BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION

Lesson 1: Natural Selection Can Result to Biodiversity

There are many proposed ideas about evolution by the early scientists:
Carolus Linnaeus
- Swedish botanist, made a contribution in studying the evolutionary relationship of the different types of
organisms
- Developed a system of classification to group organisms by their similarities which shows something about
evolution
- The system of classification or Taxonomic Classifications

Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon

- French naturalist proposed that organisms shared ancestors

Erasmus Darwin
- Charles Darwin’s grandfather, the idea that “all living things were descended from a common ancestor”

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
- Expanded Erasmus’ idea, in 1809 he proposed that “all organisms evolved toward perfection and complexity”
in which further explained that species evolved into different features
- Proposed that organisms tend to change due to the condition of the environment and behaviour to change,
resulting the use and disuse of a structure

THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

- Accepted by biologists because of many valid explanations and evidences seen on Earth.
- One of the evidences that support his theory includes fossils

Charles Robert Darwin

- Most popular evolution scientist who proposed this theory to explain how the species evolved through natural
selection, which sometimes called “survival of the fittest”
- Alternative or synonym phrase by Herbert Spencer

Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin

- Both studied the huge diversity of plants and animals in the tropics region, including the fossil records

NATURAL SELECTION PRINCIPLE OF BIODIVERSITY

Variation
- Refers to the heritable differences among single species resulting from differences in the genetics traits of the
living organisms inherited from a parent or due to genetic mutations
- Show variation in appearance like hair color, size and number of offspring

Overproduction
- As reproduction of offspring increases, there is a greater chance to survive
- Implies that the ancestors of the offspring have enough food resources and shelter to reproduce and to survive

Adaptation
- Successful organisms are able to live longer and able to reproduce more individuals when they have potential to
adapt themselves to the fast-changing type of environment

Descent for Modification

- Many individuals possess the traits in every generation as long as the environment is suitable for survival and
reproduction

EVIDENCE OF THE EVOLUTION

Embryology
- Refers to the scientific study of embryos and their development.
- Many scientists believed and observed that during the early development of the embryo of many vertebrates
such as fish, birds, mammals and reptiles, their evolutionary relationship are almost impossible and hard to
understand

Homologous Structure
- Refers to the physical structures of the organisms that have the same evolutionary origin and positions

Vestigial Structure
- Refers to the structure of animals which is gradually disappearing
 - A structure of an organism with few or no function but is clearly homologous to the structure of another
organism

Genetics
- Genetic evidence is another evidence of evolution in which organisms have the basic heredity units for all life
that consists of similar nucleotides and proteins

Fossils
- The remains of plants and animals over the past 3.5 billion years
- Are in the form of bones, shells, leaves and footprints
- Were formed when living organisms are quickly buried in sand, mud and gravel at the bottom part of the
different bodies of water
- Can be found through the help of palaeontologists
- Scientist use radioisotope dating

Lesson 2: The Occurrence of Evolution

In Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection happens in nature and was divided into five parts:

1. Living things produce more offspring that actually survive

 The environment cannot support every living thing that is born
 Organisms can die from diseases, starvation, and limited space before they are able to produce

2. Each organism has the ability to survive

 Not all organisms can survive if there are not enough food resources and shelter
 Every living thing has the ability to get what they need to survive
3. Variation within a species
 Species are not exactly the same
 Variations of species are easy to determine, such as differences in how fast or slow an organisms can run and
walk or the number of stripes or spots in the case of ladybugs and zebras
4. Variation of members of a species to survive and reproduce better than others
 When organism possess good traits to survive and reproduce, they fare better than others
5. Living things that survive and reproduce pass their genetic traits to their offspring
 Animals’ and plants’ genetic traits are passed on to their offspring
 Probability of surviving increases with the help of their traits

FACTORS THAT CAN LEAD TO EVOLUTION

Gene flow
- The transfer of alleles from the former population to another population
- Occurs when several animals move from one population to another
Genetic drift
- Change in allele frequencies that affect an organism to be eliminated
- A small population of organisms is more likely to be affected by chance
- Is the change in allele frequencies that are due to chance alone, which causes a loss of genetic diversity in a
population
Mutation
- New alleles can form through mutation that will create another genetic variation needed for evolution
Sexual Selection
- Unique traits of many animals improve mating success for evolution
- Mating is an important effect on evolution of population
Two types of sexual selection:
Intersexual selection
- Happens when males display unique traits that attract the females
Intrasexual selection
- Happens when there is competition among males

Lesson 3: Speciation and Evolution

 Speciation and extinction are the processes by which new species arise and existing species lose and cease to
exist and are both events are integral parts of evolution in which many organisms are affected all the time
Speciation
- Refers to the formation of two or more new species from one existing species
Types of Speciation
Allopatric
- Occurs when there is an imbalance of gene flow between two populations due to physical barrier
Sympatric
- Happens if there is an overlapping range of two diverging species within a region or locality
Parapatric
- Happens when there is a limited gene flow of the two species that may diverge from a single species following
hybridization of a population
Speciation through Isolation
Reproductive Isolation
- Happens when members of different populations of species can no longer mate successfully or do no interbreed
- Type of environment that they inhabit, such as bodies of water and mountain ranges, affect their reproduction
- Can develop through behavioral isolation, temporal isolation and geographical isolation
Behavioral Isolation
- Occurs when populations have different courtship rituals or behaviors involved in reproduction
Temporal Isolation
- Occurs when populations reproduce at different times
Geographical Isolation
- Occurs when there are changes or disruptions in the ecosystem or by means of physical barriers such as
mountain rise, continent drift or when a population of species migrate
- Population species separate due to the evolutionary path
Factor Caused by Geographical Isolation
 Isolation barrier
 Isolation by distance
 Isolation after an event
Modes of Speciation
There are two modes of speciation, which are very common plants:
Speciation by Hybridization
- Refers to a strong mating of two different species which later develop into a new species
Speciation by ploidy changes
- Changes in the number of chromosomes are common in plants, which inhabit land
- The term ploidy means multiplying of chromosomes of species

Lesson 4: Types of Environmental Changes That Affect the Evolution of Life on Earth
Atmosphere
 Earth has changed over the past 4 billion years due to the chemical composition of the atmosphere
 The increase level of O2 plays an important role for living things to survive and undergo the process of
reproduction
Temperature
 Varied due to the greater amounts of gases in the atmosphere, which affected climate changes to which the
organisms were able to adapt to the drastic effects of temperature. Caused many species to go extinct
 Climate is one of the abiotic factors that affect the life of many living organisms on Earth
 Greenhouse gases contribute to heat increase in the atmosphere
Flood and Glaciation
 The temperature on Earth gets warmer and warmer, which has caused the glaciers in the Arctic regions to melt
 Due to glaciation, rising of the sea levels occurs, which causes catastrophic floods in different places. Many
species can drown and die
Cosmic Radiation and Asteroid Impact
 Cosmic radiation is emitted from outer space and the space
 Once living organisms are exposed to too much radiation, they can mutate genes, which can weaken the gene
pool of the species in the future
Diseases
 Animal species have defense immunities as mechanisms to fight diseases. With the changing weather conditions,
many species are declining in their potential to defend themselves from diseases and are more susceptible,
which can lead to their eventual extinction
Spread on Invasive Species
 They are not native to an ecosystem, can reproduce quickly, and have the ability to spread aggressively, which
causes harm to many organisms. Invade the habitat of other species and use resources that the other species
rely on

Animals that can adapt quickly to the fast changing climate

1. Giant panda
2. Bar headed goose
3. Sperm whale
4. Lung fish

ECOSYSTEM

Lesson 1: Flow of Energy and Matter in Ecosystems

Survival of Organisms in Changing Environments

 Organisms have basic needs just like humans. They need air, water, light and nutrients, these factors sustain their
life.
Water
- Most essential abiotic factor that helps most living things to survive
- Is the lifeblood of Earth and consists of essential elements needed for all living things
Temperature
- The heat and cold equilibrium in combination with many environmental factors that governs several physiological
and biological processes of the earth
Light
- Main source of energy of all plants
Atmospheric Pressure
- Is due to the gravitational force of the earth in which the atmospheric gases are pulled towards the surface,
which produces air pressure
- When air pressure is low, most especially in high altitude, some living things may find it difficult to perspire
because of insufficient amount of oxygen
Chemical Components
- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus (CHONPI) are essential elements of life
- 92 known natural occurring elements on Earth and 25 elements are found in living things

ADAPTATION FOR SURVIVAL

 All organisms have their own way of adaptations that help them survive and thrive. It is the result of evolution in
which species undergo changes over long periods of time
Structural adaptation
- Refers to the physical characteristics of an organism that help them to survive in their ecosystem

ADAPTATIONS FOR UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS

 Some animals transfer from one place to another in order for them to survive. Animals move to another place to
hunt food and to escape extreme weather conditions

Characteristics Animals Plants

Mode of Reproduction
Competition of Food
Migration or Seed
Dispersal
Adaptation
Protection from predators
Attracting mates
Tongue of the snakes and
frogs, long neck of giraffe
Migratory birds, ducks and
monarch butterflies
Hibernation, thick fur, and
feather
Running ability, ability to
change color
Facilitate pollination
Large and numerous root
systems for absorbing
water and nutrients
With light pollen grains,
seeds with wing-like
structure
Needle-like leaf structure,
big trunk, and numerous
branches
Spines, tendrils, thorns,
bitter taste like tannin

Characteristics of Plant Adaptations

Plant Adaptation Characteristics
Spine or thorn Sharp pointed structure for protection to reduce the
heating effect of the sun
Tendril Long, thin and coloring structure attached to the plant for
support and for climbing
Prop root Thin and long; attached on the stem for support

Lesson 2: Biodiversity and Stability

Levels of Biological Diversity

Species Diversity
- Refers to the different species within a region or community
- The number of species in a region or community possesses genetic variation and distributions
- Many species live on land than in the sea
Genetic Diversity
- Refers to the variation of genes within species
- Covers distinct populations of the same species
Ecosystem Diversity
- Refers to the different biomes which are called the world’s major communities and are characterized by
adaptations of organisms in a particular environment

The Core Principles and Stability of the Ecosystem

Balance of Nature
 An imbalance in the system occurs when the carrying capacity level is exceeded
 To promote the ecological balance of the ecosystem, nutrient cycles and biochemical cycles are the best
processes
Diversity and Stability
 All life forms are important in the ecosystem
 The more diverse the ecosystem, the more resilient and stable it becomes because every species has its own
way in making the ecosystem stable

Finiteness of Resources
 Most resources are non-renewable such as coal, fossil fuel, and natural gas
 The absorptive capacity of the environmental is finite

Stewardship
 Human beings are part of nature. They are not masters but stewards in such a way they protect, preserve, and
conserve nature for the use of the present and future generations

The Stability of Ecosystems

 The stability of an ecosystem depends on the different biotic and abiotic factors that influence the capacity of
the ecosystem to become stable
1. Abiotic factors are the non-living components of the ecosystem such as light, water, and temperature. These
factors greatly influence the activities of living organization (Biotic Component)
2. Biodiversity should be maintained by protecting their ecosystems
3. The size of the consumer population must be controlled due to the limited availability of materials and food
resources
4. There should be no overgrazing and overuse of resources. Only enough material and food needed should be
consumed

Types of Ecosystem Stability

Ecosystem stability
- Is not a static property but a dynamic balance that characterizes two types of stability resilience and resistance
Resistance
- Measure how much an ecosystem resists change
Resilience
- Measures how quickly the ecosystem recovers from disturbance or resisting damage, which means that it can
immediately return to a steady state or balanced ecosystem

Lesson 3: Population Growth and Carrying Capacity

Carrying Capacity
- Denotes the maximum number of individuals of a given species that na area’s resources can sustain indefinitely
without significantly depleting or degrading those resources
1. The amount of resources available in the ecosystem
2. Environmental conditions and amount of living space

Overpopulation
- Refers to the conditions where an organism’s numbers exceed the carrying capacity of its habitat
Effects of Overpopulation
 Fresh water for portable water is inadequate
 Natural resources are depleted, especially fossil fuels
 There is an increase level of air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and noise pollution
 Deforestation and loss of ecosystem occur
 Changes in atmospheric composition and consequent global warming
 Mass species extinction
 High infant and child mortality
 Starvation, malnutrition, or poor diet lead to diet-deficiency diseases
 Clash over scarce resources and crowding leads to increased levels of warfare

Factors that Affect Population

Immigration
- Transfer of individuals into a population from another population due to weather conditions in the environment
and lack of food supply
Emigration
- Transfer of individual out of a population and into another population
Birth
- The emergence of animal or young of a human into the outside world
Deaths
- The size of a population declines when an individual dies

Struggle of Survival
Thomas Malthus
- Essay on the Principle of Population- describes a forthcoming population catastrophe and populations grow
geometrically
Impact of Human Activities on Biodiversity Loss
Global warming
- The rapid increase of temperature released in the atmosphere due to the greenhouse gases
Major Human Contribution of Greenhouse Gases
 Burning natural gas, coal and oil
 Farming practices and land use
 Factories and industrial plants contribute long-lasting air pollution
 Deforestation

Population Growth
- The rapid increase of human population contribute more to the production of greenhouse gases

Pollution

Habitat Destruction
Causes of Habitat Destruction
 Logging
 Agriculture
 Forest fires

Biodiversity
- Are sources of test of great importance organisms’ samples in conducting research studies discover things for
wellness
Marine Biodiversity
Freshwater Biodiversity
Terrestrial Biodiversity

Ways to minimize human impact on the environment

- Forest management
- Soil management
- Air quality management
- Marine water and freshwater management