• The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the

centre line of the road.

• The vertical alignment consist of grade and vertical curve
and it influence the vehicle speed, acceleration, sight
distance and comfort in vehicle movements at high speed.
• Follow the general topography or profile of land.
• Profile not always
• Vertical Alignment = Elevation of Center Line profile
• Consists of Grades and Vertical Curves
• Grades = The rate of rise or fall along the length of road to
achieve uniform speed.
• Expressed in Ration 1:x or 1:n or s% or G%
• Ascending: Rise in direction of movement
• Descending: Fall in direction of movement
Influence of Grades:
o On vehicle speed
o Acceleration and deceleration rate
o S.S.D
o Passenger comfort.
• Follow the natural profile as much as possible (minimizes
cut and fill)
• Balance the volume of cut and fill

• Maintain adequate drainage (provide minimum grade)

• Follow maximum grades
• Meet fixed elevations such as intersections
• It is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with
respect to the horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in x
(1 vertical unit to x horizontal unit). Sometimes the gradient
is also expressed a s a percentage i.e. n% (n in 100).
• Represented by:
Exceptional Gradient:
Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at
unavoidable situations. They should be limited for short
stretches not exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.
Minimum Gradient:
This is important only at locations where surface drainage is
important. Camber will take care of the lateral drainage. But
the longitudinal drainage along the side drains require some
slope for smooth flow of water. Therefore minimum gradient is
provided for drainage purpose and it depends on the rain fall,
type of soil and other site conditions.
A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete drain
and 1 in 200 for open soil drains.
Ruling or Design Gradient:
It is the maximum gradient, within which the vertical profile of
the road is designed. It depends on:
o Type of terrain
o The length of the grade (Change in speed affected by the length)
o The design speed (classification of roads)
o Pulling power of the vehicles
o Presence of horizontal curve (provide flatter gradient)
o Mixed traffic
Limiting Gradient:
Steeper than ruling gradient. In hilly roads, it may be
frequently necessary to exceed ruling gradient and adopt
limiting gradient, it depends on
o Topography
o Cost in constructing the road
Critical Length of the Grade:
The maximum length of the ascending gradient which a
loaded truck can operate without undue reduction in speed is
called critical length of the grade. A speed of 25 kph is a
reasonable value. This value depends on the size, power,
load, initial speed.
Offsets are vertical distances from initial tangent to the curve
Sight Distance is the length of roadway ahead visible to the
driver. For purpose of design and operation it is termed
stopping sight distance and passing sight distance.

Stopping Sight Distance is the total distance traveled during

three time intervals.
• The time for the driver to perceive the hazard.
• The time to react.
• The time to stop the vehicle after the brakes are applied.

Based on the National Safety Council, average driver reaction

time is 3/4 seconds.
• Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance
along the road surface, which a driver from a specidied
height above the carriageway has visibility of stationary or
moving objects.
• It is th length of road visible ahead to the driver at any
instance.
• Stopping or Absolute Minimum Sight Distance (SSD)
• Safe Overtaking or Passing Sight Distance (OSD)
• Safe Sight Distance for entering into uncontrolled
intersection.
• Intermediate Sight Distance
• Head Light Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance:
• The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any
spot be of sufficient length to stop a vehicle traveling at
design speed, safely without collision with any other
obstruction.
Passing Sight distance (Overtaking Sight Distance):
• The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a
vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with
safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as
the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe
passing sight distance.
Sight distance at intersection:
• Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection (particularly
unsignalised intersection) has sufficient visibility to enable
him to take control of his vehicle and to avoid collission
with another vehicle.
Intermediate Sight Distance:
This is defined as twice the stopping sight distance. When
overtaking sight distance can not be provided, intermediate
sight distance is provided to give limited overtaking
opportunities to fast vehicles.

Head light Sight Distance:

This is the distance visible to a driver during night driving
under the illumination of the vehicle head lights. This sight
distance is critical at up-gradients and at the ascending
stretch of the valley curves.
Stopping Sight Distance:
• SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway
at any spot having sufficient length to enable the driver to
stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without
collision with any other obstruction.

It depends on:
• Feature of road ahead
• Height of driver's eye above the road surface (1.2m)
• Height of the object above the road surface (0.15m)
Factors Affecting the SSD
• Total reaction time of driver
• Speed of vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road and tyre
• Gradient of road
Total Reaction Time of Driver
• It is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to
the driver to the instant the brake is effectively applied, it
divide into types
o Perception time
o Brake reaction time
Perception time:
• It is time from the instant the object comes on the line of
sight of the driver to the instant he realizes that the vehicle
needs to be stopped.

Brake Reaction time:

• The brake reaction also depends on several factor
including the skill of the driver, the type of the problems
and various other environment factor.
• Total reaction time of driver can be calculated by “PIEV”
theory
“PIEV” Theory
• Total reaction time of driver is split into four parts:
• P - perception
• I - intellection
• E - Emotion
• V - Volition
“PIEV” Theory
Perception
It is the time required for the sensation received by the eyes or ears
to be transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal
chord.
Intellection:
It is the time required for understanding the situation.
Emotion:
It is the time elapsed during emotional sensation and disturbance
such as fear, anger or any other emotional feeling such as
superstition etc, with reference to the situation.
Volition:
It is the time taken for the final action
• The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and
the braking distance.
• Lag distance
• It is the distance, the vehicle traveled during the reaction
time
• If 'V” is the design speed in m/sec and 't' is the total
reaction time of the driver in seconds.

Lag Distance = V(t) - meters

where:
“V” is in m/sec
t = 2.5 seconds
• It is the distance traveled by the vehicle after the
application of brake. For a level road this is obtained by
equating the work done in stopping the vehicle and the
kinetic energy of the vehicle.
• The kinetic energy at the design speed of “V” (m/sec) will
be 1/2MV2.
• Braking Distance = V2 / 2g (f+G) (If it is moving)
• SSD = lag distance + braking distance
V2
SSD  Vt 
2 g (f  G)
Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at an
ascending gradient of 2% for a design speed of 90 kph with a
total reaction time of 2.5 sec, and a coefficient of friction of
0.42.
Solution:
V2
SSD  Vt 
2 g (f  G)
90000
V  25 m / s
3600
(25 )2
s  25 (2 .5) 
2 (9 .81)(0 .42  0 .02 )
s  138 .90 m
• Horizontal SSD
o affected by obstructions near the road edge

o increases as curve becomes milder

• Vertical SSD
o affected by the road itself

o longer curves have greater SSD

o minimize costs by minimizing curve length

• Comfort of driver not considered in design of summit curve.
• But SSD is obstructed on summit as well as on valley
curves, hence used in design from safety point of view.
• Required sight distance
• Curve length
• Initial and final grades
• Eye and object heights
For SSD  L For SSD  L
AS 2
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 )2
L L  2S 
2
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 ) A
For SSD  L For SSD  L
AS 2
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 )2
L L  2S 
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 ) 2
A

where:
L = length of vertical curve (ft or m)
A = algebraic difference in grades (%)
S = sight distance for stopping or passing, (ft or m)
h1 = height of drivers' eyes above the roadway surface (ft or m),
h2 = height of object above the roadway surface (ft or m)
For SSD  L For SSD  L
AS 2
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 )2
L L  2S 
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 ) 2
A

where:
L = length of vertical curve (ft or m)
A = algebraic difference in grades (%)
S = sight distance for stopping or passing, (ft or m)
h1 = height of drivers' eyes above the roadway surface (ft or m),
h2 = height of object above the roadway surface (ft or m)

If not given, h1 = 1.143m or 3.75’ and h2 = 0.15m or 0.50’,

For SSD  L For SSD  L
AS 2
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 )2
L L  2S 
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 ) 2
A

or (if h1 and h2 are not given)

For SSD  L For SSD  L

AS 2 423
L L  2S 
423 A
• Valley/ Sag curves: whose convexity are downward
• Three factors considered
o Safety, Comfort and Appearance

• Safety
o During day time SSD is available
o But during night, SSD is limited to head light
o Hence design is based on availability of SSD under head light
• Comfort of driver not considered in design of summit curve
• But SSD is obstructed on summit as well as on valley
curves, hence used in design from safety point of view.
For SSD  L For SSD  L
AS 2 200 (H  S tan β)
L L  2S 
200 (H  S tan β) A
 For SSD  L For SSD  L
AS 2 200 (H  S tan β)
L L  2S 
200 (H  S tan β) A

where:
H = height of headlight above road surface
β = inclined angle of headlight of beam
or (if H and β are not given)

For SSD  L For SSD  L

AS 2 122  3.5 S
L L  2S 
122  3.5 S A
Passing Sight Distance is a shortest distance sufficient for a
vehicle to turn out of a traffic lane, pass another vehicle, and
then turn back to the same lane safely and comfortably
without interfering with the overtaken vehicle or an incoming
vehicle traveling at the design speed should it come into view
after the passing maneuver is started.
For SSD  L For SSD  L
AS 2
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 )2
L L  2S 
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 ) 2
A

or (if h1 and h2 are not given)

For SSD  L For SSD  L

AS 2 423
L L  2S 
423 A
For SSD  L For SSD  L
2 S(g1  g 2 )  8H S 2 (g 2  g1 )
L L
( g 2  g1 ) 8H
Maximum velocity of a car moving in a sag vertical curve

AV 2
L
395
where:
L = Length of sag vertical curve, m
A = algebraic difference in grades, %
V = design speed, kph
A 5% grade intersects a -3.4% grade at station 1+990 of
elevation 42.30 m. Design a vertical summit parabolic curve
connecting the two tangent grades to conform with the following
safe stopping sight distance specifications.
Design velocity = 60 kph
Height of driver's eye from the road pavement = 1.37 m.
Height of an object over the pavement ahead = 100 m.
Perception-reaction time = 3/4 sec.
Coefficient of friction between the road pavement and the tires =
0.15.
a. Determine the stopping sight distance
b. Determine the length of curve
c. Determine the elevation of the highest point on curve.
a. Stopping Sight Distance

V2
S  Vt 
2g(f  G)
60000
V
3600
V  16 .67 m / s
3 (16 .67)2
S  16 .67 ( ) 
4 2 (9.81)(0.15  0.05)
S  83 .32 m
b. Length of Curve
Assume S<L
AS 2
L
100 ( 2h1  2h 2 )2
A  g1  g 2
A  5  (3.4)
A  8.4
(8.4)(83 .32)2
L
100 ( 2 (1.37)  2 (0.10))2
L  131 .92 m  83 .32

ok as assumed!
The length of sag parabolic curve is 130 m with a design
speed of 100 kph. The back tangent has a slope of -2.5%.
a. Compute the slope of the forward tangent.
b. Compute the distance of the lowest point of the curve from
the PC
c. Compute the length of the sight distance.

a. Slope of forward tangent

AV 2 A  5.135
L
395 A  g1  g 2
A (100 )2 5.135  2.5  g 2
130 
395 g 2  2.635 %
b. Compute the distance of the lowest point of the
curve from the PC
g1 L
S
g1  g 2
 0 . 025 (130 )
S
 0 . 025  0 . 02635
S  63 . 29 m
c. Length of sight distance, Assume S<L
AS 2
L
122  3.5 S
5.135 S 2
L
122  3.5 S
5.135 S 2  15860  455 S
S 2  88 .61S  3088 .61 0
S  115 .38 m. ok!
The design speed of a sag parabolic curve is 100 kph. The
downward tangent grade is -2%. The length of curve is 126 m.
a. Compute the upward tangent grade of the parabolic sag
curve.
AV 2
L
395
A (100 )2
126 
395
A  4.98
A  g2  2
4.98  g 2  2
g 2  2.98 %
b. Length of the sight distance
AS 2
L
122  3 . 5 S
4 . 98 S 2
126 
122  3 . 5 S
15372  441 S  4 . 98 S 2
S 2  88 . 56 S  3086 . 75  0
S  115 . 32 m
c. Distance of the lowest point of the curve from the PC
g1 L
S1 
g1  g 2
 0 .02 (126 )
S1 
 0 .02  0 .0298
S1  50 .60 m from the PC