Annals of Agricultural Sciences 64 (2019) 183–187

HOSTED BY Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Annals of Agricultural Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aoas

Effect of Calotropis procera L. plant extract on seeds germination and the T

growth of microorganisms
Asmaa Mahmoud Radwana,⁎, Huda A. Alghamdib, Sahar K.M. Kenawya
a
Plant and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Girls Branch, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
b
Biology Department, College of Science, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia

A RT ICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The present study intended to investigate the effect of aqueous extract from Calotropis procera L. on growth of
Calotropis procera wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and some pathogenic microorganisms (Escherichia coli L.
Allelopathy and Staphylococcus aureus R.) by the laboratory experiments. Also, phytochemical screening of aqueous extract of
Germination C. procera was qualitatively tested for the presence of some bioactive compounds (alkaloids, phenolics, flavo-
Wheat
noids, tannins, saponins, sterols and terpenoids). Results showed that higher concentrations of C. procera extract
Barley
(7% and 10%) significantly reduced germination percentage, radicle length and plumule length of wheat as
compared to control. In contrast, the aqueous extract had not effect on seed germination percentage of barley but
had a great inhibition effect on length of radicle and plumule. Also results showed that aqueous extract of C.
procera effect on the pathogenic microorganisms Escherichia coli L. and Staphylococcus aureus R. in which there
was a marked increase inhibition in growth of two microorganisms with the higher concentration. The main
component of C. procera may be phenolics compound and flavonoids that may be responsible for their action on
seed germination of the studied plants and growth of two tested microorganisms.

1. Introduction
Allelopathy is the phenomenon of inhibition or stimulation by
chemicals released by one plant/microorganism on the growth and seed
germination of other plant (Farooq et al., 2011). Some plants release
chemical compounds into their environment, from their different parts,
and these compounds are often referred to as allelochemicals. These are
secondary metabolites secreted in very low amounts by plants but have
very important role as plant defense against microorganisms or other
abiotic factors (Reigosa et al., 2006). When such chemicals released
under wild conditions through leaching, litter decomposition, root
exudation or direct volatilization effect on the growth and germination
of other species (Cheng and Cheng, 2015). Many studies have been
conducted to understand how the allelochemicals of some plants can
inhibit the germination of other plants growing in the same area (Patil,
1994), sometimes causing plumule and radicle length inhibition (Turk
and Tawaha, 2003), seedling growth inhibition and reduced seedling
survival rates (Kalburtji and Mosjidis, 1993). Allelochemicals can in-
hibit seed germination by blocking hydrolysis of nutrients reserve and
cell division (Irshad and Cheema, 2004). Calotropis procera L. belongs to
the family Asclepiadaceae. The common names of C. procera plants in
Egypt are milkweed, Calotropis, rubber bush, kapock tree and sodom
apple (Kareem et al., 2008), which is distributed throughout the world
in both tropical and sub-tropical lands. It is abundant in areas that
experience a warm climate, where sandy and alkaline soils are present.
It is also plentiful on waste ground and the fallow land that borders
roads (Sastry and Kavathekar, 1990). The plant is propagated mainly by
its seed which is distributed by wind and water, but asexual propaga-
tion also occurs locally through suckers that grow from its roots
(Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992). In Pakistan, it is one of the dominant
plants comprising the country's natural flora (Qureshi and Bhatti,
2009). When different concentrations of C. procera applied on seed
germination of mustard it is indicated that, higher concentrations re-
duced seed germination while lower concentrations similar to control,
also C. procera plant extracts significantly decreased shoot and root
length of mustard (Aslam et al., 2016). Effect of different concentra-
tions of aqueous extracts of leaves, stems and root of C. procera showed
that growth and yield of wheat was proportional to the concentration of
aqueous extracts of C. procera in which the level of inhibition was
concentration-dependent as inhibition increased with an increase in the
concentration of aqueous extracts (Shah et al., 2017).
The milky sap of C. procera contains three toxic glycosides and
steroidal heart poisons, known as cardiac glycones and the secondary
metabolites in the plant were flavonoids, cardiac glycosides and

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: asmaamahmoud.59@azhar.edu.eg (A.M. Radwan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2019.12.001
Received 14 January 2019; Received in revised form 13 November 2019; Accepted 1 December 2019
Available online 10 December 2019
0570-1783/ 2020 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
A.M. Radwan, et al.
triterpenes (Pandey et al., 2016; Shaker et al., 2010), and sterols with
possible allelopathic potential (Chundattua et al., 2016). C. procera
plant contains essential oils that are known to have antimicrobial ac-
tivity (Estabraq et al., 2019). Due to the health benefits of plants
(Gomez-Flores et al., 2008), medicinal plant extracts have been devel-
oped and suggested as natural antimicrobials (Hsieh et al., 2001). And
might be helpful to treat different types of diseases (David et al., 2019;
Shinwari et al., 2017; Zaman et al., 2019; Zeb et al., 2018). Typically,
medicinal plants contain a number of compounds that can be used to
kill many of pathogenic microorganisms, providing natural alternative
antimicrobial agent for the treatment of infections (Chouhan et al.,
2017). Crude methanol extract of C. procera was investigated phyto-
chemically and showed that the plant contains various classes of
bioactive secondary metabolites such as terpenoids, flavonoids, sapo-
nins, steroids and cardiac glycosides. The antimicrobial activities of the
crude extracts of various plant organs were investigated too and all the
fractions showed antibacterial activities with Klebsiella pneumonia S.
(Morsy et al., 2016).
It is anticipated that these plants could offer an excellent source of
natural herbicides and serve as effective medicines and biological
control agents (Norton et al., 2008). So, the objective of this study is to
establish the phytochemical screening of C. procera plant that grows in
desert areas and to evaluate its influence (allelopathic effect) on the
seed germination of crop plants as well as the growth of some patho-
genic microorganisms.
2. Materials and methods
Plant parts (shoot and root) were collected in the autumn (October
2013) from wadi Hagoul in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, and the plant
material was dried under shade at room temperature (30 °C) for
2 weeks and ground into powder form.
Germination experiments were designed to study the effect of the
aqueous extract of Calotropis procera plant on the germination of wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) seeds. These seeds
were obtained from an accredited center in Cairo.
2.1. Preparation of aqueous extract of C. procera and germination test
Ground powder of shoots and roots of Calotropis procera was used to
prepare stock solution (10% w/v) by soaking 100 g of powder in
1000 ml of distilled water for 48 h at room temperature. The solution
was then filtered through Whatman filter paper No. 1, and the extract
diluted to obtain concentrations of 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10%, and stored
below 4 °C in a refrigerator until used. Distilled water was used as a
control treatment (Peng, 2019). Twenty selected seeds were placed on
filter papers inside a petri-dish 9 cm in diameter to allow germination,
three replicates were used and 10–15 ml of the extract (or distilled
water in the case of the control) was added for each treatment. Two
germination indicators of wheat and barley were detected (seed ger-
mination percentage and length of radicle and plumule). The data were
recorded for the germination of seeds. The length of plumule and ra-
dicals was taken daily up to 7 days with a string putting on the ruler.
2.2. Test organisms
Microbial strains, namely Escherichia coli L. (MTCC 118) and
Staphylococcus aureus R. (MTCC 96), were obtained (from Microbiology
laboratory, Department of Botany, Al Azhar University, Egypt) to study
growth and survival dynamics in the presence of the prepared C. procera
extracts. All the strains were maintained in the agar slants of their re-
spective media, by sub culturing at regular intervals.
The antibacterial activity of the plant extracts was determined by
applying the disc diffusion method. The disc diffusion method was
carried out as described by Gayatri et al. (2013). Sterile filter paper
discs (7.0 mm diameter) were soaked with the test extracts, and then
184
Annals of Agricultural Sciences 64 (2019) 183–187
dried at 40 °C for 30 min. The prepared nutrient agar plates were
seeded with each of the test bacteria and the filter paper discs placed on
each plate. Petri dishes (100 × 15 mm), containing 10 ml of the nu-
trient agar were used, then inculcated with different species of bacteria,
including E. coli, S. aureus. A sterile blank paper disc (0.64 cm in dia-
meter) was placed in the middle-containing Gentamycin (10 μg/disc)
and the 20 μl sterile test sample at different concentrations [25 μg,
50 μg and 75 μg] was added to the disc. All the plates were incubated
for 48 h, at 37 °C. Then microbial growth was determined by measuring
the diameter of the zone of inhibition.
2.3. Phytochemical screening of the extract
The whole plant of C. procera was qualitatively tested for the pre-
sence of some bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, phenolics, fla-
vonoids, tannins, saponins, sterols and terpenoids according to
Sofowora (1993) as follows.
2.3.1. Test for alkaloids (Mayer's test)
Several drops of the Mayer's reagent were added to the test tube,
which containing two milliliters of extract. The formation of white or
pale-yellow precipitate indicated the presence of alkaloids.
2.3.2. Test for phenolic
The extracts were mixed with 1% FeCl3. The formation of blue,
violet, purple, green or red-brown indicated the presence of phenols.
2.3.3. Test for tannins
The extracts were mixed with a basic lead acetate solution. The
formation of white precipitate indicated the presence of tannins.
2.3.4. Test for saponins
A froth test for saponins was used, 1 g of the sample was added to a
conical flask, which contained 10 ml of sterile distilled water, and then
it was boiled for 5 min. The mixture was filtered, and 2.5 ml of filtrate
was added to 10 ml of sterile distilled water in a test tube. The test tube
was stoppered and shaken vigorously for about 30 s, then allowed to
stand for half an hour. Honeycomb froth indicated the presence of sa-
ponins.
2.3.5. Test for flavonoids
Five milliliters of dilute ammonia solution was added to a portion of
the aqueous filtrate of the plant extract, and then concentrated H2SO4
was added. A yellow color indicated the presence of flavonoids.
2.3.6. Test for steroids
One gram of plant extract was dissolved in a several drops of acetic
acid. It was gently warmed and cooled under tap water, and then a drop
of concentrated sulphuric acid was added along the sides of the test
tube. Presence of a green color indicates the existence of steroids.
2.3.7. Test for terpenoids (Salkowski test)
5 ml of each plant part extract was mixed in 2 ml of chloroform, and
then concentrated H2SO4 (3 ml) was carefully added to form a layer.
The formation of reddish-brown coloration at the interface showed the
presence of terpenoids.
2.4. Statistical analysis
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) (F-test) from SPSS ver. 16.0
was used to test the significant difference of all the data (three re-
plicates). The data are presented in the form of mean with standard
deviation and considering p values < 0.05 as significant.
A.M. Radwan, et al.
Fig. 1. Effect of different concentration of aqueous extract of C. procera plant on
the seed germination of wheat and barley plants.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effect of different concentrations of total aqueous extract of C. procera
on the seed germination percentage of wheat and barley
Studies on the effect of different concentrations of aqueous extracts
of C. procera indicated that low concentrations of aqueous extract sig-
nificantly increased seed germination percentage of wheat and the in-
crement was proportional to the concentration used. The highest in-
crement was obtained at 5% concentration. On a higher concentration
(7% and 10%) the seed germination percentage of wheat decreased to
40% (Fig. 1). In this concern Chiang et al. (2003) mentioned that the
effect of plant extracts on seed germination comes from the various
chemical constituents present in these plants. Chemical constituents
(secondary metabolites) can effect on seed germination and plant pro-
ductivity. Many desert plant extracts have harmful, beneficial or se-
lective effects on companion plants (Willis, 2007). Inhibition effects
typically result from a combination of allelochemicals which interfere
with various physiological processes in the receiving plant (Mominul
Islam et al., 2018). Some flavonoids have an allelopathic effect as they
are capable of increasing the levels of reactive oxygen causing inhibi-
tion of germination (Kumar et al., 2010). Ghasemi et al. (2012) in-
dicated that high concentrations of aqueous extract of C. procera plant
significantly decreased germination percentage and growth of radicle
and plumule of cucumber, tomato, and eggplant. Aslam et al. (2016)
reported that higher concentrations of C. procera leaves inhibited seed
germination of mustard while lower concentrations were similar to
control. Mangal et al. (2014) mentioned that seed germination and
radicle length of Vigna sinensis L. were decreased by increasing con-
centration of Calotropis gigantea L. leaf extract. Yasin et al. (2012) also
noted that the leaf and root extract of the C. procera plant inhibited
growth of wheat seeds to 13%, and so the presence of C. procera with
wheat in the fields could inhibit the growth of wheat.
The data presented in Fig. 1 also indicated that aqueous extract of C.
procera had not significant effect on seed germination of barley when
compared to control. This may be attributed to the stress effect of these
Table 1
Effect of different concentrations of total aqueous extract of Calotropis procera on the length of the radicles and plumules of wheat and barley.
Plants Concentration (%) of C. procera extract
Control 1 3
Wheat radicle 17.0 ± 1.154 3.1 ± 0.152⁎
Wheat plumule 11.0 ± 0.642 4.5 ± 0.525⁎
Barley radicle 19 ± 0.200 10 ± 0.152⁎
Barley plumule 23 ± 0.282 9.5 ± 0.057⁎
Data were subjected to analysis of variance of one-way ANOVA by using SPSS ver. 16.0.
⁎
Significance at (p < 0.05).
Annals of Agricultural Sciences 64 (2019) 183–187
extracts on barley plants may stimulate plants to defend themselves by
increasing the concentration of some metabolites such as amino acids,
proteins, phenolics and carbohydrates. Our results are in accordance
with those of Hassan and Samy (2007) who showed that low con-
centration (5, 10 and 20%) of leaf extract of C. procera had not effect on
the seed germination of barely. In contrast Abu-Romman and Shibli
(2010) reported that Calotropis gigantea inhibited seed germination
percentage of chickpea and reduction was proportional to the con-
centration of the extract.
3.2. Effect of different concentrations of total aqueous extract of C. procera
on the length of the radicles and plumules of wheat and barley
The effect of different concentrations of C. procera extract on shoot
and root length of wheat and barley was evaluated at the seventh day
from germination. Data revealed that shoot and root lengths of wheat
and barley were significantly decreased at all concentrations of extract.
And the reduction was more prominent at the highest concentration.
Root length of both wheat and barley were sensitive to higher con-
centrations of the extracts than shoot length (Table 1). The sensitivity of
the root and shoot length may come from the presence of the allelo-
chemicals in plant extract. These results agreed with other studies re-
porting that water extracts have adverse effect on root than shoot be-
cause root absorbs the extract early then the shoot from the
environment (Turk and Tawaha, 2002). Also The reduction of shoot and
root length of wheat and barley on exposure to different concentrations
of C. procera extract is in agreement with the results of Farid et al.
(2013) who mentioned that when different concentration of leaf and
flower extracts of the C. procera plant increased, the length of the ra-
dicles and plumule decreased. Hassan and Samy (2007) also showed
that the leaf water extract of the C. procera inhibited the growth of both
wheat and barley, and by increasing the concentration of extract, the
length of the radicle and plumule decreased. Berhow and Voughn
(1999) mentioned that leaf extract of Calotropis gigantea was reported to
possess allelochemicals and flavonoids may leach from shoots, leaf litter
or roots into the soil solution and inhibit seed germination and radical
elongation.
3.3. Effect of different concentrations of total aqueous extract of C. procera
on growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus
The data presented in Table 2 showed that aqueous extract of C.
procera had a great inhibition effect on the pathogenic microorganisms
Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. There is an increase in in-
hibition of growth of two tested microorganisms with increasing the
concentration of the extract. The bioactivity of plant extracts was at-
tributed to phytochemical constituents. Plant rich in tannins have an-
tibacterial potential due to their basic character that allows them to
react with proteins to form stable water-soluble compounds thereby
killing the bacteria by directly damaging its cell membrane (Elmarie
and Johan, 2001). C. procera plant extract was reported to possess an-
timicrobial activity which was associated with its alkaloids, saponins,
tannins, flavonoids, and glycosides contents (Arokiyaraj et al., 2009).
5 7 10
3.6 ± 0.057⁎ 5.0 ± 0.200⁎ 5.3 ± 0.153⁎ 5.2 ± 0.057⁎
6.0 ± 0.100⁎ 7.0 ± 0.152⁎ 5.0 ± 0.577⁎ 6.5 ± 0.070⁎
11 ± 0.056⁎ 11 ± 0.151⁎ 10.5 ± 0.100⁎ 5.2 ± 0.152⁎
9 ± 0.152⁎ 9 ± 0.200⁎ 10 ± 0.059⁎ 7 ± 0.133⁎
185
A.M. Radwan, et al.
Table 2
Effect of different concentrations of total aqueous extract of Calotropis procera on growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus.
Test organisms Zone of inhibition (mm)
Concentration % of C. procera extract
Control 1 3
Escherichia coli L 11 ± 0.173 9 ± 0.208
Staphylococcus aureus R 9 ± 0.154 7 ± 0.208
Data were subjected to analysis of variance of one-way ANOVA by using SPSS ver. 16.0.
⁎
Significance at (p < 0.05).
Table 3
Phytochemical screening of the Calotropis procera aqueous extract.
Plant parts Total plant extract
Active material Phenolic compound Tannins
Presence ++ + −
++ (strong positive),+ (positive), − (negative).
The antimicrobial activity of the aqueous extracts of C. procera might
therefore be attributed to the presence of many of phytochemicals. The
bactericidal activity of C. procera could result from the occurrence of
calactin, mudarin and a protein called calotropin (Parrotta, 2001). The
capabilities of C. procera to resist microbes have been recently described
in a number of studies (Shittu et al., 2004; Parrotta, 2001). Water and
chloroform extracts of the leaves of C. procera had a great effect on the
negative and positive gram bacteria (Kareem et al., 2008). Mako et al.
(2012) reported that aqueous and ethanolic extracts of C. procera plant
leaves and roots extremely inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus
and E. coli. Ali et al. (2014) indicated that flower extract of C. procera
showed broad spectrum of inhibition against various human pathogens
Salmonella typhi K., E. coli, Micrococcus luteus A. and Staphylococcus
aureus.
3.4. Phytochemical screening of C. procera aqueous extract
The qualitative phytochemical analysis was carried out. The data
presented in Table 3 indicated that according to the intensity of color or
precipitates produced, aqueous extract of C. procera gave positive re-
sponse (+) for the presence of tannins, saponins and alkaloids while
gave strong positive response (++) with phenolics compound and
flavonoids. Plant extracts proven to be free from Terpenes. According to
these results the main component of C. procera may be phenolics
compound and flavonoids and these compounds may be responsible for
their action on growth of the studied plants and pathogenic micro-
organisms. Phenolic compounds, including flavonoids, terpenes, tan-
nins and other phenolic compounds, are identified as the largest group,
and can cause a stabilized electrolytic effect, as the substances are so-
luble in water (Dayan et al., 2000). Phenolic compounds are found in
the plant kingdom at different concentrations, and cause diverse re-
sponses in co-located plant species, which indicate the allelopathic ef-
fect (Macías et al., 2004). Madhurima et al. (2014) phytochemical
screening and qualitative estimation of Calotropis gigantea, showed that
the aqueous plant extract gave appositive response (+) with phenol,
tannins, terpenoid, flavonoids, alkaloids and saponins. Asoso et al.
(2018) found that C. procera growing in Nigeria contained minute
quantity (+) of phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids and saponins but had
medium quantity (++) of tannins and a large quantity (+++) of
alkaloids. Mainasara et al. (2012) found that the water, methanolic and
ethanolic extract for the shoot and root of the C. procera plant contained
alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, soap, volatile oils and sterols that may
responsible for allelopathic behavior of this plant.
Annals of Agricultural Sciences 64 (2019) 183–187
5 7 10
13 ± 0.152⁎ 17 ± 0.115⁎ 19 ± 0.152⁎ 21 ± 0.100⁎
15 ± 0.100⁎ 15 ± 0.057⁎ 16 ± 0.251⁎ 19 ± 0.110⁎
Terpenes Saponins Flavonoid Alkaloid
+ ++ +
4. Conclusion
The present study concluded that the aqueous extract of C. procera
had phytotoxic effect and inhibited seed germination and seedling
length of wheat but did not effect on barley seed germination and may
suppressed growth of the radicle and plumule of barley. Also, the
aqueous extract had a great inhibition effect on growth of Escherichia
coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The inhibition effect may be due to the
presence of different bioactive compounds (phenolics, flavonoids) that
may influence on seed germination and growth of microorganisms.
Further investigation should be carried out in order to isolate, identify,
characterize and elucidate the structures of these bioactive compounds.
References
Abu-Romman, S.M., Shibli, R., 2010. Allelopathic effects of spurge (Euphorbia hier-
osolymitana) on wheat (Triticum durum). Eur. J. Agri. Environ. Sci. 7, 298–302.
Ali, A., Ansari, A., Qader, S.A., Mumtaz, M., Saied, S., Mahboob, T., 2014. Antibacterial
potential of Calotropis procera (flower) extract against various pathogens. Pak. J.
Pharm. Sci. 27, 1565–1569.
Arokiyaraj, S., Perinbam, K., Agastian, P., Mohan Kuma, R., 2009. Phytochemical analysis
and antibacterial activity of Vitex agnus-castus. Inter. J. Green Phar. 3, 162–164.
Aslam, M., Jamil, M., Malook, J., Khatoon, A., Rehman, A., Rahim, A., Khan, P., Shakir,
S., Irfan, S., Ullah, F., Ul Bashar, K., Afridi, M., Ur Rehman, S., 2016. Phytotoxic
effects of Calotropis procers, Tamareix aphylla and Peganum harmala on plant growth of
wheat and mustard. Pak. J. Agric. Res. 29, 43–52.
Asoso, O.S., Oladunmoye, M.K., Ogundare, A.O., 2018. Phytochemical analysis and an-
timicrobial activities of Calotropis procera extracts on selected pathogenic micro-
organisms. Chem Res. J. 3, 14–22.
Berhow, M.A., Voughn, S.F., 1999. Higher plant flavanoids: biosynthesis and chemical
ecology. In: Inderjit, K., Dakshini, M.M., Foy, C.L. (Eds.), Principles and Practices in
Plant Ecology. CRC Press, pp. 423–438.
Cheng, F., Cheng, Z., 2015. Research progress on the use of plant allelopathy in agri-
culture and the physiological and ecological mechanisms of allelopathy. Front. Pl.
Sci. 6, 1020. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2015.01020.
Chiang, W., Liu, M.C., Lin, C.C., 2003. In vitro antiviral activities of C. pulcherrima and its
related flavonoids. J. Antimicr. Chemoth. 52, 194–198.
Chouhan, S., Sharma, K., Guleria, S., 2017. Antimicrobial activity of some essential oil-
s—present status and future perspectives. Med. (Basel) 4, 58. https://doi.org/10.
3390/medicines4030058.
Chundattua, O., Agrawalb, V., Ganesh, N., 2016. Phytochemical investigation of
Calotropis procera. Arab. J. Chem. 9, S230–S234.
David, M., Ain, Q.U., Ahmad, M., Zaman, W., Jahan, S., 2019. A biochemical and his-
tological approach to study antifertility effects of methanol leaf extract of Asplenium
dalhousiae Hook. In: Adult Male Rats. Andrologiapp. e13262. https://doi.org/10.
1111/and.13262. 1-9.
Dayan, F.E., Romagni, J.G., Duke, S.O., 2000. Investigating the mode of action of natural
phytotoxins. J. Chem. Ecol. 26, 2079–2094.
Elmarie, V.W., Johan, C.P., 2001. Purification and identification of active antibacterial
component in Carpobrotus edulis L. J. Ethnopharmacol. 76, 87–91.
Estabraq, H., Abbas, M.K., Salam, A., 2019. Phytochemical investigation of leaves of
Calotropis procera plant in Iraq by GC-MS. IJPSR. 10, 1988–1994.
Farid, A., El Sayed, M., Mohamed, E., 2013. Allelopathic potential of Calotropis procera
186
A.M. Radwan, et al.
and Morettia philaeana. Inter. J. Agri. &bio. 15, 130–134.
Farooq, M., Jabran, K., Cheema, Z., Wahid, A., Siddique, H.M.K., 2011. The role of al-
lelopathy in agricultural pest management. Pest Manag. Sci. 67, 493–506.
Gayatri, S., Reddy, C.U., Chitra, K., Chamundeeswari, 2013. Studies on in vitro anti-
bacterial and antifungal property of Sphaeranthus amaranthoides. Asi. J. Phar. Cli. Res.
6, 297–299.
Ghasemi, S., Hasemi, M., Moradi, N., Shamili, A.M., 2012. Effect of Calotropus procera leaf
extract on seed germination of some plants. J. ornamt. & hort. of plants. 2, 27–32.
Gomez-Flores, R., Verástegui-Rodríguez, L., Qintanilla-Licea, R., Tamez-Guerra, P.,
Tamez-Guerra, R., Rodríguez-Padilla, C., 2008. In vitro rat lymphocyte proliferation
induced by Ocinum basilicum, Persea americana, Plantago virginica and Rosa spp.
Extracts. J. Med. Pl. Res. 1, 5–10.
Hassan, S.A., Samy, A.A., 2007. Allelopathic effect of Calotropis procera leaves extract on
seed germination of some plants. JAKU. Sc. 19, 115–126.
Hsieh, P.C., Mau, J.L., Huang, S.H., 2001. Antimicrobial effect of various combinations of
plant extracts. Food Microbiol. 18, 35–43.
Irshad, A., Cheema, Z.A., 2004. Influence of some plant water extracts on the germination
and seedling growth of barnyard grass (E. crus-galli (L) Beauv). Pak. J. Sci. Ind. Res.
43, 222–226.
Kalburtji, K.L., Mosjidis, J.A., 1993. Effects of Sericea lespedeza root exudates on some
perennial grasses. J. Range Manag. 46, 312–314.
Kareem, S.O., Akpan, I., Ojo, O.P., 2008. Antimicrobial activities of Calotropis procera on
selected pathogenic microorganisms. Afr. J. Biomed. Res. 11, 105–110.
Kumar, D., Kumar, N., Akamatsu, K., Kusaka, E., Harada, H., Ito, T., 2010. Synthesis and
biological evaluation of indolyl chalcones as antitumor agents. Bioorg. Med. Chem.
Let. 20, 3916–3919.
Macías, F.A., Galindo, J.C.G., Molinillo, J.M.G., Cutler, H.G., 2004. Allelopathy Chemistry
and Mode of Action of Allelochemicals, first ed. CRS Press, LLC, pp. 58.
Madhurima, D., Sarmistha, R., Shahid, J., Sumanta, D., Sabyasachi, C., 2014. Study of
phytochemical constituents and antibacterial activity of Calotropis gigantia. Inter.
Sci. J. 1, 15–24.
Mainasara, M.M., Aliero, B.L., Aliero, A.A., Yakubu, M., 2012. Phytochemical and anti-
bacterial properties of root and leaf extracts of Calotropis procera. Nig. J. Bas. App.
Sci. 20, 1–6.
Mako, G.A., Memon, A.H., Mughal, U.R., Pirzado, A.J., Bhatti, S.A., 2012. Antibacterial
effects of leaves and root extract of Calotropis procera Linn. Pak. J. Agri. Agri. Eng.
Vet. Sci. 28, 141–149.
Mangal, M., Kumar, A., Saini, P., 2014. Germination and seedling vigour of Vigna sinensis
as affected by allelopathy of Calotropus gigantea. Indian J. Agric. Res. 48, 29–34.
Mominul Islam, A.K.M., Sabina, Y., Qasem, J.R.S., Juraimi, A., Md. Parvez Anwar, 2018.
Allelopathy of medicinal plants: Current status and future prospects in weed man-
agement. Agri. Sci. 9, 89160. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2018.912110.
Morsy, N., Emad, A., Al Sherifand, T., Abdel-rassol, M.A., 2016. Phytochemical analysis of
Calotropis procera with antimicrobial activity investigation. Main Group Che. 15,
267–273.
Norton, A.P., Blair, A.C., Hardin, J., Nissen, S.J., Brunk, G.R., 2008. Herbivory and novel
weapons: No evidence for enhanced competitive ability or allelopathy induction of
Centurea diffusa by biological control. Biol. Invasions. 10, 79–88.
187
Annals of Agricultural Sciences 64 (2019) 183–187
Pandey, A., Swarnkar, V., Pandey, V., Srivastava, P., Kanojiya, S., Mishra, K., Tripathi, V.,
2016. Transcriptome and Metabolite analysis reveal candidate genes of the cardiac
glycoside biosynthetic pathway from Calotropis procera. Sci. Rep. 6, 34464. https://
doi.org/10.1038/srep34464.
Parrotta, J.A., 2001. Healing Plants of Peninsular India, First ed. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK and New York, pp. 944. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851995014.
0000.
Parsons, W.T., Cuthbertson, E.G., 1992. Noxious Weeds of Australia. Inkata Press,
Melbourne, pp. 692.
Patil, B.P., 1994. Effects of Glyricidia maculata L. extracts on field crops. A. J. 1, 118–120.
Peng, X., 2019. Allelopathic effects of water extracts of maize leaf on three Chinese herbal
medicinal plants. Not. Bot. Horti. Agrobo. 47, 194–200.
Qureshi, R., Bhatti, G.R., 2009. Folklore uses of Amaranthaceae family from Nara desert,
Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 41, 1565–1572.
Reigosa, M.J., Pedrol, N., Gonzalez, L., 2006. Allelopathy. A Physiological Process With
Ecological Implications. Springer, pp. 229–267.
Sastry, C.S.T., Kavathekar, Y.Y., 1990. Plants for Reclamation of Wastelands, First ed.
Publications and Information Directorate, New Delhi, pp. 317–318.
Shah, R.H., Baloch, M.S., Zubair, M., Khan, E.A., 2017. Phytotoxic effect of aqueous ex-
tracts of different plant parts of milkweed on weeds and growth and yield of wheat.
Pla. daninha. 35, 1–15.
Shaker, K., Morsy, N., Zinecker, H., Imhoff, J., Schneider, B., 2010. Secondary metabolites
from Calotropis procera (Aiton). Phytochemistry Lett. 3, 212–216.
Shinwari, S., Ahmad, M., Luo, Y., Zaman, W., 2017. Quantitative analyses of medicinal
plants consumption among the inhabitants of Shangla-Kohistan areas in Northern-
Pakistan. Paki. J. Bot. 49, 725–734.
Shittu, O.B., Popoola, T.O.S., Taiwo, O., 2004. Potential of Calotropis procera leaves for
wastewater treatment. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Science and
National Development. 25th-28.
Sofowora, A., 1993. Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa, Second ed.
Spectrum Books, Ibadan, pp. 150.
Turk, M.A., Tawaha, A.M., 2002. Inhibitory effects of aqueous extracts of black mustard
on germination and growth of lentil. Pakistan J. Argon. 1, 28–30.
Turk, M.A., Tawaha, A.M., 2003. Allelopathic effect of black mustard (Brassica nigra L.)
on germination and growth of wild oat (Avena fatua L.). Crop Prot. 22, 673–677.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(02)00241-7.
Willis, R.J., 2007. The History of Allelopathy, First ed. Springer, pp. 206.
Yasin, M., Safdar, M.E., Iqbal, Z., Ali, A., Jabran, K., Tanveer, A., 2012. Phytotoxic effects
of Calotropis procera extract on germination and seedling vigor of wheat. Pak. J. Weed
Sci. Res. 18, 379–392.
Zaman, W.M., Ahmad, M.Z., Amina, L.F., Ullah, S.B., Ayaz, S.S., Begum, N., Jahan, S.,
2019. The quest for some novel antifertility herbals used as male contraceptives in
district Shangla, Pakistan. Acta Ecol. Sin. 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.
2019.05.017.
Zeb, S., Ali, A., Zaman, W., Zeb, S., Ali, S., Ullah, F., 2018. Pharmacology, taxonomy and
phytochemistry of the genus artemisia specifically from Pakistan: a comprehensive
review. mazums-pbr. 4, 1–12.