12

General
Chemistry 2
Quarter 1 – Module 1:
Intermolecular Forces in
Liquids and Solids

Self-Learning Module

1
General Chemistry 2
Self Learning Module
Quarter 1 – Module 1 Intermolecular Forces in Liquids and Solids
First Edition, 2020

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 Introductory Message

For the facilitator:

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is a stand-alone resource material in Science
which is intended for the learners of the Division of Bacolod City. Learners who do not
have online accessibility or who do not want to risk face-to-face learning may utilize
this module. This includes a learner-friendly pretest, self-check exercises, and other
modes of instructions for learners and teachers who are geographically remote from
each other. This covers topics in Grade 12 in the 1st Quarter with corresponding
activities for learners to achieve the most essential learning competencies and lesson
objectives.
Each exercise in this module is designed for independent learning and practice.
However, ensure that the learners’ parents, elder siblings, guardians, or relatives at
home will guide and support them as they accomplish the given tasks. Furthermore,
explain to students that taking the tests diligently will allow them to learn their lessons
for their academic progress. Most importantly, remind them to answer the given
activities on a separate answer sheet and handle this module with utmost care.

For the learner:

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is a learner-friendly resource material in
Science which is specifically designed for your learning needs and progress. Your
patience and dedication in reading and answering the exercises will help you
successfully achieve the objectives. You are free to ask assistance from your teachers,
parents, siblings, friends, and family members whom you think can help you best.
Read each lesson carefully and follow the instructions for your activities.
Remember to answer the given exercises in a separate sheet of paper. When
you are done, kindly submit it to your teacher who will check and evaluate your level
of competency.

You can do it! Good luck and God bless.

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Parts of the Self-Learning Module

The following are the parts of this module that will help you finish your tasks.
Read the following descriptions below to better understand each part.

This part will be your guide to learn in the

I Need to Know specific lessons specifically your skills and
competencies.

This contains a 10-item pre-test that will

I Will Check on This
check what you already know.

This section will give you the topic,

Lesson Overview information, and concepts as a brief
discussion for you to learn.

It is in this part that the new lesson will be

introduced to you in different ways: a story, a
I Will Do This poem, a problem opener, an activity, or a
situation. You will be given specific
instructions on how to go about the activity.

This part helps you generalize your

I Learned This understanding of the concepts. This includes
a short fill-in the blanks summary of the topic.

This provides you with questions and

I Practice This exercises to help you deepen your
understanding of the concept.

This section includes activities or exercises

I Apply This that will help you apply your knowledge into
real-life situations
This is composed of 10-item exercises to
I Test Myself assess if you have attained the learning
competency.
This is a list of all sources used in developing
References
this module

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 I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-99), describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular
forces (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-100), describe the following properties of liquids,
and explain the effect of intermolecular forces on these properties
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-102), and explain the properties of water with its
molecular structure and intermolecular forces (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-103). The
scope of this module allows you to use it in many different learning situations. The
language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are
arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you
read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.

This module is divided into the following lessons:

• Lesson 1 – Kinetic Molecular Theory of Solids and Liquids

• Lesson 2 – Intermolecular Forces
• Lesson 3 – Properties of Liquids
• Lesson 4 – Properties of Water

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. describe the kinetic molecular theory of matter;
2. explain the nature of liquid and solid states using the kinetic
molecular theory;
3. describe the different kinds of intermolecular forces of attraction;
4. explain the relationship of viscosity, surface tension, and capillarity
with intermolecular forces;
5. explain evaporation, vapor pressure, and boiling point using kinetic
molecular theory and intermolecular forces;
6. describe some properties of water and relate these properties to
hydrogen bonding;

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 I Will Check on This

Read each sentence carefully. Select the letter of the best answer.
1. According to the kinetic molecular theory, which statement about the three
phases of matter (gas, liquid, and solid) is INCORRECT?
A. All three phases consist of particles in motion.
B. The average kinetic energy of molecules in any phase depends on the
temperature.
C. The molecules are closer to each other as the system goes from the gas
to the liquid to the solid phase.
D. The molecules are in a more disorderly motion as the system goes from
the gas to the liquid to the solid phase.

2. Which of the following properties pertain to solids only?

A. They expand slightly when heated.
B. The particles can slide past one another.
C. The kinetic energy is sufficient to overcome the attractive forces.
D. The diffuse extremely slow because the particles are tightly packed.

3. It explains the properties of gases by assuming that gas particles act

independently of each other.
A. Collision Theory
B. Bohr’s Postulate
C. Kinetic Molecular Theory
D. Einstein’s Theory of Relativity

4. Which intermolecular force is present in all molecules?

A. hydrogen bond
B. ion-dipole bond
C. dispersion forces
D. dipole-dipole forces

5. Which of the following intermolecular forces is present in the molecules of

ethanol, CH3CH2OH?
A. hydrogen bond
B. ion-dipole bond
C. dispersion forces
D. dipole-dipole forces

6. Which among the intermolecular forces is the weakest?

A. hydrogen bond
B. ion-dipole bond
C. dispersion forces
D. dipole-dipole forces

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7. Which of the following properties refers to the resistance of liquid to flow?
A. viscosity
B. vapor pressure
C. surface tension
D. molar heat of vaporization

8. Which of the following properties explain why raindrops are spherical in

shape?
A. viscosity
B. vapor pressure
C. surface tension
D. molar heat of vaporization

9. What do you the attraction between molecules of different substances?

A. Adhesion
B. Cohesion
C. Capillarity
D. Surface Tension

10. What property of water is responsible for our constant body temperature?
A. Water has high boiling point.
B. Water has high specific heat.
C. Water has high heat of vaporization.
D. Water has high density in its liquid form.

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 Lesson
Kinetic Molecular Theory
1 of Solids and Liquids

Lesson Overview

Kinetic molecular theory of matter offers a description of the microscopic

properties of atoms (or molecules) and their interactions, leading to observable
macroscopic properties (such as pressure, volume, temperature). An application of
the theory is that it helps to explain why matter exists in different phases (solid, liquid,
and gas) and how matter can change from one phase to the next.

Here are the several postulates under kinetic molecular theory: (1) matter is
made up of particles that are constantly moving; (2) all particles have energy, but the
energy differs depending on the temperature of the sample is in which in turn
determines whether the substance exists in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state; (3)
gases consists of large numbers of molecules that are in continuous, random motion;
(4) energy can be transferred between molecules during collisions ( thus, change in
phase occurs); (5) kinetic energy is dependent on the temperature of a substance;
(6) there are spaces between particles of matter; and (7) intermolecular forces,
whether attractive or repulsive, between atoms/ molecules are present and are so
weak that they are considered negligible.

All particles have energy, and the energy varies depending on the temperature
the sample of matter is in, which determines if the substance is a solid, liquid, or gas.
Solid particles have the least amount of energy, and gas particles have the greatest
amount of energy. The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles. A change in phase may occur when the energy of the
particles is changed.

Activity 1 would allow you to explain the nature of solid, liquid, and gas states using
the kinetic molecular theory.

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 I Will Do This

Activity 1: Shake that Marbles

In solids, the attractive forces between the particles are stronger than those in
liquids and gases. These result in an ordered arrangement of particles in which the
particles are not free to move around. The movement of the particles is limited to
vibrations while they remain in their fixed positions. Thus, a solid has a fixed volume
and shape. Solids compress even less than liquids and hardly diffuse. On the other
hand, the particles of a liquid are close together because of strong attractive forces
between them. Like gas particles, liquid particles also collide with each other and
with the walls of their containers. However, since the particles are close together,
they can move only over short distances. This type of movement allows liquids to
flow and take the shape of their container without filing it completely as gases do.
This also explains why liquids compress only very slightly, have higher densities than
gases, and diffuse more slowly than gases.

The kinetic molecular theory explains the properties of gases by assuming

that gas particles act independently of each other. Due to the very weak attractive
forces between them, the particles are free to move randomly and fill their containers.
Gases are compressible and they diffuse through one another easily.

There are spaces between particles of matter. The average amount of empty
space between molecules gets progressively larger as a sample of matter moves
from the solid to the liquid and gas phases.

Materials

25 Marbles (if not available, you can use pebbles)

Clear plastic container

Procedure

1. Take your clear plastic container and add 6 marbles to it. These marbles
represent the atoms of a specific phase of matter. Put the lid back on the box
and shake it with the marbles inside. As you shake the marbles, observe how
the balls (atoms) inside move and interact with each other.

2. Now, remove the top from your box and add 8 additional marbles (atoms) to
the ones already inside. Secure the top and shake your container again.

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 3. Finally, remove the top from your container and fill the remaining space with
marbles (atoms). Make sure the container is not so full that you cannot fit the
top back on. Now shake your container again.

Analysis Questions:

For Procedure 1:
1. As you shake the container with the 6 marbles, are the marbles (atoms) able
to move free or is their movement restricted?
_____________________________________________________________

2. How do the atoms interact with each other? Do they collide randomly, or do
they hit the same other atoms?
_____________________________________________________________

3. Based on your observations of the atoms, what phase of matter do you

believe this represents?
_____________________________________________________________

For Procedure 2:
4. How has the movement of the atoms changed? Do they move more freely or
more restricted?
_____________________________________________________________

5. How does the closer proximity of the atoms affect their interactions with each
other? Are the atoms hitting the same other atoms each time or does it seem
evenly dispersed?
_____________________________________________________________

6. Based on your observations of the atoms, what phase of matter do you

believe this represents?

_____________________________________________________________
For Procedure 3:
7. What has happened to the movement of the atoms? Do they move freely or
is their movement restricted?
_____________________________________________________________

8. Does the increased proximity of the atoms to each other affect their
interactions with each other? Are the atoms colliding with the same other
atoms each time?
_____________________________________________________________

9. What phase of matter do you believe this represents?

____________________________________________________________
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 I Learned This

Fill in the blanks. Select your answer from the word box.

gases solids matter

liquid kinetic molecular theory

I have learned that 1. ___________ are composed of particles that are constantly
moving. The arrangement of particles in solids, liquids, and gases explains their
different properties. The particles in 2. ___________ are closely packed and are not
free to move, and they can only vibrate. They also have fixed shape and volume and
have high density. On the other hand, 3. ___________ particles have enough energy
to overcome their attractive forces and the particles slide and roll on top of each other.
They flow and have fixed volume, so their density is lower than solids however, they
do not have definite shape. 4. ___________ are compressible and they diffuse through
one another easily. The 5. ___________ explains the properties of gases by assuming
that gas particles act independently of each other.

I Practice This

Complete the concept map below.

less closely packed from each other high very low

slide over each other move about great speed

States of Matter

are explained by the

Kinetic Molecular Theory

which classifies phases of matter as

solid liquid gas

in which particles are in which particles are in which particles are

orderly and closely packed 1 very far apart

and they and they and they

vibrate and rotate about a fixed 2 3

position

and the particle motion is 11 motion is

and the particle and the particle motion is

4 low 5
 I Apply This

Compare the solid, liquid, and gaseous states with respect to the following:

slower far from each other very low

orderly arranged high

Solid Liquid Gas

a. Rate of Diffusion 1 slow fast

b. Distance between 2 close together 3
molecules
c. Compressibility very low low high
d. Energy of molecules 4 low 5

I Test Myself

Multiple Choice. Read each item carefully. Select the letter of the best answer.
1. Which of the following properties pertain to solids only?
A. They expand slightly when heated.
B. The particles can slide past one another.
C. The kinetic energy is sufficient to overcome the attractive forces.
D. The diffuse extremely slow because the particles are tightly packed.

2. Which of the following is NOT true about kinetic molecular theory?

A. Matter is made up of particles that are constantly moving.
B. Energy cannot be transferred between molecules during collisions.
C. Gases consist of large numbers of molecules that are in continuous,
random motion.
D. All particles have different energy and it is the same regardless of what
temperature of the sample is in.

3. According to the kinetic molecular theory, which statement about the three
phases of matter (gas, liquid, and solid) is INCORRECT?
A. All three phases consist of particles in motion.
B. The average kinetic energy of molecules in any phase depends on the
temperature.
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 C. The molecules are closer to each other as the system goes from the gas
to the liquid to the solid phase.
D. The molecules are in a more disorderly motion as the system goes from
the gas to the liquid to the solid phase.

4. Why do liquids flow?

A. The particles are farther away from each other.
B. The particles are free to move randomly and fill their containers.
C. Particles are close together and they can move only over short distances.
D. There is an ordered arrangement of particles in which the particles are not
free to move around.

5. What phase of matter have an ordered arrangement of particles in which the

particles are not free to move around thus they have fixed shape and volume?
A. Gas
B. Liquid
C. Plasma
D. Solid

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 Lesson

2 Intermolecular Forces

Lesson Overview

There are two types of forces that govern in a molecule – intramolecular and
intermolecular forces. These two forces exist due to the electrostatic attraction
between opposite charges. Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms
together within a molecule. They keep the molecule together. They may be ionic,
covalent, and metallic. Intramolecular forces are relatively strong since the charges
are larger and closer together. On the other hand, intermolecular forces are forces
that exist between molecules. They are responsible for keeping matter in solid or
liquid phase. They are relatively weak since they involve smaller charges that are
farther apart from each other.

There are different types of intramolecular forces: ionic, covalent, and metallic
bond. Ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between
atoms and the type of chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions.
On the other hand, covalent bond is formed between atoms that have similar
electronegativities – the affinity or desire for electrons. It shares electrons to
achieve octet configuration and become more stable. Covalent bond has two types:
nonpolar and polar covalent bond. Nonpolar covalent bond is formed between
same atoms or atoms with very similar electronegativities - the difference in
electronegativity between bonded atoms is less than 0.5 while polar covalent bond
is formed when atoms of slightly different electronegativities share electrons having
the difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms of between 0.5 and 1.9.
Metallic bond is a type of covalent bonding specifically occurs between atoms of
metals, in which the valence electrons are free to move through the lattice. It is
formed via the attraction of the mobile electrons-referred to as sea of electrons-and
the fixed positively charged metal ions.

For the intermolecular forces of attraction, they have four different types: dipole-
dipole interaction, ion-dipole force, hydrogen bonding and dispersion forces.

Activity 2 would allow you to predict the properties of substances by identifying

the intermolecular forces present.

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 I Will Do This

Activity 2: Stick Us Together

Study the concept map on how to determine the intermolecular force present in
a compound.

Comparing Intermolecular Forces

Are ions present?

no yes

Are polar molecules

Are polar molecules
present?
no present? yes
no
yes
Are H atoms bonded to F,
O, or N atoms?
no yes

London Dipole- Hydrogen Ion-Dipole Ionic

Dispersion dipole Bonding Forces Bonding
Forces forces
Ex: H2O(s), Ex: KBr in Ex: NaCl,
Ex: Ar(l), I2(s) Ex: H2S, CH3Cl H2O(l), NH3, HF H 2O NH4NO3

van der Waals forces

Figure 1. Determining Intermolecular Forces based on ions or molecules present in a compound

Intermolecular forces are much weaker than the intramolecular forces of

attraction but are important because they determine the physical properties of
molecules like their boiling point, melting point, density, and enthalpies of fusion and
vaporization. They are forces of attraction or repulsion which act between neighboring
particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). van der Waals forces is a general term used to
define the intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules. Dipole-dipole forces,
hydrogen bonding, and London dispersion forces are the types of intermolecular
forces under van der Waals forces.

First of which is dipole-dipole interactions. They occur when the positively

charged part of a molecule interacts with the negatively charged part of the
neighboring molecule for example – the case of polar covalent bonds such as
hydrochloric acid, HCl. Dipole-dipole interactions are considered as the strongest
intermolecular force of attraction; the higher the dipole moment, the more polar the
substance, the stronger the intermolecular forces that must be overcome for a
substance to boil, and the higher the boiling point.

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 Hydrogen bonding is special type of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs
specifically between a hydrogen atom bonded to either an electronegative oxygen,
nitrogen, or fluorine atom. The partially positive end of hydrogen is attracted to the
partially negative end of the oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine of another molecule. It is a
relatively strong force of attraction between molecules and enough energy is required
to break hydrogen bonds that is why water, H2O and hydrofluoric acid, HF have high
boiling and melting points. Compounds with hydrogen bond increases their boiling
point as their molecular mass increases due to dispersion forces. Hydrogen bonding
is very important in Biology as hydrogen bonds are responsible for holding nucleotide
bases together in DNA and RNA.

The third type is London dispersion forces or simply dispersion

forces. It is weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist between all types of
molecules, whether ionic or covalent-polar or nonpolar. It is sometimes called induced
dipole-induced dipole attraction since it is a temporary attractive force that results
when the electrons in two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form
temporary dipoles. Polarizability is the ease with which a dipole can be induced. As
the molecular mass of a substance increases, its polarizability increases; the heavier
the substance, the more polarizable it is, the stronger the dispersion forces present in
the substance, its boiling and melting points also increases. The strength of dispersion
forces also depends on the number of electrons a molecule has; the more electrons a
molecule has, the stronger the London dispersion forces are. For example, bromine,
Br2 has more electrons than chlorine, Cl2, so bromine will have stronger London
dispersion forces than chlorine.

Ion-dipole forces are attractive forces that results from the electrostatic
attraction between an ion and a neutral molecule that has a dipole. Polar molecules
are dipoles that is, they have a positive and a negative end. Example of which is table
salt, NaCl being dissolved in water.

These forces of attraction affect the properties of compounds. The rule of thumb
is that that the stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction, the more energy is
required to break those forces. Also, boiling and melting points of compounds depend
on the type and strength of the intermolecular forces present.

Materials
Use worksheet from procedure section
Ball pen/ Pencil

Procedure
1. Read the concept map on Figure 1.
2. Physical properties depend on intermolecular forces. The stronger the forces
between the particles,
a. The higher the melting point.
b. The higher the boiling point.

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 c. The lower the vapor pressure.
d. The higher the viscosity.
e. The greater the surface tension.
3. Specify the predominant intermolecular force involved in each substance in the
space immediately following the substance. Then in the last column, indicate
which member of the pair you would expect to have the boiling point.

Substance #1 Predominant Substance #2 Predominant Substance

Intermolecular Intermolecular with Higher
Forces Forces Boiling Point
(a) HCl(g) I2
(b) CH3F CH3OH
(c) H2O H2S
(d) CH3OH CH3 CH2OH
(e) NH3 CH4

I Learned This

Fill in the blanks. Select your answer from the word box.

Intermolecular hydrogen bond dipole-dipole

Intramolecular London dispersion forces

I have learned that there are two types of forces that govern in a molecule –
intramolecular and intermolecular forces and they exist due to the electrostatic
attraction between opposite charges. 1. ___________ forces are the forces that hold
atoms together within a molecule. They keep the molecule together and they are
relatively strong since the charges are larger and closer together. On the other hand,
2. ___________ forces are forces that exist between molecules and they are relatively
weak since they involve smaller charges that are farther apart from each other.

Under intramolecular forces are ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds. For
intermolecular forces, they have four different types namely dipole-dipole interactions,
hydrogen bonding, ion-dipole forces, and dispersion forces. 3. ___________ are
experienced by neutral polar molecules and occurs when polar molecules attract each
other when the positive end of one molecule is near the negative end of another.
Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction wherein a hydrogen
atom bonded to either an electronegative oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom. 4.
___________ holds the nucleotide in DNA and RNA thus, it plays an important role in
Biology. Ion-dipole forces are electrostatic attraction between an ion and a neutral
molecule that has a dipole. 5. ___________ is considered as the weakest
17
intermolecular forces that is present in all molecules. And its strength depends on the
number of electrons the molecule contains.

I Practice This

Identify the dominant intermolecular forces for the following substances. Select
the substance with the higher boiling point in each pair.

1. Ne and Ar
2. CH3OH and CH3CH2OH
3. HF and CH3F
4. BaCl2 and PCl3
5. HCl and NaCl

I Apply This

Which among H2O, CH3F, Cl2, and Xe has

a. the strongest London dispersion forces?

b. the strongest hydrogen bonding?
c. basically dipole-dipole forces?

I Test Myself

Multiple Choice. Read each item carefully. Select the letter of the best answer.
1. Which of the following intermolecular forces is present in the molecules of
ethanol, CH3CH2OH?
A. hydrogen bond
B. ion-dipole bond
C. dispersion forces
D. dipole-dipole forces

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2. Which response includes only those compounds that can exhibit hydrogen
bonding?
CH4, AsH3, CH3NH2, H2Te, HF
A. AsH3, H2Te
B. CH3NH2, HF
C. AsH3, CH3NH2
D. CH4, AsH3, H2Te

3. What type of intermolecular forces are due to the attraction between temporary
dipoles and their induced temporary dipoles?
A. hydrogen bond
B. ion-dipole bond
C. dispersion forces
D. dipole-dipole forces

4. Hydrogen bonding is a special case of __________.

A. hydrogen bond
B. ion-dipole bond
C. dispersion forces
D. dipole-dipole forces

5. When NaCl dissolves in water, aqueous Na+ and Cl- ions result. The force of
attraction that exists between Na+ and H2O is called a(n) __________
interaction.
A. hydrogen bond
B. ion-dipole bond
C. dispersion forces
D. dipole-dipole forces

19
 Lesson

3 Properties of Liquids

Lesson Overview

Liquid is one of the states of matter in which it is an intermediate phase

between solid and gas. The particles in liquid have more space between them thus,
they do not have fixed position and they are not orderly arranged. The volume of the
liquid is constant due to the attraction between liquid particles. Liquids take the shape
of their containers due to the movement of its particles.

The properties of liquids can be explained by the intermolecular forces and the
average kinetic energy of the liquid particles. These properties include surface
tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, and the molar heat of vaporization.

Activity 3 would allow you to demonstrate surface tension as a property of

liquids.

I Will Do This

Activity 3: Drops on Coin

Surface tension is the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid
or the force required to increase the length of a liquid surface by a given amount. It
results from the cohesive forces between molecules at the surface of a liquid, and it
causes the surface of a liquid to behave like a stretched rubber membrane. It is higher
in liquids that have higher intermolecular forces. Water exhibits high surface tension
due to strong hydrogen bonding between its molecules.

Viscosity is the ability of a fluid to resist flowing. It is governed by the strength

of intermolecular forces and especially by the shapes of the molecules of a liquid.
Since it is related to the movement of the molecules in the liquid and thus to the
intermolecular forces present, nonpolar molecules experience only weak
20
intermolecular forces (London dispersion forces) and low viscosities while more polar
molecules have high viscosities because of H-bonding among their –OH groups and
dispersion forces at many points along their chain. Also, the viscosity of a liquid
decreases with increasing temperature because at higher temperature, the average
kinetic energy of molecules that overcomes the attractive forces between the
molecules is greater.

Cohesive force is the attractive force between molecules of the same

substance due to intermolecular forces and is responsible for liquid viscosity and
surface tension.

Capillarity is the spontaneous rising of the blood, or any liquid in a narrow tube.
This results from a competition between the intermolecular forces within the liquid
molecules (cohesive forces) and those between the liquid molecules and the walls of
the tube (adhesive forces). A concave surface in the tube is due to stronger adhesive
forces than cohesive forces. A convex surface in the tube is due to stronger cohesive
forces than adhesive forces.

Adhesive force is the attractive force between molecules of the different

substances and is responsible for phenomena such as capillarity.

Evaporation occurs when liquid particles escape into the gaseous or vapor
state. When liquid particles at the surface of a liquid have enough kinetic energy to
overcome the attractive forces of neighboring molecules, they escape into the gaseous
or vapor state.

Condensation occurs when some particles collide with air molecules and
return to the liquid, but most of them escape until the liquid evaporates completely.
However, molecules in a closed container are trapped. After some time, the number
of liquid molecules vaporizing equals the number of molecules condensing, and a
dynamic equilibrium is reached. At this point, the container becomes saturated with
vapor, and there is no more change in the liquid level. Saturated vapor pressure is
the pressure exerted by vapor in equilibrium with its liquid in a closed container.

Vapor pressure is the pressure of the vapor resulting from evaporation of a

liquid above a sample of the liquid in a closed container. It depends on the magnitude
of intermolecular forces and temperature; thus, an increase in temperature increases
the intermolecular forces of attraction in a liquid, thereby also increasing vapor
pressure.

Boiling point is the temperature wherein the saturated vapor pressure is equal
to the atmospheric pressure (external pressure) while normal boiling point is the
temperature at which boiling occurs at a pressure of 1 atm. At boiling point, the amount
of head added to the system by heating the liquid is equal to the amount of heat
21
escaping through evaporation that is why the temperature remains constant at boiling
point.
The weaker the intermolecular forces present in a substance; the substance
evaporates readily thus the higher is its vapor pressure and the lower is its boiling
point. However, when the substance has strong intermolecular force, it evaporates
slowly thus having lower vapor pressure and higher boiling point.

Volatility is the ability of a substance to vaporize. It is directly proportional to

vapor pressure, the higher the vapor pressure, the more volatile the liquid. The
volatility of a liquid at a given temperature is determined by its intermolecular forces of
attraction. Liquids like acetone and alcohol have high vapor pressure and are
considered volatile because their intermolecular forces are weak; on the other hand,
molasses and honey have low pressures and are, therefore, nonvolatile.

Molar heat of vaporization is the amount of heat needed to vaporize given

amount of liquid at its boiling point. The substance having strong intermolecular forces
have higher heat of vaporization compared to those have weaker intermolecular forces
of attraction.

Materials

5-peso coins 2 medicine dropper

water rubbing alcohol (ethyl or isopropyl alcohol)

Procedure

1. Lay a five-peso coin on a table.

2. Fill a dropper with water and count the number of drops you can put on
the coin before it spills over the edge.
3. Fill another dropper with the alcohol and repeat the process.

Analysis Questions:

1. What did you observe when you dropped water onto the coin?
__________________________________________________________

2. What did you observe when you dropped alcohol onto the coin?
__________________________________________________________

3. Which liquid do you think was able to have to stay on top of the coin
better? Justify your answer in terms of intermolecular forces.
__________________________________________________________

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 I Learned This

Fill in the blanks. Select your answer from the word box.

Surface tension Viscosity Vapor pressure

Capillarity Boiling point

I have learned that liquids particles do not have fixed position and they are not
orderly arranged. Also, liquids have fixed volume, but they do not have fixed shape as
they conform to the shape of their containers. Liquids have several properties including
surface tension, viscosity, capillarity, evaporation, vapor pressure, boiling point and
molar heat of vaporization. 1. ___________ is the energy required to increase the
surface area of a liquid or the force required to increase the length of a liquid surface
by a given amount. And it is directly proportional to the intermolecular forces present
in a liquid. On the other hand, 2. ___________ is the resistance of the liquid to flow
and it is the measure of the substance’s intermolecular force; the stronger the
intermolecular force present, the higher is their resistance to flow.

Capillary tube is used to obtain blood sample by placing it to the skin opening
and the blood rises through the tube. The phenomenon by which the blood or any
liquid spontaneously rising on a narrow tube is called 3. ___________. The 4.
___________ of a liquid is the pressure of the vapor resulting from the evaporation of
a liquid above a sample of the liquid in a closed container. It is directly proportional to
the strength of the intermolecular forces present in a sample. 5. ___________ of a
liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.

I Practice This

Identify what property of liquid is in each number. Select your answer from the
word box.
Surface tension Capillarity Condensation
Viscosity Evaporation

1. A freely falling drop of water is spherical in shape.

2. Your arm feels cool when alcohol evaporates from your skin.
3. On a warm day, water droplets form on the outer side of the bottle of a
carbonated beverage.
4. Honey is more difficult to stir than water.
5. The blood sample rises in a small, narrow tube.
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 I Apply This

Identify what property of liquid the pictures are trying to show. Select your
answer from the word box.
Surface tension Capillarity Condensation
Viscosity Evaporation

1. 2.
3.

4. 5.

I Test Myself

Multiple Choice. Read each item carefully. Select the letter of the best answer.
1. Which of the following explains the formation of water droplets on the surface
of a glass of cold water?
A. Water molecules escape through the porous glass.
B. Water molecules in the air gets attracted to the liquid water.
C. Water molecules are pushed by air onto the surface of the glass and form
drops.
D. When water molecules in the air move slower, they get attracted to each
other and come together as drops.

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2. The escape of gas molecules from the surface of an uncontained liquid is
known as _____.
A. capillarity
B. condensation
C. evaporation
D. viscosity

3. Volatility and vapor pressure are __________.

A. the same thing
B. both independent of temperature
C. directly proportional to one another
D. inversely proportional to one another

4. When the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the atmospheric pressure, the
liquid _____.
A. boils
B. condenses
C. evaporates
D. freezes

5. The boiling points of liquids depend upon the strength of _______.

A. atoms
B. intermolecular forces
C. molecules
D. volume

25
 Lesson

4 Properties of Water

Lesson Overview

Water makes up a large portion of the earths entire surface. Even organisms
are about 60% water. It has a molecular formula of H2O having a molar mass of
18.02 g/mol and a density of 1.0 g/mL. The properties of water, which are unique
and unusual are due to strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds formed between polar
water molecules.
Water is the most abundant compound on Earth’s surface. In nature, water
exists in the liquid, solid, and gaseous states. It is in dynamic equilibrium between
the liquid and gas states at 0 degrees Celsius and 1 atm of pressure. At room
temperature (approximately 25 degrees Celsius), it is a tasteless, odorless, and
colorless liquid.

Activity 4 would allow you to describe the different properties of water.

I Will Do This

Activity 4: Floating Paper Clip

The formation of hydrogen bonds among water molecules causes water to

possess unique properties. These different properties are significant for life on
earth. The following are the unique properties of water because of the hydrogen
bond: high surface tension, high boiling point, high density in its liquid form, high
specific heat, high heat of vaporization and water as universal solvent.

A water molecule, because of its shape, is a polar molecule. That is, it has one
side that is positively charged and one side that is negatively charged. The molecule
is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Water can form hydrogen
bonds, which make it a powerful solvent. Water is a good solvent and it is usually
referred to as the universal solvent because of its polar nature.

26
 Water has a high surface tension due to the hydrogen bond formation among
water molecules. This property enables water to move from the roots to the other
parts of plants and trees make capillary action. Cohesion is the attractive force
between molecules of the same substance due to intermolecular forces while
adhesion is the attractive force between molecules of the different substances.

Water having high boiling point is the consequence of its strong intermolecular
forces of attraction caused by the formation of the hydrogen bond. Water is liquid
at room temperature, so it can move around quicker than it is as solid, enabling the
molecules to form fewer hydrogen bonds resulting in the molecules being packed
more closely together. On the other hand, water is the only substance that contracts
when cooled. The density of solid water or ice is less than the density of liquid water.
This is due to stronger hydrogen bond in ice than in liquid water.

Specific heat refers to the amount of heat needed to raise or lower 1g of a

substance 1° C. It is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g
water by 1 °C is has its own name, the calorie. Water has a high specific heat
capacity thus, water can minimize changes in temperature.

Heat of Vaporization refers to the amount of energy to convert 1 g or a

substance from a liquid to a gas. Just as it takes a lot of heat to increase the
temperature of liquid water, it also takes an unusual amount of heat to vaporize a
given amount of water, because hydrogen bonds must be broken for the molecules
to fly off as gas. That is, water has a high heat of vaporization (water's heat of
vaporization = 540 cal/g).

Materials
Paper clip, Cup of water, Paper towel

Procedure
1. Drop a paper clip in a cup of water. Observe what happens.
2. Tear off a piece of paper towel that is slightly larger than the paper clip.
3. Place the piece of paper towel on top of the water.
4. Gently place another paper clip on the piece of paper towel. Wait a few
seconds. Observe what happens

Analysis Questions:

1. What happened when you drop a paper clip in a cup of water?

__________________________________________________________

2. What happened when you drop a paper clip on the piece of paper towel?
__________________________________________________________

3. What is allowing the paper clip to “float” on the water?

__________________________________________________________

27
 I Learned This

Fill in the blanks. Select your answer from the word box.

H2O surface tension heat of vaporization

hydrogen boiling point

I have learned that water has a molecular formula of 1. ___________ having a

molar mass of 18.02 g/mol and a density of 1.0 g/mL. Water have several properties
and they are unique and unusual due to the strong intermolecular 2. ___________
bonds formed between polar water molecules. The following are the consequences
of the strong intermolecular force present in water.
It has high 3. ___________ thus, it exists as liquid at room temperature. It has
high specific heat that requires large amount of heat before it turns into water vapor.
This results to Earth having minimal temperature variations that can affect the climate.
Water is the only substance that contracts when cooled due to its more open structure
in the solid form. Ice floats on water because its density is less than the liquid water.
Also, water has high 4. ___________ which causes a large decrease in temperature
during evaporation. Water has high 5. ___________ which allows water to move from
the roots to the top of a tree by capillary action and, it allows water strider to stay on
the surface of the water.

I Practice This

Fill out the following table: Name the five of water’s unique properties.

Property of Water Explanation of Property

1. It takes a relatively large amount of energy to boil
water compared with other small nonmetal liquids.
2. The surface of water acts like a “skin.”
3. Water absorbs a relatively large amount of energy
to raise its temperature 1o C.
4. Water expands in volume when frozen.
5. Water dissolves positive and negatively charged
particles.

28
 I Apply This

Identify the following if the attractive force present is either cohesion or

adhesion.

1. The needle stays afloat on the surface of the water.

2. The water droplets are stuck to the end of the pine needles after it rained.
3. A water drop is composed of water molecules that like to stick together.
4. Water is clinging to a paper towel after it get wet.
5. The shape of a raindrop is spherical.

I Test Myself

Multiple Choice. Read each item carefully. Select the letter of the best answer.

1. What property of water explains why water inside the tiny cracks in rocks help
the latter break when it freezes?
A. Water has high boiling point.
B. Water has high surface tension.
C. Water has high heat of vaporization.
D. Water has a greater volume in its solid state.

2. What property of water explains why our body temperature remains essentially
constant?
A. Water has high boiling point.
B. Water has high specific heat.
C. Water has high heat of vaporization.
D. Water has high density in its liquid form.

3. Water molecules form hydrogen bonds by

A. water molecules never form hydrogen bonds
B. the sharing of electrons between one water molecule and another
C. the transfer of electrons between one water molecule and another
D. the attraction between the positive poles of one water molecule with the
negative poles of another

4. Which of the following statement about water is INCORRECT?

A. Water is not a polar molecule.
29
 B. Water is considered as the universal solvent.
C. More than 50% of our bodies are composed of water.
D. Water is a polar molecule having a molecular formula of H2O.

5. Which property of water describes the tendency of water molecules to stick

to one another due to the hydrogen bonds present in the molecule?
A. Adhesion
B. Cohesion
C. Capillarity
D. Surface Tension

30
References
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