

lc
T S o um , T he C o ll p Of T b e d E t l P u E g in
s un i g L d
x e r na re s s u r e ,
”
n e er n on on ,
—
a se er .

y
Jan ua r 8 , 1 909 A so . l b t ct f m ticl i K nt 8th d
a s ra o sa 1 9 10 pp
e ar 3 20 322
e n e ,
e :, ,
. .
16 8 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

ratio nal fo rmula has b een ob taine d fro mLamés fo ’

r m ul a, A rticle 1 18 ,
for this c as e also name ly ,

2 K hu
w c
h
D . 02 3
D

whe re u, ul i
t m ate co mp re ssiv e s trength of the m ate ri al ,

K . 89 for l ap w e ld e d s tee l boil er hu e s

- .

Only on e v alu e of K is giv en as the e x pe ri ments cite d w e re al l made

,

on one typ e of t ub e .

The co rre c tio n con stants C and K in clud e co rre c tion s bo th for
e llip tici ty or fl atten i ng of the tub e an d for v ari atio n i n thick ne s s
, , .

Thus if the co rre ctio n for e lliptici ty is d e note d by C and the corre o ,

tion for v ari atio n in thi ck ness by 0 we h av e

‘

2,

Minim u m outsid e diamete r

Max1 mu m outsi d e d1am eter
0 o

Minim u m ck ne s s thi
A v erag e thick ne s s

an d the corre c tion c ons tants C an d

‘

K are here fore d e fine d

t as

0 : og 0 3,

By an e x p e ri mental
d ete rmin ation of O and C the fo rmul as can I 2

th ere fo re be appli e d to any giv en typ e of tub e .

1 2 1 S hrink ag e and forced fi ts In machi ne constructio n sh r ink

. .

age and fo rc e d or p re s s e d fits ar e f r e qu ently e m ploy e d for conne cting

certai n p arts s uch as c rank disk and sh af t wh eel and ax l e e tc To
, , , .

m ak e such a conne ct ion the '

sh af t i s fi n i s h e d s ligh tly l arg e r

th an the hole in the disk or

ring i n which i t b e lo ngs The .

sh aft is th en eith er tape re d

slightly at the e nd and pre ss e d
F 11 6
IG .
in t o th e r i n g cold or th e r i ng ,

is enlarg e d by h eating u ntil it

will slip ove r the sh aft in whi ch c as e the shrink age due t o cooling
,

c aus es i t t o grip the shaft '

.
be foun d to produce s tre sses in the ring entire ly too larg e for s afety .

In d e ciding on the allow an ce for any giv e n cl ass of w o rk the wo rking ,

s tre s ses in s h af t an d ri ng m a fi r s t be ass ign e d and the all ow an c e

y
th en d ete rm in e d f ro m the fo rm ul as giv e n b e low so th at the ac tu al
s tre ss e s s h al l n ot e x c ee d th e s e v alu e s .

F rom Lam és fo rmul as the s tress e s p and p may be obtaine d in

’

, ,

te rm s of the u ni t p re ss u re b e tw e e n the s u rf ac e s in co ntac t

from fo rmula (8 0 ) the e quiv ale nt stre ss on the in sid e of the h ole

m
P1 = Pe

wh e re D3 d e n o te s outsid e diam e ter of the ring whil e by s u

the bs ti , ,

tu ti ng r a and b 0 i n the e qu atio n s of A rti cle 1 1 8 the stre s se s ,

.

on the o u ter s u r f ac e of the sh af t are fou n d to be

pk w" p r
w,
and co n s e qu e ntly
r2 = 0
1h n = -7 w

Eli min ating i t? b e tw e en th e se ex pre s s io ns for p l an d 19

2
, we h av e

Now to implify
s the solu tion ,
l et the coe fficient of p, be d eno te d by
H ; th at is l et ,

in which c as e
pl Hp 2 °

Eli mi nati ng p , b e tw e en this r el atio n and the bov e e x pre s sio n

a for the
allow anc e K, we h av e fi nally

K
H 1) 1
+
E 1 E 2

P1 11 17 2

In a pplying th e s e formul as the cons tant H i s fi rs t compu te d f ro m the

g iv e n di m e n s io n s of the p art s I f the allow an c e K i
. s g i v e n the u ni t ,
 C Y L IN D ER S 1 71

s tre ss es are th e n fou nd fr o m the abov e .

'
If K is e for the s tre s s i n th e ri ng
p is , ,
l

assig ne d an d calculat e d fro m the s e co nd e qu atio n This v alu e is

, .

th en subs titu t e d in the fi rs t e qu atio n and K c alcul ate d .

The followi ng p robl e m illustrate s the applic ation of the for mul as .

c t i n g 8 i n xt n l di m t 3 i n w id nd 12 in as - ro e ar , . e er a a e e r, . e, a .

t b f c d on t l h f t F i nd th t d v l p d th
o e or e a s ee s a . e s re ss e s e e o e ,
e

p u re ss q i d t f c th g
re re n th
u re h f t nd th t ng nti l th t q i d
o or e e e ar o e s a ,
a e a e a ru s re u re

t h
o s
'

t h fit i
e ar p d c l t i v m ti n b t w n g
e ,
. e nd h f t
. ro u e re a e o o e ee e ar a s a .

2 1) _ 1
S l ti n F m th f m l K ll w nc i f nd t b 00 4
.

2
o u o . ro th e or u a e a o a e s ou o e .

1000
m k i ng th di m t
a f th h ft D
e a in A l
e er o i nc D in D 8 in e s a 2 . so s e 1 .
, 3

H nc m i ng E
‘

w h e H ave nd E e e ass u 1 a 2

w h v e a e

19 , p,

T o find the p r e ss u r e r e qu i r e d to f c or e the g e ar o n the h f t it i fis a s rs t ne c e s s ar y

to c lc l t
a u a e t he p r essu re b tw e een the su r a e s f c in c nt c t F m
o a . ro t he l i
r e at o n

10 , 7 w t hi
. s am ounts to
w lb . in 2
.

T he fli i nt f f i c t i n d p nd
co e c e n th n t o f th f c i n c nt ct A
r o e e s o e a u re o e su r a e s o a . s

su ming i t t b p 15 n ov g v l e nd w i th
. n mi n l . f c nt c t as a a e ra e a ue, a a o a ar e a o o a

of x 1% x 3
7r 1 6 4 85 i n the t t l p P q i d i . .
2
,
o a r essu r e re u re s

P x x 15 lb t n . . o s .

T find th t o i n l i t nc f t h fit w h v
e or s o b v a re s s a e o e ,
e a e , as a o e

B i ng in
e ar Uni t p ar e a lb /
in 2 r es s u r e . .
2
,

p 15 di f h f t 8 75 in . .
,
ra us o s a . .

H nc th t
e i n l i t nc i
e e or s o a res s a e s

M x x 1 5 x 8 75
,
in lb . . . .

C n q ntly th t ng nti l t h
o se ue t n th t th
e f th g n c
a yt h e a ru s o e ee o e e ar e e ssar o s e ar

the fit i s
ns 2 1 , 2 5 0 1b
si
g 2 . tons .

1 2 2 » R iv et ed
j oint s In s tructural wo rk such as pl ate gird e rs . ,

tru s s es and al s o in s t eam boil e rs s tandpip e s and si m il ar c o n

, , ,

s tru c ti ons the conne c tio n s b e tw ee n the v ariou s me mb ers are mad e
,

by rive ting the p art s togeth er As the hole s for the rive ts w e ak e n .

the m e mb e rs s o j oine d the s tre ng th of the s tructu re i s d ete rm i ne d ,

by the s trength of the j oint .

F ailu re of a rive te d j oint may occur in v arious ways nam el y by sh ear , ,

ing a r c oss iv
the r e t by c ush g h
in t e fi by c ushi th pl t in
‘

r v e t r ng e a e
, ,
 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER IA L S

by te aring the pl ate along the line of rive t hole s Ex pe rie nc e has .

shown how ev e r that failure u s u ally occurs e ith er by shearin g across

'

, ,

the riv et or by tearing the pl ate alo ng the lin e of riv et hol e s .

T he s tre ng th of any giv e n typ e of riv e te d j oint is ex pre s se d by

wh at is c alle d its efficiency d e fine d as ,

str e n g th o f u nr i v e t e d m em ber

Thus if d (Fig d e no te s the diamete r of a rive t and e the dis tan c e

.

b etw een riv e t hol e s or p i tch of the riv e ts as it is c alle d the efficiency
, ,

of the joint ag ains t te aring of the plate along the line of riv ets is

T d etermi ne the e fficie n cy of the joint ag ain s t S h earing acr oss the
o -

"

riv e ts l e t 9 d e n o te the ul ti mat e sh e aring s tr engt h of the riv et and p

,

the ul ti m ate t e nsil e s treng th of the pl ate Th en for a single l ap j oint .

(Fig . if h d e n o t e s the thick n e ss of th e pl ate , the area co rre

2
7r d
s pon ding to on e r ivet is hd an d the area in shear for e ach rivet is
T
,

cons e qu ently the e fficien cy of thi s type of j oint agains t rivet she ar mg IS

t — _
Wf q .

4 ehp

For an econ o mic al d e s i gn th e s e two e ffiCiencie s sh oul d be e qu al For ‘

practical reason s howe ve r it is not general ly pos sible to m ak e th e se

, ,
.
.

e x ac tly e q u al an d in this c as e the s m all er of the two det e rmin e s

,

the s trength of the j oint .

For a doubl e rivete d l ap j oint the e fficien cy ag ains t tearing of the

-
,

I t
p a e ls
e —d
6 : 3

as a bov e ; bu t sinc e in this c as e there are two rive ts for ea ch s tri p of

l ength 0 the e fficien cy ag ainst riv e t shear is
,
1 74 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

g i st riv e t sh ear is
an d a a n

6 :

The v g fici en cies of various typ e s of riv ete d j oints as us e d in

a e ra e e f

s team boil e rs are given in Fig 1 1 7 . .

In d e sig ning s te am boil er sh e lls i t is cus to mary 1n this cou nt ry to

-

d ete rmine fi rst the thickne ss of s h ell plate s by the fol lowing r ul e .

To find the t hick ne ss of S h e ll plate s multiply the maxi mum s team ,

pre s s ure to be c arrie d (saf e working pre ssure in by h alf the

diame te r of the boil er in i nch es Thi s giv e s the hoop s tre ss in the
.

sh ell per u nit ef l ength Divid e this re sul t by the s af e wo rking stre s s
.

w o rk ing s tre ss ul i m at e s tre ngth usu ally abou t

( t ,

divid e d by the facto r of s afety s ay 4 or 5 ) an d divide the quotie n

, t
by the av erage e fficiency of the s tyle of j oint t o be us e d e x press e d as ,

a d e cim al T he re sul t will be the thickn ess of the sh e ll pl ate s e x

.

press e d in d e ci mal fractions of an inch “

.

H avi ng d e te r mi ne d the thick ne ss of sh ell pl ate s by this h i éthOd

'

the di am ete r of the riv e ts is nex t foun d f rom the e mpi ric al fo rm ul a

wh ere h : for l ap jo i nts and h = for bu tt j oi nts with two

cov er pl ate s .

The pitch of the riv ets is n e x t d etermin e d by e qu ati ng the s tre ngt h
of the pl ate along a s e ction through the riv e t hole s to the s tren g th
of the riv e ts in sh e ar and solving the re sulting e qu ation for c
, .

To illus trate the applic ation of th e s e rule s l et it be re quire d to ,

d e sign a boil er sh ell 4 8 in in diamete r t o c arry a steam pre ssure of

.

1 2 5 lb i n with a doubl e riv ete d doubl e strapp e d bu tt joint

2 - - .
. .
,

By the abov e r ul e for thick ne s s of sh e ll pl ate s we h ave

h —
L . 3, say
5
13
i n .

The diame ter of riv et s is th en

t
a . 73, s ay in .

To d et ermine the pitch of the riv e ts the s trength of ,

the plate for a

s ect io n of wid th 0 on a line throu gh the rive t hol e s is '

(e d ) hp ( c
g)
5
1,
x
 S P HE R E S A N D C Y L IN D E R S 1 75

Wid th is
9
4 X 9
4

Equating th e se two s
re ul t s and solving for c, we h av e
—
2)
9
( 0 X 77
1 6
“
X

e = 4 5 in
. .

As a che ck on the co rre c tne s s o f ou r a s s um ptions the e ffici ency of

the j oint is found to be
e d . 75

For b ridg e and s truc tu ral wo rk the ru l e s are

re p re se n tativ e of Am e ric an p rac tic e

l ae
.

The pitch or di stanc e f ro m c e nte r t o c en t er of riv e t s s hould n ot

be l e ss th an 3 diam e te rs of the riv e t In b ridg e wo rk the pi tch S hould
.

not e x c e e d 6 i n ch e s or 1 6 t i me s the thick ne ss of the thinn e s t ou ts id e

,

pl ates e x ce p t in spe ci al c as e s h e re afte r note d In the fl ang e s of b eam s .

and gird e r s wh e re pl ate s m o re th an 1 2 in ch e s w id e are u se d an e x tr a

, ,

line of rivets with a pit ch not g re ater th an 9 inch e s s hould be d riv en

alo ng each e dg e to d raw the pl ate s tog e th e r .

A t the e nd s of co m pre ssio n mem b e r s the pi tch should not ex c ee d 4

diame ters of the riv e t for a l eng th e qu al to twic e the wid th or di ameter
of the memb er .

In the fl ange s of gird ers and cho rds c arrying floo rs the pi tch should ,

n ot e x c ee d 4 i n ch e s .

For pl ate s in co m pre ssion the pitch in the di re ct ion of the line of
s tre ss shoul d not ex cee d 1 6 t ime s the thick ne s s of the plate and ,

the pitch in a dire c tion at righ t angl e s to the lin e of s tre s s should
-

n ot e x c ee d 3 2 t i m e s the thick ne ss e x c e p t for cov e r pl ate s o f top

,
,

chord s and end posts in which the pitch should n ot e x c ee d 4 0 time s

th eir thick ne ss .

The dis tan c e b et we en the e dg e of any pi e c e an d the c enter of the

riv e t hol e should n ot be l e ss th an 1 7 in ch e s for
1 i n ch and
g i n ch - -
I
riv et s e x c e p t in b ar s l e ss th an 2 1
5
i n ch e s wid e ; wh en p ractic abl e it

i v by C
G en am bi r a l
S te e C o .
1 76 S T R EN GT H OF MA T ER IA L S

should for all si z e s be at leas t 2 d1ameters of

, , the r1v e t and should
not e x c e e d 8 time s the thick n es s of the plate .

X
E ER CIS ES ON C HAPT ER VII

bl m 2 3 5
Pro e . T he e nd pl t f b i l h ll
a es o a o er s e ar e c vd ur e ou t t o a ra di us o f 5 ft .

I f th pl t e a es ar e 3 in . t hi ck find t h t n i l
,
t e e s e s r e ss d u e to a s te a m p re ss u re of

1 75 lb / in . .
2

P obl m 2 3 6
r e . pl t in P bl m 2 3 5 i c h ng d t
I f t he t hi ck n e ss of t he e nd a es ro e s a e o

4 i n t.h ,
t m p e s ea th m t w h t di
r e ss u r e h l d t h b i ng
y b e c v d e sa e, o a ra us s ou e e ur e

in d th t th t n i l t i n th m h ll m i n th m
or er a e e s e s r e ss e s a re a e sa e

Probl m 2 3 7 In e d bl i v t d l p j i nt th pl t
. a
l i n
ou t hi ck i v te -r e e a o e a es ar e .
,
r e s

i i n di m t nd p i tc h 3 i n C lc l h ffi c i ncy f t h j i nt
g n . a t
e er, a t . a u a e e e e o e o .

P obl m 2 3 8
r A b il
e h ll i t b 4 f t i n di m t w i th d bl i v t d l p
. o er s e s o e . a e er, ou e -r e e a

j i nt nd i t c y t m p
o s, a s f 9 0 lb /
o arr i n w i th f c t f f ty f 5
a s ea r e ss u r e o . .
2
a a or o sa e o .

D t mi n th t hi ck n
e er e f h ll pl t e nd di m t nd p i t c h
ess o f iv t s Al e a es , a a e er a o r e s . so

c lc l t th ffic i ncy f th j i nt
a u a e e e e o e o .

P obl m 2 3 9
r A cyl i nd i c l t nd p i p i 7 5 f t hi g h n d 2 5 f t i n id di m t
e . r a s a e s . a . s e a e e r,

w i th d bl i v t d tw t p b tt j i nt D t m i n th q i d thi ckn
ou e -r e e ,
o-s r a f u o s . e er e e re u re es s o

pl t n th b tt m f
a es e ar f ct f f ty f 5 nd l t h d i m t nd p i tc h
e o o or a a or o sa e o ,
a a so e a e er a
‘

o f iv t
r e s .

P obl m 2 4 0 T h cyl i nd
r e f n hyd . lic p i 12 i n i n di m t
e F i nd
er o a r au r ess s . a e er .

i t t hi ck n
s t t nd p
e ss f 1 500 lb /
o s a in if i t i m d f c t i n nd th
a
s
r es u re o . .
2
,
s a e o as ro a e

f c t f f ty i 1 0
a or o sa e s .

Probl m 2 4 1 A hi g h p
e c t i n w t m i n i 4 i n i n id di m t nd
.
- r e ss u r e
,
as - ro a er a s . s e a e er a

c i p f 8 00 lb / F i nd i t t hi ck n f c t f f ty f 1 5 '

2
arr es a in
r e ss u r e o f . . s ess or a a or o sa e o .

P obl m 2 4 2 T h w t
r e c h mb f fi ngi n h . e p h i c l t p 18 in
a er a er o a re e e as a s er a o .

i n di m t a nd c i
e e r, a p s f 2 50 1b / in It i m d
arr e s a f N 7B nd S
re s u r e o . .
2
s a e o o . . a .

g g c pp w hi c h i d c d i n m n f c t t thi ckn
au e o e r, s re f b t 1 in
u e a u a u re o a e ss o a ou . .

D t mi n t h f c t
e er fe f ty e a or o sa e .

Probl m 2 4 3 A c t i n i ng 3 in t hi ck nd 8 i n w id i f c d n
e . as - ro t l r . a . e s or e o a s ee

s h f t 1 0 i n i n di m t F i nd th t
a . i n i ng nd h f t th p
a e er . q i d e s r e sse s r a S a ,
e ress u r e re u re

t f o c th i ng n th h f t nd th t i n l i t nc f th fit
or e e r o e s a ,
a e ors o a res s a e o e .

N T E S i c th
O .i g i t hi c i
n e l ti v l y thie r n m ll w nc f b t
n s ase s re a e n , ass u e an a o a e o a ou

h lf th m t gi v by M
a e a o unf m l T h h v i g g i v D 10 i D 13 i
en oor e s
’
or u a . en a n en 2 n .
, 3 h .
,

an d c m p t d th
o ll w c K w h v l D D K d i ti g th v l
u e e a o an e , e a e a so 1 2 , an ns e r n e se a ue s

i th f m l
n e f A ti cl 12 1 th
or q i d q
u as o ti ti r m y b f nd e pl in d i
, e re u re uan es a e ou , as e x a e n
P bl m 234
ro e .

Pro bl f ll w i ng d t
e m 244 t k n f m St w t
. p i m nt n t h
T he o o a a ar e a e ro e ar
’
s ex er e s o e

c ll p f t hi n t b nd
o a se o t n l p th t b d f r p i m nt
u es u er ex er a r ess u r e , e u es use o ex er e

b ing l p w l d d t l b i l fl
e a - C mp t th c ll p i ng p
e e ,
f m th
s ee o er ues . o u e e o a s re ss u r e ro e

rati n l f m l f
o t hi n t b
a gi v n i n A ti cl 12 0 f b th th v g t hi ck n
or u a or u e s, e r e ,
or o e a e ra e ess

and l t t hi ck n
eas nd n t th t th tw lt li n pp i t id f th
e ss , a o e a es e o r e su s e o o os e s es o e

v l b t i n d di ctly by p i m nt
a ue o a e re ex er e .
 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

bl cyl i nd i c l t nd p i p
m 247 f t hi g h nd 2 0 f t i fi id di m t
'

Pro e . A r a i s a e . a . s e a e er s

m d a f i n pl t
e o t th b
- .w i th l ngi t di n l d bl i v t d tw t p b tt
a es a e as e o u a ,
ou e -r e e ,
o-s r a u

j i nt c nn c t d by L i n i v t w i th p i tc h f 3 4 i n C mp t th f ct f f ty
i

o s, o e e . r e s a o . o u e e a or o sa e

w h n th p i p i f ll f w t
e e e s u o a er .

P obl m 2 4 8
r Ine i ngl i v t d l p j i nt c lc l t th p i tc h f th i v t nd
. a S e -r e e a o a u a e e o e r e s a

th di t n c f
e s am th c nt e f th i v t t th dg f th pl t nd th
ro e e er o mp e r e s o e e e o e a e u er e ass u

t i n t h t t h di m t
o a f th e i v t i tw i c a g t th t hi ckn
e er o f th pl at
e r e s e as re a as e e ss o e e .

S l t i n C n id
o u o t i p f w id t h q
. o l t t h i v t p i tc h i
s er a s r t i p c nt i n
o e ua o e r e ,
. e . a s r o a

i ng n i v t L t g d n t th h i ng t ngth f th i v t nd p th t n i l f
o e r e . e e o e e s e ar s re o e r e ,
a e e s e o

th pl t
e T h n if h d n t
a e . t h t hi ck n
e f th pl t i n e d th t th h i ng
o es e e ss o e a e, or er a e s e ar

t ngt h f th
s re i v t m y b q l t th t n i l t ngth f th pl t l ng th l i n
o e r e a e e ua o e e s e s re o e a e a o e e

o f iv t h l
r e w mu t h v o es , e s a e

q :
(C —d ) kp .

i c iv lly b tt m t i l th n th wm h t
‘

S n the is of p l at e ,
'
‘

e r et u su a e er a er a a e e ay as S t a

t he l ti m u at e S h e ar n i g s t re ngt h f t h iv t i q l t
o e r e s e ua o t he u t l im t a e t n il
e t ng t h
s e s re

f t h pl
o e at e , i . e . ass u m e th t p a q U n d thi . er s as s u mp t i n t h o e ab v l ti n
o e re a o

bc me o es
h

(c d h:f (c d)

w h nc e e

c (1, a pp r ox i m t ly a e .

i i l ly in d
S m ar ,
or er h
t at the j i nt m y b
o a e e qu ally c
se ure a g in t a s S he ari ng o ff the
ri v t nd p ll i ng i t
e a u ou t of the pl t i h
a e, . e . S e ar n i g the pl t i n f
a e r ont of the r iv e t,

th c ndi ti n i
e o o s

q =2
( a

wh er e a d e no t e s t he mar gin ,
”
or di t nc f s a e ro m c e nt e r of r iv e ts dg
to e e of pl ate ,

a nd q
’
d e no t e s the u t l im t
a e s h e ar i ng t ngth s re of t he pl at e . A ssu mi ng t h at q
’
—q
d 5
and h a nd s ol v1ng t he r es u l t 1ng e x p r e s s I On f or a, we h v
a e
5
a 1 5d . .
 C HAPT E R V III

FLAT PLAT ES

12 3 . Theory of f l at pl ate s
lysis of s tre ss in fl at plate s is . The an a
,

at p re s ent the m os t u n s atisfac t o ry p art of the s tre ng th of mate ri al s

, .

Al though fl at pl ate s are of fre qu ent occurre n c e in e ngineering con

s tru cti ons as for e x am pl e,
in m anhol e cov ers cyli nd e r e n d s floo r
, , , ,

a e s e tc n o g e neral th e o ry of such pl at e s has as t b giv

p l
“
'
n ,
.
, y e een e n .

Each form of pl ate is treat e d by a S p e ci al method which in m o s t , ,

c as e s is b as e d upo n an arbitrary ass u mption as to the d ange r ou s

,

se ction or the re actions of the suppo rt s and th ere fo re l e ad s to

, ,

qu es tionable re sults .

Although the p re s ent th e o ry of fl at pl ate s is pl ainly inad e qu ate ,

it is ne v e rth e l e s s of v alu e in pointing ou t the co ndi tio ns to which

, ,

such plate s are subj e ct and furni shi ng a rational b asi s for the e sti
,

mat ion of t h e ir s treng th The fo rm ul as d e riv e d in the followi ng .

paragraphs if u se d in this way with a clear u nd erstanding of th eir

, ,

app r o x i m ate n atu re will be fou n d to be in v alu abl e in d e s ig ni ng or

, ,

d ete rmin ing the s tre ngt h of fl at pl ate s .

The following has co m e t o be the stan d ar d me thod of tr e atm ent ,

and i s chi e fly d u e t o Bac hfi

f

1 2 4 Max i mu m s tre ss i n homog ene ou s ci rcu l ar p l ate u nde r u ni

.
.

form l oad C o nsid er a fl at cir cul ar pl ate of ho m og e ne o u s m ate ri al

.
, ,

which b ears a u n ifo rm l o ad of am ou nt w per u nit of are a and s u ppo se ,

th at the e dg e of the pl ate re s ts f reely on a cir cul ar ri m s ligh tly

s m all e r th an th e pl ate e v e r y poi nt of the ri m b e ing m ain taine d at
/
,

the s am e l e v e l The s trai n i n this c as e is g reate r th an if the pl ate

.

was fi x e d at the e dg es an d co nse qu e ntly the f orm ul a d e duc e d will

, , ,

give the m ax i m u m stre s s in all cas es .

"
F
a
pp im t m th d f l ti
or an a rox a e e o o so u o n s e e ar t i cl by S E S l c
e . . o u m e nti tl d f T h
e
‘
e

g th f F l t P l t w i th A p p l i c ti c t S t l Fl P l E ng n
”
St re n o a a e s, an a on t o C on re e- ee oor an e s , i eer

i ng N w J ly 7 1 90 4
e s, u , .
180 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

N ow suppose a diame tral sectiom of theplate tak en and regard ,

e ither h alf of the plate as a cantil e ver (Fig Th en if r is the .

radiu s of the pl ate the to tal lo ad on thi s s e mi ,

2
—
'
7z r
circl e is w an d its re s ul tant i s applie d at ,
2
the center of gravity of the se micir cl e which ,

é
?
at a distan ce of f ro m AB . The m om ent
0 7

thi s re s ul tant abou t the support AB is therefofe

2 3
ar r 4 r 2 r w
w .
01
‘

e . 1 18 2 3 ''
n 3

z
'
of the supporting forc e s at the e dge of the
71 7
”

pl ate is of am ount w, an d IS appli e d at the c ente r Of g ravity Of

2
2
the s e mi circu mf ere nc e
-
, Wt h I S at a di s tan c e of
f ’
fro m AB . The

m o m ent of thi s re sultant about AB is the re fore

wr w
o fi“ ’ or r
a
w .

2 77

Hen c e the to t al t
e x e rna l m o m ent M at the support is
g 3
2 r w r w
M= r
3
w
3 3

N ow ssu m e that the stre ss at any poin t of the plate is independ

a

e nt of the dis tan c e of t hi s poin t f ro m the c ente r Und er this arbi .

trary assu mption the s tre ss in the pl ate is giv e n by the fu nd amental
formul a in the th e ory of b e am s namely , ,

Me
20
I

If the thick ne ss of the plate is d enot e d by h, th en, sm c e the breadth

of the s e ctio n is b 2 r,

I r an d 6

C o ns e q u ent ly,
18 2 ST R E NG T H OF M AT ERI A L S

If To 0, t hat is to s ay, if l d is assum e d to be c on c entrate d

the b a
at a s n i gl e p om t at the c ente r o f the pl ate fo r m ul a (8 4 ) b e com e s
,

3 P

If the lo ad is uniformly distribu te d ov e r the entire plate th en ,

r an d P m w wh e re w is the lo ad pe r unit of area In thi s

fl
, .

c as e formul a (8 4 ) b ecome s
3 w w w = w
2
Wit

which agr ee s with the re sult of the pre c e ding art icle .

bl m 2 5 1 S h w th t th m im
P ro e . o a e ax um c nc nt t d l d w hi c h
o e ra e oa c an be b orne

by c i c l pl t i i nd p nd nt f th
a r u ar a e s e e e o e ra di f th pl t
us o e a e .

12 6 . Dang erou s s ect on i

lliptical plate C onsid er a hom o
of e . .

en e ou s e lli p tic al pl ate of s em i ax e s a and b and thi c k n e s s h and

-
g ,

suppose th at an axi al cross i s cut out ,

of the plate co mpo s ed of two strips ,

AB and C D e ach of u ni t wid t h and , ,

i n te r s e c ti ng in the c ente r of the pl at e

B ,

as s hown in Fig 1 1 9 . .

N ow suppos e th at a singl e con cen

trate d lo ad ac ts at the in terse c tion

F G 1 19 I .
of the c ro s s and is dis tribu te d to the
suppo“rts in such a way t h at the t wo
b eam s AB and CD e ach d efl e c t the sam e am ount at the c ente r Since .

A B i s of l ength 2 a f ro m Articl e 6 7 Probl e m 1 1 9 the d e fl e ction

, , ,
3
2
at the c ente r of AB is D1
{125} F ro m sy mmetry ,
the re a ctions
at A and B are e qu al Th ere fo re if each of th e s e reactions is d enote d
.
,

by RI, 2 RI P, and co n s e q u ent ly

, ,

a
Rla
D1
3 El

S imil arly, if R2 d enote s the e qu al re a ctions at 0 and D , the d efle c

tion D2 of CD at its c enter i s
 EL A T PL A TE S 183

If the
.
pl ate re m ai n s intact the two s trips
, AB and C D. m u st d e fl e ct
the s am e am ount at the c e nte r Th ere fore
. D2, an d h en c e

For the b e am AB of length 2 a the maxi m u m e x te rn a l m o ment is

3
h
Rla . Also ,
since AB is assume d to be of u ni t wid t h ,
I E .

12 2
H en c e the m axi m um s tre s s p in AB is ’

Me .

2
I

m axi m um s tre s s p in C D is
H
6
p 6 R2
72}
;

C ons e qu ently ,
p
”
'
R1 “
p
3
RI 6
or3 sinc e from e qnation (8 6 )
R2

1
0
’
b
“
p
"
By hypoth e sis a ,
Th ere fo re p p ; th at is t o say th e
”
m ax i ’
,

mu m stre ss occu rs in the s trip C D or in the dire ctio n of the s h orter

,

ax is of the e ll ips e In an e llip tic al pl ate th ere fo re rup tu re m ay be

.
, ,

ex p e ct e d t o occu r along a line p arall e l t o the m aj o r ax is a re s ul t ,

whi ch has b e en confi rm e d by e x p erim ent .

12 7 Max i mu m s tre ss i n homog eneou s elli pti cal p l ate u nder

.

u nif orm l oad The m ethod of fi nding the m ax i m u m s tre s s in an

.

e lli p t ic al pl ate is t o co nsid e r the two li mi ting fo rm s of an e llips e ,

name ly a ci rcl e and a s trip of in fi nite l e ngt h and e x p re ss a co ntinu

, ,

ous re lat ion b etween the s tre ss e s for th es e two lim iting fo rms T he .

me t hod is t h ere fo re si mil ar to th at us e d in Article 8 8 in ob taining

the m odi fi e d form of Eu l e r s colu mn fo rm ul a
’
.

C onsid e r fi rs t an in d e fi nitely long s trip with p arall el sid e s su p ,

po rte d at the e dge s and b earing a u nifo r m load of am ount w pe r u nit

of area Let the width of the strip be d eno ted by 2 b and its thi ck ness
.
,
184 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IAL S

by h Th en if this s trip is cu t int»cro s s strips of uni t width e ach

.
, ,

of th es e cros s strips can be reg ard e d as an inde p end ent be am the ,

lo ad on one of the s e u nit cro s s strips b eing 2 bw and the max imu m ,

(2 b) w 2

mo m ent at the c enter b e ing C on s e qu ently the m axim u m ,

8
s tre ss in the cross strip s , and here fore
t in the original s trip; is
2
4 17 10 h
8 2
8
h
12

In the p re ce ding article it was shown t h at the maxi mu m s tre ss in

an e llip tic al pl ate occu rs in the dire ction of the m in o r axi s The re .

fore e qu ation (8 7) give s the li mi t ing v alu e whi ch the stre s s i n an

ellip tic al pl ate app ro ach e s as the e llips e b e co me s m o re an d m o re

e lo ng ate d .

For a circul ar pl ate of radius 6 and t hickn ess h the max im um

stre ss was found to be
z
bw
2
h

C om p ari ng e qu ation s (8 7) and it is e vid ent th at the maxim um

s tre ss in an e llip tic al pl ate is gi v e n ,
in g ene ral by the fo rmul a
,

2
bw
”

77 2

wh ere k is a cons tant whi ch lie s b etw e en 1 an d 3 . Thus , for 9 1,

a

t h at is ,
for a circl e ,
16 1; wh ere as if ,
g 0 th at is ,
for an infi nitely
lo ng ellips e k ,
3 . The constant k m ay th e re fore be a ssume d t o
h av e the v alu e
t = a - ai
a

which re duce s t o the v alu e s 1 and 3 for the limiting c as es and in ,

oth er c as e s has an interme di ate v alue d ependi ng on the fo rm of the

pl ate C ons e qu ently
.
,

z z
b w (3 a 2 b) b w
2
ah
186 ST RENG T H OF M AT ERI AL S

H e n c e the m axim um s tre ss in the T l ate is

2
wa d h
'

6 2
3
dh
12

p z w

T he m axi m u m qu are plate of sid e 2 a

s tre s s in a s is t here fore the
s ame as in a ci rcul ar pl ate of di am ete r 2 a .

P obl e m 2 5 3 W h t m u t b th thi ck n
r . a f w gh t i
s e e e ss o a r ou - r on pl ate c v i ng o er an

op ni ng 4 f t q
e t c
. s y l d f 2 00 lb /
u are o f t w i th
arr f ct a oa o . .
2
a a or of s a e f ty f 5 o

12 9 . Max i mu m s
s t re s in homog e neou s rectang u l ar p l at e u nder

un ifo rm l oad . In the c ase of

ctangul ar pl ate s e x p erim ent do es re

n ot in di c ate so cl early the po s i

tion of the d ang erou s s e ction as i t

do e s for s qu are pl ate s TIlT Wll l be .
"

ass u m e d in wh at follows how e v e r , ,

th at the m axim u m s tre ss oc cu rs

alo ng a di ago n al of the re ctangl e.

Thi s as su mption i s at le ast ap

pro x im ately c orre ct if the length
of the re ctangle do e s not e x c e e d
two or th re e ti m es i ts b re ad th .

Le t the sid es of the re ctangl e

be d e n o te d by 2 06 an d 2 b and ,

the thickn e ss of the pl ate by h

Fig A l s o l et d d e n ote th
12 1 1G .
( e .

l engt h of the diagonal A C and c ,

the altitu d e of the tri angl e A B C N ow s uppo s e th at a di agon al se ction

.

A O of the pl ate i s tak e n and con sid er the h alf pl ate A B C as a c anti
,

l e v er as show n in Fig 1 2 1 If w d enote s the u nit lo ad the to tal

,
. .
,

load on the pl ate i s 4 a bw an d cons e qu e ntly the re sultant of the

,

r e ac tio ns of the s upp orts alo ng A B and B 0 is o f am o u nt 2 a bw and ,

is appli e d at a di s tan ce 9 f ro m AO . The re fore the m o ment of the sup

2
porting for c e about A O is a bwc . Al s o , the to tal lo ad on the tr iangl e
 18 7

Th ere fo re the t otal e xternal m ome nt

2 ct w
3

max i mu m s tre ss in the pl ate is

a bwc h
3 2
3
dh
12
i c
or, S n e cal 4 a b,
2
0
2
2 h

which giv e s the re quire d m ax im u m s tre ss .

For a s qu are pl ate a b and c a 2 an d fo rm ul a (9 1 ) re duc e s ,

to fo rm ul a (9 0 ) for s qu are pl ate s ob taine d in the p re c e di ng articl e

, .

P obl m 2 5 4 A w
r e gh t i n t p d i 5 f t l ng 3 f t w id nd g i n thi ck
. r ou - ro ra oor s . o ,
. e, a . .

H wg
o t u nif
re a m l d w i ll i t b
a or oa e ar

13 0 . No n h
-
omog eneou
s pl ate s ; concrete s teel fl oor p anels The -
.

fo rm ul as d eriv e d in the pre c e ding article s apply only to fl at plates of

ho m ogene ous m aterial If a plate is co mpo s e d of n on ho m og ene ous
.
-

mate ri al such as re enfo rc e d con c re te the m ax i mu m s tre ss i s give n by

, ,

the fo rm1113
M6 ’
.

!
1

wh ere 1 is the m o ment of inertia of the e quiv al ent ho mogene ou s

’

se ctio n ob tain e d f r o m the n on ho m og ene ou s s e cti on as e x pl ain e d in

-

A rticl e 4 8 and e is the di s tance of the e xt re m e fib er of thi s e quiv al ent

’
,

ho mogene o u s/ se ction from its ne utral axi s ,

Thu s fro m Articl e 12 4 the e xt ernal m o m ent M on h alf of a u ni

, ,

'3
7 w
formly lo ad e d circular pl ate i s M an d , cons e qu ently ,
the m axi

mu m s tre ss in uniformly lo ade d

a , n on- ho m ogene ous circular pl ate is
,

given by the formul a

(9 2 )
188 ST RENG T H OF M AT ERIAL S

where I and 6 refer to the e quit al ent hom ogen e ous s e ction as
’ ’

e x pl ain e d abov e an d this se c tio n i s tak e n thr ough the c e nte r of

,

the pl at e .

S i mil arly fro m A rticl e 1 2 8 the m ax i mu m s tr e s s In a u nifo rmly

, ,

lo ade d non ho m ogene ous squ are pl ate of S ide 2 a i s gi v en by the

,
-
,

fo rmul a
f 2 wa
f
.
s r
e
(9 3 ) 3
.

I ’

fro m Article 12 9 the max imum stre ss in a uniformly lo ade d non

and ,
“

, ,

ho mog ene ous re ctangul ar plate of sid e s 2 a and 2 b by the formul a

,

’
a bwce
( )
9 4
31 ,

in which 6 and I re fer to the e quiv alent ho mogene ous s e ction obt ai ne d
’ ’

fro m a diagonal s e ction of the plate .

Pro bl em 255 l i 18 ft l ng 15 f t wid nd _

. A c nc t o i ire e -s te e
n lfl oor p ane s . o ,
. e , _a d
.

thi ck nd i ,
a q s re e c d by
w gh t i n d 1 in thi ck pl c d } f n
nf or e s u are rou - ro ro s .
,
a e 3 o a

i nc h f m th b tt m f th l b nd p c d 1 f t p t F ind th m i m m t
ro e o o o e s a a s a e . a ar . e ax u s ress

i n th p n l nd e a t t l l iv
e nd du d l d f 150 l b / ft
er a o a e a ea oa o . .
2
.

N TE T k O di g n l
. cti n f th p l d c lc l t th q i v l t h m g
a e a a o a se o o e ane an a u a e e e u a en o o e ne ous

se ct i n c o p di g t it T h fi d th p iti f th
orr e s on t l
n i f thi q i v l t
o . en n e os on o e ne u r a ax s o s e u a en

hmgno o c ti
e d it m m t f i
eou s s e ti b t thi t
on , anl i pl in d in s o en o ne r a a ou s ne u r a ax s , as e x a e

A ti cl 48 T h m
r e im m t . th b
e bt i d f m f m l
ax u s r e s s c an en e o a ne ro or u a

Pro bl e m 2 5 6 D es i gn . a fl oor p ane l 14 f t . s qu are ,

to b e ma d e of re e n or ef cd
c nc
o re te and to sus ta n i a tota u l nif orm l d
oa of 12 0 lb /
.f t w i th f ct.
2 a a or o f f ty
sa e

of 4 .

X
E ER CIS E S ON C HA PT ER VIII

Pro bl e l di p h gm p ti ng tw p n i n c h mb
m 257 . T he s te e f a ra se ar a o ex a s o a ers o a

t am t
s e b i n i bj c t d t p
ur e f 1 50 1b /
s su in n n id nd 8 0 lb /
e e in o a r e s s u re o . .
2
o o e s e a . .
2

o n th t h r F i nd t h
e o q i d t hi ck n
e . f f c t f f ty f 10 e re u re e ss or a a or o sa e o .

P obl m 2 5 8 T h cyl i nd
r e f n hyd l ic p
. i m d f c t t l 10 in
e er o a r au r ess s a e o as s ee ,
.

i n id di m t w i th fl t nd f th m thi ckn
s e a e er, th w ll af th cyl i nd
a e o e sa e ess as e a s o e er .

F i nd th q i d t hi ckn f
e re f c t f f ty f 2 0 A l find h w m c h l g
u re e ss or a a or o sa e o . so o u ar er

th f c te a f f ty w l d b if th nd w m d h mi p h i c l i n t d f fl t
or o sa e ou e e e as a e e s er a s ea o a .

P obl m 2 59
r T h cyl i nd
e f t m ng i n i 1 6 i n i n id di m t
. e nd er o a s ea e e s . s e a e er a

c i t m p
arr e s a s e a f 1 2 5 1b /in I f th cyl i nd h d i mi l d t l find it
re ssu r e o . .
2
e er ea s s ee ,
s

thi ckn f f c t f f ty f 1 0
e ss or a a or o sa e o .

Prob l m 2 6 0 A c t i n v lv g t 10 i n i n di m t
e . i und p
as - r o a e a e . a e er s er a r e ss ur e

h d f 2 00 ft F i nd it thi ckn f
ea o f c t f f ty f 1 5
. s e ss or a a or o sa e o .
190 S T R ENG T H OF M AT ERIA L S
C i c l pl
r u ar ate , s u pp or te d at e dg e a nd u rflf o r ml y l dd
oa e .

d fi
l )
h z
’
r z : . 5D ,
p P

T2 w
Gras h fo ,
6p
. 4 5 6 4 1)

wF
N i ch lo s,
10 p

T h u r s ton h . 00 03 5 wD ,

wh e re h thi ckn f h d i n i nc h
e ss o ea es ,

1) di m t f h d in i nc h
a e er o ea es 2 r

w p i n lb /
r e ssu r e in . .
2
,

p w ki ng t i n lb /
or in
s r e ss . .
2
,

2
i nc h
5
”
F f h d in q
ar e a o ea s u ar e es

Note t -
h at the N ich lo s and T h u rs ton f ormu as a l pply on ly t w o r ou ght i r on .
 C HAPT E R IX

CUR VED PIECES : HOOKS , LINKS , AND S P RINGS

Erroneou s ly sis of hook s and link s In c alculating the

’

1 . ana .

a cu rv e d pi e c e who s e ax is is a pl ane cu rv e such as a hook ,

e ngin ee rs are accus to m e d to assu me th at

the di stribution of s tre s s i s the s am e as in a st raigh t b eam subj e cte d

t o an e qu al b en ding m om e nt and axi al lo ad For e x am pl e i n cal cu
‘

.
,

lating the s trength of a hook such as S how n i n Fig 12 2 the p ractic e

, .
,

has b e en to tak e a s e ction AB wh ere the

b ending m o m ent i s a max imum and cal ,

cul ate the u nit stre ss p on AB by the

P ( )
P d e
"
1
”
17 I

wh ere fi rst term d enote s the dire ct

the
stress on the s e cti on A B of are a F and ,

the se co nd te rm re p re s e nts the b en ding

s tre ss d u e t o a m o m e nt P d c alcul ate d

fro m the fo rm ul a for straigh t b e am s .

The b ending form ul a f o r s t r a i g h t

b e ams how ever do es not apply to cu rv e d
, ,
F 12 2 IG .

pie ces as will be s hown in wh at follows

,
.

More ove r e x p eri me nt has con clu s ive ly s hown th at a cu rve d pi e ce

,

b reak s at the point of s h arp e s t cu rv atu re wh e re as the ab ov e formula

,

tak e s no accou nt wh ate v e r of the cu rv atu re The abov e fo rm ul a i s .

th e re fo re n ot ev e n app r o x i m ate ly co rre c t an d i s cite d as a popul ar

”

e rro r ag ain st which the s tud e nt i s w arn e d .

1 3 2 Bendi ng s train i n cu rv ed p i ece

. C o nsid er a cu rv e d pie c e
.

which is subj e cte d to pure b e n ding s train and as su me that the axi s ,

of the pie c e is a pl ane curv e and al s o th at the radiu s of curvature is

H ook e s
’

not v e ry l arg e as co m p are d with the th i ck nes s of the pie c e .

l aw and Be rn oulli s ass um ptio n will be tak en as the s tartin g p oint

’

19 1
19 2 ST RENG T H OF MA T E R I AL S

for the lysis of s tress as in the the ory of straight b eams ; that Is
ana ,

to say it will be assu m e d th at the s tre ss i s p ropo rtional to the

,

d e fo rmatio n produc e d and th at any plane s e ction remai ns identical

,

with its elf du ring the d e fo rmation .

S in c e the fib e rs on the conv e x sid e are long er th an thos e on the

co nc av e sid e it wil l tak e l e ss stress to d e form th e m an e qu al amou nt
,
.

The re fore the ne utral ax is do es not p ass through the c enter of gravity
G of the s e ctio n bu t th r ough s o m e o th e r poi nt D b elowG as show n
, , ,

in Fig 1 2 3 For if the ne u tral axi s p as s e d through G the t otal

. .
,

d e formation above and be low

G would be of e qu al amou nt ,

and th e r e fo re the t o tal s tre ss

abov e G would be l e s s t h an

th at b elow G sin c e the fibe rs ,

abov e G are lo ng e r t h an thos e

b elow This shi ft ing of the .

ne u tral axi s c onstitfi tEF the

fu n d am e n t al differen ce be
t w een the t h e o ry oi s traigh t
and cu rv e d pi e c e s .

N ow l e t the l engt h of any

fib e r such as MN in Fig 12 3 , .
,

be d en o te d by l and the distan c e of this fib er f ro m a gravity axis GZ

,

by y Al so l et p d en ote the radi u s of curv ature 0 G of the pie c e 8

.
, , ,

the angl e be tw e en two pl an e s e c tio ns an d a the angl e of d e format io n ,

of a pl ane s ec tion Then .

I: B -M O = (0 G
, GN ) 8
, 8
y) ,
,

and the d e formation all of the fib er MN is

dl = NN ’ =
a ~
N D = (y d) a ,

where d d enotes the dis tan ce GD b etw een the ne u tral ax is an d the
gravi ty axis F ro m H ook e s l aw
.
’

dl
l o
”
z E
wh enc e

k, wh ere k is a const ant Then this expression for 10 re duc e s t o

.
194 S T R E N GT H OF
'

MA T ER IAL S

which i s the re quire d formul a for t al cu l ating the b ending s tre ss at

any po int of a cu rv e d pie c e .

1 3 3 S i mp lifi cat i on of f ormu l a f or u nit s tre s s

. In fo rmul as (9 6 ) . ,

and d erive d in the pre c e ding article the integral s involv e d ,

m ak e the fo rmul as difficul t of applic atio n The foll owing ge o m e trical .

'
tran sfo rmatio n w hi ch is du e t o Résal fi gre atly sim plifi e s thefo rm ul as
e
,

and th ei r applic atio n .

T he fi rst s te p is a g e o metric al transfo rm atio n of the boun d ary of

the giv en cross s e ction C o ns id er a s ym m etric al cr oss s e ction for
.
,
.

e x am pl e the cir cl e S how n i n Fig 12 4 an d l et O Y be an axis of

.
,

sy mmetry p assing t h rough the center

of c urvature C of the se ction and OZ ,

a gr avi ty axis p erp en dicul ar to O Y .

N ow suppos e radii d rawn f ro m C to

e ach poin t M in the bou nd ary of the

cr oss s e ction From H the point of .

,

inters e ction of GM with the grai ity

“z '

ax i s OZ e re c t a p e rp en dicul ar to OZ
, ,

an d f ro m M d raw a p erp e ndicul ar

t o OY Th en th e s e two pe rpe ndicu

.

l ars will int e rs e ct in a point of the

transfo rme d bou n d ary as sho wn in ,

Fig 1 2 4 . .

It wil l n ow be p r ov e d (1 ) th at the
di stanc e of the c ente r of gravi ty G
F IG 12 4
.

of the tran sform e d s e ction fro m the

c enter of gravity 0 of the o rigin al s e ction is the v alu e of d gi v en by
fo rm ula an d (2 th at the m o m e nt of in ert i a of the t ransfo rm e d
)
s e cti on is the int egral whi ch occurs in form ul a
.
—
In Fig 1 2 4 the di stan c e N M is the Z coii rdi nate of the poin t M ;
’ ’

l et it be d e no te d by z ’
Th en .

p
z
UN P+ y
'

T he distan c e d ’
of the c e nter of gravity G of the tran sfo rmed
R es i s tance d es Matéri au zr , pp . 385 et s eq .
 L IN KS , A N D S P R IN G S 19 5

d = OG
’

D ividing ou t co n stant p and re placing

the the l
e e ment of are a z d
y
b this e x p ression for d b e co me s
’

whi ch is id e ntic al with the v alu e of d giv en by fo rm ula (9 6 ) abov e .

C o ns e qu ently the neu tr a l a xi s of the or ig i n a l cr oss s ecti on coi nci d es

,

wi th the g r a vi ty a xi sof the tr a nsf or m ed s ecti on .

N ow l e t the m o m e nt of i nerti a of the transfo rme d s e ction be

d e note d by I Then
’
.

in which y is measure d fro m the gravity ax is of the tr a nsf or m ed

’

se c t io n th at is f ro m a lin e th r ough G p arall e l t o OZ ; and d F d e notes

’

"
, ,

'
an e l e m ent of are a of the tran sfo rm e d s e ctio n ; wh e n c e d F
’
z d
y
Th ere fo re S in c e,

z I
an d dy ’
z d y,

the ex p re ssion for I ’

b e co mes
I ’
= (y —
l—d )
2
z

or, if the e e l ment of area z dy is d en ote d by dF ,

Thi s integral how e v er is the one which occurs in fo rmul a

, ,

C ons e qu e ntly if its v alu e f rom the abov e e qu atio n i s s u bs titu te d

,
i n

the e xp re ssion for the u nit s tre s s p s implifi es into

y + d
(9 8 ) y P
19 6 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

For an ordinary b eam wi tho u t ini tial cu rv atur e d 0 I I and , ,

’
,

i n whi ch c as e s in c e P z 1
7
/ the f orm ul a re duc e s to
.

p cc , ,

9 +P P l l ’ ' ‘

l il y
the o rdinary b eam formula p
I
To avoid the confu sion which m ay ari s e fro m po s itiv e an d negative
v alu e s of y in applying fo rm ul a n o t e th at

y d distan ce of fib er f ro m neu tral ax is

y p di stanc e of s am e fib e r f rom c ente r of curv atu re
T hi s qu otient b s trac t nu m b er and its s u b stitu ti on in
i s th en a ,

fo rmula (9 8 ) gi v e s the nu me ric al v alue

of the stre ss p without reg ard to S ig n .

The foll owing p robl e m illu strate s the

applic ation of the fo rm ul a .

P obl m 2 6 7 T h w g ht i n c n h k r e . e r ou - ro ra e oo ,

h wn i n F ig 12 5 i d i gn d t pp t l d S o .
,
s es e o su or a oa

f t n t n F i n d th m i m m tT i f th fi

o e o s . e ax u s e ss e

h k nd thi l d nd th nc d t m in th oo u er s oa ,
a e e e er e e

f c t f f ty a or o sa e .

S l ti n L t c c ti n 0 0 Y f th h k o u o . e a ros s s e o o e oo

b t k n t t h p i ti n f m im m m m nt e a e a - e os o o ax u o e ,

h w n i n th h d d p j cti n i n F ig 12 5 as s o e s a e ro e o . .

I n F ig 1 2 6 l t t h c v n m b d1 p . e e ur e u e re re re

nt t hi p j c ti n T h g v i t y i D F f se s ro e o . e ra ax s o

t hi cti n p p ndi c l t th i f y m s se o ,
er e u ar o e ax s o s

m t y OOY i fi t d t m i n d w hi c h m y b e r ,
s rs e er e ,
a e

d n by th g p hi c l m th d pl i n d in o e e ra a e o ex a e

A ti cl 4 7 th w i ? C v 1 i th n t n r e ,
or o er se f ur e s e ra s

f m d i nt c v 2 by th m th d pl i n d i n or e o ur e e e o ex a e

A ti cl 1 33 th l i g h t c n t c ti n l i n n th r e ,
e o s ru o es o e

F 12 5 l f t f OY h w i ng h w thi i cc m pl i h d
IG . e o S o o s s a o s e .

T h m m nt f i n ti I f c v 2 i th n
’
e o e o er a o ur e s e

f und g p hi c lly by th m th d pl i n d i n A ti cl 4 7 T hi m t h d c n i t
o ra a e e o ex a e r e . s e o o s s s

i n fi t t n f m i ng c v 2 i nt c v
rs ra s or 3 nd 4 urth epl i n d th n m o i ngur es a ,
.
as e re e x a e ,
e e as u r

th b tw n OY nd c v 3 nd 4 by m n f pl ni m t nd fi n lly b
e ar e as e ee a ur es a ea s o a a e e r, a a su

s ti t ti ng th
u f n d i n t h f m l f t h m m nt f i n ti I f c v
e ar e as so ou e or u as or e o e o er a
’
o ur e

2 n d th di t n c f i t c nt f g v i ty f m A B g i v n i n A ti cl 4 7
‘

a e s a e c o s e er o ra ro ,
e r e .

I n th p nt c w h v t h n t h f ll w i ng n m i c l v l
e r e se as e e a f b ti t ti n
e e e o o u er a a ues or s u s u o

p CE 2 F ih CO EO r
: .
2
,
’

I OE in d in
’
C in .
,
.
,
.

M : x i n 1b . .

it
A s impl e m et h d fd t
o o e er m i i g g v i ty
n n i ffi c i t ly cc
a t
ra ax s s u en a u ra e f or or di y p n ar ur

p os e s c o n s i s ts in c tting th
u e se c t i n t f c db d d b l c i g i t
o ou o ar oa r an a an n on a k ifndg e e e .
198 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

thi nc t i nty t th
s u er a c t v l Of th p h y i c l c n t nt i nv lv d th
as o e ex a a u es e s a o s a s o e ,
e

Simpl m th d i f m v l t th d i gn
er e o s o or e Th n m
a ue om t f l b
e es er . e e or ou s a ou n O a or

and l i b i l i t y t
a i n v lv d i n th ppl i c ti n f th P
o e rr or o e n A nd w f m l
e a a o o e e ar so - re s or u a

i i n f c t p hi b i ti v w h
s, a ,
ro sp d nd cc
e cy
e re n bj c tee a a u ra ar e a O e .

1 34 . C ur v e d pi ece s secti on If the cros s

of re ct ang ul ar cro s .

s e c tio n of a c u r ve d pi e c e i s r e c tangul ar the inte gral s i n fo rm ul as 9 6

( ) ,

nd A rticle 1 3 2 c an be e as ily e v alu ate d Th e se form ul as m ay

a ,
.

th ere fo re be u se d for c alcul ating the s tre ng th of the pi e c e in p re f e r

en c e t o the g raphic al m e thod e x pl ai ne d in the p re c e ding articl e

4
.

Let the cro ss s e ction of the pi e c e be a r e c

tangl e of b readth b and d e p th h an d l et p ,
‘

d e n ote the radius of curv atu re of the pie c e -

at the s e c tio n u nd er consid eration F rom ‘

fo rmul a the dis tan c e of the n e u tral ax i s

of the s e ctio n f rom the m e an fib er or gravity ,

ax 1s , i s

9 +P

wh ere y d en ote s the dis tan c e of the in finite s i

m al are a d F fro m the g ravi ty ax1 s . In
p re s ent cas e d F bdy ; h en ce

1
'
By divi sion , C o ns e qu ently , the n u merat or of the
y P
a bov e f racti on b e com e s

dy
h p log e

h y+p

F or a b i fc
r e ou r s e t he re ma i d
n e r of t hi ch pt
s a er m ay b e o m itt d
e .
 199

2p —h

h
2 p + h
2 p —h

F rom form ul a (9 Article 1 3 2 the u nit s tres s 19 at any point in the

,

cross s e ct ion distant y from the m e an fib er is given by the e qu atio n

, ,

MG
M )
-d

9 + P

Re pl acing d F by bdy and s e p arating the integral in the d enomin ato r

,

“
into p arti al i nte grals by m e an s of division thi s integ ral b e co m e s
,

9 9
2
(9 2 dy 01601

y +P

2 + h
=b — p> 10 g6 p
_
2
/
(2 d
2p h

S ub s tituting for d its v alue fro m e qu atio n t hi s ex pre ss io n

final ly re duce s to

’ d F = bh
p
2 00 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

H en c e the ex p ress i on for p b e c om es

M (c + d)
(c c>
+ bhd

The s t re ss e s on the ex tre m e fib ers are the v alu e s

H en c e
M (h
“
zz i 2 a)
p m
(h i 2 p ) bh d

stre ss on the i ns id e fib e r i s alway s n eg ative in con ,

se qu e n c e of which the S ig n of M S hould be

neg ativ e if i t te n ds t o d e c re ase the radiu s of

curv ature an d vice ve rsa ,

.

Pro bl e m 2 70 . A b oa t s
’
d v it
a s ar e c d f
om p ose o

two w ght i n b 2 4 in q
r ou - ro ar s . s u ar e , b nt t
e di
o a ra us

o f 2 ft h w n i n F ig 1 2 8
.
,
as s o . . If th b
e t w i gh
oa e s

5 0 0 lb nd i
. h ng 3 } f t f m
a s u . ro the v ti c l i f
er a ax s o

th e d v i t find th m i m m
a s, e ax u s tr e s s i n th d v i te a s

a n d th f c t f f ty
e a or o sa e .

s harp cu rv ature on bendi ng

13 5 . Effect of
F 12 8
IG
C o ns id e r a S h arply cu rv e d p ri s
.

treng th
s f
.

m atic pi e c e which is s ubj e cte d to b en din g s train F rom the abov e .

discu s si on it is k nown th at for a s e ction tak en in the neighborhood of

,
‘

the b en d the n eu tral ax i s do e s n ot c oi n cid e with the g ravi ty ax is bu t

,

app r o ach e s the c e nte r of c u rv atu r e The n e utral .

fib e r i s th ere fo re s ep arate d fro m the me an fib er ,

or ax is of the pi e c e an d t ak e s so m e such p osi

,

tio n as th at S hown by the b rok en li ne i n Fig 12 9 . .

C o nse qu e ntly the inn e r fib e r th r ough A m us t

e n du re a far g re ater s tre ss th an th at d e duc e d

fro m for m ul as for the s traight po rtio n Engi .

n eers and co n s tr ucto rs h av e l e arn e d by e x p e ri

F 12 9 IG
e nc e th at S h arp cu r v atu re p r oduc e s w e ak ne ss
.

of this kin d and th at it is ne c e ss ary to re enfor ce a pi ece at a b end

'

e ith e r by in c re asin g its di am eter or by addi ng a b rac e .

A s an ill us tratio n Of the effe ct of S h arp cu rv ature on b ending

s trength suppos e th at a bar of rectangular cross s e ction is b ent into a
,

righ t angl e as shown in Fig 1 3 0

,
In this c as e the c ent er of cu rv at ure
. .
20 2 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

and unknown m o ment will be de no te d by M

the o
. On an
y o th e r se c

tio n A B the b e n din g m o ment M an d s ingl e fo r ce r e spe ctiv e ly

’
P are

_
_ P
'

B
E
,

in whi ch p is the radius of the m ean fib er and 8 is the angle whi ch , ,

the pl ane of the s e c tio n AB m ak e s wi th the b as e C D .

Now n o m atter wh eth er the s e ctio n i s fl attene d or e lo ng ate d by

,

the s trai n f ro m the sy m m etry of the figure the diam e tral s e ctions
,
.

MN an d P P will alw ays rem ain at right angl e s to one an oth er .

Th erefore the total angular d e formation A3 for the qu adrant und er

consid eration mu st be z ero ; th at is to s ay ,

dB 0 .

Bu t ,
f rom A rticl e 6 7 ,

C o n s e qu e ntly ,
Wil d a:

El

Ins erting in thi s ex pre ssion the v alue of M ob taine d

PP PP
,
8

pd 8
,
= 0 ,

Pp Pp ''
n P p7r
008 8 dB = M° 1"
2 2 2 4 2

wh enc e 7T _2 — 18 2 . P P’
2 n
‘

whi ch i s the m ax i mu m g iv e
n e at m o m e nt .

Fro m formula the m ax m m i u positiv e m oment m ust occur

wh en cos 8 , 0 , th at i s, wh en 8
,
g , or at top an d botto m Th erefore
.

PP
.
. 3 18 P p .

71
 H OOKS , L IN KS , A N D S P R I N G S 2 03

fo re occurs , at the p oi nts pplic ati on

of a
a
the d ire ct s tre ss at th e se p oi nts

i u an d a m ou nt of the m ax m m
b ending m oment the m ax im u m b ending s tre ss can be c alcul ated by
.
,

the graphi c al m ethod e x pl aine d i n A rticl e 1 3 3 or if the pi e c e i s r e c , ,

tangu l ar in s e ctio n by fo rm ul as (9 9 ) and (100 ) or (10 1) in A rticl e 1 3 4

, .

P bl m 2 7 1
ro e . A w gh t i n nc h ing i 6 in in i n id di m t nd 2 in in
rou - ro a or r s . s e a e er a .

se c ti on l di m t
‘

a a e er . W i th a f c t f f ty f 4 find by th g p hi c l m th d f
a or o sa e o ,
e ra a e o o

Prob l m 2 72
e . A c
p i p 18 i n i n i n
i
ast- ron e .

te rn a l di m te a e nd 1 i n t hi ck i
r a bj c t d t . s su e e o

p f 1 50 lb /l in f t t th hi gh t
'
a r e ssu re o . e ar oo a e es

p i nt
o of the p ip F ind th m im m t in
e . e ax u s r ess

HI NT . U se f o rm u a l Arti cl e 134 .

13 7 . Pl ane
s piral s pring s C ons id e r a .

plan e spiral Spring such as the spri ng of ,

a clock or w atch Le t P d en o te the fo rc e F 13 2

.

IG .

te n di ng to win d up the S p ring an d c the ,

p erp en dicul ar distance of P f ro m the spin dl e on which the S pring i s

wound (Fig A ls o l et d d d en o te a s m all po rtio n of the sp ring
.
,

at an
y point A di s tan t y f ro m P T h e n the m o m e nt at A i s M P y; .

and h e n c e fr o m Articl e 6 7 the angul ar d e fo rm atio n d B for the portion

, ,

d x i s giv en by the fo rm ul a
Md oc P y d ee
EI EI

There fo re the t ta o l angul ard e formation of the spring is

’
P yd x P
"3 dB
E] E]

Sin c e the v erag e v alu e of y

a is c, an d the n te i gral of dx
of the s p ring l
'

d cl,
y o
c

an d h en c e
2 04 S T R EN G T H OF MA T E R I A L S

The r es ilien c e W of the s p ring is fli e re fore ,

,

If the pring i s of re c tang u l ar cross s e c ti on which is the u s u al

S ,

form for pl an e S piral s pr ing s the s tre ss can be c alculate d by fo rm ul as ,

d A r ticl e 1 3 4
( )
9 9 an .

The fo rm ul a j u s t ob taine d for the re sili e n c e of a s p ring i s a S p e ci al

c as e of a m ore g e neral f orm ul a Thu s consid er a porti on of a b eam of .

length A B l an d l et M d eno te the ave rag e b e n ding m o m e nt ove r the

,

p art c on sid ere d an d 8 the ch ang e in slop e in p assing f rom A to B Th en

, , .

the wo rk do ne i n b e n di ng the
po rti on A B i s W §JII B or s ince :
, , ,

I 8 M i this b e co m e s W “
,
E1
E
In the c ase of the S p ri ng con 2

s i d e r e d abov e the m ean v alu e ,

of the b end ing m o ment was

M Pc .

Furth erm ore if 1) d enote s the ,

FI G 133
g re ate s t s tre ss at the el as tic
.

li mi t and e the di stanc e at which i t ac ts from the ne u tral ax is

‘

,
‘

t h en Ill —fl I
, an d co nse qu e ntly the r e s Il Ie n c e of the b e am 18
e

For the re sili e n c e of a pi e ce un d e r dire c t s tr ess , s ee A rticl e 2 2 .

Pro bl e l cl ck p i ng 2 in w id nd i n t hi ck i w nd n
m 2 73 . A s te e o s r . e a 1
3 ; . s ou o a

Sp i nd l { in i n di m t W i th f c t f f ty f 5 w h t i t h m i m m
e
g . a e er . a a or o sa e O ,
a s e ax u

m m nt v i l bl f
o e a a nni ng th m c h ni m
a e or r u e e a s

S g g ti n T h d ng
u es o . c ti n cc et th p i nd l w h th m m nt i
a e r ou s s e o o u rs a e S e e re e o e s

g t t nd th di l t T h f in th p nt c p
re a e s a e ra us ih h z in
e as . e re ore , e re se as e ,
1 3
T23
.
,
1
61
.
,

o z
3 i n A l i nc th l ti m t t n i l t ngth f p i ng t l i b t
. so , s e e u a e e s e S re o s r s ee s a ou

2 4 0 000
n t h n b c lc l t d by f m l
pm
5 d ca e e a u a e or u a

and M by f m l or u a
2 06 S T R EN G T H OF MA T E R I A L S

bl m 2 8 0 I n F ig 13 5 d i gn f
Pro e . . a es or t hfi c r os s s e c ti on o f a c r ane h k i h wn
oo s S o

i n w hi c h ll t h di m n i n ap e e s o s ar e e x re s s e d in t m f ern q s O a s i gl e ua n t i ty Th r . e

v l f t hi c n t nt f
a ue s o s o s a r or v i l d
ar o u s oa s

g i v n by th d i gn
are e e es e r as f ll w o o s

40 t n h k z - o oo ,
r

30 t n h k z - o oo ,
r

20 t n h k z - o oo ,
r

10 —t n h k z o oo ,
r

5 t n h k z - o oo ,
r
FIG 13 5
.

2 t n h k - o oo ,
r z

C om p are t he s tr e n gt h of t hi d i gn f
s es or a g i v n l ad wi th th t f th d i gn h w n
e o a O e es s o

i n F ig 1 3 4 . .

T E M t i l lik c t i
NO . wh i c h d n t c f m t H k l w c t b
a er a s e as ron , o o on o r o oo e s
’
a , anno e

su bj t d t
ec e ig t o a r ly i F m pl t h P
or o u s s r e ss ana A d w f m l i s s . or e x a e, e ea r s on- n re s or u a s

b d Pi
as e on ti w hi ch i
o s s on s r a f th m t
’
fi d el tic p p ti
o, d it i s one o e os re ne as ro er e s , an s

th f l t
e r e o r e u se e s s tt m p t t c lc l t th o at i ti g by
e ch f m l M o a u a e e s r e ss n a c as n su or u as . ore

o v it h
er , c tly b as r e h w by p im t th t th i iti l t
en een S d t c o li g n ex er en a e n a s re sse s ue o oo n
i
n an i g l rr e ti g ch p ch i v t f m
u ar c a s n , g t t p t y
su as a un or r e er ra e , ar e s o re a as o u se an

ex ac t c lc l ti a f th b
u a di g t on s o i l d T I th e p im t m y f th
en n s re s s e s nv o v e . n e se e x er en s an o e

s p c im
e f il d by
e ns v tic l c ck pp i g i th w b j t b ck f th i
a e a er a m
ra a e ar n n e e us a o e nn e r , o r co

p i fl
re s s on , g i p p and i c l t th
e, . cti A B i Fig 6 2 p g 79 f m f f il
e . er en u ar o e se on n . a e a or O a ure

p im t w
, ,

whi h h c pp t
a s no a l ti t th th y f fl a re n Th re a on l o e e or o ex u re . ese ex er en s e re a so

v l bl i h wi g th p ctic l c ity f p tti g fi ll t i th c

a ua e n s o n e ra wh th a n e e ss O u n a e n e o rn e r s e re e

w b j i
e th i
o ns fl g i c i g th thick
e nne r anf th w b t thi p i t
e , or h wn
n re as n e ne s s o e e a s o n , as s o

i F i g 1 33
n . .

I m n y m chi t l th i gid ity f th f m i th f ct which d t m i th

an a ne oo s e r O e ra e s e a or e er ne s e

d iges th
n , ra th th t gth f th c t cti I ll c h c
er an e s r en mp i i c l m th o e on s r u on . n a su as e s e r a e

o d bs d p c ti c l p i c
a se on rath th t ha ld b exmpl y d e r e n e a re e o ne s a S ou e e o e .

t
a
R a u t e n st r a u ch “
Am , . Ma ch , c m b 1 6 1 90 9
De e er , .

I A L Je n i n s ,
. . k T he S t re n g th f P ch d R i v
o un an e te r F ram e s ma d e Of C ast Iron ,
Jo u r A m S oc
. . . Me ch . E ng .
, Vo l XXX II pp 3 1 1 33 2
.
, .
- .
 C H APT E R X

AR CHE S AND AR CHED R IBS

I
. GR AP HIOAL A N ALYS IS OF F ORC ES

13 8 Co mp ositio n f orces In d etermining the effe c t which a

of .

giv en sys tem of for ce s has upon a body it is of ten c onv enie nt to,

r e p r e s e nt the fo rc e s by dir e cte d lin e s an d c alcul ate the r e sul t g raphic

ally . In this m ethod o f re pre s entatio n the l ength of the line d eno te s
the m agnitu d e of the fo rc e l aid off t o any giv en sc al e an d the d ire c ,

ti on of the line in di c ate s the dire ctio n in which the fo rc e ac ts or its ,

Whe n the lines ction of a sy stem of forc e s al l p ass through

of a

the s am e point the f or c e s are s aid t o be concurrent

, The S i mpl es t
.

method of d e alin g with s uch a sy stem i s to find the am ou nt and line

of acti on of a S ingl e forc e which would h av e the s am e effe ct as the
giv en s ys te m of for ce s upon the motion of the point at which they
act. Thi s S ingle for c e is c all e d the resultant of the giv en sy s te m
an d i ts e q u al and oppo s ite the equ i l i brant Wh en each of a sy s tem of
.

f orc e s acting on a b ody b al ance s the othe rs so th at

the body S h ow s n o te n d e n cy to m ov e the fo r c es ,

are said to be i n equ i l i b r i um in which c as e th eir

,

r e s u l tant m u st be z e r o .

The re s ul tant of two f or c e s acti ng at a p oint

i s f oun d by d rawi ng the fo r c e s to s c al e in b oth
m ag n i t ud e and di re c t i on an d co n s tr uc ti ng a
,
F 13 6 IG .

parall e logram u pon the se two line s as adj ac ent

s id e s ; the diagon al of thi s p arall e log ram i s th e n the re qui re d r e s ul tan t

( Fig . This co ns t r uc tio n c an be v e rifi e d e x p eri m e ntally by fas

te ning a string at two points A an d B an d su s p e n ding a w eigh t R

fro m it at any point C (Fig . Then if two forc es e qu al in m ag ni
tud e to the te ns io n i n A C and B C are l aid off p arall e l to A O and B C
2 07
208 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I AL S

r es pe ctiv ely ,
it will
f ou nd th at th ei r re s ultant is e qu al and par
be
all e l to R an d oppo s i te in dire cti on
,
.

S in ce the opp os ite s id e s of a p arall el og ram

are e qu al and p arall e l it i s m o re c onv e ni ent i n ,

fi nding the res ultant of two for ce s to co n s truc t

h alf the p aralle l ogram Thus in the p re ce di ng .
,

e x am pl e if P is l aid Off fro m the en d of P

, 2 1,

B is the clo s ing s id e of the tri angl e so fo rm e d

( Fig S uch a figu re is c all e d a force triangl e

. .

In o rd e r to find the re s ul tant of s e v e ral con

curre nt forc e s lying in the s ame pl an e it is ‘

only ne c e ssary to co m bin e two of

F 13 7 IG
th e m i nto a si ngl e re s u ltant com
.

bine thi s res ultant with a thi rd force and s o on takin g , ,

the f or c e s i n or d e r arou nd the poin t in whi ch th e y m e e t .

Thu s i n Fig 1 3 9 R i s the re s ultant of P and P ; B is

,
.
, 1 I 2 2

the r es ul tant of B an d P ; R is the re s ul tant of R

1 3 3 2

an d P ; and R i s the r e sul tant of It an d P

4
B i s th e re 3 5
.

F 13 8
fore the re s u l tant of the entire s y st em P P P P P 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5
.
IG ‘

In c arrying ou t thi s con s truction it i s u nn e ce ssary to d raw the

interm e diate re sultants
B R and R the fi nal 1, 2, 3,

r e s u l t a n t in an c as e
y
b ein g the closing side of
the polygo n fo rm e d by
pl acing the forces en d
to e n d in o rd er S uch .

a figu re i s c all e d a force

poly g on F r o m the abov e

co n s tr u c tio n it is e vi
d ent that the ne c e s s ary
an d s uffici en t co n ditio n

th at a s ys te m of co n cu r
re nt fo r c e s s h all be in
F 13 9 IG
e qu il ib riu m is th at th eir
.

for ce polygon s h all clo se s in c e in thi s c ase th e ir res ultant must

,

be z er o .
2 10 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I A L S

a s ys te m of

ful fille d .

P obl m 2 8 1 C n t c t t h
r e . o s ru e re

su l t nt f t h
a y t m f c n c nt
O e s s e o o u rre

f c h w n i n F ig 1 4 1
or e s s o . .

10 l b .
P ob l m 2 8 2
r D t
e min . e er e

w h th
e n t th
er ytm fp
or o e s s e o .
ar

15 l b . a ll l f c h wn i n Fig 142 ti
e or es s o . sa s

fi es c ndi ti n 1 nd 2 b v
o o s a a o e .

13 9 Equilibriu m poly g on
. .

F I G 14 1
.

the forc e polygon give s a m ethod for

dire cti on Of the re sult 3 t n o s
2 31; t o ns
ant o f an y giv e n sys te m

of fo rc e s bu t do es not
,

d ete rmine t h e l i n e o f
ac tio n of th e ir r e s ul tant .

T he m o s t c o n v e n i e n t 3 t n -o s

way to d e ter m in e the

line of acti on Of the r e
s u l tant is t o in tr oduc e i nto the giv e n s y ste m tw o equ al and opposite
fo rc es of arbi
trary a m o u n t

an d di re c tion s u ch ,

’ ”
as P an d P in
Fig . 14 3 A
( ) .

S in c e P ’
an d P ”

b a l an c e o n e an
oth er th e y will n ot ,

aff e c t the e qu ili b

riu m of the iv n
g e

s ystem This is .

obviou s fro m the

f orc e polygon For .

F 14 3 IG
in Fig 14 3 (B ) l e t
.

.
,

R d enote the re sultant of the giv en sys t e m of force s P P Then I 4

.
,

if OA r e pre s ents in m ag ni tud e and dire ction the arbitrary fo rc e P OB ’

,
 2 11

i s the res ul tant of P ultant of OB and P e tc and

’
and P 1 , 0 0 i s the re s
2 , .
,

fi nally OE or P repre s ents the re sultant of P P P P P If

’ ’

"
, , 1, 2 , ,
.

th en P
’
co mbin e d with P the resu ltant R is Ob taine d as b e fo re
”
, .

N ow to find the lin e of action of R s u ppos e th at P an d P are

!
.

,
’
I

combin e d into a re s ultant R ac ting in the dire ction B A (Fig 1 4 3 O) ) I

’ ’
.

p aralle l to the ray OB of the force polygon (Fig 1 4 3 Pr olo ng .

A B u ntil it inte rs e cts P and th e n co m bi ne R and P i nto a re s ul t

’
’
2 , 1 2

ant B acting in the di re c ti on C B p ar all e l to the ra of fo c

’ ’
, y 0 0 th e r e

C onti nu e in thi s m anne r u ntil P ’

i s ob tain e d Then the .

of P and P will gi v e both the magnitud e and line of

” ’”

F I G 14 4
.

of the re s ultant of the o rigin al s y ste m P P P P The 1, 2 , 3 , ,

.

clos e d figure A B O D E F ob taine d in this way is c all e d an equ i l i brium

’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’

For yste m of p arall el forc e s the e quilib riu m polygo n is c on

a s

s tructed in the sam e m anne r as above the only diffe ren c e b e ing th at ,

in thi s c ase the f or c e polygo n b e co me s a s traigh t line as S h own in ,

Fig 14 4
. .

Sinc e P an d P ar e e nt ire ly arbitr ary bo th i n m ag nitud e an d

’ ”

dire ction the point 0 c al le d the pole m ay be ch os en any wh e re in the

, , ,

pl ane There fo re in cons tructing an e quilib riu m polyg on correspond

.
,

ing to any giv en system of fo rc e s the fo r c e polygon AB OD E (Fig 14 3 ) ,

.

is fi rst d rawn th en any co nv eni ent point 0 i s chos en and j oin e d to

,

the v e rtic e s A B C D E of the fo rc e polygo n an d fi nally the e qui

, , , , ,

li briu m polyg on i s constr u cte d by d rawing its S ide s p arallel t o the

ray s OA OB , 0 0 e tc of the fo rc e di ag ram
, ,
.
,
.
2 12 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I AL S

’
Sinc e the posit ion of the pole O is e ntirely arbitrary th ere is an ,

infini te nu mb er of e quilib riu m polyg on s corres ponding to any give n

se t of fo rc e s The position an d m agni tu d e of the re s u l tant R how
.
,

e v er is in d ep en d e nt of the choic e of the pol e an d will be the s am e

, , ,

n o m atte r wh ere O is pl ac e d .

P obl m 2 8 3
r eTh nd f . c d f t n d t pp t nd w igh t tt c h d
e e s o a or ar e as e e o su or s a e s a a e

at di ff nt p i nt
e re f i t l ng t h
o S h w t h t th p i ti n
s o s e u m d by th
. o a e os o ass e e

th q i l i b i m p lyg n f th g i v n y t m f l d
e e u r u o o or e e s s e o oa s .

14 0 . uilibriu m p oly g on t o determining reactions

Appli cat i on of e q .

On e of the p rin cip al applicatio ns of the e q ui l ib riu m polygon I S In

d ete rm in ing the unkn o wn re action s Of a b e am or truss To ill us trat e .

its u s e for thi s purpos e co nsid e r a S im pl e b e am pl ac e d ho riz o n

,

tally an d b e aring a n u mb er of v e rtical lo ad s P P etc (Fig 1 , 2 , . .

To d etermi ne the re actions R and R the force diagram is fi rs t 1 2,

F I G 14 5
.

construct ed by l aying off the lo ads P P e tc to scale on a lin e , ,

.
,

choosing any co nv eni ent point 0 as p ole and d rawing the ray s OA ,

OB e tc T he e quilib rium polygon corre spo n din g to this fo rc e diag ram

,
.

is th en constructe d starting fro m any point say A in R

,
’
, , I
.

Now the closing s id e A G of the e quili b riu m polygo n d eterm in e s

’ ’

the line of ac tio n o f the r e sul tants P an d P at A an d G re s p e ctiv ely

’ ” ’ ’
.

For a S i mpl e b e am how e v er the r e actions are v ert ic al

, Th ere fore in
, .
,

o rd er to find th e s e re actio ns e ach of the forc es P and P mu st be

’ ”

r es olv e d in t o tw o co m pon e nt s one of w hi ch S h all be v ertic al To , .

acco m plish thi s suppos e th at a li ne OH is d rawn fr o m the pol e O in

,
2 14 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

a po int on thi s li ne Th en if a n ew f orc e diagram i s drawn w ith O

.
’

as pol e the co rre s po ndi ng e quili briu m polygo n s tartin g at M will p as s

,

th r ough N
14 2 Equilibri u m p ol y g on t hrough three gi v en poi nt s
. Le t it be .

re q ui re d t o p ass an e quilib riu m polygo n thr ough th r e e v n nt

gi e p oI s ,

sa
y M N, an d L (
,
Fig .

A s in the p re c e ding article a tri al fo rc e diagram i s fi rs t drawn

,

with any poin t 0 as pol e an d the co rre spo n di ng e quilib ri u m polygon

,

c onstructe d thu s d e term ini ng the re action s B and R as AH and

, , 2

H E re s p e ctiv e ly .

N ow if the e quil ib riu m polyg on is t o p ass th r ough N the pol e of ,

the fo rc e di ag ram m u st l ie s o m e wh e re

F IG . 14 7

H p arallel to as e x pl ain e d in the p re c e di ng articl e The n e x t .

s te p th e re f ore is t o d e te r mi ne the positio n of the p ol e on thi s lin e

, ,

H K s o th at the e qu ilib riu m polygo n th rough M and N s h all al s o p as s

,

th r ou gh L This is do ne by d rawin g a v e rtic al L S through L and

.

tr e ati ng the points 111 an d L e x actly as M and N w ere tre ate d Th u s .

OA B C D i s the fo rc e di ag ram for thi s po rti on of the original figure an d

’
,

MA B O S is the co rre spo n di ng e qu ili b riu m polygo n the re action s

’ ’ ’
,

for thi s p arti al figure b e i ng H A an d D H I f th e n the e qu ilib ri u m

’ ’
.
, ,

p olygon i s to p ass through L its cl osing sid e m ust be the lin e,

ML an d c ons e qu e ntly the pol e of the fo r c e di agram m u st l ie on a

,

line H K d rawn through H p arall e l to ML The pole i s th eref ore

’ ’ ’
.

com pl etely d eterm ine d as the inte rs e ction O of the line s H K and ’

H K ’
If th en a ne w fo rc e di ag ram is d rawn with O as pol e the
, ,
’
,
 R IBS 2 15

corre sp on

pas s through bo th the poin ts L and N .

S inc e th e re is o nly one position of the pol e O bu t one e quilib riu m

’
,

polygon can be d rawn through three give n points In othe r wo rd s an .

,

e quili b riu m polygo n is co m pl e te ly d e te rm ine d by th re e co n di ti ons .

14 3 Appl i cat i on of e qu ili bri u m p ol y g on t o cal cu l at i on of s tre ss e s

. .

C o nsid er any s tr uctu re s uch as an arch or arch e d rib s uppo rting a

, ,

sy stem of v ertic al lo ads and suppo s e th at the forc e diag ram and
,

e u ilib ri um polygo n are d rawn as S hown in Fig 14 8 Th e n e ach

q . .

ra
y of the fo r c e di agram is the r e sul tant of a l l t he fo r c e s which
p r e

c ede it and acts along the s eg ment of the e quilibriu m polygo n p aralle l
,

this ray For Instan c e 0 0 is the re sul tant of al l the forc e s on the
.
,

A 1
0 ”
ml

F I G 14 8
.

l eft of P and acts alo ng 0 D C onse qu ently the s tre s s e s acting on

3,
’ ’
.

an s e c tio n of the s tructu re s ay mn are the s am e as wo u ld re s u l t

y , ,

fro m a S ingl e forc e 0 0 acting along C D ’ ’

.

Le t 9 d en o te the angl e b e twe en the s eg m e nt 0 D of the e quilib riu m

’ ’

polygon and the tang ent to the arch at the point S Then the s tre ss e s .

acting on the s e c tio n mn at S are d u e to a tang e nt i al th ru s t of am ou nt

0 0 c os 9 ; a s h e ar at righ t angl e s to thi s of am ount 0 0 sin 9 ; and a ,

m o m ent of am ount 0 0 d wh e re d is the p erp en dicular dis tanc e of

,

C D f ro m S
’ ’
.

Fro m Fig 14 8 it is e vid ent that the horiz ontal co mpo nent of any
.
,

ra
y of t h e fo r c e di agram is e qu al to the pol e di s tan c e OH Th e re .

fo re i i 0 0 is re s olv e d i nto its v ertical and ho riz ontal co mponents the ,

mo ment of the v ert ic al co mpo nent about S i s z ero sin c e it p ass es ,

216 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R IA L S

through this point ; and h enc e the m om ent 0 0 d OH z wh ere z is ,

‘

the v e rtic al i nte rc e p t f ro m the e quil ib riu m polygo n to the c e nter of

m o m e nts S H aving d e te rm ine d the m o m e nt at any giv e n point the
.
,

s tre s s es at thi s poi nt can be c alcul ate d as e x pl aine d in A rticl e 1 5 7 .

1 4 4 R el ati on of equ ilibriu m p ol y g on t o be nding mome nt di ag ram

.
. .

In the p re c e di ng articl e i t was p rove d th at the m o m e nt ac ti ng at any

point of a s tructu re is e qu al to the pol e distance of the forc e diagram
mul tipli e d by the v e rtic al inte rc e pt on the e qu ilib riu m polygo n fro m
the c e nte r of m o m e nts For a sy ste m of v e rtic al lo ads how e v e r the
.
, ,

p ol e dis tance is a constant C o ns e qu ently the m o ment acting on any.

s e c tio n i s p ropo rtio nal to the v e rtic al inte r c e p t on the e quilib riu m

polygo n fro m the c ente r of mo m e nts Th e re fore if the e quilibrium .

,

polygo n is d rawn to such a sc al e as to mak e thi s facto r of propor

ti on al ity e q u al to u ni ty the e quilib riu m polygo n will be id e n tic al
,

with the b endi ng m o ment di agram for the give n s y ste m of lo ad s .

P bl m 2 8 6
ro eC mp th b ndi ng m m nt di g m
. o are nd q i l i b i
e
umpq
e g n o e a ra s a e u r o s

th v i c f l di ng i ll t t d i n A ti cl 52
I

for e ar ou s as es o oa u s ra e r e .

II . C ONC R E TE AN D MAS ONRY A RC HES

14 5 . De fi niti ons
o s tru cti on of arches T he following dis
and c n .

c u ss ion Of the arch appli es o nly to th at fo rm k n ow n as the ba r r el

a r ch .D o me d and clois tere d arch e s d e mand a s p e ci al tre atm e nt which

is b e yo n d the sc op e Of
this volu me .

The v arious po rtio ns of

a sim pl e or b arre l arch , , ,

R E such as shown in proje c

IS

tio n i n Fig 14 9 h av e the

S P R NG NG L NE
.
,
I I I
foll owmg sp e ci al n am es .

S offit : t he i nn er or c on

F I G 14 9
c v
a f c th ch
e su r a e of e ar .

Int d o th c v f in
.

ra s e ur e o

t e r s e c ti o n ( A C B ,
F i g 1 4 9 ) o f t he
. s ofli t , w i th a v ti c l pl n p p nd i c l
er a a e er e u ar

t o t he ax i l gh
s , o r e n t , o f t he ar ch .

Ext ra do s : th c ev ur e of i nt e r se c ti on
(D E F ,
F i g . 14 9 ) of a v e rt i c l pla ane

w i th t he t
ou er f c
su r a e of t he ar ch .

Crow n : t he hig he s t p a r t of t he ar ch .
2 18 S T R E N G H OF T MA T E R I AL S

fo r d w y th f eet b v th
a r oa a w
g f th
re e a o e e c ro o e ar c h w i th
,
a s p nd l fi ll ing
a re of

th w i g hi ng 100 l bf/
e ar e ft .
3

S l ti n I n thi c
o u o th w i g h t f
.
c b ic f
s as e e e o a u oo t o f the p nd l fi ll ing i t th
s a re s o e

w igh t f c b i c f t f th c h i ng
e o a u oo o e ar r as Th f th l d l i n i
e re o re e oa e s

O b t in d by d c i ng th
a e re u e

i nt c p t n c h di n t
er e o ea or a e

b t w n th
e ee d w y nd e roa a a

th t d
e i n th
e x ra ti os e ra o

re d c i ng ny din t A B
u a or a e

i n thi ti ws ra b t in th o e O a e

or din t B C t By
a e ,
e c . c ar

r y i ng t thi d c ti nou s re u o

o n ffi c i nt n mb f
a su e u er o

or din t nd j i ni ng th
a es , a o e

p i nt 0 f nd th l d
o s so ou ,
e oa
F I G 1 50 .
l i n DE C F G i b t i n d
e s O a e .

14 7 . Li ne ar arch . S upp os e th at the

vou ss oirs of an ar ch hav e
S ligh tly cu rv e d s u r f ac es so th at t h e y c an r ock on on e an oth e r as ,

sh ow n i n Fig 1 5 1 The points o f co ntac t of succ e s siv e vou s s oirs are

. .

th e n c all e d c e nte r s of p re s su re and the line j oin ing th e m the lin e of ,

pre ssu re or l i near arch It i s e vid e nt f ro m the figure or f ro m a m ode l

,
.
, ,

co nstructe d as abov e th at wi th e v ery ch ange of lo adin g the voussoirs

,

ch ang e th eir po s itio n m ore or l e ss thu s altering the fo rm of ,

line ar ar ch In a m od el constru c te d as abov e the line ar arch

.
,

al te r i ts S h ap e co n sid e r

ably withou t ov e rth r ow

ing the stru ctu re the o nly ,

c onditio n n e c e s s a r y t o
as s u r e s tab i l i t y b ein g
th at the lin ear ar ch S h all
l i e w i t h i n t h e m id dl e
thi rd *
.

In a maso nry ar ch the

pre s s ure o n a n y j o i n t
F 15 1 IG
i s ordinarily dis tribu te d
.

ov e r the e ntire su r f ac e s i n c ontac t In this c as e the c e nter of p re s .

su re i s the point of applic atio n of the re s u l tant j oi nt p re ss u re an d ,

it
ic i
S e e d s u s s on o f ar es i n ar ti e ch F l e e m i ng Je n i n , cl by k e nt i tl d e d
B ri g es , E ncy
c l op ze d i a B r i ta n ni c a , 9 th e d , V o l IV , p p 27 3 -2 8 2. . . .
 AR C H ES AN D A R C H E D R I B S 2 19

the linear arch is the brok en line j oining th e s e cent ers of pre ssure .

In a co nc rete arch the line ar arch b e co m e s a co ntin uous curv e With

’

e ach ch ang e of lo ading the s am e shift i ng of the line ar arch occu rs

as in the c as e of the mod e l wit h cu rv e d j oints the o nly diff erenc e

,
,

b e i n g t h at wi t h fl a t join t s th i s a c t io n is n ot visibl e To assu re sta .

bility how e ver the li near arch mus t be re s trict e d t o l ie withi n the
, ,

mi ddl e third of the arch ring as will be p rov ed in Article 14 8 , .

If we co nsid er a singl e voussoir of a maso nry arch or a port ion of ,

a co nc re te arch bou n d e d by two pl ane s e ct io ns as Show n in Fig 1 5 2 , .

,

the re sul tant j oint p re ssu re s R and R ’

and the w e igh t P of the ,

block and the mat erial dire ctly above it fO rm a s ys t e m of fo rc es in

,

e quilib riu m C o ns e qu e nt ly if the amount dire c t ion and point of

.
, , ,

applic at io n of one of t h e s e

re sul t ant j oint p re ssu re s

are k n own the am ou nt , ,

dire ction and point of ap,

plicatio n of the o th er can

be fo u nd by c o n s t r u c t
ing a t ri angl e of f o rc e s .

Th ere fo re if one re sult ,

ant j oint p re ssu re is com

F G 152 I
k ow posi io
.

p l e te l y n n i n t n ,

am ou nt and dire c tio n the o th er s can be succ e ssiv e ly fou n d as abov e

, , ,

t hus d etermining the li near arch as an e quili brium p olygo n for the
given sys te m of lo ads .

Since an e quilib rium polygon may be d rawn to any giv en sc ale ,

if no one joint pre ssure is co mple te ly k nown which is usu ally the ,

c ase t here will be in g ene ral an infinite nu m b er of e quilib rium

, , ,

polygons corre spon d ing t o any give n s y s tem of lo ads The linear .

arch ma how v b d fi n d th t p ticul e quilib riu m polygon

y e e r
, e e e a s , a a r ar

which coincid e s wi th the pre ssure line and the qu e stio n then arise s ,

how t o d etermi ne the e quilibriu m polygo n so th at it S h all coincid e

wi th the pressure line This proble m will be discuss e d more fully in
.

A r ticl e s 1 5 0 1 5 1 and 1 5 2 , , .

Wh en the l inear arch has b een d etermi ne d, the re sultant pre ssure
on a j oin t h aving an
y in clin at io n t o the v e rtic al can e as ily be

Ob tain e d Thu s in Fig 15 3 l et B be the re s ultant pre ssure on a

.
, .
,
 20 S T R EN GT H OF MAT ER I AL S

vertical s e ction th rough B and R; the re sultant pres s ure on the

‘

incline d s e c tio n AE through B S in ce R is du e to the lo ad on the

.

righ t of the v e rtic al C F and R to the lo ad on the righ t of the b rok en

’
,

lin e D AE the diff e renc e b e tw e en th e m m ust be d u e t o the lo ad

,

A B C D m inus the lo ad B B B Le t .

P d enot e the diffe re n ce b e tw een .

th e se two lo ads re p res ente d by ,

the sh ad e d portio n in Fig 1 5 3 . .

Then sinc e R B and P m u st

,
’
, ,

be in e quili b riu m R is fou nd at

’
,

o nce by d rawing a for c e triangle ,

as s hown i n the figu re .

14 8 C ondi ti ons f or s tability

. .

A m as onr y arch m ay f ail in any

F IG 15 3
one of th r ee w ays : 1 by sl i di g
()
.

of one voussoir upon anoth e r ; (2 ) by ov ertu rni ng ; (3 ) by c ru shing

of the material .

The s e t hree methods of failure will now be c on sid ere d in or der

'

1 The fi rs t me thod of f ailure is c aus e d by the sh eari ng s tre ss at

.

any joi nt e x c ee di ng the j oin t fric tio n or the adh e s io n of the m o rtar
,
.

This kind of failure can only occur wh en the angl e which the re sul t
ant p re ss u re on an jo i n t m k e wi t h a n o rm al t o the pl an e of
y a s

the j oin t e x c e e ds the angl e of r epo s e for the m ateri al in qu e s tio n

A r ticl e 1 6 O rdi naril y the re sul tant p re ss u re on an joi is v e ry
( y n t
ne arly p e rp e n dicul ar to its pl an e and sin c e the angl e of re pos e for
,

m aso nry is v e ry l arg e f ailure by sliding is not lik e ly to occu r

,
.

A s a c ri te rion for s afe ty agains t f ailu re of this kind i t m ay be ,

assu me d th at wh e n the re sultant mak e s an angl e of l e s s t h an 3 0

°

with the n orm al to the joint s afety ag ai nst sliding is assured .

2 In o rd er for an arch to f ail by ov e rt u r ing on e or m o re of the

.

n ,

j oints m ust ope n at one e dge the adj ac ent blocks ro tating abou t
,

th e ir c e nter of p re ssu re For this t o occu r one e dg e of the joint

.
,

m u st be in te nsio n Al though in a w ell l aid m as onry arch the

.
-

j oints h ave co nsid erable te nsil e s tre ngth it is cus tomary to dis regard
,

this e nt irely and i n thi s c ase the con di tio n n e c e s sary to ass u re
,

stability agains t rot ation is th at e ve ry j oint sh all be subj e cte d to

co mpre ssive s tre ss onl y A ssuming th e n a lin ear di stribu tion of
.
, ,
2 22 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER IAL S

h at is t o the e u ni t
'
s trtss oi nt mu s t
t say, a ver a
g on a ny j not exceed

one twenti eth o f the u l tim a te co mp r essi ve s tr eng th o f the ma ter i a l .

The bov e condit io ns for s tability can be applied e q u ally as w ell

a

to a co nc rete arch by co nsid eri ng the s tre ss on any pl ane s e c t io n of

the arch rin g .

14 9 Max i mu m comp ress iv e s tress Le t R d eno te the re sult ant

. .

pre ssure on any j oint 6 the width of the j oint F i t s area and c the
, , ,

dis tanc e of the c ent er of pre ssure from the cent er of gravi ty of the
joint Th en u nd er the assu mption of a line ar dis tributio n of s tre ss
.
, ,

the s tre ss on the j oint is d u e t o a u nifo rmly dis tribu te d t h rust of

am ou nt E per u ni t of are a and a m o me nt M of amou nt M,

Re .

F
Th e re fo re the unit s tre ss p at any point is giv en by the formula
— :f:
F I

wh ere e is the dis tanc e of the e x tre me fib er from the c enter of gravity ,

and I is the m o m ent of i ne rti a of the c r oss s e c t io n .

6 b 3

For a s e c tion of u nit l engt h B = h l = b I and e e

,

T2
, ,

Th ere fo re substit u ting t he se v alu e s

, , the formul a for maxi m u m or

mini mu m s tre ss b e co me s
6 Re
5 i
b 6 2

For c the m n m m i i u stre ss is z ero , an d if c it b e co me s neg a

tiv e t hus re s tricting the c ente r of pre s sure t o li e ithi n the middle
, w
third of the cro ss s e ctio n if te nsil e s tre ss is p rohibit e d (co m pare
Articl e 6 2 and Articl e 1 4 8 ,

C o mb ining this re sul t wi th th at of the p re c e ding art icl e the maxi ,

m u m s tress c alcul ate d by the fo rm ul a

R 6 Re
2
6 I)

m us t
of the m ate rial
c d
6
not e x ee

.
$
wh e re n is the ul tim ate compre ssiv e s trengt h
o

1 5 0 L ocat i on of the l inear arch : Mosel ey s theory

. In o rd er t o ’
.

obtain a s tarting point for the co nstructio n of the linear arch it is ,

ne c e ss ary t o k now the am ou nt di re c tion and point of applic at io n

, ,
 A R C H E S AN D A R C H E D R IB S 223

of one joint pre ssure as ex plaine d in Articl e 14 7 ; or in g eneral it

, , ,

is ne c ess ary to h av e giv en three co nditio ns which the e quilib riu m '

polygon mus t s atisfy such for instan c e as t hree points through

, , ,

whi ch i t is re q uire d t o p ass Sinc e it is im possible to d ete rmine th e se

.

thre e un k now n s by the p rin cipl e s of m e ch anics the t h e o ry of the ,

arch has lo ng b e e n a subj e c t of co ntrov ersy amo ng engin eers and

mat h e mat icians .

A m o ng the v arious th e o ri es of the arch which h av e b een p ropos e d

fro m time t o ti me the fi rs t and mos t im portant of the old er the ories
,

is c all e d the principle of l east resi s tance T hi s t h e ory was introduc e d by

.

the English engineer Mos el ey in 1 8 3 7 and l ate r b e c ame f am ous on the

, , ,

C onti ne nt th rough a German t ransl ation of Mos el ey s wo rk by S chefil er

’
.

In building an arch the m at eri al is ass embl e d upo n a wood en frame

wo rk call e d a c ent er ; when the arch is co mple t e thi s c enter is re m ov ed
and the arch b e co m e s s elf suppo rting as e x pl aine d in Art icl e 14 5
-
, .

Now suppos e t h at in s tead of rem ovi ng the c ent er sudd enly it is ,

gradu ally lowere d so that the arch b eco me s s elf supporting by d egre es
.
- .

In thi s cas e the ho riz o ntal p re ssure or thrus t at the crown gradu ally
incre as es u nt il the c ent er has b een co mpletely rem ove d wh en it has ,

it s leas t possible v alu e T hi s hypot h e sis of l eas t crown thrus t con

.

sis tent wit h s t abili t y is Mos eley s principl e of l e as t re sis tanc e

’
.

In const ruct ing an e quilib riu m polygo n the ho riz o nt al fo rc e or ,

pol e dis tanc e is leas t when the h eight of the polygon is a maximu m
, .

There fore in ord er t o apply the principle of leas t resis tanc e the equi
, ,

librium polygon mus t p ass through the high e s t point of the e xtrados
at the c row n and the low es t point s of the i nt rados at the abut me nts .

Since this would c aus e t ensil e s tre ss at bo th the cr own and abut
m ent s the crit erio n for s t abilit y again s t ov ertu rning mak e s it neces
,

sary in applying the theory t o m ove the c enter and ends of the
e quilib riu m polygo n or li ne ar arch u ntil i t f alls within the middl e
, ,

thi rd of the arch ring Th ere is nothing in the principle of l east

.

re sis tan c e how e v er

,
t o w arrant this ch ange in the po sition of the
,

e quilib riu m polygo n and co n s e q u e ntly the th e o ry is in co n sis te nt wi th

,

it s applicat ion .

C ul mann tri e d t o ov erco me this obj e ctio n to Mos el e y s th e ory by

’

considering the co mpre ssibility of the m ortar b etwe e n the j oint s At .

the poi nt s of gre at e s t p re ssu re the m ortar will be co mpre ss e d m o re

 2 24 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IA L S

t han els ewh ere an d this will , pre ssure line or linear arch
‘
cau s e the , ,

to mov e down so mewh at thus taking a position nearer to the middl e

,

thi rd th an is re q uired by the p rin cipl e of leas t resis tanc e if applied ,

to the arch as a rigid body .

The abov e b rie f account of Mos el e y s prin cipl e of l eas t re sis tan c e
’

and C ul m ann s m odific atio n of i t are giv e n chi efly for th e ir hi s t o ric al
’

int erest and the impo rtanc e fo rme rly attache d to t h em The m odern .

th e o ry of the arch is b as e d upo n the p rin cipl e of l e as t work and is ,

th ere fo re rigo rously co rre ct fro m the s tandpoint of the m ath e m atical
th e o ry of e l as ticity .

1 5 1 App li cat i on of the p ri ncip l e of l eas t w ork Al t hough B ock e s

’
. .

l aw is not rigo rously tru e for such mate rials as s tone c em e nt and , ,

co ncre te the b est appr o x i mation to act u al re sul ts is ob taine d by

,

as s u m i ng th at the m ate ri als of which the ar ch i s co m po s e d con fo rm

to H ook e s l aw and th e n b asing the th e o ry of the ar ch on the g ene ral

’

th e o re m s of the s tre ngt h of m ateri als On t hi s as su mptio n the po s i

.

tio n of the lin ear ar ch can be d et e rmi ne d by me an s of C as tigli ano s

’

th e o re m which s tate s t h at for s tabl e e qui lib rium the wo rk of d efor

,

mation mus t be a m inim u m (Articl e s 7 9 and

C onsid er a s e c tion of the arch pe rp e ndi cul ar t o the c ent er line of
t he ar ch r ing or in g en eral no rm al t o the in trado s
, , , Le t F d en o te .

the area of the s e ct io n B the re sul tant p re ssu re on the s e ctio n c the
, ,

distan c e of the point of appli cation of R f ro m the c enter of gravi ty

of the s e ct io n and ds an infinite sim al el e ment of the c enter lin e
, .

The n the work of d eformat ion will con sis t of two p arts — th at d u e ,

to the axi al thr us t R and th at d u e to a m om ent M

, Re S in c e the .

dire ct s tre ss per uni t of area of the s e ction is E the u nit d e fo rmatio n
F
d u e to the s tre ss is i whe re E d enote s Yo un g s mod ul u s ; and ’
,

FE 2
R
h enc e the work of d eform ation d u e to R is or
2 FE
F ro m Articl e 73 , C h apte r IV , the work of d e formation du e to the
W
is JA
b ending m o m e nt M Th erefo re the wo rk of d eformatio n d W
2 E]
for portion of the
a ar ch includ e d b etw e en two cross s e ctions at a

distanc e ds ap art is
d W
226 S T R EN GT H OF MAT ER IAL S
b
of thec enter of pre ssure from the cente r of gravi ty of the s ecti o n
For a fi rs t app ro xim atio n th erefo re the fi rs t t erm m ay be dis re g ard e d
, ,

i n co mp ariso n wit h the s e co n d and h en c e the p robl em of m aking W

‘

M- 2

a mi nim u m re duce s to th at of mak l ng the 3

ds as s mall
6
as possi ble .

To effe ct a still furth er re duction suppos e th at R is re solv ed into

,

v ertical and horiz o ntal co mpone nts so th at the v ertical

sh all p ass through the ce nter of g ravity G of the s e ctio n
and l et z d eno te the p e rp e ndicul ar di s t anc e of the ho riz o ntal com

ponent P fro m G Th en M t and ,

.

the d s be

or, sin c e P, is co nst ant for all s ections ,

thi s may

Ordinarily the thi ck ne ss

ch of the ar

ring v ari e s b eing leas t at the crown ,

an d g re at e s t at the abu t ment s I n thi ‘

s
F 155 IG .
.

cas e l et b d e note the thi ck ne ss of the

,
e

crown and suppos e th at the l aw of v ari atio n in thickne ss is such

,

th at the thi ck ne ss 6 at any oth er point is giv e n by the e x p re ssio n

where d a: is the horiz ont al pr oj e ction of ds . Und er thi s assum ptio n ,

the ex pressio n Pf
,
b e co me s

Th erefore the probl em of m ak ing W a minimu m is now re duce d to

th at of m aking the integr as s mall as possible .

This l atte r expre ssion how e v er consists of only posit iv e term s

, , ,

and re duc e s t o z er o for the c ent er line of the ar ch Fro m this it .

follows that if an e quilibriu m polygon is d rawn for the giv en sys tem
of lo ads and t h en the c enter line of the arch is so chos en as t o coin
,

cid e with this e quilib riu m polygon the t ru e linear arch can differ ,

but little from this c enter line .

 A R C H E S AN D A R C H E D R IB S 227

In o rd e rch to be stabl e at leas t one of the many possible

for an ar

the l i near arch mus t be such as to f al l withi n the

arch ring Mo re o ver the el as tic d e format ion of
.
,

the ar ch is such as t o m ove the line ar arch as ne ar to the c enter line

as the fo rm of the arch p e rmi ts Th ere fo re if f or a ny gi ven a r ch
.
,

i t i s p ossi ble to dr a w a n equ i li br i u m p ol g on whi ch sha l l everywhere

g
li e wi thi n the midd le thi r d of the a rch r i ng, the s ta bi li ty of the a r ch
is a ssu r ed .

This crite rion for stabilit y is du e t o Winkler , and was fi rs t giv en

by hi m in 18 7 9 .

153 . Empiri cal f ormul as thick ness ne c e ss ary t o giv e an arch

. The
at the c rown c an o nly be fou n d by ass u mi ng a c ertai n t hick ne ss and

d et ermini ng wh et h er or not thi s s atisfi e s all the co nditions of sta

bility .The l eas t thi ck ne ss consis t ent with s t ab ili ty is such t h at the
av e rag e co mp re s s iv e s t re ss do e s not e x c ee d on e t w entieth of the
ul timate compre ssiv e s trength of the mat erial The arch is usu ally .

mad e so me wh at thick er th an is re q uire d by t his c rit erio n howe v er , ,

for the thick er the arch the mo re easily c an the e quilib riu m polygon
be mad e t o l ie wi thin the middl e t hird of the ar ch ring .

T he followi ng e mpiric al fo rmul as for thi ck ne ss at c rown re p re s ent

the b e s t A me ric an English and F re nch p ractic e re sp e c tiv ely and
, , ,

may be us e d in maki ng a fi rs t assu mpt ion as a b asis for c alcul atio ns .

T rautwi ne .

R anki ne .

1 l
b 1 + ,
Perronnet
12 23

r ra dius of i ntrados in fe et ; t
a r sei in f eet ;
I span in feet ; b d e pth at crown in f eet .

1 54 . Designi ng d e signing an arch to s upport a given

of arches . In
lo ading the e quili brium polygo n for the given sys tem of lo ads should ,

i n acco rd an c e wit h Winkl er s criterion be assu m ed as the cent e r line

’
‘

of the arch T his however is not al ways possibl e For ins tanc e in
.
, ,
.
,
228 S T R E N GT H OF M AT E R I AL S

the c as e of an arch intend e d t o s uppbrt a ro adway the l ev e l of which ,

is fi x ed the lo adi ng d e pends to a l arg e e xtent on the fo rm of the

,

ar ch and co ns e qu e ntly the e quili b riu m polygo n c ann ot be d e te rm i ne d

,

until the form of the arch has be en assume d .

In d e signing arch e s t h ere fo re the m ethod usu ally foll ow e d is to

, ,

assu m e the fo rm of the intrados of the re quire d ar ch and d ete rm in e ,

‘

its thick ne ss at the c row n by an e m pirical fo rmul a such as tho s e ,

giv en in the pre c eding articl e Th en h aving d rawn the e x trado s and
.
,

lo ad line the su rfac e b etwe en the intrados and the lo ad lin e i s

,
.

divi d e d into any convenie nt nu mb er of p art s by d rawing v ertic als ,

and the am ou nt an d posi tio n of the re sul tant w e igh t of e ach p ar t for

a s e c tio n one foo t wid e is c alc ul ate d A n e quilib riu m polygon for
.

thi s sys tem of lo ads is th en p ass e d thr ough the m iddl e point of the
ar ch r ing at cr own and abu tm e nt s by the m ethod giv en in A rticl e 1 4 2 .

If thi s e quilib riu m polygo n li e s withi n the mi ddl e third of the arch
ring the ar ch is assu me d t o be s t abl e ag ai n s t ov e rtu rn i ng
, .

If the e quil ib riu m polygo n th r ough the mi ddl e points of the arch
I fl '

ring at c rown an d abu tm ents do e s n ot l ie e ntirely wi thi n the m i d

dl e t hird of the arch ring t h e s e th ree points are shifte d so as

,

to m ak e i t do so if po s sibl e If n o choic e of the t hree points will

.

m ak e the e q uilib riu m polygo n lie e ntire ly wi thin the m iddl e thir d
of the arch ring the d e sign mus t be alte re d until this has b een
,

acco m plish e d .

The ne x t step i s t o c alcul ate the maxi mu m u nit j oint p re ssu re by

the fo rm ul a giv en in Articl e 14 9 and apply the c ri te rio n for s tability
,

ag ains t c ru shi ng giv e n in A rticl e 14 8 Wh en th e se criteria h ave be en

.

sati s fi e d the d e s ig n is as s u me d to be s af e If h o w e v er th ere is a

.
, ,

co nsid erabl e e x ce ss of s trength the d e sign m ay be ligh tene d and the

,

c riteria reapplied .

Be fore the d e sig n can be co nsid e re d co mpl ete it mus t also be

shown th at the abov e criteri a are s atis fi e d for ev ery fo rm of lo ading
t o whi ch the arch is lik ely to be subj e cted In the c ase of an arch .

d e signe d to c arry a h eavy live lo ad such as th at du e t o s e v eral ,

loco m o tive s it may be ne c ess ary t o d raw a nu mb er of lo ad lines

,

corresponding t o diff erent positio ns of the lo ad and m ak e a corre ,

s ondin
p g nu m b e r of d e ter mi nat io ns of th e e q u il ib riu m polygo n and
maxi mu m joint pre ssure .
230 S T R EN GT H OF MAT E R I AL S

corre spo n ding j oint of the proj e c te d arch by laying off the horiz ontal
and v e rtic al co mpo ne nts of the l atte r to t wo diff e rent sc al e s ; i n o th e r

words by proj ecting the pres s ure b ack again ont o the original ar ch
,
.

III ARC HED RIBS

.

*
15 7 . S t res s in ch is f re qu ently us e d in met al
arched ri bs . The ar

constr uctions e s pe cially in such s tructures as roofs and b ridge s in

, ,

the fo r m of a curv e d be am co m pos e d eit h er of a solid we b an d fl ang e s

or buil t up li k e a t russ S uch a m etal arch is c all e d
.

-1

F IG 1 56
.

The fun d amental di fference b etween a concret e or masonry arch

an d an ar ch e d ri b is t h at the l atte r b e ing co mpos e d of m etal , is ,

c apable of re sisting b en ding mom ent For an arche d rib th erefore .

, ,

it is not e ss ential th at the e quili b riu m polygon sh all l ie withi n the

bound ari es of the arch ; it may in fact e ither cross the arch or li e
, ,

e ntirely on e it h er sid e the o nly co nditio n for s t abili ty b e in g th at the

,

ar ch e d rib m us t be suffi cient ly s t ro ng t o re sis t the b ending mo ment

t hus produc e d .

F b i fc
* or a th m i nd
r e f thi c h pt
o u rs e e re m y b
a m i tt d
er o s a er a e o e .
 A R C H E S AN D A R C H E D R I B S 231

When the e quilib ium polygon has b een drawn fo

r r the g iv en system
of lo ads ,
s tress at any point of an arched rib can be
the calcul at ed by
the m ethod ex pl aine d i n Articl e 1 4 3 Thus in Fig 1 5 6 (A) l et A GF .
, .
,

d enote the arch e d rib P P etc the given lo ads and AB CP F F the
, 1, 2,
.
,

corre spo nding e quilib riu m polygon Then the stress on any s e ction .

mn is du e t o a force ac ting in the dire c t ion CD of amount e q u al t o ,

the corre spo nding ray 0 0 of the fo r ce di agram

”
.

C on s e qu ently if the rib is co mpos e d of a solid web and fl ange s

, ,

as shown in Fig 1 5 6 (B) the dire c t s tre ss on the s e ct io n is e qu al i n

.
,

am ou nt t o the ray 0 0 of the fo rc e diagram the b ending s t re ss on

’
,

’
t t
the upp er fl ang e is the b en ding s tre ss on the low er fl ange is "
d 71
and the l t o the rib is 0 0 sin a wh ere a is the angl e
sh ear n rma o ’
,

b et w een CD and the tangent t o the rib at the s e ctio n .

Si mil arly for the t russ e d rib shown in Fig 1 5 6 (C ) by taking

,
.
,

m o ment s abou t L an d S the s tre ss e s in R S and L X are fou nd t o be

,
P
and
6 5 re sp e ct ively whil e , the no rmal co mponent of the s tre ss
in L S is 0 0 si n a .

Arch e d ribs are usu al ly cons truct e d in one of t hree different w ays
hi g e d at the abu t ment s and at the cr ow n ; 2 hi g e d at the
()1 n () n

abu t ment s and co nt in uous t h roughou t ; (3 ) fi x e d at the abutm ents

and co nt in uous t hr oughou t The me t hod of cons tructing the e qu ili b

.

riu m polygon differ s for each of t h e s e t hree met hods of suppo rt and ,

will be tre ated s ep arately in what follows .

1 5 8 T hree-hi ng ed arched rib When a m e mb er is f ree to turn

. .

at an
y poin t the b e ndi ng m o m e n t at t h at point is z ero and c on ,

s e qu ent ly the e quilib rium polygon or b ending m oment diagram , ,

p ass es th rough the point For a three hinge d arche d rib the re fore
.
-
, ,

the e q uilibriu m polygon m us t p ass th rough the c enters of the

three hi nges and is th erefo re completely d etermin ed as explaine d in ,

Articl e 1 4 2 .

1 59 T wo hinged arched rib C o nsid er an arch e d rib hinged at

-
‘

. .

the e nds and co nt in uous b e twe en t h e s e points In this c as e the .

e q uili b riu m polygo n mus t p ass th r ough the c ent e rs of bo th hi ng e s ,

but sinc e there is no res triction on the v ertic al s c al e thi s scal e may ,

be anythi ng wh ate v er d e p en ding on the choice of the pol e in the

,
232 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E RI AL S

fo rce di agram A third conditio n is the re fore ne ce s s ary in o rd e r to

.

mak e the p robl e m de te rminate .

The pr obl e m can be solv e d in v arious w ays d e pe n ding on the ,

’

choic e of the third con ditio n The fi rs t solu tion th at will be give n is
.

th at fou nd by applying the principl e of l eas t wo rk th at is by apply , ,

ing C as tigl iano s conditio n t h at the wo rk of d e fo rm ation sh all be a

’

mini mu m .

C o ns id e r a two hing e d arch e d rib suppo rt ing a sys te m of v ert ical

-

lo ads as shown in Fig 1 5 7 Th en the m om ent at any point A is

,
. .

e qu al to the m om e nt of the fo r c e s on the l e ft of the s e c tio n mn

th rough A m in us the m o m e nt of P abou t A wh e re P i s the u nk nown

, b , ,

F IG 15 7
.

horiz ontal reaction or pol e dis tance of the fo rc e di agram which is to

, ,

be d eter mi ne d C o ns e qu e ntly if M d en ote s the m o m ent at A M the

.
, , p

mo ment of the fo rc e s on the l e ft of A and z the p erp endicul ar dis tan ce

,

of P f rom A we h av e
, ,

Sinc e thework of d efo rmatio n d u e t o the sh ear and ax i al lo ad is small ,

it m ay be ne gl e cte d in co mp ariso n with th at d u e to the b end ing mo

ment Un d e r thi s as s um ption the wo rk of d e fo rmati on i s
.

E ds

in which inte gral i s t o be e x te nde d ove r the e ntire l ength of

the
the rib A pplying the p ri ncipl e of l e as t work to thi s e x pre ssio n the
.
,

partial d erivative of W wit h re spect t o the u nk nown q uantity P k

mus t be z ero H ence .

234 '

S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R I AL S

Fro m Article 6 6 ,
the an gul ar d ef ormatio n d B15 gi v en by the e x pre ssion
M ds
EI
C ons e qu ently
Mz
Al = zd ,8
FI
and h en c e the t o tal change in lengt h of the span is “
’

There fore the condi tion th at the span sh all be unch anged in lengt h
by the strain is
ds 0 .

The bendi ng mo ment M in thi s ex pression has the s ame v alu e as

in the pre ce di ng article namely M Al t,
In s e rt ing t hi,
s v al u e
p
.

of M in the abov e condi

tion it b e com e s ,

from which as in the pre,

ce di ng art icl e ,

F I G 159
.
16 1 . Graphi cal deter
i m i n a t i on of the l near
arch Fro m the co ndition th at the b ending s tre ss shall produce no
.

chang e in the l ength of the sp an the posi tion of the linear arch may ,

be d et ermi ne d graphi c ally as follows .

In Fig 1 5 9 l et A C F re pres e nt the c enter lin e of the rib AD E the

.
,

corre sponding e quilib riu m polygo n drawn t o any conv enient sc al e an d ,

AB P the li near ar ch Then the line ar arch can be obtaine d f ro m the

.

e quilib riu m polygo n by re ducin g e ach o rdinat e of the l atter in a c e rt ain

Thif
ff t f ch ng f t mp t
e e ec s o nd l
a f di ct c m p
es o ei v t in lt i g
e r a u re a a so o re o re ss e s r e ss a er n
th l ng t h f t h
e e p n n gl e t d th y
o e s a li g ht in c mp i n with th t d t
a re e c e , as e are s o ar s o a ue o

b nding t i n
e s ra .
 CH ED R IB S 235

o rdinat e s to the e quilib rium polygo n mu s t be hd

re d u c to giv e the

condition th at the sp an is unchang e d in l ength d erived

, in

ds = 0,

“
i whi ch
n pre s ent s the ordinat e CE to the rib and ds an e le ment
z re
[
,

of the rib Sin c e the b ending m o ment M is proportional to the v erti

.

c al int erc e p t b e tw ee n the line ar ar ch and the c enter line of the rib ,

this conditio n may be w ritten

ds = 0 ;

or, sin ce B may be assume d to be cons tant and

B C = BE CE = B E —z ,

thi s con ditio n b e come s

)
z z
ds O,

w hi ch may be writt en

ds 0 .

5
d enote s the rat io in whi ch the o rdinate s to the e quilibriu m
If r

polygon must be d e creas e d in ord er to give the linear arch t hen ,

’
7
_ BE
DE

an d co ns e qu ently the con ditio n b e co mes

-D E o
z
ds = 0 ;
I
whence

This e x pre ssion for r can be e v alu ate d graphically by replacing

i g
the nte ra ls by su t o s
m ma i n and ac lcul a t ing the giv e n f u n c t io n s for a
236 S T R EN GT H OF MAT E R I AL S

s erie s of v ertical s e ctio ns tak en at e q ua l inte rval s a long the rib

. Thus ,

sin ce d s in this c as e is co ns tant ,

’
7
DE z
I

in whi ch the fu nctio ns und er the s ummation s igns are to be calculate d

for e ach s e ctio n s ep arately an d th eir su m tak en A f ter r has b e en
,
.

found in this way the li near arch is ob t ai ne d by d e creasing the

o rdinates of the e quili b rium polygo n in the ratio r La nd the s tre ss
c an th e n be c alcul ate d as e x pl ain e d in A rticl e 1 5 7 .

This m ethod of d eterm ini ng the linear ar ch is du e to Ewing .

1 62 T emp erat u re stre s s es in tw o hi ng ed arched rib Wh en the

.
- .

tem p erat u re of an ar ch e d ri b ch ang e s the l ength of the rib al s o ch ang e s

, ,

an d co n s e qu e ntly s tre s s e s c all e d t emperatu re s tres s es are p roduce d in

the rib (com p are Article To c alcul ate the am ount of this s tre ss
l e t L d en o te the co e ffici ent of line ar e x p an sio n an d T the c h ang e in
te m p eratu re in d e gre e s The n e ach e le ment of the rib of le ngth d s
.

ch ange s its l ength by the am ount L T ds the horiz ontal p roj e ction of ,

which is L d The re fo re the to tal ch ange l in the l ength of the ri b is

.

L T d ec 2 cL T,

wh ere 2 c is the p an F rom Article 1 6 0

s .
,
the t o t al ch ange in lengt h
of the sp an is giv en by the e x pres sion
JV
Iz
EI
Therefore
-
ds 2 eL T .

EI

To si mplify this e x pre s sion ass ume th at the m odulus of el asticity

E is co n stant th roughou t the rib and th at the m om e nt of in erti a I
,

incre as e s towards the abutment s in the ratio _

ds
Und e r this assump
d zc
ds
tion I I0 wh ere I0 d eno te s the m oment of inertia at the crown ,
d ac
and the bov e e qu atio n b e co me s
a

Mzd a: 2 0L T .
238 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R IAL S

S ubs ti tu ting thi s value of z in the Integral e

’
d m and int egrating ,

we h av e
—)
2
1 6 ch
(Zc x d oc
15

C o ns e qu ently for a parabolic arch e d rib the ho riz ont al reaction of

the abu tment s due t o a change in temperat ure of T d egrees is
2 E I OcL T 1 5 E IOL T
2
1 6 ch 8h
2

15

1 63 . Cont inu ou s arched ri b fix ed continuous

at both end s . For a

arch e d ri b fi x e d at bo th e n ds the p robl e m of co ns t ructing the e qu i

lib rium polygon is subj ect t o a three fold ind etermi natio n since n one ,

of the three condi tion s ne c ess ary for its d ete rmination are given .

The th e o retic al solutio n of the q u e stion by the p rin cipl e of l eas t

work is as follows .

Let the v e rtical reaction B the ho riz o ntal react i on P r a

1,
fi d the
b ending m o ment M at the left support be chos en as the three
O

u nk nown qu ant itie s ne ce ss ary t o d etermine the li near arch For a .

s ys tem of co n c e nt rat e d lo a ds the m o ment M at any s e ction of the

rib dis t ant a: f ro m the l e f t suppo rt is

—P —
M = M0 + Rx ,
z —
E0
P (
a d ) ,

in whi ch d is the di st an ce of any lo ad P from the left support and ,

the su mmation is to be e xt end e d ov er all the lo ads b etw e en the l e ft

s uppo rt and the point u n d e r co nsid e rat io n Si mil arly for a unifo rm .
,

lo ad of amou nt w per unit of l e ngt h ,

2

M = M + R 5c —P z
5
10
0 ,

N ow , f ro m Articl e 7 3 , the work of d e fo rmation W i s giv en by the

e x pressmn

in whi ch M has the value given by one or the other of the abov e
ex p ressio n s d epending on wh ether the lo ading is concent rat ed or
,

u niform To apply Castigliano s t h eorem t o thi s e x pre ssion it is

.
’
 239

ds O,

ds ds 0,

ds O,

8M
s m ce fro m ei th er of the abov e ex pre ssi o ns for M we have 1,
3M0
z . Ins erting in th es e three co nditio ns the v alu e
of M for the giv en form of lo ading th ree simul t ane ous e qu ation s
, are

obtained which may be solve d for the thre e unknown qu antit ies R

Equ at ion s lso be ob taine d by assuming as ou r three con

( )
1 0 3 can a

diti ons th at the ho riz o ntal and v ertic al d e fl e ctio n s of the suppo rts are
z e r o and t h at the di re c t io n of the rib at the e nds re m ai n s u n ch ang e d
, .

The me thod of ob tain

ing e qu atio n s (103 ) f ro m
thes e a s s u m p t i o n s i s
simply an e xtensio n of
th at g i v e n i n A r t i c l e
1 6 0 for t he two hing e d -

“
arch e d ri b .

1 64 Graphi cal deter

.

minati on of the l inear

ar ch f or c on t i n u o u s

arched ri b . The sim pl e st

m ethod of appl ying e qu a
tions (10 3 ) t o the d et er F G 16 1 I .

minati on of the l i n e a r
ar ch is by m e an s of a g raphic al t re atme nt si mil ar to th at giv e n in

Articl e 1 6 1 .

C o n sid er fi rs t the c as e of sy m metrical lo ading The n if M d eno te s .

O

the b e nding m om ent at e ith er abu tm ent the li near arch has the s am e
,
240 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R IA L S

form as for a rib with two hinge§ ex ce p t th at its b as e is s h ov e d ,

down a dis tanc e M b elow the s pringing li ne of the rib Th e re fore

O .

in thi s c as e the lin e ar arch is co m pl etely d e te rmine d by the two

qu antitie s M and r the thir d condition b e ing supplie d by the s y m
o ,
e

m etry of the figu re .

In Fig 1 6 1 l e t A CE re pre s e nt the c enter line of the rib A B E

.
’ ’
,

the line ar arch and A D E the e quili b rium polygo n for the giv e n
,

syste m of lo ads Sinc e the b en din g mom ent M at any poi nt of the
.

rib is the v ertic al i nte r c e pt B C b e t w een the line ar ar ch and the

c enter li ne of the rib we h av e ,

M = B O = BE CE ’ —E E ’
,

M= T °
DE I —z —M 0

S ub stituting this valu e of M in the fi rst an d t irh d of e qu atio n s .

the y b ecom e
ds 0,

’
rDE zds
ds 0 .

EI

If the ex pre ssio ns und er the s e integral signs are e valu ate d for a nu m
ber of v ertic al s e ctions tak en at e qu al dis tan c e s a long the r i b and the ,

r e s ul ts are su mm e d we ob tain the two co n di tio n s

,

I
1
I
3 4 10
2 I
.

/
s —M
n
v
”
7
2 I
fi
r I
o
I

f rom which r and M can e asily be d ete rmi ne d The line ar arch is
O

th e n co ns tr ucte d by s tart ing fr o m a point at a di s tan c e M b elow the ,

l eft support and d e creasing the ordinate s t o the e quil ibriu m polygon
,

in the ratio r : 1 .

If the lo adin g is u nsymm etric al the mo ment s at the e nds of the ,

rib are n ot e qu al Le t M and M d en ote the m om ents at the l e ft

.
1 2

and righ t en ds re sp e c tiv e ly Fig A s b e fo re the m o ment M

( .
,

at an
y poi n t of the ri b is the v e rt ic al inte r c e p t B C b e t w ee n the lin e ar
'
ar ch A B F
’
an d the c ente r line of the rib A C E C ons e q u ently .

M = B 0 = BE — CE
'— EE ’
.
242 ST R E NG T H OF M AT ERI AL S

S olving t h e s e three e qu ations sim ultane ou sly for M and the 1,

linear arch is con structe d by laying off M and M from A and F 1 2

re sp e ctiv e ly , and th en re ducing the o rdi nate s t o the e quilib riu m

polygon in the ratio r : 1 and l ayi ng t h em off fro m the line A F

’

’ ’
,

The s tre ss e s i n the rib c an th e n be c alcul ate d by the methods

pre viou sly giv en (Article
1 6 5 T e mp erat ure s tres s e s i n continu ous arched rib U sing the
. .

n o tat io n of Articl e 1 6 2 the ch ang e in the l engt h of the sp an d u e t o

,

a ch ang e i n tem p eratu re of T d e g re e s is

Z : 2 eL T .

Th ere fo re ,
for tem p e rature s tre ss e s e qu ations (10 3 ) b e come
£ d3 = 0 ,
fi es -
z o, —2 eL T .

EI

By hypo th es is the only e x ternal fo rc e s acting on the rib are the

,

re actio n s and m o me nts at the abu tm e nt s d u e to the te m p e ratu re

s tre s se s C ons e qu ently if R d eno te s the v erti cal re action

.
, h o ri ,

z ontal reactio n and M the m om e nt at the l e f t abu tm e nt the m o me nt

, ; ,

M at any o th er point of the rib is

M = M1 R ae t .

If, th en, this v alu e of M is ins erte d in the abov e integrals and the
re sul ti ng e qu atio n s s olve d si mul tane ously for M R and P b the lin ear 1, , ,

ar ch is t h e re by d ete rmin e d .
 C HAPT ER XI

FOU NDAT IONS AND R E T AINING WALLS *

1 66 . Bearing p ow e r of s o l s i
ch aract er of a foundation . S in c e the
is d e p e nd e nt upo n the n ature of the s oil on which it is to rest it i s ,

n e c essary in d e signin g a fou n dation to kn ow with a reas o nabl e d egre e

o f accu racy the m aximum lo ad which the s oil can s u s t ain r u nit
p e

of area without app r e ci abl e s e ttl e m e nt ; or in oth er word s what is , ,

known as the beari ng power of the s oil r .

‘

Ordinarily the re s ult s of p re viou s e xp eri e nc e are r elie d upon to

giv e an approxim me v alue of the b e aring powe r of any give n s oil ,

an d s t ability i s as s u re d by the adoptio n of a l arg e facto r o f s afe ty .

For s tructu re s of u n u su al impo rt anc e how e v e r or wh e n the n ature , ,

of the s oil i s u n c e rt ain the r e s ult s of p r e vious e xp e ri en c e are u s u ally

,
,

in s u fficient to as s u re s tability and S p e cial t est s are n e c ess ary for the ,

d et ermin ation of the b earing power of the s oil in qu e stio n A mong

notable s tructures for w
.

hi ch s uch s p e cial t es t s h av e b een m ad e m ay

be m e ntion e d the S t at e C apitol at Alb an y N Y ; the C o ngre s sional , . .

Library at Washingto n D O ; the s u sp ension bridges at Brooklyn N Y

,
. .
,
. .
,

and at C incinn ati Ohio ; the W ashi n gton Mon um en t ; the T ow er

,

Bridg e L ondon e tc
, , .

By av e raging the res ult s of a l arg e numb er of s uch t est s reliabl e ,

inform ation i s furnish e d as to the b earing pow er of s oil s in g eneral .

The mo st commo nly acc ept e d of s uch av erage v alu es are th os e giv e n
by Pro fe ss or I 0 Bak er in hi s Tr ea ti se on Ma sonr y Cons tr u cti on and
. .
,

are as s hown in the t abl e on the followin g p ag e Oth er v al u es in .

common u se are al s o quot e d for comp ari s o n and may be acc ept e d as ,

re p rese nt ativ e of mod e rn p ractic e .

F m
or a d t il d t
ore tm nt f f nd ti n nd t ining w ll th f ll wi ng
e a e r ea e o ou a o s a re a a s e o o

s p ci
e l at t i re am b
se s
y c n l t
a d B e k T o ti su n M e n y C n t t n ; H
a w er , re a se o aso r o s ru c i o o e,

m n W ll
.

R t i ni ng W l l f
e a a E th ; F wl
s or O d in y F
ar nd ti n ; M
o er , nd r ar ou a o s e rr i a ,
a s a

D m ; P tt n O d i n y F n d ti ns
a s a o , r ar ou a o .

T T h b e i ng p w
ear f il o i n l
er og t w h t
so i c
s ll d t h
s a c h ng t n
a o g th n ou s o a s a e e ru s
0

i s re i

th ce f m
as e o ig id m t i l c h t n nd b ick
ore r a er a s , s u as s o e a r .

2 43
2 44 S T RENG T H OF M AT ERI AL S

M T ERI A AL BEAR NG P O WER

I

/
to n s f t .
2

c q l t b t hl m
Ro k e ua o es as ar as onr y
R ck q
o l t b t b ick m
e ua o es r as onry

R ck q
o l t p b ick m
e ua o oor r as onr y
D y cl y
r a

M d ot ly d y cl y
e ra e r a

S f t cl y
o a

C m nt d g v l nd c
e e e ra e a o arse s and

C mp c t nd w ll c m n t d
o a a e - e e e s and

Cl n d yea nd,
r sa

Q ic k nd nd ll vi l il
u sa a a u a so s

As pproxim ate wo rking rul e Trau twine re comm end s from 2

an a

to 3 tons/ ft as a s afe lo ad for comp act g rav el s an d or lo am an d

.
2
, , ,

from 4 to 6 tons / ft if a few i nch e s of s e ttl e m ent m ay be all ow e d

2 *
. .

T he buildi ng l aw s of Gre at e r N e w Yo rk m ay al s o be reg ard e d as

comp et ent auth ority and spe cify the following v alu es ,

A
M T ERIA L BEAR NG P O WE R
I

t /ft
on s .
2

F i
m, c
r oars e s and , s t iff g v l ra e ,
or h ar d cl y
a

L oam , cl y a ,
or fine s and , fir m and d ry
O d i n y cl y
r ar a and s and t og e th er , we t i y
and sp r ng

S f t cl y
o a

As uppl e m ent to the abov e th es e l aws als o sp e cify th at wh en

a s ,

fou n d atio n s are c arri e d down th r ough e arth by piers of s to ne or

b rick or by con cre t e in cai ss o ns the lo ad s on s am e sh all not e xc ee d
, ,

1 5 t ons / ft wh e n c arrie d down to r ock or 1 0 tons / ft wh e n c arri e d

2 2
. .
,

down to firm grav e l or h ard cl ay .

In or d er to obvi at e too l arg e or e xp e ns iv e a fou nd ation it i s o fte n ,

d e sirabl e to increase the b earing power of the s oil T his may be .

accompli s h e d in v ariou s w ay s .

S inc e in g eneral s oil s are mo re co nd ense d at gre at er d e pth s

'

, , ,

in creasing the d e pth u su ally i ncrease s the b e ari ng p ow er of the s oil .

* E n i ne e r ’ s
g c
P o k e t-B ook , 190 2 , p 58 3 . .
 246 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER I A L S

PF P N tan co, an d comp aring this with the re a l tio n PF kP N,

.

k ta n a)

that i s to s ay the co efficient of frictio n is e qu al to the t ange nt of the

,

angl e of re po s e .

The following t abl e giv es the num erical v alu e s of the angl e s of
re po s e and co e ffici ent s o f frictio n for v ariou s m at eri al s and al s o the ,

w e ight in pound s of one cubic foot of each m ate ri al l

.
ae

A N LEG OF C O E F F I C IE N T OF
M T ERI A AL R EP O E S F RI C T I O N
w k= t a ma

S and , d ry and fine .

d ry and c oarse

mo it
s

we t
C l y
a ,
d amp
we t .

C l y yg v l
a e ra e

S h i ng l e

G vlra e .

A ll vi l uil a so

P t ea

C nc t b t
o re e , es

p o rous
Br ic k wo rk

p resse d
m e d um i
so ft
Masonry
g rit
a n e or li m t
e s one

nd t
sa s one

m t or ar r u bbl e

d ry ru bbl e

16 8 . Bearing p ower cu stom of d riving pil es into the

of p il e s . The
s oil to i n c rease i ts b earing pow er i s of v e ry an ci e nt o ri gin an d i s s till ,

fre qu ently u s e d b e c au s e of i ts ch eapn e s s and e fficien cy Until quit e .

S e e F ann i ng T ti
, re a se on H y d r au li c nd W t S pp ly E ng i n i ng 15 th d 1902
a a er u ee r , e .
, ,

p 3 4 5 ; T rau twi n P oc k t B k 190 2 p p 40 7 4 11 ; S mi th ni n P hy i l -

’
. E ng i n
e, ee r s e - oo , , . so a s ca

T abl es , 1 896 , T bl 95 ; l
a e a so t he r e su l t c mp il d by R nk i f m p i m nt by G n
s o e a ne ro ex er e s e

e ra lM i
or n an d th
o i bid
ers , .
,
Ta bl e 149 .
 247

c tly wood was the o nly m at eri al u se d for pil es and th ey w ere
re en ,

e ith e r d riv en by h an d with s l e dg e s or by m e ans of a block u s u ally

, ,

of m e t al which w as rai se d b e tw e e n two up right guid e s and allow e d

,

to fall on the h ead of the pile: The latter form of pil e d rive r is s till
in fre qu ent u se for d riving woode n pil es and i s c all e d the d rop
'

h amm e r pile d riv er .

In 1 8 3 9 N as myth inv e nt e d the steam pil e d riv er which con si st s ,

e ss en ti ally of a s t e am cylin d e r s uppo rt e d v e rtic ally abov e the h e ad

of the pil e by two up right s fast e n e d to a c a w hi ch t on the

p r e s s

pil e The h amm er in thi s c as e i s a w eight att ach e d to the pi ston

.

rod and d e liv e rs a blow on the h e ad of the pil e at e ach s tr ok e

,

of the pi s to n The up right s which s uppo rt the cylin d e r al s o s erv e

.

as guid e s for the h amm e r which v ari es in w e ight from 5 5 0 1b to

, .

4 8 0 0 lb Thi s fo r m of pil e d riv e r ow es its efficie n cy to the rapidity

.

with which the blows c an be giv en the numb er b e ing from s ixty ,

to eighty per min ut e thu s p re venting the s oil from re cov ering its
,

e quili b rium b etw e e n s trok e s and g reatly d e c re as ing its re s i st anc e to

,

penetration .

In mod ern e ngin e e ring practic e cast iron and concre t e pile s are rap
-

idly coming into u se and as n e ith er of th ese m at erial s i s c ap abl e

,
‘

of s t andin g re p e at e d blow s pil e s of thi s kind are u s u ally d riv en by

,

m ean s of an hydraulic jet The je t is att ach e d to the point of the

.

pil e thu s con st antly e xc avating the s oil in front of the pile as it
,

d es ce nd s and enabling it to s ink into pl ac e with little or no as si st

,

an c e oth er th an its own w eight .

T he r atio n al fo r mul as in o r dinary u se for d et e rmin ing the b earing

powe r of piles are b ase d upo n the ass umption th at the pile is d riven
by a d rop-h amm er pil e d riv e r and e xpress its b e aring power in term s
,

of the amount of p en e t ratio n at the l as t blow Sin c e the b earing

.

powe r of a pile is d u e in p art to the friction of the earth on the s id e s

of the pil e as w e ll as to the re si s t anc e of the s ub s oil to p en e t ration
, ,

and al s o s in c e p art of the e n e rgy of the h amm er i s ab s o rb e d by the

friction of the guid es in comp re ss ing the h ead of the pil e in compres s
, ,

ing the h amm er in overcomin g the in erti a of the pil e etc a rigorou s
, ,
.
,

fo rmul a is too complic at ed to be of much practic al v alu e although ,

th ere are a numb er of el aborat e dis cu ss io ns of the b earing power of

pil es whi ch t ak e all of th e se el e m ent s into consideration notably the ,
248 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I A L S

the o ri es of Rank ine and Weisb ach H oweve r as sev eral of the el e .
* b
,

m ent s ent ering into the di s cu ssi on are atte nd e d with cons id erable
un c ertain ty it is cu s tom ary in p ractic e to u se e ith er an e mpiri cal
,

fo r mul a or the s impl e app roxim at e fo rm ul a d e duc e d be low adopting ,

a facto r o f s afe ty l arg e e n o ugh to cov e r the as s umptio n s m ad e .

Le t P d en ot e the w e ight of the h amm e r in pound s h the h e ight ,

of the fall i n inch es R the av e rag e res i s t an c e of the s oil to p e n e tra

,

tion during the l as t blow in p oun d s and d the pe ne tratio n of the

'

pile d u e to the l ast blow in inch e s Th en as s uming th at all the wo rk

, ,
.
,

do ne by the h amm er is e xpend e d in overco ming the resi s tanc e of the

e arth at the poi nt of the pil e we h av e ,

Ph Rd .

With a facto r of s afe ty of 6 , the a pproxim at e formul a for s afe lo ad

on the pil e b e c om es
P h
(10 4 ) R
6 d

A s the h e ad of a timb er pil e b e com es b room e d by re peat ed bl ow s ,

and thi s g re atly d e c re ase s the e ffici e n cy of the blow by ab s o rbin g the

kin etic ene rgy of the h amm er the h e ad s ho u ld be s awe d off to a s olid
,

s u rfac e b e fo re m ak ing a t es t blow for d e t e r min in g the b e ari ng pow er

of the pil e .

For a d r op-h amm er pil e d riv er the e mpiric al fo r mul a in mo s t

commo n u se is
(10 5 ) _d 2 P h
’

+ l
the n otation b e ing the s am e as abov e and the ,
facto r of s afe ty b eing 6 .

For a s t e am pil e d riv er thi s fo r mul a b e com e s

2 P h
(10 6 ) a +o 1 .
’

wh ere Ph presents the kin e tic e nergy of the h amm er

re .

The above e mpiric al fo r mul a (10 5 ) or i s commonl y known

,

as Wel l i ng ton s formula or the Engi neeri ng News formul a an d has b e e n

’
, ,

in corporate d in the building l aws of Gre at e r Ne w Yo rk .

T he only m e an s of d e t e rmining the b e aring pow er of a pil e d riv e n

by an hyd raulic jet i s to ob serve the m aximum lo ad it can s upport
,

without appre ciabl e settl e m e nt .

S B k T ee tian Me r,n y C n t u c ti n ch p
re a se o i aso r o s r o ,
a . x .
2 50 ST RENG T H OF M A T E RI AL S

a bov e oth er It is e vid ent in this c as e th at if the foundation i s of

an .

the s am e width th roughout the c ent e rs o f p re ss u re will fall outs id e ,

the ce nt ers of r esi st anc e w hi ch will t end to throw the top of the w all
,

out ward on e ith er s id e and s o re s ult in crack s b e tw een the ope nings
,

Fi T h r e m e dy for thi s i s e ith e r to n arr ow the foun d atio n

( g . e ,

or omit it altog e th er un d e r the op e ni ng s or e l s e e xt e n d it b e yon d ,

the e n d s of the w all the l e ngth of ,

thi s e xt e nsio n b e ing of s uch amount

th at the c ent ers of press u re wil l fall
i ns id e or at l e ast coin cid e with the , ,

c en t e rs of resistanc e .

W h e n a f o u n d a ti o n e x t e n d s
b e yond the e nd s of a w all the proje c
tion is c all e d the footi ng To dM en .

s io n the footing it m ay be re g ar d e d

a s a s i m p l e c an t i l e v e r an d i ts ,

thi ckness c alcul at e d by the _ or din ary

th e ory of b eam s Thu s l et h d en ote .

t h e t h ic k n e s s of the footing i n
inch e s for a co n crete found ation ,

or the thi ck ne s s of the bottom foot

ing cou rs e in in c h es for a m as onry

F 164 IG .

found atio n 7 ) the width of the foot ,

ing in inch es u the ultim at e strength of the m at erial in lb /

, in and . .
2
,

P the lo ad in ton s/ Th e n S in c e 1 ton /

2 2
ft ft . the ,
.

mom e nt at the face of the w all is

M P bx )

h
M .

f
2 a P
or, S i nc e I and u we h av e u
2
wh ence
h

h a: a pproxim ate ly .

b l m 2 9 1 F i nd th th ick n
Pro e . e e ss o f the b tt o om f t i ng c
oo f m n y ou rse or a aso r

f nd t i n if th l d i l t n/
ou a o ft
e oa s o .
2
,
the f cta or o f f ty i 10 th f t i ng i t
sa e s ,
e oo s o

t nd 18 i n b y nd th f c f th
ex e . e o e a e o e wa ll ,
and is c mp d f li m t n f whic h
o ose o es o e or

u lb /in . .
2
 2 51

1 70 . Col u mn f ooting s .
In the mod ern con struction of t all build
.

e ntire w e ight of the

conte nts sh al l be carri e d by a ste el fram ew ork of

gir ders . T hi s

ce s si tate s a n e w

typ e of founda
tio n sinc e each
,

c o l u m n l o ad
mu st be cal cu
l at e d s e parat ely
and t ran s mi tt e d

to the s oil by a
footing fi
of s u ffi

cient size to
giv e the ne ce s
s ar y amoun t of

b e aring area .

If t h e c o l
'

u m n s re ac h

so lid rock the ,

fo o t i n g m ay
c onsis t s imply
of a b ase pl at e of

s uch fo rm as to

giv e the column

a s o l i d b e ar
F 16 5IG .

ing an d affo rd
s u fficie n t an cho r ag e to p re v e nt the fo oti ng fr om l at e ral mov e m e nt .

For compre s sibl e s oil s the colum n i s u s u ally s upp ort e d by a cas t
iron b ase pl at e re sting on a footing con sis ting of two or more l ay e rs
of s t e e l rail s or I b e am s the whol e re s ti ng on a conc re t e b as e as
-
, ,

shown in Fi 1 6 5
g . .
2 52 S T R E N G T H OF MA T ER I A L S

cul ation of the lo ads c arrie d by the foun d ation als o appli es to the
c alcul ation of column lo ad s and the me thod of d e sign
,
i ng a c olumn
footing i s e s se nti ally the s am e as for a m as onry footin g e xpl ain e d ,
‘

abov e . T hu s l et P d e not e the total column lo ad in to n s e the l en gth ,

of one s id e of the b as e pl at e in i n ch e s an d l the l ength in inches of ,

the b e am s s uppo rting it (F T h e n if the b ase pl at e is ass um ed

'

to be stiff e n ough to c arry the lo ad on its p e rim et er the m aximum ,

mom ent M will occur at one e dg e of the b ase pl ate S ince the reao .

tion on one sid e of the b as e pl at e is 2 0 00 P

2 1
thi s moment i s
2 00 0 P (l —e) l —c 2 5 OP (l —c ?
) m lb
M .

2 1 4 z

C o nse qu ently , if numb er of b e am s s upporting

n i s the t he b ase plate ,

the m axi mum mom ent for one b eam I s

2
2 5 0 P (l e
) In . lb .

nl

If the b as e pl at e is ass um e d to be o nl y stiff e nough to distribute

the lo ad u ni fo rml y the m aximum mom ent will occu r at the c e n te r
,

of the b e am s an d its v alu e will be of A rticl e 5 2 E

, ( ( )) .

2 5 0 P (2 l e
) in . lb .

In this c ase the m aximum mom e nt for one b eam is

2 5 0 P (2 l — e)
in lb
72,

N ow l e t p d enot e the llow abl e fib er s tress pe r s qu are inch I

a ,
the
m
mo e nt of inertia of a cro ss s e ction of one b e am and e h alf ,
the
d epth of the b e am . Th e n the mom e nt of resi s t an ce of one b eam is

p ]
6

For found atio n work 10 i s u s u ally t ak e n to be lb /

in . .
2
S ubsti
tuting thi s value the moment of resist anc e b e com es
,

M : S,
2 54 S T RENG T H OF M AT E RI AL S

the se co nd
um es th at the e art pres su re again st the wall i s the
as s

sam e as if the e ar th w as a liq ui d H ow e v e r the un c e rt ain ty att e n d

.
,

ing the e xact d eg ree of homog eneity of the m ate rials u nder c onsidi
e rati on p rob ably do es n ot w arrant an gr e at e r re ci s mn I n th ese fi rs t
y p
two as sumptio ns .

The thi rd as s umption re l at e s to the d i r ection of the m axim u m

p re ssure and is the point on which the v ariou s th e o rie s differ Thus
, .
‘

C oulomb and W e y rauch as s um e th at the p ressu re i s n o rm al to t he

F IG . 16 6

b ack of the w all ; R anki ne assum es th at it m ak es an angle with the

b ack of the w all e qu al to the angl e of re po se of the m at e ri al ; whil e
othe r authoriti es assum e v alu es inte rm e diate b etw een th e s e two .

In the pre s ent di scu ssion the firs t two conditions m ention e d abov e
will be retained and the third condition will be repl ac e d by the
,

ass umptio n th at the re s ult ant e arth p re s s u re m ak e s an un k now n

angl e with a no rm al to the b ack of the w all The ass umptions .

are th e n :
,

1 T he s u rfac e of ruptu re i s a pl an e
. .

2 The point of applic atio n of the re s ul t an t p re ss u re is one thir d

.

of the h eight of the w all from the bottom .

 55

ss u re 1s incline d at an a ngle C to a no rm al to

From the ult of the th e ory b as e d on th ese as sumption s the

r es ,

valu e s of the resultant e arth press ure giv en by C oulomb Weyrauch , ,

an d oth e rs will th e n be d e duc e d as S p e ci al c as es by givi ng

v al ues to C .

r e s e nt the b ack of the w all B D the s u rfac e

,

0 any li ne i n clud e d b etw ee n

A B and A D A l s o l et P d e n ot e the res ult ant p ressu re d u e to the
.
’

we dge B A 0 P the we ight of thi s w edge OR its re acti on against

, I ,

the pl ane A C C the angl e b e tw e e n P and a no rm al to the b ack of

’
,

the w all a) the angl e of re po se o f theearth a the angl e b e tw ee n the

, ,

b ack of the w all and the horizont al 8 the angl e b e tween the su rfac e , ,

of the g round and the ho r izo nt al an d x the angl e b e tw een A O an d ,

the ho riz o nt al .

T h e n in the t riangl e T OS by the l aw of S ine s , ,

’
sin OT S
P P1
Sl n OS T

inc e T OR =a —w and T OS = 1 8 0 —a h av e 0 S T =a +
°
or, s
'
we
an d c onse qu e n tly
s in a:
( w)
, ,

T o find xpression for P l e t w d e not e the w eight of a unit

an e 1,

volume of the m at erial say the w e ight of one cubic foot Th en for a
,
.

Section of u nit l ength in the dire ction of the w all

P1 w (are a AB C ) si n B AG“
or, i f it d enot es the h eight of the w all ,
AB BAC a 93,

w i n (a
and AO A wh ence
S l I1 £
C
( 8)
“
,

wh i ( s n a 8 ) s in (a
,
a
)
P1
2 i z
s n a s in a:
( 8)
,

and , con se qu ently ,

’
P
B) sm a
2
a si n 9c
2 s in ( (
'

a)
2 56 S T R EN GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

probl e m now con s is ts in findihg the v al

T he
a: for which P is a m aximum w hi ch m ay be e xp ress e d mbolic ally
’
s
, y
by the conditions dF d P / , Q

2
el se el se

In o r d er to re duc e the e xpression for P to a fo rm more s uitable ’

for
differentiation we m ak e u se of the following ide ntity
,
.

CO “
W > “ 58
(
c os a 93

a
c
)
) s in
(
c os a

( “
co

60
)
)

s in a
( x s in
) (a —w)
‘

s in a
( a
) s in
( a m)
when ce

Simil arly ,
s in a
s
( B) = i (
s n a e
) im(
sa 5 ) [C OM a3
) CO
M“ .

an d
i ( +
s n a {f
a) a
) s in (a :a
) s in ( cot
C) [ ( a
'

a x
) cot ( a

Sub s titutin g th e s e v alu e s in the e xp re ss ion for P ’

,
the l atte r b e com es

i cot cot a —B cot a —ac + cot 01 + é

2
2 S n a s in
( + C) ) ( ) ][ ( ) (
’

[ ( wa at

Now the t e rm s in thi s e xp ressio n which co nt ain the v ari abl e a: are
al l of the s am e fo rm n am e ly cot a T hi s t e rm m ay th e re fo re
,( a
) , .

be re pl ac e d by a n e w v ari abl e y an d the r e m aini n g t e rm s by l e tt e rs

,

d en oting co nst ants Thu s l et .

cot (a cot (a
’
37
_B
P = A
’

E qu atin g to z ero the first d erivative of P ’

with r es p e ct to y,w e h ave

a
ir
wh e nc e the condition for a m aximum is
2 58 S T R EN G T H OF MA T ER I A L S

as s umption th at pre ssure is n ormal t o theb ack of the wall

the . T he n
B 0, a {
f 0 a n d fo rmul
,
a ( )
1 0 7 b e c o m es
2
wh
2

5 . Ranki ne ’
s formula for v er ti cal wall A s sum e th at the b ack of
w all i s v ertical and th at the l ine of actio n of the r es ult ant
p re s su re i s p arall el to the su rface of the e arth . T h en a

C 9 0 B a
°
an d fo r mul a,( )
1 0 7 b e com e s

2 2
u h c os 0 )
P max

cos
2
B
6 . Maxi mum normal pres s ure . A s sum e that B has its m aximum
v alu e which will be wh en
,

B T h e n We y r a u c h s
’
(0 .

fo rm ul a b e com es

i 2 s n a
s

whi ch is the g re ates t n orm al

thru s t that can be c au s e d by
mping b ank .

P ob l m 293 A w ll 2 0 f t r e . a .

h i g h i i ncli n d t n ng l f 8 5 s e a a a e o
°

t th h i nt l nd pp t o e or z o a a su or s a

b ck i ng f cl y y g v l th a o a e ra e e su r

f c i wh ic h m k n ng l f a e O a es a a e o

2 0 w i th th h i z n t l C mp t °
e or o a . o u e

th m im m p g i n t th e ax u re ss u r e a a s e

b ck f th w ll b y W y u h nd a o e a e ra c
’
s a

R nk i n f m l nd c mp
’
a e s or u as , a o are

th lt e re su s .

P ob l m 29 4 B y th f r e . e use o

P nc l t f mu l c mp t th o e e
’
s or a o u e e

m im m p i n th p d in ax u r essu re e re c e o'
F 16 7 IG
c,

p bl m if th b ck O f th w ll i
.

ro e e a e a s

v tic l nd th f c f th g nd i h i z nt l
'

er a a e su r a e o e rou s or o a .

P ob l m 2 9 5
r Wh t i th g t t n m l p u th t n b c u d by
e . a s e re a e s or a re ss re a ca e a se a

b nk f l
a o nd g i n t v
oose sat ic l w ll
a a 1 8 f t h
s i g ha er a a .

1 72 . S tabil ity of ret ai ning wal l s . The conditions for the St ability
of a re a t ining w all are the sa me as tho se give n in Articl e 15 5 for the
 Le t P 2 d e not e
weight of the w all P the res ultant e arth pres
the ,
’

s u re and R the res ultant of P and P (Fig T h e n i f R is res olv e d ’

.
, 2 ,

into two component s R and R N resp e ctiv ely p arallel and perpen
F ,

dicul ar to the b ase of the w all the condition for s t abili ty ag ai nst
,

Sliding i s th at R s h all be l e ss th an the friction on the b ase or

F , ,

R, kR N .

Le t g d enote the facto r of s afe ty . The n thi s condition may be w ritte n

i n,
( )
1 0 8 RF
9

To find the v alu e s of R and R N l et P and P be res olve d int o co m

F ,
’
2

p one nts p a rall e l to R an d R N res p e ctiv e ly

F
T h e n in the not ation o f .
,

the p re c e ding articl e ,

0 + C) —P si n 9 2 ,

RN = P2 00s 0 9 + C) .

S ub stituting th es e v alue s of R F
an d R N in e qu ation (108 ) and s olving
the res ulting e xp re ss io n for g ,

109
—s in 6 ’

If the base of the w all is ho rizo nt al ,

0 0 and e qu ation (109 ) b e com es

1 10 ’
P si n a
( C)
For curity again st S liding the factor of safe ty s h ould not be l e ss
se

than 3 ; conse qu ently the c rite rion for stability ag ains t sliding may
,

be s t ate d as
9 3 .

wh ere v alu e of g is c alcul ate d from e qu ation (109 ) or

the
In applying this c rit erion it should be n ot e d th at the v al u e of C
mu st fi rs t be assum e d (Article 1 7 1 ; 0 2 C w) .

The following t abl e giv es av erage v alu es of the angl e of repo s e

and co e ffici e nt of frictio n of m a s o nry on v ariou s s ub s t anc e s
” e
.

S ee f c
re ere n e s a t t he f t
oo of p 2 46
. .
2 60 S T R E NG T H ,
OE MAT ER I A L S

M A ERI AL
T

Masonry on d ry cl y a

mo i t cl y
s a

d ry e ar th
cl y y g v l
a e ra e

sand g v l or ra e

d y w d n p l tf m
r oo e a or

w t w d n p l tf m
e oo e a or

m n y d y
as o r ,
r

m n y d mp m
as o rt ,
a or ar

In order for a w all to fail by ov erturni ng it mu st eith er rotate ,

about the oute r e dg e of the b ase or i n the c ase of a m as onry w all , ,

'

ope n at one o f the j oin t s The cau se of f ail ure In both c ase s is the
'

'
.

sam e n am ely th at the s tre ss on the b ase or joint i s p artly t en s il e

, , .

C on se qu ently the crit erion for s t ability again st

,

the re s ult ant R mu s t s t rik e within the middle thi r d of the b as e or

'
'

j oint as the c ase m ay be (cf Articl es

,
1 4 8 2 and .
, ,

Thi s crit erion can b es t be applie d graphi c ally T hu s h avin g ass um e d .

a v alu e for the angl e C the res ult an t earth press u re P i s c alcul at e d
’
,

from the formul a in A rticl e 17 1 co rrespon di ng to thi s as s u mption

’

of C an d combine d with the w e ight O f thew all i n to a single re sul t ‘

ant B If thi s result ant do es n ot s t rik e within the middl e thi r d of

.

the b ase or within the middl e thi rd of all the j oint s in the c ase
‘

of a m as on ry w all the d esign mu st be alt e re d until the c rit erion is

,

sati s fi e d .

173 T hi ck n e s s of retaining wal l s

. In d esigni ng a ret aini n g wall .

e conomy of m at e ri al i s s e cu re d by m akin g th b as e o f s uch thick n es s

e
th at the re sul t ant R obtaine d by combining the w e ight of the w all
,

P with the m aximum e arth p r e ss u r e P s h all fall at the out er e dge

’
2 ,

of the middl e t hi rd H ow e v e r th e ore tic al for mul as for d ete rmin ing
‘
‘

.
,

the l e as t thick n ess con s i s t e nt with thi s co nditi on are too complic at e d
to be of pract ic al v alu e and for thi s reas on the d esign i s u su ally b ase d
,

on an e mpirical fo rmul a .

In railro ad practic e Trau twine re comm en d s th at for v e rtic al w all s »

of re ct angul ar c ro s s s e ction s uppo rting loo s e sand grav el or eart h, , ,

 S T R E N G T H OF MAT E R I AL S

From the bove it follows th at

a ,
conomic al d esign the cros s
‘
fOI an e
se ction of a w all s hould be t rap ezoid al the thickn e ss of the b as e ,

be ing d e termin e d by the co nside ratio n of s tability again st overturn

ing and the thi ck ness o f the top by the m aximum actio n of fro st
, .

The in clin ation of e ith er face of a w all to the ho riz ont al is u s u ally
e xp resse d by giving the ratio of the ho riz ont al p roj e ctio n of thi s fac e

to i ts v e rtical p r oj e ctio n Thi s ratio is c all e d the batt er and i s giv e n

.
,

in inch es of ho riz ont al p r oj e ction pe r foot of h eight For e x ampl e if .

,

a w all m ak es an angl e of 8 0 with h e ho riz ont al it i s s aid to be

5
°
t ,

b att ere d 2 to s inc e the ratio of its ho riz ont al p roj e ction to its

v ertical proj e ction is e qu al to cot a and in the present cas e,

cot a cot . 1 6 73 2
1?
a pproximate ly .

Pro b l m 2 9 6 D ign c nc t t i ni ng w ll t
e . es a o re e re a a t b nk f l
o su p p o r a a o oose e ar th
2 5 f t h i g h th b c k f th w ll t b i ncli n d b c k w
.
,
e a o e a o e e a ard at b tt of 1 3 t
a a er 7. , o 1 .
266 ST RENG T H OF M A T ERIA L S

both of Phil ad elphia Pe nnsylv ani a T he machine s as now c on

,
.

s t ruct e d for o rd i nary te s tin g purpo se s co n sis t of a pl at for m s c al e s

with the u s ual means of m e as uring lo ad s and a s cre w ,

by an out side s ource for applying the lo ad s Fig 16 9 is a m achine . .

of lb c ap acity b uil t by Ol sen

. C o and may be tak e n
,
.
,

as a typ e The fou r upright pi e c e s A with the b as e B upon which

‘

the y rest form the plat form of the s cal es Thi s platfo rm res ts upon .

kni fe-e dg es 0 attach e d to a sy ste m of lev ers D which t erminate

fi nally in a gradu ate d l ev er E (the s cal ebeam) provid e d with a
m ov able poi se Each l e ve r is supporte d by knife-e dge s resting upon
.

h ard ene d ste el plat es The s cre w press in thi s cas e is se en in the
.

F
IG . 16 8

fou r s rec wswith th eir m ov able cro ssh e ad G The upp er c ro ss

F .

he ad H is att ac he d t o the fou r up right pi e c e s and is a p art of the

s c al e pl at form .

1 75 T ens i on t es t s
. If a pie c e i s to be t e st e d i n t e n sion on e e n d
.
,

i s att ach e d to the upp e r c r o s s h e ad and the oth e r end to the lowe r .

The tu rni ng of the s crew s du e to the d rivi ng m e ch anis m O

,
n the

oth e r s id e of the ma chi ne caus es the low er cro ssh e ad to mov e down
,

w ard thu s b ringing press u re to b ear on the upper cr o ss h e ad From

,
.

h ere it is trans mitt e d to the b as e and th ence to the l e v ers and is ,

me asur e d by mov e m ent of the pois e on the gradu ate d s cal ebe am .

Machine s of lb lh . lb
,
lb.
,
lb .
,
.
,
.
,

and lb c apacity are m anu facture d as w el l as a gre at m any

.
,

m achine s for m aking s pe cial t e n s ion t e s t s In the l arge r te sting .

m achines the upp e r he ad is u su ally adju st able so as to acco mmod ate

s e cim m s of v ariou s l e n th s but in the s m all e r m a chin es the upp e r
p g ,

h e ad i s fix e d .
2 70 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I AL S

In c as e b eam is lo ad e d at the thir d point s uni fo rmly e cce n

the , ,

tricall y or oth e rwis e the co rr es po n di ng e xp r e ss i ons are u s e d for fi be r

, ,

s t re s s an d de fl e ctio n (see A r ticl e s 5 2 6 7 ,

1 78 Method of hol ding t ens i on s p eci men s

.
T o m ak e a te nsi on .

tes t of a m at erial a s pe cial t e st pie c e is u s u ally provid e d T hi s te st .

pie ce has the same comp os ition as the re s t of the m ate rial but has a ,

s p e ci al fo rm b e ing l arg e r at the e n d s th an in the c e nt ral po rtion (see

,

Articl e Fig 1 7 0 ill u s trat es a t e s t pi e c e m ad e fr om a c arbo n

.

st e el bar tu rne d down in the c e nt ral po rti on The m achin es are

l ae
.

provid e d with serrat e d w e dg es

for holding the l arg e en d s of the
te st pie c e and as the lo ad is ap ,

plie d th e se s errati on s sink int o

the s p e cim e n thu s holding it ,

fi rmly .

The b e h avio r of the s p e ci m e n

in t e nsio n i s s tudi e d by n oting - fi

F 171 IG
the b eh avio r of the re duc e d
.

portio n which s h ould be far e n ough from the e nd s s o th at the local

,

st re s s c au s e d by the w e dg e s will h av e no e ffe ct up on it .

Fl at pi e c es s uch as pi e c e s o f boil er pl at e are l e ft as th e y com e

, ,

from the roll s on two s id e s and the e dges are m achine d t o get the ,

r e duc e d c r o ss s e ctio n as s how n in Fig 1 7 1

,
The low e r s p e cim e n . .
,

of c ast i r o n i s m ad e with r ou n d e d corne rs t o e liminat e S h rink ag e

,

s t re s s e s R oll e d m at e ri al i s o ft en t es t e d without b e ing turne d down

’

. .

S p e ci al hold e rs and cl amp s ar e u s u ally p r ovid e d for h olding t en sio n

s p e cim en s of timb e r .

1 79 Behavi or of i ron and s t eel in t en s i on Wrought ir o n and mild

. .

s t e e l wh e n t es t e d i n t e n s i on co nfo r m to H o ok e s l aw up to the e l as tic

’

limit a poi nt which i s u su all y w ell d efi ne d in th ese m at erial s T h e y

,
.
‘

th e n s uffer a rapid yi e lding with littl e incre ase of lo ad reachi ng a

, ,

p oint wh ere the pie ce elo ngate s v ery much for n o increas e of lo ad .
.

Thi s p oin t i s k n ow n as the y i el d poi nt It i s i n dicat e d by the s c aling .

of the oxid e from the S p e cim e n th at has n ot b e e n m achi n e d and by ,

the d ropping of the b e am of the t e s ting m achine i f it has b ee n k e pt ,

b al ance d up to thi s point Beyon d thi s point s tress in cre ase s much
.

D i mensi n f t nd d t t p cim n f d iff nt m t i l

o s or s a ar es s e g
e iv n
s oi n A t icl
e re 20 3 a e r a s ar e e r e .
 IRON AN D S T EE L 2 71

lowly th an d e fo rm ation until fi nally r uptur e i s about to

s ,

at which p o int the lo ad att ain s its m aximum v alue calle d ,

the ul t i mat e l oad If the s tres s be contin u e d the pie c e b e gins to

”

neck and b re ak s at a lo ad s om e wh at l es s th an the m aximum (see

A rticl e T his ne cking i s d u e to the fact th at the m e t al u nd er
g reat s train b e com es pl astic and flows Brittle m ate ri al s s uch as
.
,

c as t iron and h ard stee l S how ve ry little if any n e cking In com

, , , .

puting the fib er s tre s s at the m aximum lo ad the original cro s s se ctio n

is use d .

In comm e rcial t e s t s the lo ad at the yield point (comm ercial e l astic

limit) an d the m aximum lo ad are not e d ; al s o the p erc entage of
e lo ng atio n an d the p erc e nt ag e of re duction of c ro s s se cti o n T he pe r .

c ent age of e long atio n is the increase in l e ngth divid e d by the o riginal
l ength multiplie d by 1 0 0 Thi s p erc ent age v ari e s with the o riginal
.

l ength t ak en (s ee Article an d th e re fo re is u s u ally comput e d for an

ori gi nal length of e ight inch es The p erc ent age of re duction of cro s s
.

se ctio n i s the d e c rease in are a of the c ro s s se ction divid e d by the

o rigin al are a of the cro ss s ection multiplie d by 100 In s om e com .

m e rci al l abo rato ri e s p rovis ion is m ad e for m aking as m any as sixty

tests per hour on one m achi ne .

1 80 Ef f ect of ov ers train on w rou g ht i ron and mil d st eel

. If .

w rought iron and mild s t e el are s trai ne d ju s t b eyo n d the el astic limit
in t e nsio n or comp ression th en rel e as e d an d t est e d ag ain in the s am e
,

dire ction it has b ee n found th at t hi s se con d t es t show s th at the

,

e l as tic limit i s high er th an at fi rs t and almo s t as high a

, s the lo ad

in the fi rst t e st Rep eat e d ov erstrain of this kin d with s ub s e qu ent

.
,

an n ealin g m ak e s it po s s ibl e to rai s e the e l as tic limit co n s id e rably

,

abov e wh at it was originall y Whe n furth e r strain e d the m etal

.

lo ses its el asticity and t ak es on a p erm anent s et ; th at is to say it ,

do e s not re turn to its origin al l en gth wh en the stre ss is remov e d .

The e l astic pro p erties howe ver can be res tore d by anne aling (see
, ,

Articl e Ov e rstrai n ih e ith er t e n sion or comp ress io n d e stroy s

-

almo s t e nti re ly the e l as ticity of the m at eri al for s t rai n o f the oppo sit e

ki nd ; for instanc e a pie c e of mil d stee l ov erstraine d in t ension has its

,

el as tic p r op e rti es i n compres sion al mo s t e ntirely d e s troy e d and vic e ,

vers a Ov e rstraining in torsion produce s much the sam e effe ct as

.

overstraining in tension or c ompre ssio n .

2 72 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

“
18 1 . R el ativ e th of l arge and s mal l t es t p ieces It has b ee n
s treng .

foun d by T etm aje r an d oth e rs th at the v alu es O bt aine d in t e s ting

9

s m al l te s t pi e c e s t ak e n from diff e re nt p art s of a s t e e l gir d e r or I be am

-

are high er th an tho s e obt ain e d in t e s tin g the gir d er it se l f The av e r .

age of a s e ri es of t e s t s of s m all t es t pi e c e s g av e an e l as tic limi t of

lb / in an d a m aximum s tre ngth of

. .
2
lb /in T ests on . .
2

the compl e t e gird e rs th e m selv es g av e an e l astic li mi t of lb / in f

. .

and a m aximum s tre ngth of lb / in The s am e has b ee n foun d . .

2

tru e for the e las tic limit of wrought iron gi rd ers but in this c ase the -
,

m axi mum streng th is great e r in the gir der th an in the s m all t est pie c e .

1 8 2 S tren gth of i ron and s teel at hi g h t emp eratu re s

. From a .

s eri e s of t est s m ad e at C o rn e ll U ni v ers ityj it was found th at wr ought

i ron h aving a t ensil e strength of lb / in at or dinary te m . .

2

e ratu re s in c re ase d in s t re ngth with in c re ase of t e mp e ratu re up to

p
4 7 5 F and th en d e c re ase d as the t e mp eratu re was furth er rai s e d
°
.

Machinery s teel of lb /in m aximum strength g av e at 4 7 5 F . .

2 °
.

a m aximum s t re ng th o f lb /in T ool s t ee l hav ing a s tre ngth . .

2

of lb / in at o rdinary t emp erature s g av e

. .
2
lb / in . .
2

m aximum s trength at 3 5 0 F °
.

Pro fes s o r C Bach al s o repo rt s an el abo rat e s eri es of t e s t s on the

.

s trength of s t ee l at high te m p e ratu re s i A t o rdi n ary t e mp eratu re s

one bar had a m aximum s t re ngth of lb / in an e lo ng ati on in . .
2
,

8 in o f e r c e nt and a cont ractio n of are a of p e r c e nt

.
p ,
.

Up to a t emp erature of 5 7 2 F the strength incre as ed by about °

.

7 0 0 0 lb / in and from thi s point fell app roxim at ely in p ropo rtion to
2
. .
, ,

the t e mp eratu re to lb / in at 1 0 2 2 F T he ul tim at e e long a

, . .
2 °
.

tio n d e cre as e d to p e r c en t at 3 9 2 F an d th e n inc re ase d to

°

p e r c e n t a t 1 0 2 2 F Th e co n t ra ctio
°
n o f ar e a fe ll until 3 9 2
. F w a s
°
.

r each e d and did n ot ri se u ntil abou t 5 7 2

°
,
F .

Whil e the t ens ile s trength i s increase d for a mod erat ely high tem
e t u e th e e l as tic limit i s low e re d in p ropo rtion to the inc re as e of
p ra r ,

t e mp erature b eing dimini she d about 4 pe r ce nt for e ach incre ase of

,

1 00 F
°
.

1 83 . Charact er and app earance of the fractu re . T he kin d and

qu ality of the m et al are u s u ally indicat e d by the ch aract er of the

C ommu ni c a ti ons , V ol IV . . 1 Jou r na l Wes te rn S oci ety o f E ng i ne ers , V ol I . .

1 Jou rna l F ra nk li n I ns ti tu te ,
D c mb
e e e r, 1904 .
2 74 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

the t e st ,
the t in di agram
s ra is d raw m by u s ing unit lo ad s as ,
o rdin at es

mod ul u l ticity (Youn g s modulus) and modulus of e lastic

s
“
of e as
’

re sili en c e m ay be d e t e r min e d .

The elas t i c l imit i s fou n d by notin g the point on the s trai n di agr am
wh ere it ceas e s to be a s traight lin e
: .

the d e formatio n for l tic limit

any s tre s s bel ow the . e as .

T he modul us of elas ti c res il ience i s d efin ed as the amou nt of wo rk re

'

1 .

qui re d to d efo rm a cubic inch of the mat erial to its e las tic limit It is .
‘

th erefore repre s ent e d by the area und er the strain curv e up to the elastic
li mit or e xpress ed as a form ul a
,
‘

, ,

Md o . e l a s ti c res i l i e n c e ( s tr e s s a t e l a s ti c l i mi t )
2

2 m od u l u s Of e l a s t i c i ty

If in plotting t i diag ram the or di nat e s repres en t the stress

the s ra n

e x pre s s e d in lb /
,

in and the ab s ci ss as r e p re s e nt the c orres p ond

9
‘ '

. .

In
g u nit e lo ng atio n s the ar e a u n d e r th,e cu rv e up to _t he

e l as tic limit multipli e d by the s c al e v alu e i n i n ch p o u nd s of -

each u nit are a giv e s

the mod ul u s of e l as
tic resil i e n c e i n i n ch
'

p o u nd s .

The mod ul us of total

F I G 1 72 .

d e fi n e d as r es ili ence is
the amou nt of work r e quire d to d e fo r m a cubic in ch of the m at eri al
'
:

to ruptu re It i s th ere fore repres ent e d by the area und er the whole
.

curv e multipli ed by the s c ale v alu e of a u nit are a th at is the n umb er , ,

of inch pou n - d s per unit area .

In c ase the s t resses are plott e d in pound s and the co rre s po ndi ng r

d e form at ionsin i nch e s the abov e m e thod giv es the wo rk don e on the
,

whol e volum e of the sp e cim en in clude d in the g aug e l e ngth To ‘

.

obt ain the modulu s for s uch c as es it i s n e c ess ary in additi on to the ,

abov e to d ivid e by the volum e of th at po rtio n o f the s p e cim e n ov e r

,

whi ch the d efo rm ations w ere m eas ure d .

C ompressio n i s m eas u re d by m e an s of a compres s ometer by m e thod s ,

s imil ar to tho s e u se d in m akin g t e n sio n t es t s

.
The s t rain di agram in .

t hi s c ase i s a s tress—
com r essi on c ur ve
p .
2 76 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

the ra diu s h aving its pl ane at .right angl es to the axi s of the
, and

bar ; the oth e r arm c arrie s a p oint er s o arrange d as to mov e ov er

the s c al e wh e n the bar i s t wi st e d The arc of the s c al e is c all e d the .

tr op tom eter a r c an d the arm s uppo rtin g it the tr op tometer a r m The .

angul ar dis t or tio n at the c ent er of the bar for the giv en g aug e l engt h

i s th en obt aine d by dividing the reading on the t r optom e te r are by

the l e ngth o f the tr optom e t e r arm plu s the radi us of the s pe c1me n ,

or e xp r e s s e d as a formul a
, ,

re adi ng on tr o p t o m e te r ar c

tr op t o m e te r a rm rad iu s Of sp e c i m e n

wh ere 9 is the gl e
an of twi s t (se e A rticl e

b l m 2 9 8 A t l d wi th g g d l ng th f 10 in nd 85 in in d i m
Pro e . s ee ro a au e e o . a . . a

t wh n t t d i n t i n g v th d t t b l t d b l w D w th t i n
e er, e es e ors o ,
a e e a a a u a e e o . ra e s ra

d i g m p l tt i ng th
a ra ,
o t in l b / in n th
e s ress t fib d in t . nd th .
2 o e ou e r e r as o r a e s, a e c or

re sp nd
o i ng ng l f tawi t 6e O b ci Asl l c t th l t ic li m i t c mp t th
as a s ss as . so o a e e e as ,
o u e e

m d l
o f l t ici t y f h
u us o e as nd tho m d l f l t ic
s ili nc L ngth f
e ar , a e o u us o e as r es e e . e o

t pt m t
ro o m 1 2 i nc h
e e r ar ,
es .

T OR S I ON T E S T OF S T EE L

T ROP OME ER A
T T RO

in . lb .

1 86 . F orm of t ors i on tes t t orsion t ests

s peci men . Sp e cim en s for
are m ad e cy l i nd r i ca l an d u s u ally lo ng e n ough to g e t a g aug e d l ength
,

of 1 0 in T he cylin d ric al fo rm has b e en adopt e d b e c au se its cro ss

.

s e ctio n s re m ain pl an e du ri ng to rs io n wh e re as in oth er fo rm s a c ross ,

s e ctio n whi ch i s pl an e b e fore to rs io n i s d e fo r m e d into a w arp e d

s u r fac e by the s t rai n an d th e re fore do es not giv e a S impl e s h e aring

,

s t ress s ee A rticl e Th e to rs ion t e s t i s u s e d to d e t e rmin e the

(
sh eari ng s t re ngth of m at e ri al s th at i s the re s is t an c e o ffe re d by the
, ,

m at erial to one cro ss se ction slipping ov e r anoth er (s ee Article

 IRON A ND S T EE L 2 77

arem ade the mom ent in in l b i s read from

, . .

/ is
s h e aring s tre s s in the out er fib e r in lb in . .
2

( )
P a r

IP

wh ere P a i s the twi sting mom ent read from the m achine , r the
radiu s of the t e st pie c e and I the pol ar mom ent of in ertia
, of the
F

The modulus l ticity in S h ear

of e as is comput ed from the l tion
re a ,

HIP
where P a an d II,d e fine d as abov e l is the g auge d l ength in inch es
are , ,

and 0 i s the angl e of twi st in radian s .

The t e st pi e ce i s h e ld in po s itio n by a set of adju st abl e j aw s s imil ar

to tho se u se d in o rdinary pip e wren ch es The gauge d le ngth S hould .

be t ak e n far e nough from the en d s so th at the loc al s t re s s d u e to the

j aw s may not influenc e the results .

18 7 T orsi on as a t est of s hear Although the to rsio n t es t i s u se d

. .

to de t ermin e the sh earing stre ngth of mat erial s it is not an accurat e ,

t est since the sh e aring stres s is a m aximum on the oute r el e m ents

, ,

and z e r o at the c e nt er For thi s reas on the in n er m at e ri al t end s to

.

re enfo r c e the out e r thu s giving a high er s h earing strength th an

'

would oth erwise be obt ain e d A more p erfe ct to rsio n t e st would be

.

on e m ad e upon a hollow tub e of the m at e ri al for i n thi s c ase the ,

inn er reénforcing core would not be pre s e nt H ow e v e r the difficulty .

,

of obt ain in g suit abl e hollow tub es for t e s t pi e c e s m ak es th eir u s e

impracticabl e for o rdin ary test s .

A furth er obj e ction to the to rs io n t es t as a t e st of sh e aring stre ngth

'

lie s in the fact th at th ere is consid erable t ension in the out er el e

m ent s of the t e st pi e ce during the t est Any el e m ent of the cyl in .

drical t est pie c e whi ch is a s traight lin e b efo re the strain b e com es a
h e lix durin g the t est Sinc e the l ength of the h elix is gre at er than
.

th at of the origin al ele m ent a t ensile stre ss is thu s produce d in the

,

outer fib ers In fact in t esting wrought i ron in torsion the outer

.
,

fibers o ften fail in t ension along the h elix The S light shortening .

m4
it
F or a cyli nd e r , Ip
2
 78 S T RENG T H OF M AT ERI A L S

of the whole spe cim en d ue to the twis ting i s c orre cte d in p art by
, ,

the s wi nging h e ad of the m achi ne s hown in Fig 1 7 4 . .

1 8 8 S hearing t e s t s T o d e t ermine the sh e aring s trength o f timb e r

. .

al ong the grain an d the re s is tan ce o f i ro n and s t ee l to the pullin g out

'

o f riv e t s m any s p e ci al t e st s are u se d

,
By m e an s of a s p e ci al pi e c e of
.

app aratu s the fo rc e re qui re d to pu s h off alo ng the grain a p ro j e cting

, , ,

pie c e from a t e st pie ce of timb er is e asil y m e asu re d on the ordi

n ary t e ns io n comp r e ss io n m ac hin e
- The i nt ens ity of s h e aring s tre ss is
.

comput ed by di viding the lo ad by the are a of the block pu s h e d off .

T es t s are al s o m ad e on wr ought ir on pl at e s to d e te rmin e the fo r ce

-

re qui re d to pull out a ri v e t th r ough the m e t al both in the di re cti on ,

of the fib e r an d p e rp e ndicul ar to it A s e ri es of s uch t e st s m ay be

.

fou n d in the Wa ter town A r sen a l R ep or t for 1 8 8 2 Many t e st s h av e .

al s o b e e n m ad e to d e t e rmin e the s h earing s tr e ngth of riv e t s .

1 89 Im p act tes ts
. In actu al s e rvic e m an y m at e ri al s are s ubj e ct e d
.

to s h ock or impact (see Articl e T hi s i s e s p e cially t ru e of al l

railw ay s t r uctu ral m at e ri al such as rail s ,
axl es s p ring s couple rs
, , , ,

bol st ers wh e els e tc whi ch mu st be d e sign e d to with st and consid

, , .
,

e rabl e s hock Two s p e ci al m ac hin e s h av e b e e n d esig ne d to t e st

.

m at erial s in impact T he firs t c all e d the d r op tes ti ng m achine i s

.
, ,

op erat e d by al lowing a giv e n w e ight ( h amm er) to d rop a giv en dis

t an ce upon a t e st pi e ce mount e d on an anvil u nd e r the h amm er .

T he oth er fo r m of m achine i s Op erat e d by allowin g a h e avy p en du

lum to strik e the S p e cim en wh en plac e d in the c ent er of its swmg .

In eith er case the amount of the e ne rgy of the bl ow ab s o rb e d by the

S p e cim e n i s d es ire d .

T he re s ult s obt ain e d from imp act t e st s can o nly be comp arativ e i n
any c ase s in c e a p art of the e n ergy of the bl ow mu s t be ab s orb e d
,

by the p arts of the m achi ne it sel f T hi s i s seen in the d rop t e s tin g

.

m achi n e i n the ab s o rptio n of energy by the anvil and h amm er .

S in c e the results of s uch t e s t s c annot be ab s olut e it i s highly ,

n e c e ss ary th at th e y s hould be s t an d ardiz ed by m aking t e s t s on the s am e

anvil with the sam e h amm e r T he Mas t e r C ar Build ers A s s o ci ati on

.

has t ak en a s t e p tow ar d such s t and ardiz atio n by building an imp act

t e sting m achi ne for t e s ting m at eri al s u se d by the m Thi s m achi ne .

has b een e s t abli sh e d at Purdu e Univ e rs ity Its m aximum bl ow i s .

giv en by a h amm er h aving a w e ight of 1 6 4 0 l b and d ropping 5 0 ft .

,
.
2 80 S T R E N G T H OF MAT E R I A L S

O
C OMP OS T ON A N D T I I E NS IL E S T R E NG T H OF CAST IR ON
WA ER O WN A R E N A L R E O R 189 5
T T S P T,

C H E M I C AL C OMPO SIT I ON

CA R B ON
M an g an e s e S ili co n l
S u p hu r P h os p h o r u s lb /
i. n .
2

G r a p hi ti c C m bi
o ned

C arbo n occu rs as combine d car bon or as g rap hi ti c car bon C om .

bine d carbo n m ak es the m e t al h ard b rittl e w hi te w eak in t ens io n and , , , ,

st r o ng in comp ress io n wh e reas g raphitic c arbo n m ak e s the i ro n s o ft

, ,

gray and w e ak in both t ensio n and comp ression Graphi tic carbo n
, .

occurs in the m e tal as a foreign s ub stan ce which prob ably ac counts ,

for its w e ak e ning e ffe ct S i li con in c as t i ron up to

.
p e r c e n t ih

crease s its compre s sive s trength The t ensil e strength is incre ase d up .

to 2 per c ent Mang anes e as it u s u ally occu rs is not in juriou s bel ow

.

1 per c ent W hen mo re is p re s en t the s hrink ag e h ar dn ess and b rittl e

.
, ,

n e ss are rapidly in cre as e d Phosp hor u s m ak es the iron w eak er and

.

l e ss stiff b e coming a se ri ou s impurity wh en it occurs in qu antitie s

,

abov e e r c ent S l h c wh i t b ittl h d

p u p u r a
.
uses e n ess r e n e s s a r n e ss , , ,

an d gre at e r s h rin k ag e an d i s i n g e ne ral a v e ry obj e ctio n able impu rit

, ,
y , .

C as t iro n has an av e rag e t ensile s trength of the

rang e b eing from lb / i n to lb /in Its compres siv e
. .
2
. .
2
IRON AN D ST EEL 2 81

F I G 175
.
2 82 ST R ENG T H OF M A T ERI AL S

t
s re ng th v ari es from lb / in to lb /in a g oo d av e rage
. .
2
. .
2
,

b e ing ab out lb / in . .
2

The m e t al is s o imp e rfe ctly e l astic th at H ook e s l aw do e s not

’

strictly h old for any rang e of st re s s how e v er s m all The mod ul u s of , .

e l asticity in t e n s io n v ar ie s fr om to lb /in and . .

2
,

in sh e ar from to lb / in On p age 2 8 0 I S gi v en . .
2

a t abl e of the t e ns il e s t re ngth o f v ariou s s ampl es of c ast i ro n of

different che mic al compo s itions .

1 9 2 S train di agr am f or cast i ron The strain di agram of c as t

.
.

iron in tension shown in Fig 1 75 ill u st rate s cl e arly the fact th at

,
.
,

the m et al i s v e ry immrfe ctl y e l as tic N o p art of the di ag ra m i s a .

s traight lin e and n o e l as tic limit i s s h ow n by the cu rv e

,
The m axi .

mum lo ad in this c ase was lb / in The curv e was drawn . .

2

from d ata giv e n in the Wa ter town A r s en a l R ep or t 1 8 9 5 Fr om the , .

res ult s o f fou r hu n d re d an d fi fty t e s t s of c as t i ro n i n t e n s io n com ,

pre s s ion and c ross b ending Kirk aldy foun d the av erage compre ssiv e
,
-
,

s t r ength to be the t en sil e s t rength /i n -

2

and the c r o s s b e n ding modulu s (se e A rticl e 6 5 )

- lb /m . .
2
'

Fig 1 76 s how s a s train diag ram of c as t iro n i n compress io n Lik e

. .

the t e n sio n di agram thi s s how s n o w e ll de fine d e l as tic limit and no

, ,
-

c onst ant modulus of el asticity The m aximum compre s s iv e s tre ngth .

i n this cas e was lb / in . .

2

Wh en te ste d in compre ss ion as a sho rt block c ast iro n has a ,

ch aract e ri stic fracture sh e aring along a pl ane making an angle of

,

about 3 0 with the v e rtic al Thi s di ff e rs by 1 5 from the th e ore tic al

°
.
°

angl e o f m aximum s t r e s s for s uch c ases .

1 9 3 C as t i ron in fl ex u re
. The mo s t e xt e nd e d s e ri e s of t e s t s e v e r
.

m ad e on c ast iro n in fl e x u re w as m ad e by J W Ke ep on b ars l in . .

~
.

s qu ar e an d 1 2 i n l ong Fr om th e s e t e s t s the av e rag e s trength w as

. .
,

fou nd to be 4 5 0 l b givin g a m o dulu s of rupt ure Of

.
,

A good av e rage for the m odulu s Of ruptu re for o rdi nar y comm e r ci al
c as t i ron w ould be b et we en lb /in and lb /in . .
2
. .
2

19 4 C as t i ron i n s hear
. T he s tre ngth of c as t iron in sh ear v ari e s
.

from lb / in to . lb /
.in 2
Te s t s are m ad e i n the o r din ary . .
2

torsion m achin e The fractu re in this c ase is the ch aract eri stic frac
.

ture of b rittle m aterials in to rs io n ; th at is inst e ad of s h e aring off in a ,

plane at right angles to the axis of the t est pie c e as is the c as e with ,
2
84 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R I AL S

ductil e m at eri al s the fracture e xt ends down one side for s om e di s

,

t ance T he m ate rial fail s by the out er fibe r fai l ing fi rst in te nsion
. .

A sim il ar fracture can be s een by twis ting a s tick of ch alk or oth er

b rittle m ate ri al with the fing ers until fracture occurs .
’

19 5 Cas t -ir n col umns

o. S om e te st s h av e b e en mad e upon full siz e d
.
-

c as t iron columns both at the Watertown Arsenal and

-

I ro n C ompany of
test s s ho w th at the total s tren gth of th ese column s is much l e ss
th an the comp ressiv e s trength of the m etal would l e ad one to e xpe ct .

T hi s w as p rob ably d u e to the p res en c e of blowhol es or oth er imp e r

fe ctions in the column s uch as are lik e ly to occur wh en l arge pi e ces
,

are c as t The ultim ate s t rength of the Wate rtown column s v arie d
.

from to
The foll owing t abl e giv e s the res ult of a compress io n te s t of a cas t
i ro n c olumn m ade by the Wate rtown Ars enal the ultim ate strength ,

in thi s cas e b e ing lb / in . .

2

C OMPR E S S ION T E S T OF C A S T —IR ON C OL U MN

G aug l ng th 100 in S c t i n l
e e ,
17 in . e o a ar e a , .
2

WA E R O WN A R E N AL R E O R 18 9 3
T T S P T,

U l t i m te t
a s re ng th

P ro bl e m 299 . T he d a ti n the p re ce d ing tabl e we r e

a ‘
Ob t i n d f om
a e r a r ou nd ,

h ll
o ow , c tias - ro n cl o u m n 12 0 in i n e ng , . l
i n in th . ex te n l d i m t
r a a e e r, a nd

in . i n i nt er n l di
a am e e r t . D raw the l c
o ad - o mp re ss on i and l o ad -d e fl e c t io n
 IRON A N D S T EE L 285

c v
ur es
’

th i cf or s ase , and de t e rm ne i w h th
e e r or no t an e as l t ic limi t i i nd ic t d s a e .

Al s o c mp t th t
o u e e s re ng th of the c l
o umn by R nk i n a
’
e s f m l nd J h n n
or u a a o so
’
s

s tra ig ht li n f m l- e or u a, a nd c omp are the resu l t wi th th

s ose o b t i n d f m th t t
a e ro e es .
s

19 6 . Mal l eabl e
c as ting s with combine d c arbon are
cas ting s . T he
h ard and b rittl e Th e s e are h e at e d with s om e oxid e s o th at the
.
,

carbo n n e ar the s urface is bu rne d out l eavin g the out er s urface ,

t ough and s tro ng lik e w rought i ro n The int e rior of the c asting
,
'
.

is s om ewh at ann e al e d but the fi ni sh e d p roduct co nsi s t s of a h ard,

interio r po rtio n with a ductile out er portio n Thi s structure insu re s .

s trength both s t atic ally and as reg ard s imp act .

1 9 7 S p eci fi cati on s f or cas t i ron

.
*
T he following s p e cific atio n s .

are for sp eci a l ha r d ca s t i r on (clo s e g rai ne d T h e y are t ak e n fro m

, ) - .

the J I Case Th re shing Machine C omp any s S p e cific ation s an d may

’
. .
,

be c onsId ere d as typic al .

C HEMIC AL C OMPOS I TION

mu st be b e tw e e n
S ili con an d
p e r c e nt
(B e low th e .

me t al will be too h ard to m achine ; abov e it i s lik e ly to be

po rous u nl es s much s crap is u se d ) .

S u lp hu r mu s t not e xcee d p e r c e n t a n d a n y c as ting s howi n g ,

on analy si s r c e nt or mo re of s ulphu r will c au s e the re e c

p e j
tion of the entire mi xture (Abov e p e r c e n t s ulphu r p r oduc e s
.

much sh rink age S hort ne ss and b rittle h ard i ro n ) , ,

”
.

Phosp hor u s should be k e pt b elow 7 0 per c ent u nl e s s s p e cifi e d for .

S p e ci al thi n c asti ng s H igh pho s pho ru s giv e s c asting s b rittl e u nd e r

( .

imp act ) .

Ma ng a nese s hould n ot be abov e 7 0 pe r cent e xc e pt in S p e ci al chill e d .

wo rk .

PH YS IC AL T ES T S

T r a nsvers e brea ki ng t es t b ars should be 1 in s qu ares tr en

g th . The .

and 1 3
1
i n lo ng an d s hould be t es t e d with a lo ad o f 2 4 0 0 lb appli e d
33
.
,
.

at the c e nt er of a 1 2 i n s p an - . .

h p cific t i
T e se s w ll l l th
e q td
a iv
on s , as
g th t th t det m y
as a o e rs uo e ,
a re e n so a e s u en a

g t ei danf t h c m p i t i ea od p p t ie q iod O f m m
os i l c t i
on a n th ro er es r e u re co er a as r o n or o er

m t i l S p cific t i
a er a i . d b y d i ff
e t c m p i v y d th i d by th
a o ns s s ue e re n o an e s ar ,
an os e s s ue e

sam c mp y e f q tly ch g d n c nt f th q i m nt f vic

o an a re re ue n an e o ac ou o e re u re e s o s er e .
2 86 S T R EN G T H OF MAT E R I A L S

Defl ecti on hould not be l ess thaIP0 0 8 in

s . .

Tens i le s treng th mu st not be l e ss th an lb /ih . .

2

The foll o wi n g S p e cific atio n s fo r c a s t i r on are s ugg es t e d by J W . .

' é
Ke e p as b eing re pre s ent ativ e of mod e rn practicefi
T ran s v e rs e t e s t b a rs w ere c a s t 1 i n s qu are an d 1 2 i n lo ng and . .
,

w ere t e ste d with a c e ntral lo ad Tens il e t es t b ars were c ast

'

. in ,

in di am et er and were t este d as c ast .

S P MA RAN T S
H OS
ERS E
\
UL 1

R P O U A N E E S T RE N T
V
C H ARA C T ER OF C A NG
STI PHU H B S G S
G H
B E L OW E L OW E LOW
B B

f H e avy
F u rn a c e
lM e d iu m

H e avy
M di m
S p e c I al
e u

H vy ea

C l
up o a
G l Md m
e n e ra e lu

L i g ht

C h mi l W k
e ca or .

B k Sh
ra e oe s

C h i ll i ng I ron

19 8 Wrou ght irbn and s teel Wrought iron is m ad e by burning

. .

the impu riti e s out of c as t i ro n In the p roc ess the found ry pig iro n .

from the bl ast fu rn ac e i s fi rs t pl ac e d in the puddl e furn ac e wh ere it ,

i s h e at e d and s tirre d u ntil the c arbo n S ilicon an d m ang an ese are , ,

almo s t e nti re ly bu rn e d out Wh en t ak e n from the fu rnace the i ron

.
,

i s in the fo rm of a p as ty b all whi ch i s s qu ee z e d u ntil the cind ers are ,

e xp e ll e d aft e r which it i s roll e d in to bars known as mu ch ba r s

,
Afte r .

b eing re h eat e d it i s rolle d ag ain and is then k n own as merchant ba r ,

.

If a b e tt e r grad e of w r ought Iron I s d e sire d the m erchant bar i s ,

r e h eat e d and r oll e d ag ai n wh e n it i s k n own as bes t i r on ; i f r oll e d

,

ag ai n the qu ality i s s till fu rth e r imp r ov e d

, .

In m ethod s u se d by the ancients the ore and fu el w e re pl ac e d

tog eth er This n ec essitate d a pu re fu el and did not admit of rapid
.

m anip ul ation ; it is still u se d how e v er to obtain wrought iron of a pure , ,

qu ality and in obtaining v ery fine grad e s of st e el

, .

P ro c . A me r S o c f or Tes ti ng
. . Materi al s , 1 904 .
2 88 S T RENG T H OF M A T ERIAL S

High-s peed s teel . Re c e ntly

it has b e en fou nd th at the additi on of
tung ste n and oth er con stitu e nts had the e ffe ct of so ch angi ng the to ol
s t e e l as to i nc rease its w e arin g qu aliti e s an d to m ak e it c ap abl e of

cutti ng at a much hi gh e r s p ee d th an fo rm erly A Sp e e d of 5 0 0 ft

. .

p e r mi n ut e i s o fte n o bt ai ne d with thi s n e w s t e e l although the av e rag e

,

i s co ns id e rably l e ss th an thi s The tool m ay be h e at e d u p to re dne s s

.

in cutti ng without i n j uring i ts w e ar ing qu aliti es appre ci ably This .

high s pe e d s t e el as it is c all ed has m ad e v e ry rapid w ork po ss ible

-
, , .

T he ch e mic al analy s i s of tw e n ty b r and s of thi s m at eri al i s giv e n

by Be ck e r as follow s

AV ERA G E L OW

Ope n- h earth s teel is obtaine d by mixi ng molten pig i ron with s crap i ron
o r s c rap s t e e l i n an op e n h e arth fu rnac e
- The add e d s crap i s low in car
.

bon an d thu s l ow er s the p erc e nt ag e of c arbo n i n the mixt u re T o off se t

,
.

thi s the d e sire d amou nt of c arb on is introduce d by addi ng sp i egelei sen

, .

Bes se mer s teel i s m ad e di re ctly from pig i ro n i n a Be ss e m er con

v e rt er n o addition al fu e l oth e r th an the impuriti es in the m e tal
,

b eing u s e d Th e se i mpuritie s are bu rne d out to the d e s ire d e xt e nt

.

by forcing j et s of hot air th rough the liquid m et al Si nce in thi s .

m e thod the m olt en ir on i s t ak en di re ctly from the blas t fu rn ace a ,

.

c onsid erable s aving in the co s t of p roduction i s e ff e cted by reas on o f ,

which the Besse me r proce s s has revolutioniz e d the s te e l indu stry .

In b oth the op e n h e arth and Be s s e m er p roc e sse s the liquid s te e l is

-

c as t into i ngot s which are rolle d i nto the d e sire d sh ape s

, .

2 0 0 C omp os iti on of s teel

. T he phy sic al prop e rti es of s te e l are
.

l arg ely modifi e d by the relativ e proportions in which the v ari ou s

i ng re die nts are p re s e nt .
 I R ON A N D S T EE L 2 89

I n creas ing the amou nt of carbon in st e el h as i n g e neral the , ,

Inc reas in g i ts modulu s of e l as ticity an d i ts ul tim at e s t re ngth .

Fr om a se rie s of t es t s m ad e on c arbo n s t e e l in which the p er c e n t age .

,

of c arbon v ari e d from to Pro fe s s o r A rnold fou nd th at the

el as tic li mit v ari e d from lb /
in to lb /lu ; the t e ns il e
. .
2
. .
z

s t re ngth fro m,
lb / in to . .
2
the e lo ngation from ,

e r c en t to e r c e n t ; and the re duction of are a from

p p p e r ,

ce nt to p e r c ent T h e followi ng t abl e giv e s av e rag e v alu e s of

.
91
6

the ultim at e s tre ngth in both t en s io n and compre ss ion for Bes se m e r
and op e n h e art h s te e l co nt aining diffe re nt p e r c en t ages of c arbo n
- .

T EN ST R C O MPRE S S I V E
S I LE ES S
ST RE
C E NT
SS
PE R OF
CA RB ON
E l ti
as c L i mi t
lb .
/ in .
2

C arbo n tool s t eel fu rni sh e s m ate rial for spring s saw s Chi se l s fil es , , , ,

e tc. Wh en anne al e d it is st rong in both t ension and compre ssion ,

an d quit e ductil e but wh e n h e at e d to the c ritic al t e mp er atu re an d

,

the n qu ench e d it b e com es w e ak b rittle and h ard

, , ,
.

S il icon in c arbo n st eel and w rought ir o n g e n erally s tre ngth e ns the

m at erial but d e cre ases its ductility In amount it i s us u ally le s s th an

, .

r c e nt
p e .

Manganes e in c re as es both the s trength an d h ard n es s of c arb on s t eel

and w rought i ro n and d e c re ases ductility to s om e e xt e nt
,
More th an .

p e r c e n t m ak e s th e s t ee l v e r y b r ittl e W h e n m a ng ane s e is p re se n t
.

in qu antitie s of from 1 0 to 3 5 p e r c e nt with a s m all amou nt of carbon , ,

sa
y 1 p e r c e n t th e
,
s t e e l b e com e s h ar d and i s u s e d for c as ti ng s and

forging s . Wh en anneale d the c as tings are both s trong and tough

en ough to re s i s t w e ar R olle d m ang an es e s te el i s al s o p roduc e d
.
.

P c I n t Ci ro .E ng 189 5
s . v. ,
.
2 90 S T R E N G T H OF MA T ER I A L S

Manganes e st eel . . T hi s i s c oming into u s e for railro ad rail s on accou nt

of its i t c to w e ar
re s s an e . T he av e rag e v alu e s for the s trength of thi s
m at eri al may be giv en as follow s :

EL A CLM
ST I I IT T EN SIL E ST RENG H T

lb /
i . n .
2

t
C as m ang anes e s eet l
Ro ll ed m ang anese t l s ee

S ul p hur incre as e s the brittle n e s s an d h ardn e ss of s te el and wr ought

iron and i s in g en eral a v ery h arm ful ingr e dien t L ow p ercent ag es
, , , .

o f sulphu r s om e wh at i n c rease the t e n sil e s tre ngth .

P hos p h oru s in c re ase s h ardn ess an d t e n s il e s t rength but d e cre as e s ,

ductility m akin g the m etal w eak und e r imp act and un suite d for any
,

thing but static load s .

Nick el i s add e d to s t ee l up to about 3 5 per c ent Wh en the per .

c ent ag e of nick e l is low s ay about 5 per c ent or l ess the el as tic _

, limit ,

an d t e ns il e st re ngth ar e rai s e d without any re ducti on In the elong a

ti on or in the co ntracti on of area Be cau se of thi s incre as e in s trength .

with out los s of ductility nick el s t eel is u se d in the m anu facture of ,

arm or pl at e ar m or pi e r c ing S h e ll s boil e r tub es s h aftin g e tc

,
- where , , ,
.
,

a s t e e l i s n e e d e d which s h all combi ne gre at s t r e ngth with tough n e s s .

T he followi ng t abl e show s the rel ativ e prop erti es of low c arbon s t eel
tub es and high nick e l s t e el tub e s *
.

L OW CA RB ON ST EE H IG H NI C KE EE
R O PER E ST
’

L L L
P TI S '
l UBE S T UB E S

il t ng th lb /
T e ns e s re l ,
. u z
.

E l t ic li m i t l b /
as ln ,
. .
2

P c nt O f l ng t i n in 8 in
er e e o a o .

The m e authority al s o giv e s the av erag e t ensil e s tr ength of S ix

sa

t een s te el tub es compo se d of 2 5 per c ent nick e l as

,
lb /in ,
. .
2

for u nanne al e d S p e cim en s and lb / in for ann eal e d S p e cim e ns

,
. .
2
.

The e lo ng atio n in the fo r m er c ase was 2 8 pe r c ent in in and In .

,

the l atter c as e 3 8 pe r c e nt in the s am e l e ngth .

P S N
roc .l A hi t t
oc .nd M i n E ng i n
ava N v mb rc 1 903 ec s a ar e e e rs , o e e r, .
2 92 S T R EN G T H OF MA T E R I A L S

the sa me as the te n sil e s tre ngth . The A m e rican S ocie ty for T e sting

T ES T OF S T EE L C AST N I GS

EL A CST I T EN SI LE
LI M IT ST RENG H T A PPEAR C E
AN OF F RA C U RE
T

lb /i
. n 3
. 1b .
/
iu .
z

pe r c ent

Fi n e si lk y

D ll ilk y ; g l p t ; bl wh L_
u S

D l l il k y 80 p
u s ,
r an u a r s

t ; g l 20 p
e r cen
o s o

r an u a r ,
o C
_t
e r cen

G l il y l t 90 p
ran u a r , s ve r us er, t ; d ll e r c en u s ilk y ,

10 p t
e r c en

D ll ilk y
u s

G l 50 p
r an u a r , t ; d ll i lk y 50 p
e r c en u s , e r c en t
D ll ilk y
u s

D ll ilk y 40 p
u s , t;g ler cen pr an u a r , 00 e r c en t
D ll ilk y ; bl wh l
u s o o e

G l ilv y l t 85 p
ran u a r , s er us e r, t ; d ll e r cen u S ilk y ,

15 p t
er cen

G l ilv y l t 60 p
r an u a r , s er us e r, t ; d ll e r cen u s ilk y ,

40 p t
er cen

D ll ilk y
u s

D ll ilk y 00 p
u s , t;g l
e r c en r an u a r , 40 p e r c en t
D ll ilk y ; g l p t
u s r an u a r s o s

D ll i lk y 80 p
u S , t g l 20 p
e r cen r an u a r , e r c en t
D ll i l ky ; t
u s f g l ti
r ac e O r an u a on

D ll i lk y ; g l p t
u S r anu a r S o s

G l i lv y l t 80 pe t ; d ll
ran u a r , s er us e r , r cen u S ilk y,

20 p t
e r c en

G l ilv y l t 85 p
ran u ar , s er us e r ,t ; d ll e r cen u s i lk y
,

15 p t
e r c en

D ll i lk y ; g l p t
u s r an u ar s o s

D ll i l k y 90 p
u s ,
t;g l
er cen pr an u a r , 10 e r c en t
D l l i lk y
u s

G l ilv y l t
r an u ar , s er us er

D l l i lk y
u s

D ll ilk y 50 p
u s , t ; g l 50 p
er cen r an u a r , e r cen t
D ll ilk y 20 p
u S ,
t;g l
e r c en pr an u a r , 80 e r ce n t
 293

Mate rial s has re commend e d the fol lowing v alu es for the t
s re n gth of

T EN SIL E S RENG H T T
111 .
/
in .
2

c t i ng H ard as s

In the cold b e n ding te s t the m at e ri al mu s t be b ent about a diam e t e r

o f 1 in th r ough 1 2 0 for the s o ft and 9 0 for the m e dium without
° °

"
.
, ,

s how i ng c rack s or S igns of fail u refi

The Ord n an c e Dep artm e nt of the U nite d Stat es A rmy in the g e n

e ral s p e cific atio ns for 1 9 0 3 giv es the following re quire m e nt s for s t ee l

ELONGA ON TI C ON T R A C

ME A A FTER R UP TI ON OF
T L U RE T A REA
p t
e r c en per c en t
C as t t l N 1
s ee ,
o .

C as t t l N 2
s ee ,
o .

C as t t l N 3
s ee ,
o .

F or g d t l N
e s ee ,
o . 1
F or g d t l N
e s ee ,
o . 2

20 2 . Modu l u s mod
of el as ti city of s t eel and w rou ght iron . The
ulu s of el as ticity of s te el and w rought iron is about the sam e in
tensio n as in comp ression For steel lb /
in is u sually
.
,
. .
2

tak e n as a good av erage v alue for t ensio n and compre ssion and ,

about two fi fth s of thi s amou nt or from to ,

lb /
. in for s h e ar ; for lo ad s b elow the e l as tic limit it i s alway s the
.
2
,

ratio of s tre s s to d e fo rm atio n .

From a s eri e s of t es t s re po rt e d in the T r a ns A mer S oc Ci r E ng . . . .

,

V ol XV II pp 6 2—6 3 the following av e rag e v alu e s are found

.
, .
,
.

M OD U UL S OF EL A C STI IT Y

M A ER A T I L
lb .
/ 1n 2.

P r oc A me r S oc
. . .
f or Tes ti ng Ma teri als ,
190 3 .
294 S T R E N G T H OF MA T ER IA L S

2 03 . S tandard form point e d out In

of t est s p eci mens . It was
A r ticl e 2 0 th at the form of the t e s t S p e cim en had c on s id e rabl e e ff e ct
upo n the res ults obtaine d from tests To eliminat e this facto r s tand ard .
,

P a ra lle l

F IG . 1 77

dim ensio ns for both cylind rical and re ctangular te s t S p e cimens h ave
b een ad opt e d T h ese are S hown in Fig 1 7 7
. . .

204 S p ecifi cati ons for wrought i ron and steel

. In o r d e r th at the .
-

s tud en t m ay for m s om e id ea of the s t re ngth re qui re d by m an u fac

tu rers for diffe ren t g rad es of w rought ir on and s t eel quotatio ns are ,

giv en b elo w from the Specifications of the A m eric an Soci ety for
T esting Mate ri al s .

WR OU G H T IR ON

ST A BO
Y- LT M ER C H AN M ER C H AN M ER C H AN
T T T

IRO N G RADE A G RADE B G RADE C

T e ns il t ng th l b /
e s re ,
. ih 2.

Y i l d p i nt lb /
e oin ,
. .
2

Per c nt f l ng t i n in 8 i n
e o e o a o .

ST EE L

R IV E T ST EE L S O FT ST EE L M ED U M
I ST EE L

T e ns il t ng th l b /
e s re ln ,
. .
2

Y i l d p i nt lb /
e o in ,
. .
2

E l ng t i n i n p c nt f
o a o er e or 8 in.

s h ll n t b l th n
a o e e ss a
296 S T R E N G T H OF MAT ER I A L S

E
D S C R IPT ON OF I T HE D R OP T E ST
T he p oi n t f
s o s u p po r t on hc
i ng t t h l l b 3 ft
w i h t he ax l e r e s ts dur es s s a e .

ap art f r o m c nt
e t c nter ; t h h mm
o e er m t w i g h 1 6 4 0 lb ; th
e a n v il
er us e . e a ,

w h ic h is su
pp t d n
or ep i n go m t w
s i g hr l
s,b ; i t m
us tb f te . us e re e o

m v i n v t i c l d i c t i n t h p i ng
o e a er a re o p n whic h i t e s t m t b tw l v
r s u o res s us e e e

in n mb
u f th k i nd p ci fi d
er , O e nd t h
s e di ef pp rt a nd f th t ik
e ra us O su o s a O e s r

i ng f c
a e on th h mm e i n t h d i c t i n f th
a er i
e f th re l m t b 5 in
o o e ax s O e ax e us e .

The d efle ctions are m eas ure d by placing a straight e dg e along the
axl e p rop e rly h e ld at the s uppo rt s and m e as u rin g the di s t an c e from
, ,

thi s s traighte dg e to the axle both b e fore and afte r the blow T he .

diffe renc e b etween the two m easure me nt s give s the d e fle ctio n .

 C HAPT ER XIII
'

LIME , CEME NT , AND CONCRET E

205 .
Quick lime
calcium c arbon ate (o rdinary lim eston e) is
. If
he at e d to about 8 00 F c arbon dioxid e is d riv e n off l eav ing an
°
,
.
,

oxid e of c alcium which is k nown as qui ckl ime This has a great
, .

affi nity for w at e r and s l a cks upon e xpo s u re to moisture Slack e d .

lim e wh en dry fall s into a fine powd er .

Li me mortar is fo r m e d by mixing S l ack e d lim e with a l arg e propo r

tio n of sand Upo n e xpo s ure to the air thi s mo rt ar b e com es hard by
.

re as o n of the lim e combining with c arbo n dioxid e and fo rmi ng ag ain

c alcium c arbon ate the product b eing a sandy lim esto ne Lim e mortar
, .

i s u se d in l aying b rick w all s and in s t ructures where the mo rt ar will

.

not be e xpo sed t o w ater S ince it will not s et i e combine with c arbon
, , . .

dioxid e und er wat er

, .

2 0 6 C ement W h e n lim es ton e co ntai ns a con s id e rabl e amou nt of

. .

clay the lim e produce d is c all ed hydraul ic lime for the re as on that
, ,

mortar m ad e by u sing it will hard e n u nder w at e r If the lim eston e .

co ntains about 3 0 per c ent of cl ay and is h e at ed to 1 000 F the °

.
,

c arbon dioxide is d riven off and the resulting product whe n finely , ,

gr ound i s calle d natural cement Wh en about 2 5 per ce nt of w at er is

,
.

add ed thi s c e m e nt h ar d e n s b e c au s e of the fo rm ation of c ry s t al s of

, ,

calcium and alumi num compound s .

If lim esto ne and cl ay are mix e d in the p rop er p r opo rtions u s u ally ,

about th ree p art s of lim e c arbon at e to one of cl ay an d the mixtu re ,

ro ast e d to a cli nk e r by rai sing it to a t e mp e ratu re app r o aching 3 0 0 0 F .

,

the product wh e n gr ou n d to a fine powd er is k n own as Portl and cement

, ,
.

The prop er pr opo rtion of lim e s ton e and cl ay is d e termi ne d by find

ing the p ropo rtio ns of the p articul ar cl ay and ston e th at will m ak e
perfe ct cry s talliz ati o n po ssibl e : I n the case of natural c e m e nt the
'

lime and cl ay are not pre se nt iII Su ch proportions as to fo rm pe rfe ct

’

'
'

cryst als and conse qu ently it i S not as stro ng as Portl and ce m ent
,
’
.

29 7
298 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I A L S

The artificial mixing of the l ime sgl ne and clay in the m an ufacture
o f Po rtl an d c e m ent i s accomplis h e d in diffe ren t w ay s T h rough out .

the no r th c ent ral po rtion of the U nit e d S t at e s l arge b e d s of m a r l are

found an d al s o i n the same localities b e d s of s u itabl e cl ay T hi s m arl
'

-
.
,

i s n e arly pu re lim e s t one and i s mix e d with the clay we t

, (T h ese .

mate rial s are al s o mix e d dry ) Both the m arl and cl ay are p u mp e d to
.

the mi x er wh e r e th e y are mix e d in the p roper p ropo rtio n s The prod

,
.

u ot i s th e n d ri e d r o as t e d an d gr oun d
, ,
Mo s t A m erican Portl an d cc
.

m en ts howe ve r are m ad e by grinding a cl ay b e aring lim e s t one with

, ,
-

s uffici e nt pu r e lim es t one to giv e the p r ope r p r opo r ti on s A fte r b e ing .

thoroughly m i x e d the p r oduct i s ro ast e d and g rou nd to a powd e r .

S l ag cement (Puzzol an) i s m ad e by tho roughly mixi ng the granul ate d

s l ag from an i ro n bl as t fu rn ac e with S l ack e d lim e and th en g rindi n g ,

the mixtu re to a fine powd er S l ag c e me nt s are u su ally light e r in

.

color th an the Po rtland c e m e nt s and h av e a lower s pe cific gravity the

, ,

l atter ranging from to T h e y are al s o s om e wh at s low er i n

setting th an the Po rtl and c e m e nt s and h av e a S lightly l ow p ,
e -

s trength . T h ey are not ad apt e d to resi s t m e ch anic al w e an s uch as

wo ul d be n e c ess ary in p av em e nt s and fl oors but are s uitable for ,

fou n d ations or any wo rk not e xpo s e d to d ry air or g re at s t rai n .

Tru e Po rtl an d c e m e nt may be m ad e from a mixtu re o f bl as t fu rn ac e -

S l ag and fi ne ly powd e re d lim es ton e the mixture b e ing bu rne d in a,

kiln and the res ult ant cl ink er ground to powd er Both the Po rtlan d .

and the Puzzol an c e m e nt s will se t u n d e r w at e r i e th e y are hyd rauli c ,

. . .

2 0 7 Cement t es ts
. The m any diffe re nt p roce sses of mixing r o as t
.
,

ing grinding and s e tting through which a c e m ent mu st p as s re quire

, , ,

th at a n umb er of t ests be mad e to d et erm i n e wh e th er or not th es e

h av e b e en w ell done If the grind ing has b een improp erly done or
.
,

if any of the oth er op eratio ns of m anu factu re h av e b e en n egl e cte d ,

the p roduct m ay be v ery w e ak or e v e n wo rthl e s s T o m ak e s u re th at

, .

all the s t e p s in the m anu factu re of the c e m ent h av e b een p rop erly

c arried out engine ers m ak e u se of the f ollowing t e st s : (a ) t est of

,

s oundn ess ; b) t e s t of fin e n ess t t tim tti g d t t

( ; ()c es o f e o f s e n ; () e s

of t en sil e stre ngth .

2 08 T est of s ou ndnes s One tes t for s ound nes s co ns ist s in boili ng

. .

a s m all b all of n e at ce m ent in w at e r for th ree hou rs and n otin g ,

wh ether or not che ck s or crack s o ccu r If the c e m ent c ont ains too .
3 00 S T R E N G T H OF MAT E R I AL S

T IME OF S E TT ING OF C E ME NT S

TI ME OF S E TTI NG
G er m an M th e od

t l
In i i a Fi n a l In i ti l
a Fi n a l In t vl
er a

P er c ent

l
A p ha

A tl as

S t ar , w hp it l t as e r

S t a r, Wi th o u t
p l t
as e r

Whi te hall

Jo s s on

S t or m Ki ng

A l sen

A k r on S t ar

A u s in t
H off m an

N or t on

3 37
O b li k
e s

Po t om a c

N e wa r k an d R os
e nd a l e 0 32

M an k a o t
5 09

2 11 n s il e strengt h The te nsile strength of a ce m

. T es t of te e nt i s
.

' '

m ad e by te s ting b riqu e tt e s of ne at c e m ent or c e me nt mort ar in

tensio n The b rique tte s are m ad e in s tand ar d mold s (Fig
.
.
F I G 1 78
. . We i g hts fo r T e s ti ng B i q tt
r ue es

F I G 1 79
. . t
C e me n T e s t i ng M c h i n
a e
3 02 ST R E N G T H OF MAT E R I AL S ,

“
T E NS IL E A N D C OMPR E S S N E T E ST S OF C E ME NT

T EN E T E
SIL ST C OMPRE ON T E
SSI ST

lb /
i . n .
2

M th
on s Dy
a s

A tl as

S t or i
m K ng

A l s en

D y c k e r h o ff

S t l ee

H off m an
 C ON C R ET E 3 03

21 c e m en t are m ad e t est s of

in E r s in the U nit e d S t at e s as ,

th s the comp re ss io n t e s t

in giving result s indic ative of the strength of the c e ment C ompres .

sion te s t s are m ad e upon the e n d s of the S pe cim e n b rok e n i n t e ns io n ,

nt cub es The u se of the b rok en .

sam e m at e ri al for the comp r es si on

“
3 0 2 giv es the
compressive s trength of se v eral b rand s of ce m ent? The t e s t s w e re
m
'
ad e by comp r ess in
g h alv e s of b riqu e tt e s b r ok e n in t en sio n and ,

both the t ensil e and compressiv e s trengths are given .

2 14 S tandard specifi cations for cement T he followi ng is a copy

. .

.of the st and ard S p e cific atio ns for c e m ent adopt e d by the A m e ric an

S oci e ty for T esting Materi al s .

NA T U R A L C E ME NT

t m h l l b ppl i d t t h fi n l y p l v i d p d c t
T hi s er S a e a l t i ng f m e o e e u er z e ro u r e su ro

th c l ci n t i n f n
e a g i l l ac
a li m t n
o ot t mp ta nly ar ffici n t e ou s es o e a a e er a u re o su e

t d iv
o ff th c b n ic c id g
r e o e ar o a as .

Fi n n It h l l l v by w i g ht a
e es s . id s f n t m
a th n 1 0 p c n t
ea e e re s ue o o or e a er e

on th N 1 00 S i v e nd n t m
e o . th n 3 0 p c e nt th NO 2 00 i v
e , a o or e a er 0 11 e . s e e .

T i m of tti ng I t h l l d v l p i n i t i al
e se t in n t l
. th n t n m i n t
S a e e o se o ess a e u e s,

and h d t in n t l e
ar th n th i ty m in t n m th n th h
se o ss a r u es or ore a ree ou r s .

T n i l e t ngth T he m i n i m m
e s s re q i m n t f t n i l t ng th f b i
. u re u re e s or e s e s re or , r

q ttue 1 i n q a e in c
es c t i n h ll b
. s u f ll w
r nd h ll h w n ro s s se o s a e as o o s, a s a S o o

t g i n i n t ng th wi th i n th p i d p ci fi e d
r e ro r e ss o s re e er o s s e .

N e a t C e ment
AGE
24 h ou r s in m oi s t ai r

7 d ays (1 d ay i n m o it s ai r , 6 d ay s i n wa t er
)
2 8 d ay s (1 u a
27 u u

One P ar t C e me nt, T hr ee P a rts S tan/

l a r d S a nd

7 d ay s (1 d ay i n m o it s ai r , 6 da y s i n wa t er
)
2 8 d ays (1 cc u
27 a It

Wa te r town A rs e na l R ep o r t, 190 1 .
 30 4

Cons tancy of vo ume l . Pa ts of ne a t cem n t ab t e ou 3 in . in

th ic k c n t t p i ng t
at t he e er , k pt in a er o a th i n d g h l l b
e e, s a e e ,

p i
er od f t wen ty f o h - ou r o ur s .

( ) A
a p t i th n k pt in i a t n m sl t m p t e e a r a or a e e ra u re .

()b A n th i k p t i n w t
o m i nt i n d
er sn 7 0 F
e p c t i c bl a er a a e as e ar
°
. as ra a e .

T h p tese O b v d t i n t v
a s ar e l f t l t t w n t y
- i ht d
se rg y e nd t a er a s or a e as e e a s, a , o

sa t i f c t ily p t h t st h l d m i n fi m nd h d nd h w n i gn
s a or ass e e s, s ou re a r a ar a S o o s s

o f d i t t i n c h c k i ng c c k i ng
s or o ,
d i i nt g t i ng
e ,
ra , or s e ra .

P OR T L A ND C E ME N T
T hi s t e rmfi n l y p lv i d p d c t
is app l e d i
l t ing f m the t o t he e u er z e ro u r e su ro

c lci n t i n t i nci p i n t f i n O f n i n t i m t m i t
a a o o f p p ly p p t i n d
e us o a a e x u re o ro er ro or o e

ar g i ll c nd c l c
a e ou s a m t i l nd t w h ich n dad i t i n t
ar e o u s
g th n a er a s , a o o a o re a e r a

3 p c nt h b n m d b q nt t c l ci n t i n
er e as ee a e su se ue o a a o .

S p cifi c g e i t y T h p ci fic g vi ty f th c m n t th
rav . h
g y l d i
e d t s e ra O e e e , or o u r e a

1 00 C °
h l l b n t l th n
.
,
s a e o e ss a

Fin n It h ll l v by w i g ht
e es s . i d f n t m th n 8 p c nt n
s a ea e e a res ue O o or e a er e o

th N e 10 0 iO . nd n t m th n 2 5 p c n t n t h N 2 00 i v
s e ve , a o ore a er e o e O . S e e .

T i m of tt i ng It h l l d v l p in i t i l t i n n t l th n th i t y m i n t
e se . s a e e o a se o ess a r u es,

a nd h d t in n t l
ar th n n h n m t h n t n h
se o e ss a o e ou r or ore a e o ur s .

T n il e t ng th T h m i n i m m q i m n t f t n il t ng th f bri
s e s re . e u re u re e s or e s e s re or

q ttue 1 in q
es in c t i n h ll b
. s f ll w nd h all h w n t
u are se o s a e as o o s, a s S o o re ro

g i n i n t ng th wi th i n t h p i Od
re ss o s re
p ci fi d e er s s e e .

N ea t C e me nt
AGE

24 h ours in mo it
s ai r

7 d ay s (1 d a
y i n m o it s a i r, 6 d ay s i n w a t er
)
2 8 d ay s (1 a ct u
27 u u

One P a r t C e me nt, T hr ee P a r ts S ta nd a r d S a nd

7 d ay s (1 d a
y i n m o it s ai r, 6 d ay s i n w a t er
)
2 8 d ay s (1 a a ct
27 u u

C ons tan cy of v o ume l . Pa t s of nea t c m nt b t

e e a ou 3 in in d . i m t g in
a e e r, .

th ic k c nt
at nd t p t he i ng t e ll b k
e r, a a er o a th i n d g h e e, s a e e p t i n m i t i o s a r

f p i d f t w nt y f h
or a er o O e - o ur ou r s .

( ) A a
p t i th n k p t i n i a t n m l t
s m p t ned O b v e a r a or a e e ra u re a ser e d at i nt v er al s

for a t l t t w n ty i g ht d y
e as e -e a s .

()b A n th p t i k p t i now t m i n
ert i n d n a 7 0 F s e a er a a e as e ar
°
. as p ra c t ic bl a e,

a nd b v d t i n t v l f t l t t w nty i g ht d y
o se r e a er a s or a e as e -
e a s .
306 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I AL S

re m ain d e r i n w at e r u ntil t e s t e d T M ki n d of ce m e nt as w ell as its

,
.

phy sical p roperti es mu st be known ; al s o the ki nd of s an d and stone

an d the d e g re e of fin e ne ss of e ach .

Wh en re ady for t es ting the concrete cub es are pl aced in the testing ,

m achine b e dd e d with pl ast er of Paris or thi ck p aper and te s te d in

, ,

c ompre ssi on T he lo ad at fi rs t crack and the m aximum lo ad are n ote d

. .

T he t abl e on the oppo site p ag e is a re po rt of a s eri es of te s ts m ad e

at the W at e rtow n A rsenal on Ak r o n S t ar c e m en t co n c re t e in com

pre ss ion *
It will be notic e d th at the ultim at e strength v arie d fr om
.

6 0 0 lb / i n to 2 7 0 0 lb /
. in
.
2
. .
2

The t abl e on p ag e 3 0 8 is t ak e n fr om the s am e volum e as the

pre ce ding an d s umm ariz es the results of te s t s on conc ret e m ade
,

from diffe ren t kind s of c e m e nt Variou s k ind s of b r ok e n stone w e re .

u se d including b rok en b rick and the ultim ate strength range d from
, ,

6 0 0 lb / in to 3 8 00 lb /
. .in 2
In m aking comparis on s fr om the t able
. .
2

as to s t r ength se v e ral thin g s mu st be not e d n am e ly the kin d an d , ,

s t r e ngth of the c e m en t the p r opo rtio ns an d ch aract e r of t he _ ,s an d

an d g rav e l the t re atm e nt aft er m aki ng an d the age wh e n t e s t e d ; m

, ,

oth er w ord s a compl e t e hi story o f the m ate ri al s and th eir treatm ent
,

s h ould be k n own In the followin g t abl e the cub e s t est e d w ere s et

.

in air in a dry cool pl ac e

, ,
.

The loc ation an d ch aract er of the s tructure will o ft e n d et e rmi ne

the ki nd of m at e ri al s to be u s e d i n m aki ng the co n cre t e T hu s on .
,

acc ou nt of co nv e ni en c e p e bbl e s are s om e tim e s u se d with the s an d ,

in which th e y are fou n d T hi s re duc es the co s t of the concre t e but .

,

u s u ally imp airs its strengt h as the p ropo rtion s of sand and s to ne as ,

th ey occur in nature are not lik ely to be s uch as to be s uitable for

concret e The oretic ally to get the be st res ult s the propo rtions should
.
,

be s uch th at the c em ent fill s the s p ac es b etw ee n the grai ns of s and ,

an d the mo rt ar fill s the s p ac e s b e tw e en the pi e c es of s to ne .

In any p articul ar c as e the co s t of m at e ri al s t rength of the co n cre t e , ,

and s ervic e re qui r e d of the s t r uctu re mu s t d e t e rmi n e wh at p ropo r

ti ons sh all be u se d .

P ob l m 3 0 0 A c n c t c b 12 i n h i g h wh n t t d i n c mp
r e . o re e i n t in d u e . e es e o re ss o sus a e

a l d f 3 2 4 0 00 1b t fi t c ck nd
oa o ,
lb t f il
. a F i nd th i n t n i ty
rs ra
,
a . a a u re . e e s

o f th c mp
e o iv t in 1b / in
r e ss t fi t c ck nd t f ilu
e s re ss . .
2
a rs ra a a a re .

Wa tertown Ar se nal R ep or t, 190 1 .

L I ME ,
CE ME N T ,
A N D C ON C R E T E 3 07

O 00 < fl N
O O C d ‘ fi ‘fi ‘ 00 6 01
H v-
4

00 03 Cl 0 1 CI 0 10 1 0 !
S T R E N G T H OF

w m! v o a m
g
c
v w a o n h o
w mw 8 wo e w
mn m mm .
3 10 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

The t i diagram of con cret e

s ra n

il lu s trate s the fact th at there is no w e ll de fine d e lastic limit th at -

,

the modulu s of e l asticity ch ang e s as the lo ad inc re ase s .

T he t abl e on p ag e 3 0 9 al s o ill u s t rat e s the v ari ation i n the modulu s

o f el as ticity Of co n cre t e in com pre ss i on In the fi rst te n t e st s the
* ‘

c e m ent u se d in m aking the te st S p e cim ens was A lp ha Por tl and in ,

the n e xt s ixt e e n it was Ger m a nta Por tl a nd and in the re m aining ,

o ne s A lsen Por tl a nd .

P obl m 3 0 1
r F m th
e t i n d i g m f c nc t in c mp i n h wn in
. ro e s ra a ra o o re e o ress o s o

Fig 18 1 c mp t th m d l u O f l t ici t y t 1 80 0 l b /
.
,
o u e e o in
u snd t 2 4 00 lb [i n
e as a . .
2
a a . t
2

T h h i g ht f th bl c k t t d w
e e o 10 in
e o es e as .

P obl m 3 0 2
r A c n c t b m 6 i n x 6 in i n c
e o re e ti n nd wi th
ea 6 8 ln ross sc c o a a -
~

. . . .
,

sp an i ,pp t
s su d t b th nd n d
or e l d d
a i n t h
o m i dd l e Th l
s a d t f il u
oa i e e e . e oa a a re . s

1 0 08 lb F i nd th m
. im m fib t e ax u e r s ress .

C OMPR E S S IV E ST R E NGT H A ND MOD U L U S OF E L A S T I C IT Y OF

C IND E R C ON C R ET E C UB E S

C OMPO S IT I O N
M OD U U L S OF E EXST TC I T Y

lb /
. 1n 2
.

B twe een

L o ad s p e r At H i ghe s t
C e me n t S an d Ci nd e r s Wate r Dy
a s S q u a r e ID C h Of S t r e ss Oh
500 an d 1000

lb .

2 19 . Cin de r n
co cret e . The pre ce ding t able s umm arizes the res ult s
of a s er e s o f i t e st s m ad e on cin d er c oncret e cub es at the Wat ert own
Wa tertown A rs enal R ep or t, 1 899 .
 L I ME ,
C E ME N T , A N D C ON C R E T E 311

F I G 18 1
.

A rsen al .
*
t abl e show s the v ariatio n of the modulu s of el as ticity
The
for diffe re nt s tre sses Lehigh Po rtl and c e m e nt was u se d and the
.

cub es we re set in air .

2 20 Concret e buil din g bl ock s D uring the p as t fe w y e ars g re at

. .

p rogre s s has b e en mad e in the m anu factu re and u s e of c oncret e

building block s In compari s on with s to ne th es e h av e the adv an
.

t age of ch e apne ss e ase of m anipul ation and b eauty of the fi ni sh e d

, ,

product A typ e of con cre te building block is shown in Fig 1 8 2

.
.
,

and illu s t rat e s the g e n e ral ch aract e ri s tic s Of s uch block s .

Wa te rtown A rs ena l R ep ort

,
190 3 .
3 12 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R IA L S

k now n as to th e ir du rabil ity The following table i s a report of a .

s e ri e s of t e s t s m ad e at the U n iv e r s ity of Michig an The block s w e re

*
.

fi rs t te sted in fiex u re and th e n an u nin j ure d porti on Of the blo ck

,

was te st e d in c ompre ss ion Block s 3 4 5 an d 6 w e re fr om the sam e

.
, , ,

m ixtu re an d w e re compos e d of on e part c e m ent two p art s s and and

, , ,

th re e p art s b rok en s tone T h e y w e re all t est e d aft er fou r mo nths

. .

T EST S OF C ONC R ET E B UI L D I N G B L OC KS

N UM B E R OF
B OC K
L

Pro b l m 3 0 3 A c nc t b il d i ng bl c k 2 4 i n in l ng th nd h vi ng n ff c t iv
e . o re e u o . e a a a e e e

cr oss se c ti n f 8 i n x 10 in m i n 4 in x 10 i n i t t d b y b i ng pp t d t
o o . . us . . s es e e su or e a

b th nd n d l d d i n th mi d d l T h l ad t f il i f nd t b 5000 l b
o e s a oa e e e . e o a a u re s ou o e .

F i nd t h m im m fib t
e ax th h i g ht f th b l c k b i ng 10 i n
u e r s r e ss , e e o e o e .

2 2 1 Effect of t emp erature on the s trengt h of con crete C oncre te

. .

put i n pl ac e i n cold w e ath e r inc re ase s in st re ngth Ve ry s lowly m aking ,

it ne c essary to k e e p the forms on for a much lo nger tim e th an is

r e quire d wh e n the t e mp e ratu re i s 70 or ov e r T he failure of m any
°
.

e ngi nee rs to r e cog niz e this fact has b e e n r e s po n s ibl e for the e arly

re m ov al of fo rm s in cold w eath e r and in m an y s uch c ases for a tot al ,

or p ar ti al c oll ap se of the s t r uctu re A n inv es tigatio n re ce n tly car .

ri e d out at the W o r c e s t e r Polyt e ch n i c In stitu te r S how s the rate of

J

i ncre ase of the stre ngth of concre te for t e mpe rature s rangi ng from '

3 2 F to 7 4 F as s umm ariz e d i n the fol lo wing t able

° °
. . .

T EN E S IL ST RENG H T
DA
,

AGE IN YS

32° F . 74 ° F .

C o ncr e te , F e b r ua r y ,
1 905 .
TE ng N e ws , V ol L XII , p 183
. . . .
1 P ro b bly d i
a r ed out .
 C HAPTE R XIV

RE ENFOR CE D CONCR ETE

2 22 . Object of reenf orcementth at concret e i s much . The fact

strong er in comp re ssion th an in t e n s io n has l e d to atte mpt s to

inc rease its t e nsil e strength by imb e dding s t eel or iro n rod s in the ,

mate rial Thi s m etal re enforce m ent is s o de signe d as to carry mo st of

'

the te ns il e s tress an d thu s pl ay s the s am e p art in a conc re t e st ructu re

,

as the t e n sio n m e mb e rs pl ay i n a t ru s s .

It has been found by e xp erim ent th at ree nforc ed concret e b eam s

may be str esse d in fiex u re far b eyond the e l as tic limit of o rdi nary
*

concre te and e v e n b e yo n d the stress which would rupture the s am e

,

be am if not re enfo rc e d without appre ciabl e i n jury to the m at eri al

, , .

M C on s id ere one of the l e ading Fren ch autho riti es on the subj e ct

.
, ,

re po rt s a t e s t Of t hi s kind in which he fou n d th at concre t e t ak e n

,

from the te ns il e s id e of a reenfo rc e d co n cre t e b eam t est e d in fie xu re

was u ni n ju re d by the s train Pro fess o r T u rneau re of the Univ ersity
.
,

of W i s con si n has fou n d th at min ut e c rack s occu r on the t e n sio n sid e

,

of a re en fo rc e d conc ret e b e am as s oo n as the fib e r s t ress reach e s the

'

point at which non re enfo rce d con cre t e would crack ? E xp erime nts
-

of thi s kind s ee m to indic at e th at the m e t al re enfo rc e m e nt c arri e s

practically all of the t ens il e stress as crack s in the concret e mu s t ,

c e rtam l y re duc e its t e n sil e s t re ngth to z ero at thi s point .

22 3 C orros ion of t he metal re enf orcement

. The m aint e n anc e of .

the increas e d s tre ngth of co n c ret e d u e to the m e t al re enfo rc e m e nt

d e pe nd s upo n the pre servation of the m etal The co rro sion of metal .

imb e dd e d in Con cret e is thu s a m att er of the great es t import anc e in

conn e ction with reenforc ed concrete wo rk It has b e en found th at .

me t al thu s prot e cte d do es n ot corrod e ev en though the con cret e be

A i d ic t d i n C h pt
s n a e XIII c c t a hw
er , on r e e s o s no we ll—
d fi d l ti c li mi t i
e ne th
e as ,
. e . e

m t i ld
a er a t c f m t H k l w I th i c
oe s n o on or o oo e s
’
a . n s ase e as l t ic lim i t m th bit yean s e ar rar

p i
o n t b
e y d w h
on ic h t h d f m t i e m c
e orh m a on s a r e u or e no tic bl th n f m ly
ea e a or er .

TP c Am
ro . S er f . Tocti n.
g M t i l
or 1 90
es 5 a er a s, .

3 13
3 14 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I AL S

s ubj e ct e d to the s e ve re s t expo s ure H ow ever the e xist e n ce of c rack s .

,

on the t e ns i on s id e of re en for c e d ge am s m ak e s the e xp os u re

m e t al r od s po ssibl e and thu s add s a n e w d ang e r t o the life

,

b eam ; but the s mall h airlik e crack s th at occur aft er the el asti
of the co n c re te has b e e n p ass e d p r ob ably h av e n o e ffe ct in thi s res p e ct ?

Wh en th ey be come larg e en ough to e xpo s e the reenfo rc e ment the ,

s trength of the b e am i s e n d ang e re d .

2 2 4 Adhes i on of the con cret e t o t he reenf orcement

. Wh e n a r e e n .

forc e d con cre t e b e am i s s ubj e ct e d to s tres s th e re i s alw ay s a t e n d en cy ,

to sh e ar h oriz o nt ally alo ng the re enfo r c e m ent T his i s p rev ent e d in .

p art by the adhe s ion b e twe e n the stee l and

co n cre t e Failure s ome time s occurs du e to .
,

this horizontal S h ear e sp e ci ally wh en the ,

b eam is ov er re e n forc e d i e wh en the area of -

,
. .

cros s s e ction of the re enfo rc e m ent i s l arge as

comp are d with the tot al area of cr o ss se ction
of the b eam Wh e n pl ain r ound or s qu are ro d s .

are u s e d the adh es io n b e tw een th é s te él and

‘ ‘ ‘

co ncre te furni sh es the o nl y bon d _ For com .

F 183 IG
m ercial pu rpo s es how e ve r v ariou s fo rm s of , ,

I K hn t m db ; 2 J hn n r
e enfo r c e m e n t ar e o rdi n arily u se d to inc rease
’
a sse ar ’
0 so ’

c g t d b ; 3 T h ch
o rr u a e ar ,
a er

b lb b
u ; 4
ar R m t w
,
i t d t
ans ohi s bo n
e d F ou r
s e o f th e se comm e r c i al typ
. e s

b ar
are i llu s trat e d in Fig 1 8 3 T he J ohn s o n .
,
.
,

Th ach er an d Rans om e b ars are p r ovid e d with p r oj e ctio ns and in d en

,

tation s to p re v e nt the bar from pul l ing out Of the c oncre te whil e the
‘

Kah n bar by m eans of the proj e cti ng arm s that e xt end upw ar d along
,

the li nes of p rin cip al s t ress in the b e am i s al s o d esign e d to act as ,

a t ru ss Se v e ral oth er comm ercial typ es of bar are al s o in u se but

.
,

all are p rovid e d with p r oj e ction s or in d e n t atio ns of s om e kind to

pre v e nt S lipping .

Many t est s h ave b e e n m ad e to d e ter min e the forc e n e ce ssary to

pull the v ariou s form s of rod s from c on cre te The foll owing t abl e .

giv e s the re sul t s of pull ing out t e sts m ad e by Pro fessor E dg ar -

bu rg of the Univ ersity of Pennsylvani a The r od s in thi s case

,
”
.
6

imb edde d c entrally in 6 in X 6 in co n cret e pri s m s 1 . .

w ere t e s te d after thirty d ay s In m ost c ases e xc e pt .

,

P c Am S f T ti ng M t i l 1904
ro . er . oc . or es a er a s, .
3 16 S T R E N G T H OF M AT E R I A L S

give s 1 6 00 lb /in for the comp e s siv e

r . .
2

thirty d ays old A Sli ghtly hi gher v alu e was found for cub es f rom
.

a diffe re nt mixtu re .

From an i nv e stigation of the t e nsil e s tr e ngth of s t e e l

b ars the writ er refe rre d to abov e obt ain ed the following value s
,
.

A REA OF EL A CSTI U MA E
LT I T M OD U U L S OF P ER C EN AGE
T OF

T YP E OF R OD ME A T L L M
I IT S RENG H
T T E A
L C
ST I IT Y E ONGA O N
L TI

in ) lb /
. i n 2
. lb /
i . n .
2 lb /i
. n 2
.
m 8 m .

With a 1 3—6 conc rete a -

p e r c e n t r e e n f o r c e m en t o f s t ee l ,

having an e lastic limit of lb / in an d a p e r c e nt r e en f o r ce . .

2
,

m ent of st eel having an el astic limit of

, has b ee n
u se d without dev e loping the full compre ssiv e s trengt h of the
Inthi s c ase the p erc e nt ag e is figure d on the area of co n cre te abov e
the c ent er of the m e t al r e en for c e m e nt Thi s p erc ent ag e m ay al s o be .

figu re d on the area of c ro s s se ction of the b eam .

2 2 6 Pos iti on of the neutral ax i s in re enf orced concret e beams

. .

In Article 2 1 8 it was point e d out that the modulu s of elas ticity of

concrete in compressio n is not con st ant Thi s indicates that in the .

c ase of fiexu re the po sition of the n e utral axi s ch anges with the s tress ,

at fi rs t lyin g n ear the c e nt e r but movin g tow ar d the comp res s io n s id e ,

as the lo ad is in c rease d In a re enfo rce d con crete be am the n e utral

.

axi s al s o u nd e rgo es a dis pl ac e m e nt d u e to the non homog ene ity o f ,

-

the c ro ss se ctio n S inc e the moduli of el asticity of s t e el an d co ncre te

,

are not the s am e In thi s c as e if the b eam i s re en force d o nly on the

.
,

tension S ide and the m et al re enforce m ent is d e sign e d to c arry all the
,

t en s ile stre ss the neutral axi s u s u ally lie s n earer the tensio n S id e of
,

the b e am th an the compre ssion s id e j

From t e s t s m ad e at Pu rdu e U niv ers ity Pro fe s s o r H att found the ,

ratio of the moduli of e l as ticit of s t l i n t n ion to co n c t in

y ee e s r e e

P c A m S f T ti ng M t i “
ro . er . l 1 905
oc . or es a er a s , .

1S t icl b y S E S l c m t itl d R t i l F m l f th S t ng th f C n
e e ar e . . o u , en e a o na or u as or e re o a o
c t S t l B m E ng i n i ng N w J ly 30 1903
re e ee ea ,
”
eer e s, u , .
 3 17

m ate rial to be as foll ws

q .
ie
a
The u se

A v e r ag e

G v l c nc t
ra e o re e

A v e r ag e

22 7 . S t ren gth of reenforce d co cret e n w e ak in beam s . C o n c re t e i s

1 8 1 0 11 an d s t ron g in c o mpress i on s o th at wh e n u se d in the fo rm of
,

se am the t e n s il e s t re ngth co nt rol s the s t re ngth of the b e am

,
To .

rr e c t for thi s l ack of s tre ngth i n t e n s io n s t ee l r od s are imb e dd e d in ,

am s i n s uch a way as to c arry the t e n s il e s tre s se s .

A few y e ars ag o e ngi nee rs b e lie v e d th at the t e nsil e st re ngth o f the

ncre te in a be am might be c on s id e re d i n computi ng the s tre ngth of
,

e re enfo r c e d con cre t e b e am A t p re se n t h ow ev er the st e el re en

.
, ,

c e m ent i s d e s ig ne d to c arry al l the lo ad i n t en s io n and the con

r

3te al l the lo ad i n comp r e ss io n ; th at i s the t e n sil e s t re ngth of the ,

tel i s b al an c e d ag ain s t the comp res s iv e s tre ngth of the co n c re t e .

uce conc re t e i s imp e rfe ctly e l as tic the s tr e ss s t rain di ag ram i s n ot,
-

its a s traight line in any p art of i ts l e ngth This m e ans th at its .

of e l as ticity i s not con s t an t but ch ang es with the s t re ss , .

l ts of m an y t e s t s S how th at the st re s s st rain diagram for -

m ay be as s um e d a p ar ab ol a s o th at the comp re s siv e s t re ss ,

11 of the b e am v ari e s as the o r di n at e s of a p ar abol a .

t of the di ffere nc e in the modulu s of el as ticity of ste el

lb / in and . lb / in to
.
2
. .
2

of the n e ut ral axi s ch ang e s with the l oad on the

In the following analy si s the ass umption s of the common

of fle xu re are s uppo se d to hold with the e xc e ptio n of the ,

s t at e d a bove
I : l ength of s pan ,

a: distance of the n e utral axi s from the compre ssion fac e ,

(l e ff e ctiv e d e pth of b e am ; th at i s the dis t anc e from top ,

Of

b e am to c e nte r of g ravity of re enfo rc e m en t ,

Jou r . Wes te r n S oc . E ng .
, June , 1904 .
3 18 S T R E N GT H OF MA T ER I AL S

'
r ratio of are a of s ee t l to t hat of the e ffe ctiv e cro ss se ctio n
of theb e am ,

E, modulu s of e las ticity of st eel ,

EC modulu s of e lasticity of co ncre t e in compre s sion ,

p ,
unit s tre ss in met al re enforc e m ent ,

p 0
un it c ompre ss ion stre s s in the conc re te at out er fibe r ,

e unit cont raction in concre te an d e un it e lo ngati on in

,
’

s t ee l ,

E, i s m easu re d at s t res s p c
.

The b eam is uppo se d r e e nforce d on the te nsIOn sid e only and the
s ,

r od s ar e imb e dd e d to a s uffici ent d e pth to p rot e ct the st e el (T hi s .

FI G . 184

d epth m ay be as much as 2 5 to 3 in i f the b e s t fire prote ction is .

d e s ire d ) The ill u s tration (Fig 1 8 4 ) shows the b e am s upport e d at

. .

the e n d s an d lo ad e d in the middle but the fo rmulas d e riv e d apply ,

to b e am s h aving di fferent lo ad ing s and suppo rt s .

C o ns id e ring the comp ress iv e s t ress to v ary as the o rdin at e s of a

p arabol a the tot al compres sive s tress i n the concre t e is
,

an d it m ay be co n sid e re d as actin g a: di s t an c e of c e nt e r of gr avity

(
of the p ar ab oli c are a fr om the top of the b e am T he tot al s t re ss in
) .

the s t e e l i s p r bol s
.

The mom ent of the s tre s s c oupl e m ay th e re fo re be w ritt en

M — —
g ) :
gp d e
-
x ,

M = p r d b(d —gx) ; 8
-

th at is eith e r the compre ssion in the con cre t e tim e s the di st anc e
,

(d g )
x or th e t e n,s ion in the s t e e l tim e s the s am e di s t an c e T hi s .
320 S T R EN G T H OF MA T ER I A L S

M = 2 77 p od .
o
2
,

an d M : . 8 0 p 8 r bd
2
.

bl m 3 04 A nf c d c nc t b m 8 in x 10 in in c
Pro e . re e c t i n nd
or e o re e ea . . r oss s e o ,
a

1 5 f t l ng i. onf c d n th t n i n i d b y i 4 i n p l i n t l n d T h
,
s re e or e o e e s o s e S x - . a s ee r ou s . e

t l h
s ee m d l
as f l t ici t y
a o f u us o nd t h c nt f th
e as o a e e er o e

re enf c m nt i p l c d 2 in f m th b tt m f th b m
or e e s a e th t . ro e o o o e ea . a

E C
z: nd p 60 0 find f m f m l a 0 ro or u as

p i
os t i n f t h
o n t
o l i nd t h m m n t M
e e u ra ax s a e o e .

NO E Th m m t M c
T .

f h m g
pe n d t o t h m m t
en 3
? bt i d f m th c

b m ; th t i t y M i th m m t f i t c f
orr e si d t i n o s o e o en o a ne ro e ons e ra o

o f th fl e e x u re o o o e ne o u s ea s a s o sa ,
s e o en o r e s s an e o

th b e m (ea A ticl se e r e

P obl m 3 0 5 F
r e t p 2 700 1b /
. inor n th at fib f c n t
s r e ss , . .
2
o e ou e r er o o cr e e

i n th b e m g iv n i n P bl m 3 0 4 find t h
ea e t p i n th t l enf c m nt
ro e ,
e s re ss , e s ee re or e e .

FIG . 186

Probl m 3 0 6 U i ng th
e . s e da t f P bl
a o ro em 3 04 , l c t
o a e the neu rat l i ax s , and find
the v l f t h m m nt f
a ue o e o e o r es s ai t nc M e u nd e r t he ass u mp t i n th t t h t
o a e s re sse s in
the c nc t v y li n ly
o re e ar e ar .

Linear v ari ati on of s tress It i s b eliev e d by mo s t eng in eers

228 . .

th at it is n ot n e c e ssary to co nside r th at the compressive stre ss v ari e s

as the o r di nat e s of a p arabol a but th at for wo rkin g lo ad s the lin ear , , ,

v ariation is clo se e nough for practical purpo s es (s ee Fig .

E qu ations (a) and (b) may th en be w ri tt en

 CR ET E 321

a; d
g , a pproximate ly ,

M . 1 6 4 p bd c
2
, ()
k

M : . 8 7 5 p 8 r bd
2
.
()
I

229 . Bond betw een s teel ando c d concre t e n

co cre e . t T he re e nf r e

e am sh o uld be re g ar d e d as a gi r d e r T he co n c ret e in comp re s si on .

bould be reg ard e d as one flang e the ste e l in t e n sio n as the othe r , ,

hil e the web i s m ad e up of concre t e In o rd er th at the s tee l re én '

r
.

>rcem e nt m a ac t e ff e ctiv e ly it i s n e c e s sary th at th e re be su ffici e nt

y ,

on d b e tw ee n the s t e e l and co n c r e t e to c arry the ho rizo nt al s h e ar

ccu rring al ong the re enfo r c e m e nt

.
The s tre ss th at this bond mu st .

arr y i s about the s am e as th at c arri e d by the riv e t s co nn e cting the

ang e and we b i n a pl at e gi r d er .

If y d enot es di s t an c e alo ng the b eam we know (Articl e 5 3 ) th at ,

dM
e ,
d,
(1 S O from e qu ation s (0 ) an d m
( ),
alp s 3
o x
a, 8

e re F is the
.
are a of c ro s s s e ctio n of the re e n for ce ment , or, c alling
g as, d ’
,
thi s may be writte n
Q
,
d

3/
6 0
F
”
i s the t
ra e o f ch ang e of tota l s tr ess in the re e n forcing b ars
7

ri e s alon the b e a
g
.
/
a
y v a m F or un i t l e n gth
. of b e am it m e asu res the ,

re ss t ran s mitt e d by the co n c re t e to the b ars th at i s the bond , ,

.

Le t 70 n umb e r of b ars ,

Id 0 s u rfac e Of one bar p er in ch o f l e ngth .

T h e n ok s u rfac e of s t ee l pe r in ch of l e ngth of b e am ,

id 0 7m bond wh e re 26 i s the bond d ev e lop e d per unit are a of

,

rod s u rfac e of b ars .

322 S T R EN G T H OF MA T ER IA L S

T h en

For parabolic loading ,

If x : . 5 2 d,

For the line ar v ariation ,

3 t,
a thi s b e com e s
0
n
to )
Th ese
qu ation s give the unit ho rizontal sh e aring s tre s s
e

re énforce m ent Fro m wh at has b ee n s hown p re viou sly thi s i s al s o

.
,

the u nit v e rtic al sh earing s tress at the reenfo r ce m ent .

T u rneau re and Mau rer giv e the followi ng as worki rig stre s se s
‘ "

in con c re t e b eam s .

U MA
LT I T E WORK I NG
S RENG
T T H , REST SS, EL A ST I CLM I IT , S A E F ST RE SS

C ON C RE T E C ON C RE E T ST EE L IN ST EE L

C OMPRE SSI ON C OMPRE ON SSI lb .

/ in .
2 1b .
/
in .
2

lb / i . n .
2 lb /i . n 2
.

50— l i
2 000—2 2 00 500 6 00 1 2 ’ 00 0 1 — 0
7 5 f or p a n
1 00 f or d e o rme d f
T he w e g i ht of c nc t
o re e —
1 4 0 1 50 l b .
/
ft .
3

T he we g i ht o f enf
re c or e d c nc t
o re e 1 50 lb /
ft
. .
3

Pro bl c nc t b m i 1 0 x 1 6 i n i n c
em 307 . A c t i n nd 2 0 f t l ng
o re e ea s . r oss s e o a . o .

It i enf c d w i th f
s re { in t l d w i th c nt
or e 2 in b v th l w f c
ou r L-
. s ee ro s e e rs . a o e e o er a e

of th b m T he f c mp iv t ng th f th c nc t i 6 00 l b /
ea . e sa e in o nd th ress e s re o e o re e s . .
2
a e

t l d h n l t ic li mi t f
s ee u se 1b /
as a in Wh t i ng l c nc nt t d l d
e as o . .
2
a s e o e ra e oa

will t h b m c y t it m i d d l Wh t t n i n will b d v l p d in th t l ?
e ea ar r a s e a e s o e e e o e e s ee

Wh t h i ng t
a s l ng th enf c m nt
e ar s r e ss a o e re or e e

P obl m 3 0 8 F i nd wh t l
r e d nif mly d i t ib t d th b m i n th p c d i ng
. a oa ,
u or s r u e ,
e ea e re e

p bl m will c
ro e y nd find th t n i n i n th t l nd b nd f thi c
arr ,
a e e s o e s ee a o or s ase .

2 30 . S trength of T -beams hown in Fig 1 8 7 is much . T he T -b e am s .

u s ed in floo r s y ste m s in re en fo rce d concret e building s H e re as In '

.
,

P i nc ip l f R i nf c d C nc t C n t c ti n pp 170 172
-
r es o e or e o re e o s ru o , : .
3 24 S T R E N G T H OF MAT ER I A L S

The r es s i ting m om en t of th

(0

M :
ps (
F d ()
u

If the ne utral axis fall s within the fl ang e th en

, of the

i nte r nal couple will be g re at e r than d

,
g
;
so th at a s afe approximation
for the i tin g mom ent
re s s is obt aine d by u sing

M p8 1
”

W he n the n e utral axi s falls on the low e r e dge of the fl ang e these ,

for mul as (v) and (w) are e x actly t ru e .

T he h orizo nt al s h ear in the c as e of T b e am s m ay he -

follo ws From e qu atio n (u)

.

dM (l
p
s x
) c .
dy d,

Q
d —x

whe re oki t has the sa me m e ani ng as in the c as e of

b e am s . So th at

or, from w
( ),

231 . S hear at the neut ral ax s i

ten sion in the c oncre te
. If the
i s n egl e ct e d i n the c as e of re ct angul ar b eam s the ho rizo ntal s h e ar
, ,

at the n e ut ral axi s mu s t be e qu al to the ho rizo nt al s h e ar along the

re enfo rc e m ent If u i s the unit horizo nt al s h earing s t re ss in the

'
’
.
 C ON C R E T E 25

concrete at the width of the b e am th e n

,

at the n e utral axi s and s o

,

t
o f s re s s
.

t
of s re s s

In the c ase of the T b e am s if the ten sion in the we b is n egl e cte d

-
, ,

the horizont al sh ear wh ere the we b joins the fl ang e mu st be e qu al to

the s h e ar alo ng the s t e e l
. Th e n

and so
 CHAPTER XV

BRICK AND BUILDING S T ONE

232 . Li mes ton eLim es to ne is princip ally a c arbo nate of lim e m ade
.
,

up of s eash ell s that h ave b een d e po sit e d fr om water during pas t

ge ological tim es Its m e thod of form ation has much to do with its
.

v alue as a building m at eri al If it co nt ain s no thin l ay ers of cl ay

.

or sh al e se dim e nt ar y pl anes) it i s lik e ly to be fairly homog e ne ou s I n

( ,

s tructu re Bu t if l ay e rs of s h al e how e v e r s m all occur the m at erial

.
, , ,

i s much mo re quickly w eath e re d T his i s e s p e ci ally t ru e if the s to ne

.

be pl ac e d at right angle s to the po sition it occupi ed in the qu arry .

Thin pl ane s of fore ig n s ub s t an ce s are lik e ly to occu r In m any

of ou r b e s t buildi ng s to n e s as m ay be s e e n in the rapid d e t e rio ra
,

tio n of s ee mingly first-cl ass lim es to ne wh en u se d as curbing Such .

di si nt egratio n i s c au sed by a l es sening of the adhesion b etw ee n the

p articl e s of sto ne .

Lim e stone may be compo se d of a great p er ce ntage of s and c em ente d

togeth er by c alcare ou s m atter in which c ase it is c alle d s i li ceou s li me
,

s tone
. Und er s uch circum st ances ch e mical action may remov e the ‘

ce menting m aterial thu s l eaving the stone fre e to crumble Marble

, .

is almo st pure lim esto ne .

C o nditions to which a building s ton e is to be e xpo se d will d e t ermin e

the ch aract er o f the m at eri al to be u s e d inany p articul ar s tructu re .

Rapid fre ezing and th awing i s li k e ly to set up i nt ernal s t rain s in the

m at erial whi ch m ay le ad to futu re failure Th e se strains may be
, .

cau se d by une qu al e xp an sion or cont raction of the p articles of the

s to ne or by the fre e zi ng an d th awin g of the w at e r in the ston e
, The .

fo rm ation of i ce in the s e di me nt ary pl an e s account s in a l arge m e asure

for the rapid d et erio ration of s ton e
Limeston e often _
.

occu rs in v ery thi ck l ay ers as in the c ase of the ,

oolitic li me sto ne fou nd at Be d ford In di an a wh ere the l aye rs are , ,

o ft e n from 2 5 to 3 0 ft thick In such cases it is a mo s t v alu able

. .

32 6
328 S T R E N G T H OF MAT E R I AL S

t
s re n gth of a m ochi l u s of el as ticity rangi ng fr om

lb /in to. .
2
and a sh e arin g s tr e ngth ranging

from 1 7 3 5 lb / in to 2 5 18 lb /
. in T he av e rage of thirty t e sts on
.
2
. .
2

sand s to ne g av e an ul tim at e s t re ngth of 4 1 0 9 and a modulu s

of e l asticity ranging from lb / i n to lb / in . .

2
. .
2

From a s e ri es of t es t s on build ing s to ne

Wi s con sin the sam ,

as ranging from 3 0 0 0 1b / in to and the ultim ate

2
. .

s t re ngth Of San d s to ne from 2 4 0 0 1b / in to This . .

2

re po rt al s o giv e s t abl e s S howing the effe ct of free z ing an d th awing

on the st re ngth of s to n e the e ff e ct of s ulphu ric acid on lim e s to ne

, ,

and the e ffe ct of hi gh t e mp eratu re s on buildi ng s to ne .

The followi ng t abl e sh o w s the result s of a s eri e s of compres siv e

t e s t s m ad e up on lim eston e at the Wat ertown A rs enal ”
.
e

S E C ONA TI L A REA FI R C RA C K
ST U LTI MA E
T ST RENG H T

in .
2

From oth er s eri es of t e st s m ad e at the Wat ertown Ars enal on

an

a di ffe r ent g rad e O f f lim est on e the av erag e v alu e of the ultim at e ,

st re ngth w as fou n d to be 7 6 4 7 and the m odulu s of el as ticity

to be f
Thi s wid e rang e in the s t re ngth of building s to ne i s e xpl aine d by .

the m e thod of i ts fo rm ati on w hi ch m ak es the ch aract e r of the s tone

' '

,
'

from one loc ality o fte n diffe r e ntire ly from th at of a n eighb oring
locality A v erag e v alu es of the s tre ngth of buildi ng ston e are th ere
.

fo re of littl e v alu e an d mu s t be u se d with a l arg e facto r of s afe ty

, .

Pro bl
m 3 0 9 A g ran e
e . i t bl c
o k w as e s e d i n om p re ss on, the oad a t rs t t c i l fi t c ck ra

a nd at m ax mu m i e ng b i
a nd re s p e e lb
T he se ona . lb c t iv ly
. cti l
. are a

was in 2 F nd the n e ns
. i
of s re ss at rs i t i ty
r a k and at m ax mu m t fi tc c i .

Wa te rtown A rsenal R ep o rt, 1900 .

T Wate rtown A rse nal R ep ort, 1 8 94 .
 F IG 18 8
. . l t f C mp
R esu o o ress on i
T es t f L im t n
o es o e

F I G 1 89
. . R esu lt s of C omp ress i on T es t s of S and s t one
330 S T R E N G T H OF MAT E R IA L S

238 . Brick and brick work . Brick i s

g en erally m ad e by t e mpering
cl ay with the prop er amount of wat er and then molding i nto the ,

d esire d sh ap e and burning The te mpe re d cl ay i s u se d wet d ry or

.
, ,

med i u m d e p e nding upo n the kind of b rick d esire d and th ese are cl as si
, ,

fie d as sof t m u d b rick p r essed b rick or s tifi m ud b rick re s p e ctiv e ly

”

, , .

The po s itio n of the b rick in the kil n m ay al s o d e t er mine its cl ass ifica
tion as ha r d b rick t ak en from ne are s t the fire medi u m b rick fro m
, ,

the int e ri or of the pil e and sof t b rick from the e xt e rio r o f the pil e
, .

Pavi ng b rick i s a vit rifi e d cl ay b rick or block s om e wh at l arge r

th an the o rdinary b rick .

2 39 C om p res s i on t es ts of bri ck
. For this t e s t a whol e or h al f
.

b rick is t e s t ed e dge wi se or fl at in much the sam e way as in the

c ru shi ng t es t for building s to ne The fac e s which are to be in contact
.

with the h e ad s of the t esting m achi ne are ground p e rfe ctly s mooth
an d p arall el or are b e dd e d
,
or both If pl as t er of Pari s i s u s e d it
,
.
,

s hould be pl ac e d b etw e e n s h ee t s of p ap er to p re v e n t the ab s orptio n

of w at e r by the b rick as thi s m ay affe ct its s t re ngth

, In any —c ase in .
,
"

t e sti ng b rick or s tone in compression it is d esirable to u s e a s ph eric al

c ompress io n block for one of the h ead s so th at in c ase the fac es of the ,
-

t e st pi e c e are n ot p arall el the b eari ng will adju st itse lf to b ring the

axi s of the t e s t pi e c e i nto coin cid en c e with the axi s of the m achin e .

In thi s c ase al s o the lo ad at fi rs t c rack and the m aximum lo ad are

, ,

n ot e d
. The fo r m of the fra ctu re d S pe cim en is als o not e d ; it is u su ally
th at of the doubl e inv e rte d py ramid An imperfe ct b e dding may c au se
.

the s p e c im e n to S plit v ertic ally int o thin pi e c es C ardbo ar d cu shio ns .

an d s o ft pi n e bo ard s are al s o u s e d in b e dding b rick for t es ting .

The rel ativ e v alu e of the ki n d s o f b e dding as indic at e d by t e s t s ,

m ad e at the Wat e rtown Ars enal on h al f b rick s m ay be seen from ,

the followin g t abl e

M EAN S RENG H
.

T T

S t in p l t
e f P is
as e r o ar 5 64 0 lb .

S t in c d b
e ard cu h i n
oar s o s 4430
S t in p i n w d
e e oo 4 540

The s tre ngth of a s in gl e brick i n compressio n c ann ot be t ak e n as

a c rit e rio n of its s t rength in an actu al s t ructu re s i n c e its s t re ngth in ,

th at c as e mu s t d e pend s om e wh at upon the mort ar u se d If the .

mort ar is s o ft and flow s (i e is s qu e ez e d out) the b rick may fail in

. .
,

Wa te rtown A rsenal R ep ort, 1901 .

 BRI C K AND BU I L D I N G S T ON E 331

d u e t o the l at eral flow of mort ar in st ead of in compre s sion , .

s e r i es of thirty e ight t e s t s m ad e at the W at e rtown A rs e nal

- *

on pie rs o f common b rick it was fou n d th at the m aximum c omp re s

,

s iv e s t re ngth v ari e d from 9 6 4 lb / i n to 2 9 7 8 lb /

in The mort ar2 2
. . . .

in thi s c ase was compo se d of one p art R o se nd al e c e m e nt and two

p art s sand The b rick s u se d in th es e pi ers d ev elope d only one h al f
.

th eir compressive s trength The compressiv e st rength of so ft b rick

.

m ay go as low as 5 0 0 an d th at of p aving b rick as hi gh as

lb / in wh en u s ed in pi ers
.
2
,
.

T he following t abl e giv e s the r e sult s of t es t s of the comp res siv e

s t re ngth of commo n b rick m ad e at the W at e rtown A rse n al T he .

compres sed s urfac es w ere b edd ed in plaster of Paris and the brick s ,

w ere te ste d whole .

C OMPR E SS IV E ST R E NGT H OF C OMMON B R C K I

D MEN O N
I SI S U LT I MA E S RENG H
T T T

C om p
S E C ONA
TI L L OA D AT

H e i gh t
re s s e d S ur
A REA FI R C RA C K
ST
To tl
f ac e
in} lb .
a
lb /. l n .2

Wa ter town A rs enal R ep o rt, 1 884 .

332 S T R E N G T H OF MAT E R I AL S

T hecompressive Stre ngth h ere rang e d from 5 0 00 lb / ih to . .

2

lb /
. in Av erage v alu e s for the s tre ngth of diffe rent kind s of brick
.
2

in comp ressio n might be give n as follow s : s o ft b rick ,

h ard b rick 3 2 5 0 ,
and vit rifi e d b rick lb / in T he , . .
2

l atte r in clud es p aving brick .

P ob l m 3 1 0
r T h f ll wi ng b ic k w e t t d i n c mp
e . e o o in r s er es e o r es s o .

() a R d f c b ic
e k c t i n l
a e r i n :; l sed t fi t c
o a c kar e a , lb .
2 oa a rs ra ,

l d t m im m oa a lb ax u ,
.

b
() V i t i fi d b ic k c
r t i en l r i n ; l : se d t fi o t c cak 7 2 000 1b
a re a , ; l d .
2 oa a rs ra , ,
. oa

t m im ma lb
ax u ,
.

() 0P vi n g b ic ka c t i n l r i n: ; lse d t fio t ca c ka re a , lb l ad .
2
oa a rs ra ,
. o

t m im ma lb
ax u ,
.

F i nd th i nt n i ty f t e t fi t c
e ck nd t m i mum l d i n c h c
s o s re s s a rs ra a a ax oa ea ase .

240 . Modul u s
l i ity of brick As in the c as e of s to ne and
of e ast c .

co ncret e the modulus of elasticity of b rick in comp ressio n i s not

,

co nstant but vari es to s om e e xt ent with the lo ad On accou nt of

, .

thi s v ari ati on it i s h ard to giv e av e rage v alu es for the modulu s Of
e l as ticity o f b rick e s p e ci ally as the m at e ri al s and m e thod s o f m an u
,

factu re are S O v ari e d T h e re fo re in s t ati ng the modulu s o f e l asticity

.

it is als o ne c es s ary to s t ate the co rres po ndi ng lo ad Strictly s peaking .

,

b rick sto ne ,and co ncrete h av e no modulu s of e l asticity

, .

The t abl e b elow i s the re sult of a se ri es of t es t s of dry p resse d and -

mud b rick te st e d e dg ew i se in compre ssion and give s the modulu s of

, ,

e l as ticity for lo ad s b e tw e en 1 0 00 lb / in an d 3 0 00 lb / in and al s o 2 2

. . .
,

at the high es t s t re s s ob s erv e d .

M OD U L U S OF E L A S T I C IT Y F OR B R C K I
MOD U U L S OF EL A C ST I IT Y

lb /i n 2

O ON
. .

KI ND OF BR C K I
P S IT I
KI L N
IN

B tw e een L o ad s At H i g h e st
of 1000 a nd S t re ss

3000 l b /i
. n 2 . O b v ser ed

D ry p resse d
334 S T R E N GT H OF MA T E R I A L S

24 1 . T ransv ers e test s of brick? Brick s are te s

by s upporti ng th e m e dg ewi se or fl atwise upo n two
applyi ng the lo ad c e nt rally by m e ans of an o rdin ary

C are mu s t be t ak e n to p rovid e suitabl e b earing s urface s for the k nife

e dg e s i n o r d e r to p re ve n t loc al failu re
,
In this t e st the upp e r fib e rs .

are i n comp ressio n and the lowe r fib e rs i n t e n s io n and S i nc e b rick i s ,

s t r o ng e r i n comp res s io n th an in t e n s io n failu re i s c au se d by r uptu re ,

o f the t e n sion fac e The fib er s tress i s compute d from the form ul a

.

where P is the b reaking lo ad in pound s l is the l e ngth of sp an in ,

inch es e is half the h e ight and I is the mome nt of inertia of a cross

, ,

se ctio n The fib er s tress on the out e r fib e r at failu re i s u s u al ly c all e d

.

the modul us of rupture .

paving b rick the modulu s of rupture v arie s fro m

For
to 3 00 0 lb /
in For p resse d b rick c o mmo n b rick and m e dium bri ck
. .
2
, ,

the modulu s of ruptu re v ari es from 3 0 0 lb /i n to 1 2 0 0

2
. .

The s h earing s trength of v ariou s grad es of b rick v ari e s from

3 00 lb / in to 2 0 00 lb /
. in .
2
. .
2

Pro bl em 3 12 . A b ic k h vi ng
r a a d ep th of in . a nd a b re ad th of i n was
.

l oad e d c nt lly e ra on a sp an o f 6 in . T he u l tim t la e oad was 164 5 1b . i

F nd the
mod u l f pt
us o ru ur e .

242 . R att l er t est of brick . Pavin g

b rick s w ere form e rly t es te d in
ab ras ion i n o r d e r to d e t e r min e t he ir ability to with s t and w e ar Thi s .

t es t how ev er do e s not appro ach the conditions of actu al se rvic e

, , ,

which consist of the impact of hors e s fee t as w ell as the ab rasiv e ’

action of t raffi c To m ee t th ese conditio ns the rattl er t e s t was d e vi s e d

. .

The t e stin g m achine co ns ist s of a c as t iro n b arre l mou nt e d ho rizo n -

t ally and the t es t i s m ad e by placing the b rick toge th e r with s om e

, ,

h arde r m at erial s uch as cast iron in the m achi n e and re volving

, ,

it at a c e rt ain spee d for a ce rt ain le ngth of time The ratio of the .

amou nt of m at e ri al b rok e n or wo rn off i n thi s w a to the o rigi n al

y
w eight of the b rick put into the m achine indi c at es the v alue of the
b rick in with standi ng t he conditions of servi ce . .

The charge u s u ally con si s ts of nin e p aving b rick s or tw elv e oth e r

b rick s toge th er with 3 00 lb of c as t iron block s the volume of the
, .
-
,
 BR I C K AN D B U I L D I N G S T ON E 335

bri cks b eing e qu al to about 8 per cent of the volum e of the m achine .

The cas t-i r o n block s are of two s iz es th e l arg e r b e ing a bout 1

2 § in , .

s qu are and 4 in lo ng with r ound e d e dg e s and w eighin g at fi rs t

1
g
—
.
,

7
1
7 2 lh . Th e s m all re about % in cub es with round e d edges About
e r a 1 .
, .

2 2 5 lb of the s mall er s iz e and 7 5 lb of the l arger s iz e are u s ed ;

. .

1 8 00 revolution s are re quire d and mu s t be m ad e at the rat e of about

,

3 0 per minut e l
ae
.

D u ring the fi rs t 6 0 0 revolution s the effe ct of the rattl er action on

the b rick is to chip Off the corn ers and e d ge s Th e reafte r the actio n .

i s mo re n e arly ab rasiv e .

2 4 3 Abs orpt i on t es t of brick

. A b rick which ab s orb s a great
.

amou nt of w at er i s lik e ly to be w e ak e n e d and i n j u re d by fr o s t To .

m easu re the amou nt of ab s orption a dry brick is t ak en and a d et er ,

min ation of its ab s o rbing cap acity m ad e as in the case of s ton e ,

A rticl e
(
Ordinary b rick will ab s o rb from 1 0 to 2 0 per c ent of its own
w eight and p avi ng b rick fro m2 to 3 per cent
,
.

Thi s t est is now littl e u se d sinc e a b rick th at fail s in the abs orp
,

tion t est i s of s uch poor qu ality th at it wil l al so fail wh en s ubj e ct ed

to the cru shi ng and cro ss b ending t est s -
.

S ee s pe cific t i
a ons o f the N a ti o na l B ick Mr anu a f ct u re r s
’
ci t i
A ss o a on fo r ttl t t
ra er es .
 CHAPTER XV I

TIMBER

2 44 . S tru ctu re of ti mber . x amin ation of the cro ss se ction of

An e

a t re e u s u ally s h ow s th at it i s m ad e up of a rath e r d ark i nt e ri or co r e ,

or h eartwood an d a light e r e xt e rio r po rtio n or sapwood s u rrou n d e d by

, , ,

the b ark .In s om e S p e ci e s s uch as the oak s radi al lin e s c all e d

, , ,

medull ary ray s are seen r u nni ng from the c ent e r tow ard the b ark
,
.

If the c ros s se ctio n h app ens to be n ear a k n ot or oth e r d efe ct thi s ,

n o rm al s t r uctu r e m ay be ch ang e d If how e v er n o k n ot s are p re se nt

.
, , ,

a cl os e r e x ami n atio n s how s th at b oth the s apwood and h e artwo o d are

m ad e up of co n c e nt ric ring s c all e d annual ri ngs and th at thi s app ear

, ,

an c e i s d u e to a diffe r e n c e i n s t ructu re Part of the ring is se e n to

.

be d e nse r th an the res t and in fact it is t hi s di ffere n ce In d e n sity

, , ,

which giv e s the s e ctio n its characteristic app earanc e .

The ann u al rin g s i n one s tick of a c e rt ain S p e ci e s m ay be mo re

,

wid ely sep arat e d th an tho s e in anoth er s tick Of the s am e S p e ci e s and ,

the rel ativ e thick ne ss of h eartwood and sapwood may diffe r in di ffe re n t

s tick s
. T his indic at e s th at the s t r ucture Of timb er v ari es co ns id e rably ,

and th at th e re fo re the phy s ic al p r op erti e s al s o v ary Thi s wid e v aria .

tio n is see n in al l s ub st ance s found in natu re one inst anc e of which ,

has b ee n shown in the c ase of natural s to ne A n inv e s tig ati on Of the .

phy sic al prop erti es of such sub s t anc es th ere fore is more di fficult th an
, ,

th at Of a more homoge ne ou s s ub s t anc e H ow eve r the e xt en sive u se .

,

of timb e r as a s t r uctu ral m at e ri al m ak es a k n owl e dg e of i ts s tructu re

an d p rop e rti e s o f the utmo s t impo rt an c e .

2 4 5 Annu al rin g s
. E ach of the co nc e nt ric rings in timb er re pre4
.

se nt s the g rowth o f one y e ar The in ne r or l e ss d e n se p ortio n re pre

.

s e nt s the mo re rapid S p ri ng g rowth whi le the out er d ense po rtio n

,

re prese nt s the S low e r s umm er an d fall g r owth T he n umb e r of r ing s .

p e r i nch i n dic at e s the r at e o f g r owth f or th at n umb e r of y ears I f .

the n umb e r of rin g s per inch be fe w the gr owth has b een rapid and
,

33 6
338 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I A L S '

might be e xpe cte d S ince the l arg er bomme rcial pie ce s contain k not s
,

and oth e r d e fe ct s n ot foun d in the se l e ct e d t e s t pi ece s It has b e en .

fou nd als o th at the pl ac e and conditi on s of g r owth tim e of felli ng , ,

me thod and tim e of seas oning and m any other factors h ave e ach ,

s om e e ffe ct upo n the s t re ngth of timb e r S inc e the w e ight of timb e r .

is an indic atio n of its s tre ngth s om e id e a of the rel ativ e s tre ngth ,

of the mo re commo n s p e cie s m ay be Obt aine d by re fe rri ng to the

"
.

t abl e giv en bel owfi

WE IG H T OF K L N—
DR I IED WOOD OF I
D FF E R E NT SP E C IE S

A PPRO MA E
XI T

(a) V y h vy w d
er ea oo s

H ick y k p i mm n
or ,
oa
g ng bl ck
,
e rs o ,
osa e o ra e, a

l c u t h c k b y bl u b c h b t f l m
o s ,
a e rr ,
e ee ,
es o e ,

as h MM . 80 —
42 4 8 3 70 0
()
b H vy w
ea ood s

A sh , c h y bi c h m p l b c h w l n t
e l m, err ,
r ,
a e, ee ,
a u ,

s ou r g m c ff t h nyl c t b t f
u ,
o ee ree , o e o us ,
es o

S th n p i n t m c k
ou er e, a ar a 0 6 0—
0 70 .

(6 ) W d f m d i m w ig ht
oo s o e u e :

S ou th n p i n pi t c h p i n t m c k D gl
er e, e, a ar a ,
ou as

s p c w t n h m l ck w t g m f t
ru e, es er e o ,
s ee u ,
so

m pl a yc m e, s f m lb
a y lig htore , s ass a ras , u e rr ,

g dra f bi c h nd c h
es o y r a e rr 0 50 —
.0 60 .

(d ) L i g ht w d oo s :

N w y nd b ll p i n
or a a d c d cyp h m
u e , re e ar , re ss , e

l ck th h vi p c nd fi
o ,
e dw d
ea er s ru e a r, re oo ,

b w d c h t n t b tt n t t lip c t lp
ass oo ,
es u ,
u er u ,
u ,
a a a,

b ck y h vi g d f p p l
u e e, ea er ra es o o ar .
—
0 40 0 5 0 . 2 4—
30 2 2 00

(e) V y li ght w d
er oo s :

Wh i t p i n p c fi wh i t c d p p l
e e, s ru e , r, e e ar , o ar 0 30—
.0 40 .

249 . C ompres s ion t e sts t e s t s are m ad e on sh ort block s . C omp re ssion

and lo ng column s For the S ho rt-block t e s t the pi e c e i s pl ace d in an
.

o rdi nary t es ting m achi n e b etw e en the moving h ead and the pl at form ,

* B ure au of F ore s ty r ,
B ul le ti n N o 1 D , . i b
T m er .
 T IM BE R 339

with its e nd s as ne arly p arallel as po ssible and the Compre ssion is ,

m e asure d by an o rdi nary co mpre ss ome ter or S imil ar in strum ent for ,
~

m eas uring the low e ring of the moving h e ad T o provid e for the non .

parall e li s m of the end s it i s w e ll to use a s ph eric al be arin g for one

“
,

of the be aring e nd s T hi s wil l in s u re the p rop e r li ning up

. of the

S p e cim en s o th at the comp ress io n will be alo ng the g rain .

A s train di agram may be d rawn by plotting lo ad s in lb / in as . .

2

o rdinate s and the corres po n ding rel ativ e comp ression s as ab s cis sas .

T he e l astic limit modulu s of e l as ticity modulu s of resili enc e and

, , ,

m axi mum strength may th en

be obtain e d from the di ag ram
in the u s u al m ann e r Failu re i s .

e ith e r d u e to a s plitting of the

s p e cim e n or to a S h e ar ing off at

an angl e o f about 3 0 to the °

ho rizo ntal (Fig The l att e r .

is the ch aracte ri s tic failure for

g ree n timb e r .

The te s t s on lon g column s are

F 190 IG .

m ad e in much the sam e way as

the t e st s on S ho rt block s Provi s io n i s m ad e for fixing the e nd s of .

the column s s o as to giv e the s t andard e n d condition s n am ely s qu are , ,

e nd s rou n d e n d s pin and s qu are e n d s e tc

, In e ith e r c ase su ffici ent
, ,
.

dat a is tak en to ge t a lo ad d efle ction cu rv e by m easuri ng the de fl e c -

tio ns at the c ent e r corres po nding to sele ct e d lo ad incre m ent s Th ese .

defl e ctio ns are u su ally m e as u re d in two dire ction s at right angle s to .

e ach oth er
*
.

Pro bl e m 3 13 . F ig .c mp i n t t f p i n
19 1 re p re s e n s t the re s u lt s of o re s s o es s o e,

o
p p l n
ar , d k ap l tt d w i
oath l d i,n p n d o d i n
e t n d c m p i n i n oa s ou s as or a es a o res s o

i nc h b ci
e s as a T h bl c k w
s ssas ll 7 i n h i g h w i th n
. e f co c ti n s e re a .
,
a ar ea o ross se o as

f ll w p i n 2 i n x
o o s : in ; p p l
e, 2 in x
. i ; k 2 in x in .
Rd W o ar , . h . oa ,
. .

th c e v p l tt i ng th l d in lb /
u r es , o in d in t nd th
e c oap nd i ng sni t . .
2 as or a es a e o rres o u

c mp i n i n i n c h
o r e ss o s b ci D t min f c h m t i l th l t ic li m i t
es as a s ssas . e er e or e a a er a e e as ,

th m d l
e of l t ici t y
u us o nd th m d l
e as f l t ic ili nc A l c mp th
,
a e o u us o e as res e e . so o ar e e

r e su l t b t i n d w i th th
s o a e l t p t d f th m t i l in c mp i n i n e r e su s re or e or e se a er a s o re ss o

th f ll w i ng t bl
e o o a es .

For a r e p or t of the t t th t h v b m
es s a a e e en ad e o n f ll i z
u -s ed t i mb c l
er o um ns the
t
s ud e n t is f
re e r re d to L an z App li d M ch ni c
’
a s e e a s .
340 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I AL S

Fl ex u re t es ts . Fl e xu re testS are
u su all y m ade by s upporting
a re ct angul ar pi e c e at b oth e n d s and l oadi ng it in the middl e c are ,

b eing t ak e n to gu ard ag ains t loc al failu re at the s upports and at the

point of applicatio n of the lo ad This l oc al failu re may be p re ve nte d
.

by ins erting s om e kind of m e tal pl ate b etw ee n the b e am and the

k ni fe e dg e The d e fl e ctio ns of the b eam for S pe cifi ed lo ad s are m e as
- .

u re d by m e an s of a d e fl e c tom e te r u s u ally m eas u ri ng to 0 1 i n or, . .

.0 0 1 in From the d ata Obt ain e d from a t es t a s train diagram m ay

. ,

be d rawn by pl otting lo ad s in pound s as o r din at e s and d e fle ctio ns in

inch e s as ab s ci ss as The fib er s tress for any lo ad within the elastic
.

limi t i s d e te rmi n e d for c entral lo ading from the formul a

, ,

P le
4 I

and the mod ul u s of e as t l icity fr om the fo rm ul a (Articl e 6 7)

3
Pl
E
4 8 DI

T he fo rmul as u sed to d et ermine the fib er s tress in the case of the

fl e x u re of b eam s o nly within the l tic limit

e as

of the m at eri al T h e y are u s e d how e ver to d et ermin e the fib er s tress

.
, ,

b e yond the e las tic limi t although th e y are only approxi m ately tru e
,

b eyo nd this li mi t T he v alu e of the fib e r stress at ruptu re as d e te r

.

mi ne d by the fo rmul a i s u s u ally d e sign at e d as the modul us of rupt ure

rticl e it s e xp res se d i n lb /
i 2
( A i n . .

On accou nt of the p e cul i ar s t ructu re of timb e r the ch aracte r of

the fractu re d u e to a fail u re in fl e x u re i s rath e r di fficult to p r e dict .

In c as e the s p e cim en i s free from k n ots an d the g rain i s p arall el to the

l ength of the pi e c e failure from con c e nt rate d c entral loading i s lik ely
t o t ak e pl ac e e ith e r on the t e ns ion or the co m
,

press io n S id e or both , .

It may h app en how ev e r e v en in the c ase of s uch a p erfe ct s pe cimen as

, ,

indicat e d th at fail ure will be d u e to horiz ont al s hear In s uch cas e s

, .

s h e ar in g t ak e s pl ac e alo ng the s p ri ng g rowth of one of the ann u al

ri ng s. T hi s m ay h av e b ee n w e ak en e d p re viou sly by wind s h ak es .

If p ar t of the b e am is sapwood and p art h eartwood the fractu re ,

will be influ ence d the re by du e to the diffe re nce in the s trength of

,

the two po rtion s A c ro ss g rain may cau s e a failu re d u e to S plitting

. .
3 42 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I AL S

Kn ot s of an
y kin d n ear the ce ntral pBrtion of the be am may d et ermine
the fra ctu re and c au s e the b e am to b r e ak off alm os t s qu are ly No .

l aw has y e t b ee n d e t e rmin e d which will give the effe ct of knot s of

v ariou s S iz es on the strength
o f timb e r .

h own in Fig in fl e x u r e ar e s .

19 2 The low e r b e am S how s a

’

norm al failure On the t ensi on

s id e The two upp er b eams .

S how the fractu re of a s om e :

wh at more brittl e m at e rial the ,

fractu re b e ing influ en c e d by

the p re s e n c e o f k n ot s The .

upp er b eam als o show s a com

pression failure .

F 19 2 IG .
P rob l m 3 14 A c t ng l e . re a u ar

p i n b m w i d th i n h i g ht e ea ,
.
,
e

in . nd p n 3 0 i n
,
a wS t t d in fl xu byb i ng p p t d t b th nd nd
a .
,
as es e e re e su or e a o e s a

l d d in th mi dd l nd th f ll wi ng d t bt i n d D w th t i n d i g m
oa e e e, a e o o a a o a e . ra e s ra a ra ,

p l tt i ng l
o d i n p u nd
oa s d in t nd d fl c t i n i n i nc h
o s as or b ci L c t
a es a e e o es as a s ss as . o a e

th l t ic li m i t nd c mpu t th fi b t
e e as a n th o t fib t th l t ic li m i t
e e e r s re s s o e ou e r er a e e as .

Al so c mp t th m d l f p t th m d l f l t ici ty nd th m d l
o u e e o u us o ru u re , e o u us o e as ,
a e o u us

of l t ic
e as ili nc r es e e .

C EN RA T L L OA D

1 58 5 (m ax mu m ) i

251 . h earing strength of timb er p arall el to

S he aring t e st s . The s

the grain i s u s u ally m e as u re d by fin ding the fo r c e ne c es sary to c au s e

a s m all p r oj e cti ng block of the m at e ri al to sh e ar off alo ng the grain .
 T I MBE R 343

In this c ase the lin e of action of the forc e is p arallel to the grain .

The int e n sity of stress i s obtain e d by divid ing the fo rc e by the are a
of the sh e are d su rfac e .

2 5 2 Indentation t e st s
. I nd entation t e st s are int end e d to Show
.

the c ru s hing s trength o f timb e r p e rp e n di cul ar to the g rain A re c .

tangu l a r pie c e of the tim

ber is u s u a l l y c h o s e n ,

and a m e t al block who se

width e qu al s the width

of the s pe ci m m i s p re s se d

int o it by an o rdinary
t e sting m a chi n e C o n .

F 19 3 IG .

v e nient lo ad inc re m e nt s

are t ak en an d th e s e toge th e r with the co rre s p on ding comp re s s i on s

, , ,

giv e su ffici ent d at a for a lo ad compre s sion curve from which the
e l as tic p rop e rti es m ay be d e t e rmin ed Fig 1 9 3 illu strat es a S p e cim e n . .

th at has b een t e ste d in compres s ion p erp endicul ar to the grain .

2 5 3 T ens ion te s t s
. T en sion t e s t s of timb er are se ldom m ad e on
.

account of the di fficulty of obt ainin g sati s facto ry t e s t pi e c es The .

s p e cim e n s to be t es t e d mu st be much l arg e r at the en d s th an i n the

middle in o rd er to provid e for att achm e nt in the h ead s of the t e sting

m achin e and for thi s re as on the pi e ce i s lik e ly to fail by the sh e aring
,

Off of the e nl arg e d e nd s or by the pulli ng ou t of the fas t ening s

, ,

Thi s t es t th e refo re i s littl e u se d the fl ex u re t e s t b eing re lie d up on

, , ,

to furni sh inform ation regar ding the t e nsil e s t rength of tim b er .

2 5 4 E u rop e an t es t s of t i mber
. A s e arly as the middl e of the .

e ight ee nth c e ntu ry t es t s to d e t ermin e the s t rength Of timb er w e re

m ad e in Franc e Thi s work was don e for the mo s t p art from a s cien
.

tific s t andpoint The mo s t impo rt ant E u rop ean t es ts w ere c arrie d out
.

by Bau s chinger in his l aborato ry at Munich from 1 8 8 3 to 1 8 8 7 The ,

.

obj e ct of th es e t e st s was to d e t ermine the effe ct of the ti me of f elli ng

and cond i ti ons o
f g r owth upo n the s t re ngth of S cotch pi n e and s p ruc e .

From th e se t e st s Bau s ching er d re w the following co n clu s io ns .

1 . S t e m s o f s p ru c e or h ic h e f th m g t q l d i m t
p i n e w ar o e sa e a e a e ua a e ers ,

an d h c h th
in w i e ra e t f g wth i b t q l h v t h m m c h ni c l
o ro s a ou e ua , a e e sa e e a a

ro
p p t
eri (w h
es n e re d c d t th s m m oi s t u e c on t n t ) i
u e o e a ep e c t i v f l c al r e s , rr e s e o o

cond i t i on f g wt h
s o ro .
3 44 S T R E N G T H OF MA T ER I A L S

t wo or th re e m on th s af e r t lli ng b t 2 5 p c n t g t t ngth th n
t he fe , a ou er e re a e r s r e a

th o se fe l l e d i n su mm e r , o th c nd i t i n b i ng th m
er o o s e e sa e .

Henote s how e ve r , ,
that l ate r te st s may ch ang e th e se co n clu s ions
s om ewh at .

A V E RA GE R E S ULT S I ER T EST S
OF T MB MAD E F OR

T E NT H C E NS U S

T RAN ER E T E
SV S ST S C OMPRE S S I ON T E ST S

N AME OF S PE C EI S

lb /i
. n .
2

P op l ar .

B as s wo od
I r onwood .

S u g ar map l e

Wh i t e m ap l e

B ox e ld er

S we e tg um

S ou r gu m
W e as h
hit
B l ck w l n t
a a u

S li p p y l m
er e

S yc m a o re

H ic k y ( h llb
or s e ark )
Wh i t k e oa

R ed oak

Bl ck k
a oa

Wh i t p i n e e

Y ll w p i n
e o e

L bl lly p i n
o o e

L ng l v d p i n
o - ea e e

H m l ck
e o

R ed fir
T a m ar a k c
R ed c e d ar

Co tt nwo ood

B ee ch
A v e r ag e s of all s p e ci es

g iv en a b v o e
34 6 S TREN G T H OF MA T E R I AL S

R E S UL T S OF T MB R T I E E S T S MAD E B Y T HE U NIT E D
B U R E A U or F OR E S T R Y

RAN ER E T E C OMPR E ON SS I

TE
T SV S ST S
ST S

PE C E C o mp re s C o m p re s
S I S
M od u l u s of M od ul u s of s oni si on Per
R up t u re E l ti i ty
as c P ara ll l t
e o

lb /
i n 2 G r ai n to G i
ra n

lb /
. .

i . n .
2

L ong -l f p in ea e

C b n pin
u a e

S h t l f pi n
or - e a e

L b l lly p i n
o o e .

Wh i t p i n e e

R d pin
e e

Sp c p in
ru e e

B l d cyp
a re ss

Wh i t c d e e ar

D gl
ou p c
as S ru e

Wh i t k e oa

Ov c p er u k oa

P tos k oa

C ow o ak

R ed o ak

T e x an oak

Y ll
e o w oak

W t a e r oak

Will ow o ak

S p an ih k s oa

S h gb k h ic k y
a ar or

M c k n t h ic k y
o er u or

W t h ic k y
a er or

B i tt n t h ic k y
er u or

N t m g h ic k y
u e or

P c n h ick y
e a or

P i g n t hick y
u or

Wh i t l m e e

C e d ar el m

The ct of the pre s en c e of moi sture on the s trength of timb er

effe

was al s o in v e s tig at e d wh e n th e se t e sts we re m ad e by t e sti ng s om e of

 347

the f oregoing spe cies e ndwise in compression whil e green The fol .

lowing tabl e gives the results of th es e t e st s in lb /

’

‘
in T he pi e c es . .
2

containe d ov e r 4 0 per c ent of moistu re A comp arison of the res ult s .

obt aine d from t hese t e sts with tho s e re port e d in the pre c eding tabl e
s how s t h at the comp re s s iv e s t re ngth has b ee n dimi ni s h e d fr om 5 0

C OMPR E SS IV E T E ST S OF G R EE N T I MB E R

HIGHES T
N U M B ER OF SING E L

T E ST S TE ST

lb /i. n 2 .

S p an ih ks oa

S h g b k h ic k y
a ar or

M c k n t h ick y
o er u or

W t h ic k y
a er or

N t m g h ic k y
u e or

P c n h ic k y
e a or

P i g n t h ic k y
u or

Sw t g m
ee u

C e rt ai n pe cial t e st s w e re al s o m ad e to d et ermine
s

()
a The e ffe ct of bleedi ng (t apping for tu rp e ntin e) on lo ng l eaf -

b
() I nfluence of S iz e on trans v ers e strength of b e am s .

()
e I nfluen ce of siz e on compre s siv e strength .

d
() The e ffe ct of hot air t re atm ent in dry kil n s on s trength
- .

T he ults obt aine d from th ese t est s indicat e d

r es

()
a Th at bl e e din g do e s n ot affe ct the s t re ngth .
 S T R EN G T H OF MA T ER I AL S

b
() T h at l arg e s ou n d b ea m s m a ,

from the sam e pie c e ; th at is l arg e b eam s may S how the s am e fib er ,

s t re s s as s m all o ne s .

()
0 T h at l arg e s oun d pie c e s in c omp res sio n m a y be as s
,

s m al l o ne s ou t fr om the sam e pi e c e ; th at i s the int e n s ity of ,

pressive stre s s may be the s am e .

d
() T h at th e re w e re n o d e t rim e n t al e ffe ct s .

The re s ults of the t est s m ad e by the Bure au of F o re s try as out ,

line d ih this article should not be t ak en as c onclus ive sinc e not a

, ,

s u ffici e nt n umb e r of t e s t s w e re m ad e to e s t abli sh v alu e s T he p i e c e s .

w ere in m os t c as es s m all and s pe cially s ele ct e d and the re s ults are

, ,

of mo re v alu e from a s ci e n tific th an fr om a comm e rci al s t an dp oin t ,

s in c e the lumb e r o f comm erc e co nt ain s k n ot s wind S h ak e s and oth e r , ,

d efe ct s th at l ess en its s tre ngth .

2 5 7 R ecent w ork of the Uni te d S tates Fores t S erv i ce T he Unite d

. .

S t at e s F o res t Se rvic e (fo rm e rly k n own as the Bure au of Fo re s try )

has r e c en tly m ad e e xte n s iv e studi e s of the u s e s and d uf ab ility of
the v ari ou s comm e rci al wood s of the Unit e d S t at es an d has al s o ,

conduct e d a serie s of t e sts to d e t e rmin e th eir strength the mo st im ,

port ant of which are as follows

( )
a T es t s of c o m m er ci l i z b
a -
s e e am s o f v i ar o u s tim b e rs f o u nd o n t he m ar k e t
to d e t er m in e

1 . T he e ffec t f k n t nd th d f c t n t h t ng th
o o s a o er e e s o e s re .

2 . T he e ff c t f m i t
e n th
o t ng th
o s u re o e s re .

3 . T he e ff c t f p
e v t iv n th t ng th
o re s e r a es o e s re .

4 . T he e ff c t f m th d
e f o n i ngen th t n g th
o s o s e aso o e s re .

b
() T es t s o f m t i l d i n th c n t c t i n f
a e r a s use v h ic l e o s ru o or e es for su ch p u r

p ose s a s sp o k e s , ax l e s , a n d po le s .

()c T es t s of the t
s r e n gt h o f p a k ng c i b ox e s .

cl
( ) T es t s of t he s t
re n t
g h o f r a lr o ad i ti es .

In ch of these inv estigations on e of the obj e cts has b ee n to d e te r

ea

mine if po s sible s om e s o calle d infe rior wood s th at might be u s e d in

, ,
-

pl ac e of v ari e ti es th at are s uperior but are b e coming s carc e The t e st .

pie c e s for (a ) w ere large comm er ci al pie c es in which k not s an d othe r

d e fe ct s occu r as th e y do in the structural t imb ers use d by e ngineers
,
.

A s umm ar y of s om e of the c ro ss b e nding t es t s i s give n in the -

following t able .
 S T R EN G T H OF MA T ER I A L S

ia
H —S
mb
v l
ic

3
a 6 o e 6
n 5 x x 3

m3 5
5 e a
3 m n
m m
 T I MBE R 351

k no t s not c
to e x e e d 2 i n . in d i t
am e e r , v ar yi ng cc a or d ni
g
s ap o n c o r n e r s n ot to ex c e ed 3 in . o n b th f c
o nd a e a edg e ;
eed 8 in i n . l e ng th .

in a ll c ases to be c o ns id e re d in c onn e c ti on w i th th i z e S e of the p ic

e e and

The c ro ss b ending t e s t s of 1 w ere m ad e upon l arg e S p e cim en s

-

r angi ng I n S iz e fr om 6 in x 8 in x 7 ft to 8 in x 1 6 in x 1 6 ft T he
. . .
, . . .

t ab le show s that the modulu s of ruptu re i s l es s for the poorer g rad e s

of timb e r th an for the s el ect s s howi ng the e ffe ct of k not s an d oth er
,

imperfe ction s T he modulu s of e las ticity In dicati ng the s tiffne ss i s

.
, ,

l ess for the poore r grad e s exc e pt in the c as e of shipm ent B of re d fir

, .

The s ame re po rt al s o m ak e s a comp ari s o n of the s t rength of l arg e

s tick s an d s m all s tick s both i n c r o s s b e nding an d in c omp re s s i on
,

p arallel to the fib er .

T he t abl e on p ag e 3 5 0 giv e s av e rag e v alu e s obt ain e d from thi s

re po rt and in dic at e s th at the s t re ng t h of the s m all s tick s i s in n e arly
, ,

e v e ry c as e gre at e r th an the s t r e ngth of the l arg e s tick s

,
The m odu .

l us of e l as ticity i s l e ss for the s m all stick s th an for the l arg e one s ,

indicating a g re at er s tiffne ss for the latt er .

2 58 T reate d ti mber T he i n c re asing s c ar city of g ood timb er and

. .

the con se qu en t ri s e in p ric e has c all e d the att entio n of A m e ric an

engin ee rs to the n e c es s ity for the u se of p r ese rv ativ e s in o rd e r to

lengthen the life of the timb e r for comm erci al pu rp ose s T hi s has .

de v elope d a ne w b ran ch of e ngine ering in thi s c ount ry b ase d on the ,

u se of m an y thing s l e arn e d by the E u r op e an s who w e re the o rigin ato rs ,

of s om e of the b e s t m ethod s of t re atm e n t .

Wh en the tree is cut down and the timb er s eas one d (d ried ) a por ,

tion of the w at er e v aporate s from the s ap l e aving the food m at e ri al s ,

de po site d upon the c ell w all s Th ese m at e ri al s are e xc ellent food for
.

b acte ria and v ariou s fo rm s of fu ngi that c aus e early de cay of the
timb er if allowe d to c arry on th eir d e structiv e wo rk In the e arly .

d ay s wh en timb er was pl entiful no atte mpt was m ad e to pre serve

, ,

wood from the d e structiv e action of b act eria but with incre asing ,

s car city of good timb er v ariou s m e thod s of t re atm e nt hav e b e en

d evi se d The simpl e st m ethod of course is the applicatio n of com

.
, ,

mon p aint T hi s clo se s al l the po res and pr ote cts the wood from the
.

actio n of b act e ria but thi s m e thod c annot be m ad e u se of wh ere the

,
3 52 S T RE N G T H OF M A T ER I AL S

timb e r i s in or n ear the g round or w vate r S in c e the c ,

tu re c au se s the p aint to p e e l off The m e thod s m ost .

for t re ati ng timb e r for c o mm e r cial pu rpo se s are

ing p arag raph s .

Zinc chl oride p roces s T he zin c chl orid e p r oc e s s i s the ch eap es t and
.
,

until the las t fe w y ears the one mo st wid e ly u s e d in thi s country .

It c on si st s of impre gn ating the wood fib e rs with a solution cont ain

ing about one h al f a p ou n d of d ri e d zin c chl orid e p er cubic foot of
timb e r The t re atm en t i s c arri e d ou t as follow s : A ir s e as o ne d timb er
.
-

or timb e r th at has b e e n s t e am e d to d riv e off the moi stu r e i s pl ace d

in a cylind e r ; a v acuum is th en m aint ain e d whil e the s olution i s be ,

i ng in t r oduce d u n til the timb e r i s cov e re d Pre ssu r e i s th e n appli e d

, .

up to 1 0 0 to 1 2 5 lb / in by pu mping in ad di tional s olution Wh en

. .
2
.

the p en e t ratio n has b e e n s u fficie n t the s olution i s d rain e d off The , .

p rin cip al difficulty with the timb er tre ate d by thi s p r oce ss com e s from
the in j ury c au s e d by s te ami ng and the s ub se qu e nt rapid l eachi ng out
of the zi n c chlo rid e T hi s t reatm ent re quire s about s e v e n hOu rsT
‘
‘

. .

Ab s orp t ion p oces s rI n thi s p roc e ss of t r e atm e nt an d th os e th at fol

.

low the preservative u se d is c re os ot e oiL Thi s oil i s obt aine d from

c oal tar a by p r oduct of artifici al gas m an u facture and the cok e ov ens
,
-
.

T he c re os ot e oil i s di s till e d from c oal tar at t e mp e ratu re s b e tw e e n

2 4 0 and 2 70 C Thi s ab s o rption p r o cess i s al s o k nown as a non
° °
.

pre s s u re proc e ss Ai r drie d timb er i s pl ac e d i n a re ce pt acl e and cov

.
-

e r e d with the b oilin g p re se rv ativ e T hi s boili ng t e n d s to e xpe l s om e .

moistu re fro m the wood A ft er boi ling the e xc e ss c re o s ot e i s d rain e d

.
,

off an d the timb er i s imm e rse d in c old p re s e rv ativ e In thi s way .

g re at er ab s orpti on i s obt aine d on acc ou n t of differe n ce s in t emp era

t u re and pre ss u re T hi s p ro ce ss 1s u se d p rin cipally for butt s Of t ele
.

graph p ol es fe nc e po st s and tie s in limite d numb ers A bou t 6 to 1 2 lb

, , ,
. .

of c re os ot e o il p e r cubic foot m a b e a b s orb e d by thi s p ro c ess T he

y .

tim e re quire d for treatm e nt vari e s fro m se ve n to fou rt e e n hou rs .

Full -cell creo ot i ng proces s

s The s e as on e d timb er which may be .
,

s t e am e d to re duc e moi stu re an d e xp e l s a i s pl ac e d in a v acuum an d

p ,

cre osot e introduc e d until the timb er i s subm e rg e d A pre s su re of .

1 0 0 to 1 2 5 lb / in i s th en m aint aine d for cing the cre os ot e into the

. .
2
,

wo od The c re os ot e i s th en d rain e d fr om the t ank and generally

.
, ,

a l ow v acuum i s m aint ain e d to d raw out the e xc es s p res e rv ative .

8 54 S T R E N G T H OF MA T ER I AL S

BR I E F S U MMA R Y OF R E S U L T S OF T E ST S ON T R E AT E D T IE S

RENG H F U ED P U LLI NG RPE E AN C E

S IS T OF
ST T OF L L -S I Z S IR S
T E I RAS INBEAR NG IL I

(C OMPRE ON P SSI E R P E N D IC
U AR G RA N )L TO I

Na t l d k ti
u ra re oa es
B tti d d k ti
u rn e ze re oa es
Th b v ti w f m
e a o e es e re ro
C b d l 111
ar on a e, .

N ta u ra l d k ti re oa es
C t d d k ti (L w y )
r e o so e 1e oa es o r

Th b v d k ti
e a o e re oa es
w e re f m S hi l y I d
ro l e n
th h ,
.
,

and w d i e re r er an t os e
f m C b d l 111
ro al on a e,

N ta u ra l d k ti re oa es
T t d d k ti (R p i g )
re a e re oa es u n

N ta u ra l d k i re oa t es
T d
r c a te d k i
re (F l l C ll )
oa t es u e
Th b i w f m
e a o ve t es e re ro
S m v il l
o er T e, ex

N t
a u ra l l bl l l p i t i
o o v ne es
T d l bl l j p i
l e a te o ti o l ne es

(R ii p i g ) n

N t
a u ra l l b ll y p i io lo ne t es
T d l b l lly p i
r e a te o ti o ne es

(L w y) o r
Th b v l bl l ly p i
e a o e o o ne
ti w f m G d
es e re ro re n a a,
Mi ss .

N t
a u ra l l bl lly p i ti
o o ne es
T d l bl lly p i
re at e o ti o ne es

N t
a u ra l l bl ll y p i ti
o o ne es
T d l b l lly p i
re a te o ti o ne es

(F ll C ll ) u e

N t
a u ra l l bl l ly p i i
o o ne t e s
T t d l bl lly p i ti
re a e o o ne es

(C d Oil ) ru e
Th b v l bl lly p i
e a o e o o ne
ti w f m S m vill
es e re ro o er e,
T ex .

N l h
a t u ra s t l f p i tior - e a ne es
T d h t l
re a t e s f pi ti
or - e a ne es

(R ii p i g ) n

N t
a u ral h t l f p i ti
s or - e a ne es
T d h t l
r e ate s f pi ti
or - e a ne es

(F ll C ll) u e

N t l h t l f p i ti
a u ra s or - e a ne es
T t d h t l f p i ti
re a e S or - e a ne es

(C d Oil ) ru e

N t
a ura l l g l f p i tion - ea ne es
T t d l g l f pi i
re a e on - ea ne t e s

N t
a u ra l l g l f p i tion -
ea ne es
T t d l g l f pi i
re a e on - ea ne t e s

(F ll C ll) u e

N t
a u ra l d g m ti re u es
t d d g m ti
.

T r ea e re u es

N atu l al d g m ti
re u es
d g m ti (F ll C ll)
.

T d
I e a te Ie u es u e

d g m ti
l e u es
t d d g m i (C d Oil )
.

T re a e Ie u t es I u e
Th bv 1 l f d
e a o e $ 10 ] t- ea an
sit g l f p i
in - ea d d ne s an re

g m i
u wt f mS m
es e re ro o
vill T e , ex .
er
 T I MBE R 3 55

An ex amination of the re sult s of t e st s of the b ridg e stringe rs shows

th at th e re i s little d e c rease in st rength du e to the actio n of the cre o ~

s ot e i n the c as e of the air d r - lo ng l e f pi

-
n e Th e l blolly pi ne air
y , a . o ,

d rie d sh ow s a d e c reas e in strength of 1 6 per c ent in b ending and

,

2 9 pe r c e n t i n comp re s sion .T he long l eaf pin e p arti ally air d rie d

-
, ,

s how s n o app re ci abl e d e c re as e in s tre ngth i n b e nding but about 1 8 ,

p e r c e n t d e c re as e i n c o mp re s s io n L oblo
. l ly pi n e p ar ti ally
, a i r d ri e d,

s h ow s 1 4 p e r c e n t d e c r eas e i n b ending s t re ngth and 3 8 c nt i n

p e r e

compre ssiv e s trength Th e se t e st s se e m to show th at lo ng—

. leaf pine
i s i n ju re d v e ry littl e if any by the c re o s ot e whil e loblolly pin e i s
, , ,

in j u re d appre ciably Tre ate d oak tie s (re s ult s n ot giv en he re) show
.

a d e c re as e i n s t re ngth of from 5 to 1 0 e c e n t D ougl s fi r and

p r a
.

Wi s consin whit e pine S how little or no e ffe ct du e to treatm ent so far

as be nding an d comp re s s io n are conc e rn e d but S how a d e c re as e in
,

st re ngth of fr o m 2 0 to 2 5 p e r c e nt in s h e ar .
 C H APT ER X V II

R OPE , WIRE , AND BELT ING

Wire Wir e m ad e from a s t eel or iro n rod by pull ing it

'

2 60 . . is
through a hole or di e of s m all er di am ete r th an the rod T his is
, , .

c alle d drawi ng and is d one whil e the m etal 15 cold It is kn own as

,
.

wet drawi ng wh en the m e t al i s lub ric at e d and as dry drawi ng wh en ,

n o lub ric ant i s u s e d T he drawing s are m ad e with a s m alle r S i z e d d ie

.

e ach tim e until the d e s ire d di am e t e r of wi re i s obt aine d

,
C old d raw .

ing of s t eel and i r o n rais es the e l as tic l imit and ultim at e stre ngth of
the m e t al an d d e cre as e s its ductility It i s m ad e ductil e again by .

anne aling and i s fini she d by givi ng it the p rop e r t e mpe r p on g mtent
'

with the d esire d u s e .

The Mi ni ng Jou r na l for 1 8 9 6 giv es the fol lowing v alu e s for the
s t re ngth of wire .

lb /i . n 3
.

I n wi
ro re H i g h c b n t l wi - ar o s ee re

B m
e ss e t l wi e r s ee Cre cibl c t te l ru e as s e

Mil d p n h
o th t l wi
e - e ar s ee re

Pi an o wire v ari es in s trength from to 4 0 lb / in . .

2

2 6 1 Wi re rop e Wire r op e i s m ad e by twi s ti ng a n umb e r of s te e l

. .

or ir o n wi re s into a s trand an d th en twi s tin g a numb er of th e s e ,

s t ran d s about on e of the s trand s or about a h e mp , ,

m anil a jut e or cotto n s trand The e xact compo sition

, ,
.

o f the c abl e or wi re rop e will d e p en d upo n the s e rvic e

for which it i s d e s igne d The h e mp co re gi v e s add e d .

F 19 4
IG .
pli abil ity to the c abl e an d act s as a m e ans of l u bri cat ,

ing the s tran d s and wire s ; thi s re duc e s the i nte rnal
fricti on in the c abl e an d add s much to its life i n c as e it i s u se d wh ere
,

pliability i s re quire d as in running ove r S h e av es Fig 1 9 4 is an ill us

,
. .

tration o f the c ro ss se ctio n of a c abl e in whi ch the se p arat e s t rand s

e ach h av e a h e mp co re S uch a c abl e c an be u se d wh e re g re at.

pliability i s re quire d Fig 1 9 5 show s a cro s s se cti on of a cabl e with

. .

3 56
3 58 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I AL S

bl m 3 15
Pro e . ic
A p e e oft l m ic w i W t t d in t n i n nd the f ll wi ng
s ee us re as es e e s o a o o

d t b t in d
a a o a e . t i n d i g m i ng l d in l b /
D raw the s ra a in
ra d in t
,
nd
us oa s . .
2
as o r a es a

uni t l ng ti n
e o a o s as ab ci snd find th
s s as , a l t ic li m i t th m d l f l tici ty
e e as ,
e o u us o e as ,

and th m d l e o u us o f l t ic
e as ili nc T h w i w N 2 5 g g ; d i m t b f
re s e e . e re as o . au e a e er e ore

t t
es in .
,
and c ti n l
se 0 0 0 2 6 1 5 q in
o a a re a It w
. t t d n g g l eng th
, S . . as es e o a au e

of 6 in . T he se cti n l
o a t th p i n t
a re a a f f ct e ft t t w
o o q
i n ra u re a er es as s . .

C o mp u t e the p e r c t g f d c ti n f c
en a e o re u c ti no o r oss s e o .

T EST OF WIR E

L OAD L OAD

T e ns il t e s re ng th ,

263 . S t re n g t h of wire r op e . The foll owing re p ort of t es t s o f s ee t l

pe t ak en from the W te
.

ro is a r town A r sena l R ep or t, 1 8 8 9 .

T E NS I ON T EST S OF S T EE L WI R E R OP E

T EN E SIL ST RENG H T
C R C U M ER
I F N U M B ER WI RE S
EN C E OF PER C ORE
in . ST RAND S ST RAND
360 S T R E N GT H OF MAT E R I A L S

The t abl e at the bottom of p ag e 3 59 give s the stre ngth of iron and
c ast s t ee l wi re r op e as give n by J ohn A R oe bling s S on s The siz e of
- .
’
.

a ne w m anil a r op e of the s am e s t r e ngth i s al s o giv e n for comp ari s on

-
.

ST R E NG T H OF WIR E R OP E MA D E F R OM C A S T S T EE L AS G IV E N
I G
(

B Y JO HN A . R O BL N E
(R o p e mp os e d
co t
o f s i x s ran d s an d a hem p t
c en er , se v e n o r n ne e e n i t w i re s in e ac h s ran dt )

AP PRO MA E BREAK C R C U M EREN CE

I F
D AME ERI T C I R C U M F EREN C E 1N G
XI

S RENG H T
T

T IN IN C H E N W S OF E

M AN A R OPE IL

OF E QU A S RENG H L T T

Pro bl em 3 16 . i re c bl
f ll wi ng d i m n i n nd c mp i t i n wa
A w a e of the o o e s o s a o os o s

t t d nd i t m i m m l d f nd t b 50 8 0 l b D i m t f c bl
es e ,
a s ax u oa in i ou o e . a e er o a e, . s x

t nd f l v n w i
s ra s o ch ; c ti n l
e e e f wi re s i ea A t t f th se o a a re a o re s , h 2
. es o e

i nd ivi d l wi h w d n v g t ng th f
ua re s s o e lb /
in a F i nd th l
a f e ra e s re o . .
2
e oss o

t ng th d t th twi t i ng f th wi t f m th c bl
s re ue o e s m ing th t l l th
o e res o or e a e , as s u a a e

wires h v th v g t ng th g iv n b v
a e e a e r a e s re e a o e .

2 64 . S t ren g th of manil a
t abl e giv e s the rop e . The following
s t re ngth of m an il a an d S i s al r ope as comput e d from t e s t s m ad e by

the Wat e rtow n A rs en al *

T he lo ad in 1b /
in i s giv e n In each c ase
. . .
2
.

T hi s has b ee n comput e d by co n sid e ring the c ro s s s e ction of the rope

as the area of a circl e of the sam e di am e te r It will be s e en from .

the t abl e th at the s tress for the s m all er rope s was

while for the l arg e r rop es it was only about 70 00 lb / in Thi s d if . .
2

fe re nc e is d u e in p art to the g re at e r l e ngth of y arn u se d in the

s m all e r r op e Manil a r op e has about two third s the s t rength of
.

good Ru s sian h e mp rOpe r The Unit e d S tate s N avy t es t allow s .

’

1 70 0 1b / in as the workin g s tre n gth of a

. .
2
in h e mp r ope - . .

Wa tertown A rs ena l R ep or t ,
1 89 7 .
i T h t
u rs o n , Ma te ri al s of C ons tru ti o n c .
 WI R E ,
AN D B E L T I N G 361
D

T E ST S OF MA NIL A A ND I
S S A L R OP E
MAN I L A R O PE

S E C ONA
TI L T EN E S IL ST RENG HT

P e r Y a rn
1h /
ln 2

. 114

—
ln .

—
i n .

8-l n .

S IS A L R O PE

D AME ER S E C T I ON A L T E NS ILE ST RENG HT

S IZ E OF R O E
P
I T
A REA
P e r Y ar n
i n .2 lb /
m . .
2
362 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E RI A L S
‘
265 . S trength of Le ath e r b elts are
l eather and I tl bber bel ti ng .

m ade from t ann e d oxhid e That p ortion of the hi d e th at o riginally

“
.

cov ere d the b ack giv e s the b e st l eath er for thi s purpo s e The fl e s h .

S id e or s id e o rigin al ly n e xt to the anl m al w e ars b e tt e r wh e n pl ac e d

”

, ,

in co nt act with the p ul le y whil e the outs id e giv es the gr e at er ,

adh e s io n wh e n pl ac e d in co nt act with the pull e y .

S ingl e bel t s are m ad e from one thickn ess of l e ath er the d es ired ,

l e ngth b e in g obt aine d by c e m enting or splicin g the s hort length s cut

from the hid e Doubl e bel ts are m ad e by c e me nting two thickn esses
.

o f the l e ath e r tog e th e r The s tre ngth of good l e ath er v arie s from
.

6 0 0 to 7 0 0 lb per in ch of width and from one h al f to two thir d s

.
,

as much wh e n S plic e d T he follo wing t abl e give s the s tr e ngt h of

.

c e ment e d b e lt l ap s as d e t ermin e d by the Wate rtown Ars enalf A I e

compl e te s eries of t e s t s on belt lacing s is al s o reporte d in the s am e

volum e and the stud ent i s referre d to this rep ort for the results The
, .

all ow abl e s t ress on a S ingl e b e lt i s from 2 5 0 to 3 0 0 lb _ e nch

p r I .

of width .

T EST S OF L E AT H E R B E L T I NG

T EN E SI L ST RENG H T

D E C R P ON 1
S I TI

L e ng h t Wi d th 1b .
/
in .
2

2 -i n .
,
i l
S ng e

6 -i n .
,
si ng l e

6 -i n .
,
s i ng l e
(w)
l 2 -i n .
,
Si ng l e

4 -i n .
,
d oubl e

6 -i n .
,
d oubl e

6 -i n .
,
d oubl e (w)
l 2 -i n .
,
d oubl e

12 -l n .
,
d oubl e (w)
2 4 -i h .
,
d oubl e (w)
3 0 -in .
,
d oubl e

Wa ter town Arsenal R ep or t, 1893 .

f T he l tt
e er w i n the t bl t
a e s an d s f o r wa te rp roof e d .
 ANS WER S T O PR OBLEMS

21 .

22 . 14 i n i n wi . ro r e r op e .

11 . . 000 9 5 i n . 40 . 320 lb / in . .

12 . 100 5 lb . 19 °

13 . . 2 4 in . s qu are . 10 9 °

% in 41 p
’
14 . . .

15 . 99 t ons .
q
’

16 . ft .
’

q m ax
17 . 1 8 9 0 1b /in . .
2
42 .

18 . . l 6 i II . 43 . lb .

19 . 44 . lb d i ct t . re s re s s ,

20 . app rox i mat e ly . lb h . S e ar .

45 .
/
56 5 6 1b . in .
2
47 . m 5 .

46 . Wi th f c t O f f t ya a or sa e of 5, 48 pe . 556 1b .
/
in .
2
for m r: 34 .

d in . 49 p , . f or m z 34 .

3
62 . 67 .
1 7
1
(bit
2 2 3 4
36 bh oh 7r d 1r d
63
4
1r d 6 24 32 32
64 64 ° SI S2 2 5 2 °

76 . Ze r o at c nt e er,

f t lb . .

66 {
i (3 h, t 1 5 00 lb . at e n d s .

ft lb
.

. . 48
7 7 4 2 50 l b
. . an d 4 7 50 1b . at e nd s , 2 75 0 lb . an d 1 75 0 l b b tw . e een l oa d s .

78 . A t c nt ; e er 79 . 408 lb /in . .
2
84 . S in .
3

f t lb . . 80 . lb /in . .
2
85 . I n t he ra ti o 1 96 .

P 3
P1
12 0 y
— —(2 l3 D
6 El 3 RI
we;
—2 la;
4
5wl
122 .
y l 3 2
D
24 R I 3 84 E l
w wl 4
12 3 .
’
t
J x
4
4l 3
1; 3 l 4
D
24 E l 8 El
124 . D . 7 in . P613 (l d) 3
12 7 ° D 12 8 ‘ D
12 5 . D . 6 7 ln .
3 15 1 13
/
1 29 . D . 0 6 1 i n f or E C .

F2 2 F5 2
35 wh‘ ‘

IV in . lb .

13 8 . h in . 1 73 . 6 4 i n w d e f or . i
th ick a ng e s l i ll . .

1 70 . 3 50 t on s . 1 74 . Ra nk i n 6 1 6 t n J h n n 62 7 t n
e o s, o so o s .

1 71 . 9 7} i n . s q u ar e . 1 75 . Ra nk i n 2 68 t n J hn n 2 6 7 t
e o s, o so o ns .

1 72 . in . 1 76 . A ssu m v i l ng th f th c l
e ar o u s e s or e o u mn .

365
366 S T R E N G T H OF MA T ER I A L S

12 7 t ons . 19 3 . d ih .

15 Int e r na l di a me t er

2 3
in . s qu ar e . in .

/ in .
2
so li d h ll : o ow 3 : 1 .

M : lb . 19 5 4 4 84 19 8 . (1 in .

d 2 in . 19 6 .
pe lb /i
2 3 , 500 . n .
2
19 9 . 9 32 28 ° ’

20 1 . A ng l e of t wi t p s er u ni t f l ng th o e 1s 01 2 0 1 ° ’
t

0, 2 0 0 ° ’
223 . Bo tt m 13 i
o . ll . 59 1 1 l b /i n . .
2

Qme x S id e .
31 i n . 231 . ft .

D ih .
,
2 24 . 6 52 8 lb /
in . .
2
2 32 .

W in . lb . 225 .
g i n . 2 33 .

2 9 4 0 1b .
/
in .
2 226 . 685 lb /
in . .
2
24 9 . in .

3 75 ass u m ng i 227 . 6 85 2 50 .

1 0 f or t he f cta o r of 22 8 .
4 i n . 2 52 . 1 39 l b /
in . .
2

sa e f ty . 2 29 . . 13 i n . 2 53 . . 2 8 in .

2 54 . l b /i . n 2 .

mi g E EC 15 1, I z 2 3 50 l n 4
’
255 . A ss u n 3 : .
,

e
’
2 ln .
, p 4 5 0 1b .
/ in .
2

2 70 .
pm
'

x f cta o r of s a e f ty 13 ,
d . 02 4 5 i n .

2 72 P m e x . lb /
in
. .
2

z 000 2 i n . 29 1 . 3 in . 295 .

. M : in .lb . 29 3 . 3 00 .

Rz 3 00 t ons by R ank n e , 4 1 1 6 l b i /
ft /
3 09 1 lbin 2

R _
_
. . . .
,

— 3 2 7 t o ns ,
by 2 94 . 4 2 4 2 1b .
/
ft . 30 2 . 4 76 lb /
in . .
2

3 03 . 4 50 1b .
/
in .
2

3 10 .
(a)
(b) 2 6 59

(e) 19 0 8
3 12 . 7 52 lb /
in . .
2
368 S T R E N G T H OF MA T E R I A L S

C as t i n m nu f c t
ro ,
nd g n a l a ure a e e ra Cbmp r es s ion, t t 2 69 es s ,

p p ti ro f 2 79
er es o ,
t i m b i n 3 3 8 3 4 4 3 4 6 3 4 7 3 50
er , , , ,
c m p i n f 2 82 iv t ng th v g v l
,

o re ss o o ,
C mp
o re ss e s re ,
a e ra e a u es ,
l t ici ty f 2 82
e as o ,
T bl I a e

fl f 2 82
e x u re o ,
C nc t
o re e S .M ny h
ee as o r arc es
i mp i t i i n 2 8 0
ur es b il d i ng bl ck f 3 1 1 3 12
u o s o ,
m i i ng 3 0 7
, ,

m ll b l 2 8 5
a ea e, x ,

m d l o f pt
u us o f 2 86 ru ure o m d l o f l t ici t y f 3 0 9
u us o e as o ,

h f 2 82 enf c d S R nf d c nc t ‘ ‘

S e ar o re or e . ee ee orce o re e
,

S
p cific e t i n f 2a8 5 o s or , t t f 3 05 3 06 3 0 7 3 08 3 0 9 3 10
es s o
C nc t —
, , , , ,

t l p l t 18 7
,

t n il t ng th f 2 80 2 8 6
e s e s re o , ,
o re e s e e a e s,

C t i n c l mn 2 84
as - ro o u s, C n q nc
o se ue f B n lli
e o mp t i n er ou
’
s assu o ,

C tig l i n
as ath m 103o s
’
e or e ,
37
app lic t i n t can t i n b
o m 1 0 4 o o u ou s ea s, C nt i n
o b m S B m
u ou s ea s . ee ea s
C t i ng m ll b l
as s, 2 85 a ea e, C nt c t i n f
o ra o 14 2 7 1 o ar e a, ,

t l 2 9 1 2 92 2 9 3
s ee , , ,
C or e s e c ti n 6 7 6 8 6 9
o , , ,

C d
e t ng th Of 3 4 4 3 4 6 3 4 7
ar , s r e , , ,
C tt nw d t ng th f 3 4 4
o o oo ,
s re o ,

C m nt 2 9 7
e e ,
C n h k d i gn f 2 0 5
ra e oo ,
es o ,

c mp i n t t f 3 0 2 3 0 3
o r e ss o es s o , ,
C r oss- eb nd i ng S F l . ee exur e
s
p cific e t i n f 3a0 3 o s or , C ru s h i ng S C mp i n. ee o r es s o

t t f fin n 299
es o e e ss, C ur v t d t b nd i ng m m nt 3 6
a u re ue o e o e ,

t t f nd n 2 9 8
es o s ou e ss , C ur v l t ic S E l ti c
e , e as . ee as c urve
t t f t n il t ng th 3 00 3 02
es o e s e s re , ,
C ur v d p i c 19 1
e e e s,
t t f t i m f tt i ng 2 9 9 3 0 0
es o e o se , ,
C yli n d nd p h
e rs a th i n 1 54 S e re s, ,

C i nd er c c t 3 10 on r e e , C yli nd th i n
e rs ,
Ci c l
r u ar pl t 1 79 1 8 1
a es, ,
l t ic c v f 15 7
e as ur e or ,
Ci c l
r u ar s h f t i n t i n 13 8 13 9 1 4 0
a s o rs o , , ,
h p t n i n i n 1 55
oo e s o ,

Cl as s ific t i n f m t i l 9
a o o a e r a s, l ng i t d i n l t i n 15 5
o u a s r e ss ,

C oe ffici nt f c b ic l
e o p n i n 29 u a ex a s o ,
C yli n d th ick 1 6 2
e rs , ,

C ffici nt f l t ici t y S
oe e o M d l
e as f . ee o u us o b t i ng p
u rs 16 5 r e ss u r e ,

l ti i ty
e as c L mé f m l
a
’
s 162 or u as ,
C ffici nt f li n
oe e o p n i n 12 e ar e x a s o ,
m d a f c n c n t ic t b
e o 1 66 o e r u es,

C l d b n d i ng t t 2 79
o e es ,
m im m t ax i n 1 6 4 16 5
u s re s s , ,

C l m n f t i ng 2 5 1
o u oo s, C yp t ng th f 3 4 6 3 4 7
r e ss, s r e o , ,

C l mn
o u s
c t i n 2 84
as - r o ,
D ng
a cti n 5 1
e r ou s s e o ,

C p oo m d i fi c ti n f J hn n
er s
’
o a o o o so
’
s D fl cti n
e e f b m
o ,
So B m ea s . ee ea s

t i ght li n f m l 13 2
s ra - e or u a, of c l m o u S C l mn ns . ee o u s

ecc nt ic lly l d d 13 3
e r a oa e b nd i ng g
e l f m l 111 e ne ra or u a,

h i ng g n l f m l 11 4
, ,

E l u er sf m l 12 2 1 2 3
’
or u a, s e ar e e ra or u a,

G d n f m l 12 6
, ,

or o
’
s or u a, D f m ti n d fin d 2 4
e or a o ,
e e , ,

i nd p nd nt p f f fi d nd
e e e r oo or xe e s, D i g ni ng f
es ch 2 2 7
o ar es,
12 3 D i g ni ng f b m 56
es o ea s,

J hn no so
p b lic f m l 12 8
’
s ar a o or u a, D i g m b n d i ng m m n t nd h
a ra ,
e 51 o e a S e ar ,

D gl c t ng th f 3 4 6
,

12 9 ou as s
p ru e , s re o ,

J hn no so t i g ht li n f m l
’
s s ra - e or u a,
E th p
ar ( t i
r e ss u r en i ng w ll ) 2 5 3 re a a s ,

m d ific t i n f E l
o a f m l 12 5o o u er s
’
or u a, E cc nt ic l d i ng 6 5
e r oa ,

n t a u re of c mp iv t 12 0 o r e ss e s r e ss , E ffi ci ncy f iv t d j i nt 1 72
e o r e e o ,

on b th nd fi d 12 2
e or o e s xe E l t ic f t w k d fin d 10
as a er or ,
e e ,

E l t ic c n t nt l t i n b tw n 3 0
,

R nk i n a f m l 1 2 6 12 7
e s
’
or u a, as o s a s, re a o e ee ,

E l t ic c v 3 6 8 1 8 4 8 7 8 9 9 1
,

C m b i n d b nd i ng nd t
o e e i n 3 3 14 1 a or s o , ,
as ur e, , , , , ,

C mm n th
o o y f e or o E l t ic l w 8
as a ,

C mp
o i n d fin d 2
r ess o ,
e e E l t ic li mi t d fin d 6 2 74
as ,
e e , ,

E l tic ili nc 9 4 2 74
,

b ick i n 3 3 0 33 1 33 2
r
, , ,
as re s e e, ,

b ick p i i n 3 3 1
r ers ,
E lli p f i n t i 4 7
se o er a,
c t i n i n 2 84
as ro E lli p f t se o 26 s r e ss ,
E lli p t ic l p l t 1 82 183
,

c m nt in 3 02 3 03
e e a a es , ,

E lli p t ic l h f t 1 44
, ,

c nc t i n 3 0 8 3 0 9 3 10
o re e , , ,
a s a s,
t n in 32 7 3 2 8
s o e , ,
E l m t ng th f 3 4 4 3 4 6
,
s re o , ,
 I N DE X 369

Imp c t nd ili n c 9 4
a a r es e e,
I mp c t t t 2 78
a es s ,
I nd n t t i n t t 3 4 3
e a o es ,

E qu iv l nt t 31
a e s r e ss, Ind p nd nt p f (c l mn ) 12 3
e e e ro o o u s
In t i llip f 4 7
,

E ul f m l
er s
’
1 2 2 12 3 1 2 5
OI u as , , ,
er a, e se o ,

E u p n t t f t imb 3 43
ro ea es s o er, m m nt f S o e M m nt f i n ti o . ee o e o er a
E p n i n c bic l c ffici nt
x a s o ,
u a oe e of , 29 I nfl nc li n f b nd i ng m m nt 9 6
ue e e, or e o e s,
li ne c ffici nt f 12 ar oe e o ,
f c t i n 10 1
or r e a o s,
f hor S 98 e ar ,
ct f ty
F a or of s a e , 1 6 , T a e I bl I ni t i l i nt n l t s 12
a er a s re s ,
ti tl
F a g u e of m e a s , 10 I n c t S C ti n
ro ,
as . ee as ro
t
F i r , r e d , s re ng th of , 3 44 , 3 4 9 , 3 50 i ng t 2 8 7 o

W ght i n
,

l t
F a p a esl t S e e P lates . w g ht S
r ou . ee rou ro

l l fl cti
F e x u ra d e e l f
on , g e n e ra l
or mu a I n nd t l 2 6 5
ro a s ee ,

f or , 1 1 1 t ngth f t h i g h t mp t
s re o ,
a e e ra ur e s,
l l i i i ty
F e x u ra r g d ,
1 4 8 2 72
l c
F e xu r e, omm on th ye or of , 3 4 I nw d t ng th f 3 44
ro oo ,
s re o ,

t t
e s s i n, 2 6 9 , 3 3 4 , 3 40 ,
3 44 , 3 4 6 , 3 49 , 3 5 0 J h n n p ab lic f m l
o so
’
s 12 8 12 9
ar o or u a, ,

Fl t i l
ow of m a e r a , 10 J hn n
o so t i g ht li n f m l 13 0 13 1
’
s s ra - e or u a, ,

t t i c
F o rm of e s p e e , 294 C p oo m d i fi c t i n f 13 2
er s
’
o a o o ,

ti
F o u n d a on S e e R eta i ni ng wa lls
.

c t c h ct
F ra u r e , ara c
e r and ap p e ar an e , 2 72 K p t t f c t i n 2 82
ee
’
s es s o as ro ,

F rae nk e l f l
or m u a f or fl e x u ral d e fl e c Ki k l d y t t 2 6 5 2 8 2
r a
’
s es s, ,

ti on , 1 12
F r ag ili t y ,
11 L me f m l
a
’
s 16 2or u as ,
F un cti l
ons of ang es , T a bl e X L t nt m l c l
a e c t i n 11
o e u ar a o ,

L t
a era l c n t c t i n 1 4 2 71
o ra o
G d n f m l 12 6
, ,

or o
’
s or u a, L w f c n t i nu i t y 2 1
a o o
G n i t t ng th f 18
,

ra e , s re o L e as t w k p i nci p l f 106
or r e o
G t f m l f c mbi n d b nd i ng
, , ,

ues
’
s or u a or o e e L ea th b l t i ng 3 62
er e ,

nd t a i n 142 or s o ,
L im e, m n f ct a nd p p ti
u a 297 ure a ro er es,
G m t ng th f 3 4 4 3 4 6 3 4 7
u s re o L im t n es o 32 6 32 7 3 2 8 32 9
e,
G n S T hi k h ll w cy lind
, , , , , ,

u s ee c o o ers L i m i t f l t ici t y S
o e as E l ti limi t ee as c
Gy ti n d i f 42
. .

ra o ,
ra us o ,
L i mi t t i n t B n
a o lli mp t i n 8 5
o er ou
’
s assu o ,

L in e ar arc h 2 18 2 3 4 2 3 9 , , ,

H d ni ng ff c t f v t i 1 1 2 71
ar e e e o o er s r a n , ,
L in t in 2 5
e ar s r a ,

H t w d nd p w d 3 3 7
e ar oo a sa oo ,
L in e arv i ti n f t ar a 320 o o s r e ss ,
H lic l p i ng 1 4 5
e a s r ,
L i nk h k nd p i ng S H k
s, oo s, a S r s . ee oo s
'

H ml ck t ng th f 3 44 3 4 9 3 50
e o ,
s re o , , ,
L oa d li n ( c h ) 2 1 7 e ar ,

H mp p 3 6 0
e ro e, L g i th m
o ar c mm n T bl VIII s, o o ,
a e
H ick y t ng th f 3 44 3 4 6 3 4 7
or ,
s re o , , ,
c nv i n f T b l I X
o e rs o o ,
a e

H ig h p d t l 2 88
-s ee s ee ,
n t l T bl I X
a ura ,
a e
H l d i ng t n i n p ci m n 2 70
o e s o s e e s,
H ll w cyli nd
o o S C y li nd e rs . ee ers M ng n
a a i n c t i n nd t l 2 80
ese as ro a s ee , ,

H ll w p h
o o s S Sp h e r es . ee eres
H koo l w 6
e s
’
a ,
M nil
a p 3 60
a rO e,
H k li nk nd p i ng
oo s, s, a S r s M pl
a t ng th f 3 44
e , s re o ,

n ly i f
a a h k nd li nk 19 1
s s or oo s a s, M aso n y c h 2 16
r ar es,
b nd i ng t i n i n c v d p i c 1 9 1
e s ra ur e e e, p p lic t i n
a f p i n ci p l
a f l ot o r e o e as

c v t ur h p ff c t n t ngth
a ure , S ar ,
e e o s re ,
w k 2 24 or ,

2 00 c nd i t i n f t b ili ty 2 2 0
o o s or s a ,

c v d p i c f c t ng l c
ur e e e o re a u ar r oss d i g ni ng f
es ch 2 2 7 o ar es,
c t i n 19 8
se o ,
mp i ic l f m l
e r 22 7 a or u as ,
m i m m m m n t i n ci c l
ax u pi c o e r u ar e e, li n c h 2 18
e ar ar ,

2 01 l d li n 2 1 7
oa e,

pl n ap i l p i ng 2 03
e s ra s r s, m i mu m c m p
ax iv t 2 22 o r ess e s r e ss ,
i mp lific t i n f f m l 19 4
s a o o or u a, M l y th ose e m 222 ’
s e or e ,

H yd lic c m nt 2 9 7 2 9 8
r au e e , ,
obli q p j c t i n f 2 2 9
ue ro e o o ,

H y t i 10
s e re s s , t bili ty f b tm nt 2 2 9
s a o a u e s,
3 70 S T R E N G T H OF MA T ER I A L S

Mas onr y c h Wi nk l c i t i n f
ar es , er s
’
r er o or v i ti
Pu abol i c ar a on o f s re ss , 3 18 t
t b ili ty 2 2 5
s a ,
vi b ic
P a ng r k S e e B rick .

M t i l n t b yi ng H k
a er a s o l w 71
o e oo
’
e s a ,
h h i
P o sp or u s i n ron and s e e , 2 80 , 2 9 0t l
M t i l f c n t cti n v
a er a s o g o n s ru o a e ra e co P hy ic l c t t
s a ons an s , T a e I bl
i b ic
,

t nt f s a T bl I s or , a e P e rs , r k , 3 3 1
M i m m b nd i ng m m nt S B nd
ax u e o e . ee e il b i
P e s , e ar ng p ow e r of , 2 4 6
i ng m m nt o e i t th
P ne , s r e ng of , 3 50
M im m
ax th p
u 2 53
e ar re s su re , Pitch vt
of ri e s , 1 72
M im m n m l t
ax u 23 or a s r e ss , l t i
P an ar s r a n , 2 2
M im m h
ax u 25 s e ar , l t
P a e s , fl at , ci c l
r u ar , 1 79 1 8 1
,

M im m t
ax u i n ci c l
s r e ssh f t 13 8 r u ar S a s, c c t t l
on r e e -s e e , 1 8 7
M w ll th
ax e m 99
’
s e or e e lli t ic l
p a , 1 8 2 , 1 83
c h G h f ic h l
,

M f t in 3 1
e as u r e o s ra ,
f l
or mu as of B a ,
r as o N o s,
M c h nt b l t i m b
,
er a a 349 e e r, h t
and T u r s on , 1 9 0
M d l
o f l t ici t y
u us o e as re ct l
ang u ar , 1 8 6
v g vl
a e ra f T bl I
e a ues o ,
a e q
s u ar e , 1 8 5
d fin d 6 2 74e e , ,
t
s r e ss i n , 1 79 , 1 8 1 , 18 3 , 18 5 , 186
f b ic k 3 3 2
o r ,
th y
e or of , 1 7 9
f c t i n 2 82
o as ro ,
i ’
ti
P o sson s r a o, 7 , T a e I bl
f c nc t
o 3 10
o re e , l
P o ar m om e n t Of i ti
n e r a, 4 1
f h o 29s e ar , l t th
P op ar , s re ng of , 3 4 4
f t l 2 93
o s ee ,
tl c
P or an d e m e n , 2 9 7 t
f t n
o 33 2
s o e, t
P ow e r r an s m edi tt b y ci c l h f t
r u ar s a s,
f t i mb
o 3 44 3 4 6 3 4 9 3 50
e r, , , ,
140
f w o g ht i n 2 9 3
r ou ro ,
i ci l
P r n p a ax e s , 4 1
M d l
o f
u us o ili nc 9 4 2 74 re s e e, ,
i ci l t
P r n p a s r esses , 2 4
M d l
o f i g i d i ty 2 9
u us o r , i ci l l t
P r n p e of eas work , 10 6 , 22 4
M d l
o f
u us o pt 2 82 3 2 9 3 3 4 3 3 8
ru ur e
, , , , ,
ti
P r op e r e s of ch
anne s , T a l e IVbl
3 4 4 3 4 6 3 49 35 0 , , , b
of I - e am s , T a bl
e III
M i t
o s ur e i n t i mb 33 7 er , t
of s and ar d ang e s , T a l e bl V
M l d f c m nt b i q tt
o s or e 3 01 e r ue es, of v i
ar ou s s e cti
on s , T a e 11bl
M m nt d i g m 5 1
o e a ra s, Pu n ch f i
p r ess r am e , d e s g n o f , 2 0 5
M m nt f i n t i by g p h ic l m th d
o e o er a, ra a e o ,
z l c
P u z o an e m e n , 2 9 8 t
43
d e fin e d , 3 8 R di
a us o f g y ti n 42 ra o ,

of n on- om og e n e ou s s e h
on s , 4 5 ct i R nk i n
a e s f m l f c l mn 1 2 6 1 2 7
’
or u a or o u s, ,

l
p o ar , 4 1 f or c mb i n d b nd i ng nd t i n
o e e a o rs o ,

at bl
e s of , T a bl
e s V I an d V II 14 2
t it c
M om e n of r e s s an e , 3 9 R t
a e o f pp lyi ng l
a d ff c t n t ng th
oa ,
e e o s re
t c
Mor ar , e m e n t
S e e C ement . o f c m nt 3 0 1e e ,

li
m e S e e L i me . R tt l
a er t t f p vi ng b ick 33 4
es o a r ,

l y th y
Mos e e s e or , 2 22
’
R ea c t i n f p p t 4 9 52 53 54 55
o s o su or s , , , , , ,

N t
a u ra l c m nt 2 9 7 e e ,
R c t ng l
e a u ar pl t 18 6 a es ,
N t l
eu r a i d fin d 3 5
ax s , e e ,
R c t ng l
e a u ar s h f t in t i n 144 a s or s o ,

f o c t i n f b m w i th b li q
se o s o ea s o ue R d c d
e e t ng th f 3 44
ar , s r e o ,

f c c t i ng 6 4
or es a ,
R d fi
e t ng th f 3 44 3 4 9 3 50
r , s re o , , ,

f o c t i n f enf c d c nc t
se o s o re or e o re e R d cti n f
e u o o fcar e a o cti n r o ss se o ,

b m 3 16 3 19 3 2 1
ea s, , ,
R enf c d c n c t
e or e o 3 13 re e,

N ic k l t l 2 9 0
e s ee a dh i n f
es o en f o c m nt 3 1 4
re or e e
N n—
, ,

o ci c l h f t i n t i n 1 4 3
r u ar s a s o rs o ,
ar e a o f enf re c m nt 3 1 4 or e e ,

N m l t
or a m im m 23
s r e ss , ax u ,
b m ; 72 3 16 3 1 7 3 18 3 19 3 2 0
ea s , , , , , ,

O k t ng th f 3 44 3 4 6 3 4 7
a ,
s re o , , ,
c or ros o i n f m t l nf c m n t o e a re e or e e ,

Ob li q l d i ng 6 4
ue oa ,
3 13
Ob li q p j cti n f
ue ch 2 2 9
ro e o o ar , o b j c t f nf c m nt 3 1 3
e o re e or e e ,

Op n he - th t l 2 88
e ar s ee ,
R l t i n b tw n t
e a o e ee c mp n nt 20
s r e ss o o e s,
O din y f
r ar nd t i n 2 49 ou a o s, b tw n l t ic c n t nt 3 0
e ee e as o s a s,
Ov t i n ff c t f n i n nd t l
e rs r a ,
e e o ,
o ro a s ee b tw n h
e ee snd b nd i ng m
e ar a e o

1 1 , 2 71 m nt 5 5e ,
3 72 S T R E N G T H or MA T E R IA L S

c t
T am ara k , s r e ng th of , 3 44 Tbrs ion, t tf h as 2 77 es or S e ar ,
t
T e mp e ra u r e , e e ff c t t th t l
on s r e ng of s e e , ci c l h f t i n 13 8 13 9 140
r u ar S a s , ,

lli p t ic l h f t i n 14 4
,
2 72 e a s a s ,

e ff e ct t th c c t
of , on s re ng of on r e e , 3 12 m im m t ax i n ci c l
u h f ts s re ss r u ar s a
t t
T e m p e ra u r e s ress e s , 12 , 23 6 , 2 42 in 13 8 ,

il t th v vl
T e ns e s r e ng , a e r ag e a u e s , 18 n n ci c l
o h f t i n 1 43
- r u ar s a s ,

il t t
T e ns e e s s , 2 6 6 c t ng l nd q
re a h f t in
u ar a s u ar e s a s
b l ti
,
of e ng , 3 62 , 3 63 1 44
of c ti
as ron , 2 80 , 2 86 ili nc f ci c l h f t in 143
r es e e o r u ar S a s ,

of c t
e m e n , 3 0 1 , 3 02 t t p ci m n 2 76
es s e e ,

of r op e , 3 6 1 t t 2 75
es s ,
t l
of s e e , 2 8 9 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 2 t i ng l h f t in 14 5
r a u ar s a s ,

of ti b
m er, 3 43 i n l i g i d i ty 148
T o rs o a r ,

i
of w r e r op e , 3 58 , 3 5 9 , 3 6 0 T ra sn v t t S Fl
e r se es s . ee ex ur e
of wr ou g ht i r on , 2 9 4 b c ll p
T u es , f o nd a t nl se o ,
u er e x er a
i fi
T e ns on, d e ne d , 2 p 15 9
r e ss u r e ,

T en th c e ns u s ti b t t
m e r e s s , 3 44 p c t ic l f m l
ra f ac ll p f or u as or o a se o
t i c l ll
T e s p e e s , arg e an d s m a , 2 72 , 3 5 0 166
t ci
T e s S p e m e ns, s and ard t f orm s of ,
2 94 Ul t i m t t ng th d fi n d 6 7
a e s re ,
e e , ,

h
T e or e m of th t
r e e m om e n s , 9 0 v g v l f T bl I
a e ra e a u es or, a e
h t i ti
T e ore ms o n m om e n of n e r a, 4 0 U ni t d f m t i n 4
e or a o ,

h y l t
T e o r o f fl at p a es , 1 79 U ni t t d fin d 3
s r e ss , e e ,

h y c
T e or of fl e x u re , om mon, 3 6 U ni t d S t t F t S ic 3 4 8
e a es or e s e rv e,
T h ic h ll cyli
k o ow nd e r s . S e e C y li nd ers
T h ic t i i ll
k n e s s of r e a n ng w a s , 2 60 V n di m t l 29 1
a a u s ee ,

h i h ll cyli
T n o ow nd e rs. S e e C y li nd ers V t ic l c t i n nd h
er a rea 49 o a S e ar ,
i b b ti c
T m e r , a s orp on p r o e ss , 3 52
l i
annu a r ng s , 3 3 6 W lli ngt n f m l 2 4 8
e o
’
s or u a,
f ll c ll c
u - e ti
r e oso n c
g p r o e ss , 3 52 Wi nk l c i t i n f t bili ty 2 2 5
er s
’
r er o or s a ,

it
m o s u r e i n, 3 3 7 Wi 3 56
re ,

lt
r e su s of t t
es s , 3 4 4 , 3 4 6 , 3 4 7, 3 4 9 , Wi re rop S R p e . ee o e
3 50 W d S Ti mb
oo . ee er
c
R ii p i ng p r o e ss , 3 53 W k d fi n d S R i li n
or ,
e e . ee es e ce
s ap woo d and h t
e ar wo od , 3 3 7 f d f m ti n f b m 9 3
o e or a o o ea s,
t th
s r e ng of , 3 3 7 W k i ng t
or i n c nc t b m 3 2 2
s r e ss o re e ea s
t th t t
s r e ng of re a e d , 3 53 W g ht i n i mp i t i i n 2 9 0
r ou ro ,
ur es ,

t ct
s ru u r e of , 3 36 m n f ct a nd p
u a p ti 2 86 u re a ro er es, ,

t t t t ti
e s s of r e a e d es , 3 54 2 90
t t
re a e d , 3 5 1 m d l of l t ici t y f 2 9 3
u us o e as o ,

z i c chl i
n c
or d e p r o e ss , 3 52 p cific t i n f
s e 294 a o s or ,
i ff c t
T me e e , 9
l t l
T oo s e e , 2 8 7 Y i l d p i nt d fi n d 6 2 70
e o ,
e e
i b i c bi
T or s on, and e nd ng om n e d , 3 2 , 14 1 Y ng m d l 6
ou
’
s o u u s,

l t it
ang e of w s , 1 39 , 1 4 5 , 2 74 v g l f T bl I
a era e v a u e s or , a e
A N NO U N C E M E N T S
 A D V A N C E D C A L C U LU S
By E D W N B D WE W ON P f
I f M th m ti
I in th LL IL S ,
ro e ss o r o a e a cs e
M as sac h u s e tts I ns i tt tu e of T e c no h l gy o

8 vo , c o l th ,
2 80 a
p ges ,

R OF E S S O R WIL S ON S
P n e d C l c ul u s
“
A dv c
s upplie i n a s i ng l e
’
a a s

v l um c mp h e n iv e se c nd c u e in c alculus Alth ug h m d
o e a o re s o o rs . o o

er n ig r u t nd nci s e giv e n due tte nti n the c h i e f aim f th

oro s e e e ar a o , o e

b k i t c nfi m nd to xte nd the s tu de nt k n wl dg e f the g r t

’
oo s o o r a e s o e o ea

f m l m th od f n ly i th t e
or a e s o ntiala li ke t the p ac tical
a s s a ar e sse a o r

a n d to th p u m th m tic i n T c onn c t with e l e m nta y t xt

e re a e a a . o e e r e s,

tw c h p t
o ain vi w e s uppl i d nd m any ub q u nt c h pt
e rs re e ar e ,
a s se e a e rs

are t mp d wi th m at i al wh ic h is e s e nti lly v ie w A d v nc d

e e re er s a re . a e

d i ff nti l c l c u l u i t d by w o k n T yl s F o m ul with
’
e re a a
p n s s re re se e r o a or r a,

sp eci l ra
e f e n c to erpp oxi m t e n ly i s p arti l differ nti ti n of
a r a e a a s ,
a e a o

e xplic it nd af i mp li cit f uncti ons comple x nu mb e rs and vecto s

o , ,
r .

IN RO U O RY R T W D CT EV I E

C h pta er I Re vi w f F nd m nt l R l
e o u a e a u es

II Re vi w f F nd m nt l T h y
e o u a e a e or

AR I D P T . I F FE R EN T I A L C A C U U L L S

I I I T yl l
o rm u a an d A lli ed T op ic
’
F a or s s

IV P ti l D iff ar a e re n ti t i a on E p licit F nc ti
; x u o ns

V P ti l D i ff ar a e re n ti ti a o n ; I m p lici t F u nc t i o ns

V I C mp l N o ex u mb e rs a nd V c t e ors

P AR A E QU A O N
T II . D I FFE R ENT I L TI S

V II G n
l Int d c ti n t D iff nti l E q ti n
e e ra ro u o o e re a ua o s

VIII T h C mm n O d i n y D iff nti l E q ti n

e o o er r ar e re a ua o s

I X A dd i t i n l T y p f O d i n y Eq t i n
o a es o r ar ua o s

X D i ff nt i l Eq ti n in m th n T w V i bl
e re a ua o s ore a o ar a es

GI N N AN D C OM PA N Y P U BL I S H E R S
 LU S T O M EC H A N IC S
By E R H EDR I C K M th m ti i
P ro fe s s or of n the Univ ity f M i i
“d 0 D KE O G A i t t P f
. .
,
a e a cs e rs o ss our ,
'
n . . LL G ,
s s s an ro e s s o r o f M th m ti
a e a cs

i h U iv ity f M in t e n e rs o ss o u r i

8 vo , l th
c o ,
1 1 6 page s, w ith di g a ra ms,

H I S book p re se nt s mple te d summary o f thos e p art s

a co

o f me chanics which occu r as applic atio ns of the c alculu s .

Althoug h int e nde d p rimarily as a supple me nt to the u sual

s t and ard c ourse in calculu s it m ay be u s e d ind e p e nd e ntly as a
,

te xt for a short cours e o n the mathematical side of me chanics ,

if the time allo tt e d to the form e r s tudy is no t sufficie nt to ih

’

clu d e this wo rk .

A s a re view it fas t e ns in the s tud e nt s mind the no tions of

’

me chanics p reviously g aine d I t aims also to p re se nt the s e .

t opics in a ne w light as ar ticulat e d portions of o ne g e ne ral

,

the ory and thus to make me chanics s ee m an inte g ral subje ct

,
.

A s a pre p aratio n fo r mo re e x t e nd e d course s in m e chanics o ,

r

inde e d fo course s d e aling with any applicatio ns o f the calcu

r

lu s the m at e rial p re se nt e d is v alu able in showing c o nc e t ely

,
r

how the the ore tical id e as of this subje ct are u se d in S p e cific

r ac tic al applicati o ns
p .

T he c ourse ou tline d in the book is the re sult o f a nu mbe r o f

e
ye ars exp e rie nce in pre se nting this m at ial to clas se s in the
’

calculu s bo th at
r
Missou i and els ewhere T he
j r
,
i e .

t e x t itself is a n odificati a Similar t e x t writt e n by P ro

fe ssor H ed rick and p ub] in mime og raph fo i the u s e o f

;
s tud e nt s at the S he ffi eld Scie ntific S cihool .

G I N N A N D C OMP A N Y P U BL I S H E R S
A C OU R S E IN M A T H E MA T I C S
By FR E D ER IC K S WO O D S and FR E D ER I C K H B A ILEY P .
,
f
ro e ssors o f
M th m ti i th M h t I it t f T h l gy
.

a e a cs n e assac u se t s nst u e o ec no o

Vo lu me I . A lg e brai Equ a io ns , Func ions c t t of O ne V ariable , An

a lytic t
G e o me ry , Differe n ial C a c u us t l l . 8 vc . Cl
o th .
3 8 5 pag e s .

With Di g a ram s .

Vo lu me II . I nt e gra l c
C al ulu s, Fu n ions ct of
‘

Se v l e ra V ariabl e s,
Sp a c e G e om e ry, t Diffe ren ia Equa ions t l t . 8 vo . C l th o .
4 1 0 pag e s .

With D i agra ms .

H IS c o u rs e in m a th e ma t ic s i s d e s ig ne d to p re s e n t in a c on

s e c u ti v e a nd h o m o g e ne o u s m an ne r an am o u n t of ma t i l
er a

g e ne ra ll y g iv n i n d i ti nc t c e nd th v i n m s f
"

o u rs e s u er e ar o u s a es o

a lg b e n ly t ic g
ra , a m t y d i ff
a nt i l nd i n t
geo l l c l n d
e r , e re a a e ra ca u us , a

d i ff nt i l
e re q t i n T h im i t g iv th t d nt b tt
a e ua o s . e a s o e e s u e a e er

g ras p f mo th m t ic a w h l e nd f tha i n t d p s n d n c f
as a o e a o e er e e e e o

it v i
s ar o u sp t nd t cc t m him t
ar s , a in l t p p li t i n
o a us o o use , a er a ca o s,

th m th d b t d p t d t th p bl m i n h nd
e e o es a a A d ci d d d e o e ro e a . e e a

v nt g i g i n d in th fi t v l m by th i nt d c t i n f th
a a e s a e e rs o u e e ro u o o e

p i
r n ci p l f n l
es o
y t ic g m t y a n d a l c l li th n i l
eo e r a ca u us e ar er a s us u a .

In th i w y th s abj c t t d i d l ng th n i th wi
ese su e s are s u e o er a s o er se

p os si b l th e, l d in g t gus t f m
eail i i t y w i th th i m th d o re a e r a ar e r e o s

a nd g t f d m nd k ill in th i p pli t i n
re a e r re e o a s e r a ca o .

S p ci l f te a f th nd v l m
e a u re s o th l y i nt d c t i n e s e co o u e are e e ar ro u o

o f a c h pt n i m p l d i ff nt i l q ti n in cl
a er o s nn c t i n
e e re a e ua o s os e co e o

wi th i nt g t i n e nd rah p t n li n int g l
o ,
a a c a er o e e ra s .

H S L A U G H T , A s s i s ta n t P r of es s or of M a them a ti cs , T /
E i e U n i ve r
i tly li ith i it
.

s tty of C /
.

'

zze a o : It i s d re c
g i n n e w th e sp r o f oh r
p r og r a m m e
a t T he U n iv ity C hi
e rs of ih i
ca g o , and we w s vl
to re g s te r o u r a p p ro a o f
l b i it v
it s p a n a nd p u rp o s e T he o o k i s i n the S p r o f a d a nc e a nd t he a u tho rs
i t h ll it ti t t
.

a re o n the r g h t ra c k We s a u s e i n t wo se c ons ne x qua r e r . .

W A M F O GOOD P f
IL L I f W t/ i m H d U iS r o ess or o I a e a tzcs ,
'

a rv a r n ve r
l t i ill l m y
.
,

i y
s It i
t :
g d p s a d w b
oo w m c ea r re s e n a t o n an e e co e to an
h l hi p th t h t i h b k i
,

t he ac A g d th
e rs s re ar s e sc o a rs a c a r ac e r z e s t e oo ts
i di i ly hig h th th t f m t A m i E g li h b k
.
,

d
or er s s t nc t er an a o os e r ca n or n s oo s

lyti g m y d l l
o n a na c eo etr an c a cu u s .

G I N N AN D C O M P A N Y P U BL IS H E R S