LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 1

UNIT 2B

Review of Basic Chemistry Concepts 2B

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a. Derive chemical equations from narrative descriptions of chemical reactions.

b. Balance a given chemical equation.
c. Use balanced chemical equations to derive stoichiometric factors relating amounts of
reactants and products and perform stoichiometric calculations involving mass and
mole.

2.1 Introduction

When a chef cooks a certain menu, he or she does not mix any amount of the ingredients
haphazardly. The chef follows a certain recipe to come up with the expected product. Similarly,
chemists and chemical engineers do not just mix any amount of chemicals to produce a certain
product like a soap, drug, etc. They also follow a recipe and this recipe is called chemical
equation and do some calculations. The study of chemical calculations is called stoichiometry.
Stoichiometry is a concept in chemistry that has wide range of industrial applications because it
entails the use of mathematical expressions to determine the amounts of reactants and products
in a known reaction which is usually represented as mass or volumes and expressed in moles.
This the focus of this unit.

2.2 Chemical Reaction and Chemical Equation

Recall the definition of chemistry as summarized in the diagram below.

Chemical reaction is just another term for a chemical change. A chemical reaction is a process
in which substances are changed into different substances.

Chemical change or reaction in the macroscopic level can be identified using our senses:

1. sight – change in color, formation of solid, formation of gases (bubbles), light emission;
2. hearing – some reaction leads to a popping sound or fizzes like a bomb;
3. smell - pungent odor or change in smell like decaying egg or fish; and
4. touch – some reaction will feel cold or hot due to absorption and emission of heat like
hot and cold packs.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 2

In a chemical reaction, the old substances (or starting material(s) or original material(s))
are called reactants and the new substances formed are called products.

Reactant(s) → Product(s)

For example, we have the “word reaction” describing a chemical reaction:

“When solid carbon reacts with oxygen gas, a new substance, carbon dioxide gas
is formed.”

The word reaction represents the macroscopic level of representation or thinking of a chemical
reaction. The “reactants” are carbon and oxygen gas while the “product” is carbon dioxide. The
word reaction can be shortened or simplified using a “word equation”.

carbon + oxygen gas → carbon dioxide

Further, a word equation can be converted into the microscopic level of thinking or
representation as illustrated below by using models.

Similarly, the microscopic level or thinking or representations of a chemical reaction can be

converted into the symbolic level of thinking or representation called a chemical equation.

C + O2 → CO2

A chemical equation is a shorthand symbolic description of what happens in a chemical

reaction. The symbols and formulas of the reactants are placed on the left side of the arrow while
the symbols and formulas of the products are written on the right side of the arrow. The
indicates the direction of the reaction (from left to right).

A chemical equation includes the “plus” sign. It is used simply to separate the reactants
(if there are more than two) and also the products. Aside from the “plus sign”, there is/are
coefficients - a number written before a symbol or formula. The coefficients will tell us “how
much” of the reactants are needed and “how much” products will be formed; and they are used
to balance a chemical equation. An example is,

Summarizing:

Macroscopic level (word reaction):

“When solid carbon reacts with oxygen gas, a new substance, carbon dioxide gas
is formed.”

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LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 3

Microscopic level:

Symbolic level (chemical equation):

C + O2 → CO2

In triangular form:

The macroscopic level of representation can be expressed in terms of the microscopic level
of representation as depicted below.

A balanced chemical equation is like a “recipe” of producing something. A recipe tells us

how much of something we have to use in order to come up with the desired product. A
chemical equation or recipe, in vernacular means, “naano an paghimo”.

For example, preparing a sandwich made up of two (2) sliced bread and one (1) sliced
cheese. Let us use “B” as the symbol for the sliced bread and “C” for the sliced cheese.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 4

Notice that even the microscopic representation of a chemical reaction can already be
likened to a recipe in making a sandwich. It was only simplified using a chemical equation which
uses symbols and formulas.

Another example:

2.3 Balancing Chemical Equation

Chemical equations are balanced by placing coefficients before a symbol or formula. The
coefficient must be the lowest whole number. The reason behind balancing chemical equation is
to conform to the “Law of Conservation of Mass” which states, “in an ordinary chemical
reaction, the quantity or amount of each atom, molecule, ion-pair, or molecule does not change”.
In other words, each side of the equation must represent the same quantity of each atom (or
element), or molecule, or ion-pair, or compound.

total mass of reactants = total mass of products

or,
total no. of atoms on the reactant side = total no. of atoms on the product side

Let us consider this analogy in making a triangle (word reaction), “to make a triangle
consists of two red sticks (R) and one green (G) stick.” If you express the microscopic
representation and symbolic representation (or chemical equation) as illustrated below, then you
are wrong.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 5

We need to balance a chemical equation to have the correct recipe. So, we add one red
stick on the microscopic representation and the coefficient “2” on the symbolic representation
(or chemical equation).

To reiterate, we balance a chemical equation by “putting” or “placing” a coefficient

(number) before the symbol or formula. The meaning of a coefficient is illustrated below.

Also, when balancing a chemical equation, do not change the subscripts of formulas.
Otherwise, you are changing the identity of the original substances involved in the chemical
reaction. One common mistake of students is they are changing the subscripts of chemical
formulas in order to balance an equation. To repeat, changing the subscript, changes the identity
of the substance and the balanced chemical equation is “wrong”.

Let me use again the colored sticks where the subscript is changed in an attempt to
balance the red stick (R) as illustrated below. Notice from the microscopic representation that
the product is not a triangle anymore and the green stick is not balance.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 6

If we change the subscript in the formula of water:

Assessment Task 4.1: The word reaction says, “A triangle is to be made that is consists of two
red sticks and one green stick. The red stick is available in pairs while the green stick is
available in single sticks.” Write the symbolic representation (balanced chemical
equation) of the formation of the triangle (chemical reaction) given the microscopic
representation below.

Here are the steps in balancing a chemical equation using the trial-and-error method (or
the erase-erase the coefficient method):

1. You must have the equation in symbol format, since you cannot balance a word reaction or
word equation.

Word reaction: “Tin oxide is heated with hydrogen gas to form tin metal and water vapor. “

Chemical equation: SnO2 + H2 → Sn + H2 O

2. Count and compare the number of each atom (or element) on each side of the equation and
determine those that must be balanced. (In a formula, the number of atoms is obtained by
multiplying the coefficient and subscript.)

3. Balance each atom (or element) one at a time, by placing whole numbers (coefficients) in front
of the symbols or formulas containing the unbalanced atom (or element). (The number “1”
as a coefficient is usually omitted or not reflected.) Re-check each time you balance an atom
(or element) to see if other atoms (or elements) has become unbalanced and make adjustments
as needed.

Since oxygen atom is not balance, we place “2” before H2O, resulting to equal number of oxygen
atoms.
SnO2 + H2 → Sn + 2 H2O

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LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 7

However, the hydrogen atoms are affected.

To balance the hydrogen atom, we put “2” before H2 and the whole chemical equation is
balanced.

4. Do a final check making sure that each element is balanced and that the smallest possible set
of whole number coefficients has been used.

Assessment Task 4.2: Balance the following chemical equations:

1. H2 + O2 → H2O
2. NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O
3. Ag + H2S + O2 → Ag2S + H2O
4. Pb(N3)2 + Cr(MnO4)2 → Cr2O3 + MnO2 + Pb3O4 + NO

I hope you have the honesty and bravery to solve the fourth item, which is complicated
and time consuming. I am not supposed to give it to you but you are an engineering student
and I want to check your mathematical ability by solving said item by algebraic method. So, here
is the process.

1. Place letters as coefficients and then we will the numerical values of these letters.

2. Balance the atoms (or elements) individually using the letter coefficients.

3. Choose a letter which will express the other letters in terms of the chosen letter, say “a”.

Start with a = 3e; automatically, e = a/3 and f = 6a in N balance. Express “b” in terms of “c” in
Cr balance, c = b/2; also in Mn balance, d = 2b.

What do you notice? Tama! We have two groups of related coefficients – one group is a, f, and e
and the other group is c, c, and d. What we do next is relate “a” and “b”. OK? Now substitute
values in O balance to obtain the relation between “a and b”.

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LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 8

Now, express “c” and “d” in terms of “a” by substituting the value of “b” in terms of “a”.

4. List the letters in alphabetical order in terms of ‘a’.

5. Choose a value for “a”, to eliminate the “a’s”, say, “1”; and a “number” to remove the
denominators, say, “15”.

6. Replace the letters in the equation with actual values.

7. Check if the atoms are balance.

Assessment Task 2.3: Balance the following equation:

2.3.1 Significance of a Balanced Chemical Equation

I said in my discussions above that a balanced chemical equation is like a recipe - how
much of the reactants we have to use in order to come up with the desired product. (In
vernacular, “naano an paghimo” or “gin-aano an paghimo”.) I will employ another colored
sticks analogy why we have to balance a chemical equation through the following “word
reaction”:

“A triangle (molecule, R2G) is to be made that is composed of two red sticks (R)
that are joined together (molecule, R2) and one green stick (atom, G) from green
sticks tied together (molecule, G2).”

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LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 9

What would be the “microscopic representation” and “symbolic representation” of the

reaction - the process of making a triangle? Do you agree with the answers provided below?

Wrong! The “word reaction” did not say to produce a triangle and one green stick! The word
reaction says “make a triangle made up of two red sticks and one green stick.” I expect that you
got what I mean, if not balik pagbasa utro tikang han tinikangan ngan intindiha imo ginbabasa!

So, the appropriate or correct microscopic and symbolic representations of the chemical
reaction (forming the triangle using the paired red and green sticks) are shown below.

Be critical when you are reading or when you are hearing/seeing presentations during
lectures about a balanced chemical equation! To repeat, iba an “naano an paghimo han
product/s” (balanced chemical equation or recipe) kontra han “pira an nahimo nga product/s”.

Assessment Question 2.1: Given the reactant mixture and product mixture in making a square
consists of three blue sticks and one red stick. Using the first letters of the colored sticks,
R for “red” and B for “blue” as symbols and formulas, write the balanced chemical
equation in making the required square.

Balanced chemical equation: _______________________________

(write answer here)

In chemistry, we use colored spheres (or circles) to represent atoms. The colored sticks I
used here are analogies but the theory behind are the same.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 10

Assessment Question 2.2: The red circle stands for oxygen atom, black circle for carbon atom
and white circle for hydrogen atom. The reactant mixtures before reaction and product
mixtures after the reaction is shown below. What is the balanced chemical equation of
the reaction?

Balanced chemical equation: ___________________________________

(write answer here)

2.3.2 Quantities of Reactants and Products

I have been saying that “how to make a product” is different from “how much product
will be formed”. “How to make the product” is the balanced chemical equation or recipe itself
while “how much product will be formed” will depend on the balanced chemical equation or
recipe.

The required reactants and products will depend on the balanced chemical equation. In
this case the required proportion in making the triangle is 2R2:1G2:2R2G. For example,

If you have 3 pieces of the paired red sticks and 2 pieces of the paired green sticks, do not
form an additional triangle because it is against the balanced chemical equation.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 11

Assessment Task 2.4: A square is to be constructed that is composed of alternating red sticks and
blue sticks with a green stick as diagonal. The balanced chemical equation shown
below. Given the reactant mixture, describe using drawings the content of the product
mixture.

In determining the amounts of reactants and products, you apply dimensional analysis
or the unit cancellation method where conversion ratios are employed.

Example: How many paired red sticks will be needed to make the triangle from 7 pieces of
the paired green sticks? How many triangles will be formed?

Given:

Solution:

pcs of red sticks = pcs of green sticks x conversion factor

The conversion factor is derived from the balanced equation based on the proportion of the
red and green sticks.

pcs R2G = 7 pcs G2 x conversion factor

2.4 The Mole

Let us assume you are a bank teller and a customer requested from you to change
P5,000.00 in P5.00 coins in preparation of the Christmas season for child carolers. What will you
do? Definitely, you will count the number of 5-peso coins that is equivalent to P5,000.00. But
how many hours do you think will it take you to finish counting 5-peso coins amounting to

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LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 12

P5,000.00, plus repeating the counting process to ensure that the number of the 5-coins you have
counted is exactly P5,000.00.

Well, you can do the job in a shorter period of time with less hassle if you are a critical
and analytical thinker. How?

First divide the P5,000.00 by P5.00 to obtain the number of P5.00 peso coins in P5,000.00
and this is equal to 1,000. Get a weighing balance and determine the mass of a single P5.00 coin.
From the mass obtained, multiply it with 1000 to get the mass of the 1000 pieces of the P5.00
coins. Then weigh this mass and you have exactly P5,000.00 in P5.00 coins.

Assessment Question 2.3: Explain how you will determine the thickness of a single sheet of
bond paper.

Atoms are very very small. The problem is how can you count something that you cannot
see. Instead of counting atoms individually, we have to weigh them to obtain the number of
atoms we want. Because of the very small nature of atoms, a unit of measure called the “mole”
is used in counting atoms, molecules, electrons, protons, neutrons, ions and others but not for
element and compound.

A mole is defined as the number of carbon-12 atoms whose mass is equivalent to 12

grams. This number of carbon atoms is equal to 6.02214 x 1023. To use an analogy, a mole is
similar to a pair, a dozen, or a ream. Like a pair, a dozen, or a ream, the mole are units or word
description for counting groups of items and they have constant numerical equivalents.

pair = 2 pieces dozen = 12 pieces ream = 500 pieces mole = 6.02 x 1023

But unlike the mole, 2 pieces or 12 pieces or 500 pieces have no name. The number 6.02 x 1023 is
called Avogadro’s number in honor to an Italian scientist by the name of Amadeo Avogadro.

Can you imagine how large Avogadro’s number? It is like this, you add 21 zeros to the
number 6.02 and the actual number is 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. How will you read this
very very large number? If we have this number of mongo beans
(602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 mongo beans), it would cover the Earth (assuming solid Earth)
at 6 feet thick.

It is correct to say 1 pair of atom or 2 dozens of molecules but the problem is, you will not
be able to see or hold these amounts of atoms or molecules because we are dealing with very
very small particles. It is also correct to say 1 mole of pencil, 1 mole of eggs, or 1 mole of carabaos,
but the problem is “where will we place these 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 pieces of pencils,
or eggs, or carabaos?” Putos na ngani an Earth hin mongo beans hini nga kadamo assay pa an
dagko nga butang.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 13

Recall that what I mentioned above, that a mole has a mass that is equivalent to the mass
of 12 grams of carbon-12 atoms and that a mole is equivalent to 6.02 x 1023 atoms.

1 mole of carbon-12 atoms = 6.02 x 1023 atoms = 12 grams

The question now is, “how do we obtain the mass equivalent of one mole of any substance
or 6.02 x 1023 particles of the substance”. For example, what would be the mass of one mole of
oxygen atoms or 6.02 x 1023 oxygen atoms?

Since, atomic masses of the different atoms (or elements) was obtained by comparing to
the atomic mass of C-12 (being the standard atom), the same is true with their masses.

The mass of one mole of oxygen atoms (6.02 x 1023 atoms) is calculated as illustrated
below.

Let us try also finding the mass of one mole of Cr (equivalent to 6.02 x 1023 atoms of
chromium) and the relations are:

Then,

Do you notice something? Yes, the mass of one mole of any element (or atoms) is
numerically equal to its atomic mass expressed in “grams”. Why, because the ratio for the
standard atom (C-12) is one (12 amu/12grams) and any number multiplied by one is still the
same number. Because of this observation, we can immediately determine the mass of one mole
of any substance. One mole (6.02 x 1023 particles) of any element is numerically equivalent to
its atomic mass expressed in grams. Meaning, we just change the unit “amu” to “grams” to
obtain the mass of one mole of an element.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

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For any element:

1 mole of an element = 6.02 x 1023 atoms = atomic mass with unit in ‘grams”

For any compound:

1 mole of a compound = 6.02 x 1023 molecules or formula units = formula mass with unit
in “grams”

For example, how do we determine the mass of one mole of the following:

1. Na 2. Fe 3. H2O 4. CaCO3

First, determine the atomic masses of the elements and formula masses of the compounds.
Then, change the unit “amu” to “grams”.

Atomic mass Mass of one mole

Na 22.99 amu 22.99 grams

Fe 55.845 amu 55.845 grams

Formula mass Mass of one mole

H2O 2(1.00794 amu) + 15.999 amu = 18.01488 amu 18.01488 grams

CaCO3 40.08 amu + 12.01 amu + 3(15.999 amu) = 100.087 amu 100.087 grams

The relation between a particle, number of particles, and the mole is depicted below for
water.

By the way, so that we will have the same answers every time we use atomic mass in
problem solving, we use atomic mass rounded off to the nearest whole number. Example, for
Na it is 23 amu; for Fe it should be 56 amu. Since we rounded off the atomic masses,
automatically we will obtain whole numbers for formula masses. For water, it is 18 amu and 100
amu for calcium carbonate.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 15

Assessment Task 2.5: Write the six (6) conversion factors (ratios) that you can derive from the
relations below:

1 mole of any substance = 6.02 x 1023 particles = atomic or formula mass in grams

2.4.1 The Mole and Chemical Equation

Again and again, let me use the colored sticks analogy.

How do we read the balanced chemical equation? It’s like this,

“two pieces (or two molecules) of R2 will react with one piece (or one molecule) of
G2 to form two pieces (or two molecules) of R2G.”

That is, we consider the “coefficients” by “piece” of counting – atoms or molecules.

The coefficients can also be interpreted in a larger aspect like a dozen or mole. For
example, the reaction below (forming a triangle) could be read as,

“two dozens (or two moles) of R2 will react with one dozen (or one mole) of G2 to
form two dozens (or two moles) of R2G.”

The subscripts should also be interpreted accordingly.

Assessment Task 2.6: Write how you will read the following balanced chemical equation.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

LEARNING PACKET 2B | Chemistry for Engineers 16

2.4.2 Molar Mass

Another very important property of elements and compounds is ”molar mass” which has
the unit “gram/mole”. Simply, molar is defined as the mass of one mole of any substance
(atoms, molecules, formula units or ion-pair, element, compound, etc.).

So, the molar masses of Na (atomic mass 23 amu), Fe (atomic mass 56 amu), and H 2O
(formula mass 18 amu).

Na, molar mass = 23 grams/mole

Fe, molar mass = 56 grams/mole
H2O, molar mass = 18 grams/mole

All these masses will contain the same number of particles even if they have different masses:

6.02 x 1023 atoms of Na, 6.02 x 1023 atoms of Fe, and 6.02 x 1023 molecules H2O

Assessment Task 2.7: Determine the molar mass of the following compounds.
1. C6H12O6 2. (NH4)2SO4

2.4.3 Mole-Mass Conversion

Conversions of mass to moles or moles to mass are frequently encountered in chemistry

calculations. These calculations are simplified using dimensional analysis using conversion
factors as illustrated below.

2.4.3.1 Converting Grams to Moles

Sample Exercise 2.1:

Calculate the number of moles of glucose (C6H12O6) molecules in 5.380 g of C6H12O6.
We are given the mass of glucose and its formula and required to calculate the number
of moles. This is a simple conversion from unit of measurement (grams) to another unit of
measurement (mole). We need a conversion factor or ratio that will change “grams to mole”.
We have a conversion factor or ratio like the “molar mass” but the placement of the units of
measurements is “grams/mole”. What we do is to use its reciprocal (1/molar mass) and the
unit becomes “mole/grams”.

We proceed by computing the molar mass of glucose by getting first its formula mass.

Therefore, the molar mass of glucose (C6H12O6) is 180 grams/mole. Solving,

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Take note that the answer is less than 1 mole and this is reasonable since the given mass of
5.38 g is less than molar mass of 180 g/mole. Moreover, if will apply the rule in significant
figures, the answer should be 0.0299 mole.

Assessment Task 2.8: How many moles of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) are in 508 g of
NaHCO3?

Assessment Task 2.9: How many moles of water are in 1.00 L of water, whose density is
1.00g/mL?

2.4.3.2 Converting Moles to Grams

Sample Exercise 2.2:

Calculate the mass, in grams, of 0.433 mole of calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2.
We are given the number of mole, the name of the substance, and asked to calculate the
number of grams of the substance.
0.433 mole → grams (?)

We need to know the molar mass which is derive from the formula mass.
formula mass, Ca(NO3)2 = Ca + 2N + 6O = 40 amu + 2(14 amu) + 6(16 amu) = 164 amu
Solving,

The given mole is less than 1 (0.433 mole), so we expect a mass (71.0 g) less than its molar mass
(164 g/mole). The answer is reasonable.

Assessment Task 2.10: What is the mass, in grams, of 6.33 moles of NaHCO3?

Assessment Task 2.11: What is the mass, in grams, of 0.155 mole of ammonium chloride,
(NH4)Cl?

2.4.3.3 Converting Number of Particles to Mass or Mole and Vice Versa

Sample Exercise 2.3:

How many molecules of bromine are present in 0.045 mole of bromine gas (Br2)?

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We are given the number of mole, the name of the substance, and asked to calculate the
number of bromine molecules.
0.045 mole → number of Br2 molecules

There is no need to look form the molar mass since we know a conversion or ratio between
number of moles and Avogadro’s number.
Solving,

In problem solving in chemistry, you have to indicate also the substance aside from the
unit. Otherwise, you will not arrive to the correct answer. Observe that I did not indicate the
substance in the ratio 6.02 x 1023 molecules/1 mole. Anyway, Br2 will cancel out.

It would be different if you will indicate either of the two units only with the particular
substance. In the first case, the bromine became “squared” while second case, “no mention of
the identity of the substance”.
Case 1

Case 2

There are many chances of not arriving to the correct answer, with the solution as
exemplified below.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

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Sample Exercise 2.4:

How many molecules of water are present in 1.50 g of water?
We are given the mass of the substance, the name of the substance, and required to calculate
the number of molecules. We do not have a direct relationship between mass and number of
particles, instead mole to number of particles. So, we need to convert mass to mole using
molar mass.

Solving,

Assessment Task 2.12: Perform the required operations.

1. 6.2 x 1023 molecules of CO2 → ? mass of CO2
2. 5.12 g NH3 → ? molecules of NH3

Assessment Task 2.13: How many atoms are present in 0.551 g of potassium (K)? How many
moles are there in this mass of potassium? What is the mass of each K atom?

2.5 Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions

Stoichiometry is the study of quantitative relationships between amounts (mole, mass or

volume) of reactants and products in a chemical reaction based on the balanced chemical
equation (or recipe). Through stoichiometry, we can determine the amount or quantities of
reactants used and those in excess; the quantity of products formed; and how much reactants is
needed to produce a desired amount or quantity of product. Stoichiometry bridges the
macroscopic level of representation and the symbolic level of representation.

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Before we go deeper into stoichiometry, I would like you to answer two (2) conceptual
questions below. You can continue reading the module if you think you have answered them
correctly because it will help you understand the discussion that will follow. Basically, it is
similar to the colored sticks analogy.

Assessment Question 2.4: The reaction between reactant A (blue spheres) and reactant B (red
spheres) is shown in the following diagram:

Based on this diagram, what is the balanced chemical equation for the reaction?

Assessment Task 2.14: In the following diagram, the white spheres represent hydrogen atoms,
the black spheres carbon atoms, and the red spheres oxygen atoms.

In this reaction, there are two reactants, ethylene, C2H4, which is shown, and oxygen, O2,
which is not shown, and two products, CO2 and H2O, both of which are shown. (a) Write a
balanced chemical equation for the reaction. (b) Determine the number of O2 molecules that
should be shown in the left (reactants) box.

The discussion that follows will now focus on “mole” and “mass” instead of number of
pieces of colored balls or colored sticks. If you have mastered the discussion above using
“number of pieces” of colored sticks or balls in interpreting a balanced chemical equation, then
there is no reason why you will not be able to understand the discussion that follows.

E.A. Malindog Jr.

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REMINDER: before solving any stoichiometric problem, be sure that the chemical equation is
balanced!

Sample Exercise 2.5:

Given the reaction below: 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
1. How many moles of the reactants are needed to form 4 moles of water?
2. In 3 moles of oxygen gas, how many grams of hydrogen would we need to react and how
much water in grams would we get?
3. What if we had 50 grams of hydrogen, how many grams of oxygen would we need and how
many grams of water would we produce?
Given:
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
1. 4 moles H2O
2. 3 moles O2
3. 50 g H2

Required:
1. moles H2 and moles O2
2. mass of H2 needed to react and mass of H2O that will be produced
3. mass of O2 that will react and mass of H2O that will be formed

Solution:

E.A. Malindog Jr.

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Assessment Task 2.15: The reaction between potassium chlorate (KClO3) and red phosphorus
(P4) takes place when you strike a match on a matchbox. If you were to react 52.9 g of
potassium chlorate with excess red phosphorus, what mass of tetraphosphorus
decaoxide (P4O10) could be produced?

KClO3 + P4 → P4O10 + KCl

2.6 Limiting and Excess Reagent

Let us go back to the colored sticks analogy shown below.

Suppose we have ten (10) pieces of the red sticks and seven (7) of the green sticks. How many
triangles can we produce?

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So, the best way to determine the number of triangles that will be formed is to perform
two trials. First trial would be to determine the number of the green sticks that will “react” with
the red sticks to form the triangles. Second trial is to determine the number (or pieces) of red
sticks that will “react” with the green sticks to form the triangles. This is because the number (or
pieces) of triangles that will be formed will depend on the number of red and green sticks
available.

Solving,

The 10 pieces of red sticks will require 5 pieces of the green sticks to form the triangle.
But available are 7 pieces of green sticks. The implication is that all the 10 pieces of red sticks
will be used up while 2 pieces of the green sticks will remain unused. On the other, 7 pieces of
the green sticks will require 14 pieces of the red sticks to form the triangles. However, there are
only 10 pcs of the red sticks that are available. We can conclude that the formation of the
triangles will depend on the number of red sticks available. The number of triangles that will
be formed is,

We consider the red sticks as the limiting reagent. A limiting reagent is the substance that
controls the formation of the product(s), meaning the amount or quantity of the product that
will be formed will depend on the limiting reagent. On the other hand, the substance that is
present in greater amount is the called the excess reagent. In this case, it is the green sticks.

excess G2 = 7 pcs – 5 pcs = 2 pieces

This analogy is the same as the cheese sandwich analogy. Before we proceed to real
chemistry, perform the Assessment Tasks below.

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Assessment Question 2.5: Given the reaction: 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O, what is the limiting
reagent? (Oxygen gas in red and hydrogen gas in white.)

The analogies above used pieces of the sticks and triangles, and pieces of colored balls as
coefficients in the balanced equation, but bear in mind that the “mole” is directly related to
“number of particles”. Now let us apply the concepts of limiting reagent and excess reagent to
real chemistry.

Sample Exercise 2.6:

100.0 g of calcium chloride (CaCl2) is reacted with 100.0 g silver nitrate (AgNO3) to form
calcium nitrate [Ca(NO3)2] and silver chloride (AgCl). a) identify the limiting reagent, b)
identify the excess reagent and how much is the excess, and c) the mass of calcium nitrate and
silver chloride produced.
Given: CaCl2 = 100.0 g and AgNO3 = 100.0 g
Required:
a) limiting reagent
b) amount of excess reagent
c) c) amount or mass of products – Ca(NO3)2 and AgCl
Solution:
Since the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation are in terms of “moles” and the
given information are expressed in “mass”, definitely I will be needing molar masses. So, I
will determine them first.

CaCl2 = 40 amu + 2(35 amu) = 110 amu

AgNO3 = 108 amu + 14 amu + 3(16 amu) = 170 amu
Ca(NO3)2 = 40 amu + 2(14 amu) + 6(16 amu) = 164 amu
AgCl = 108 amu + 35 amu = 143 amu

Based on the “word reaction” or problem statement, the reaction is not balanced:
CaCl2 + AgNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + AgCl
The balanced chemical reaction or equation is,
CaCl2 + 2 AgNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + 2 AgCl
a) Limiting reagent

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It is very clear that AgNO3 is the limiting reagent. Notice that 0.909 mole of CaCl2 will require
1.82 moles of AgNO3 but what is available is only 0.588 mole AgNO3.

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Assessment Task 2.16: Cisplatin [Pt(NH3)2Cl2], an anticancer agent used for the treatment of
solid tumors, is prepared by the reaction of ammonia (NH3) with potassium
tetrachloroplatinate (K2PtCl4). Assume that 10.0 g of K2PtCl4 and 10.0 g of NH3 are
allowed to react.

K2PtCl4 + 2 NH3 → Pt(NH3)2Cl2 + 2 KCl

a) Which reactant is limiting, and which is in excess?

b) How many grams of the excess reactant are consumed, and how many grams remain?
c) How many grams of cisplatin are formed?

2.7 Percent Yield

In the stoichiometry examples you have encountered, it was assumed that all reactions
“go to completion”. That is, reactants molecules used are converted to products. In fact, few
reactions behave that way. More often, a large majority of molecules react as expected, but other
processes, or side reactions, also occur. Thus, the amount of product actually formed, called the
yield of the reaction, is usually less than the amount predicted by calculations.

Again, let me use an analogy shown below.

Suppose we have “30 kernels of corn” and we want to make a popcorn. We expect to produce
30 popcorns. However, only 22 kernels were converted into popcorn when the 30 kernels were
placed in hot cooking oil. We call the 30 kernels as the “theoretical yield” (expected product)
and the 22 popcorns as the “actual yield” (actual product).

The amount of product actually formed in a reaction divided by the amount theoretically
possible and multiplied by 100% is the reaction’s percent yield.

For the popcorn analogy,

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Again, in chemistry, we do not employ number of atoms or number of molecules when

accounting how many reactants were used or how many products were formed or will be
formed. Instead, we use mass.

Sample Exercise 2.7:

Ethyl alcohol (C2H6O) is prepared industrially by the reaction of ethylene (C2H4) with water.
What is the percent yield of the reaction if 4.6 g of ethylene gives 4.7 g of ethyl alcohol?

C2H4 + H2O → C2H6O

Given:
ethylene = 4.6 g ethyl alcohol = 4.7 g
Required: % yield
Solution:
The first you should do is determine how many moles of ethyl alcohol will be formed from 4.6
grams ethylene. This will require converting the mass of ethylene to moles and determining
how many moles of ethyl alcohol will be produced. Convert the number of moles of ethyl
alcohol into its mass equivalent. Then, compare if the mass of ethyl alcohol to the actual yield
as stipulated in the problem.

Find the mole equivalent of 4.6 g ethylene:

Look for the number of moles of ethyl alcohol that will be formed:

Convert moles to mass of the expected mass of alcohol that will be produced.

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The result says that 4.6 g of C2H4 will produce 7.54 g of C2H6O. However, when the reaction
occurred, only 4.7 g was produced.

Assessment Task 2.17: Methanol (CH3OH), also called methyl alcohol, is the simplest alcohol.
It is used as a fuel in race cars and is a potential replacement for gasoline. Methanol can
be manufactured by combining gaseous carbon monoxide (CO2) and hydrogen (H2).
Suppose 68.5 kg CO2 is reacted with 8.60 kg H2. Calculate the theoretical yield of
methanol if 3.57 g CH3OH is actually produced, what is the percent yield of methanol?

Assessment Question 2.6: In percent yield, why do we use “mass” in the computation instead
of “mole”?

2.8 Chemical Reaction in Aqueous Solution

Consider the reaction:

For the above chemical reaction to occur, the reacting chemical species must come into
contact or collide.

However, when the reactants are in the solid state, only few collisions could occur which make
the reaction slower due to less surface contact between the reacting species.

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One way to increase the collision to form more products it to separate the particles of the
reacting substances.

It is for this reason that most chemical reactions are carried out in the liquid state or in solution
rather than in the solid state. It becomes necessary to have a standard means to describe the
exact quantities of reacting substances in solution.

2.8.1 Molarity

The most useful means of expression a solution’s concentration is molarity (M) which is
defined as “the number of moles of a substance, or solute, dissolved in enough solvent to make
one liter of solution”.

By “concentration”, we mean the comparison between two substances expressed as a ratio. The
unit quantities could be the same or similar. For example, molarity is just one method of
expressing concentration. The substances and the units being compared are different. The
“moles of solute” is being compared to the “liter of solution”. So, if we have two solutions of
different concentrations like the ones below,

we say, solution B is more concentrated than solution A.

Before we proceed further, allow me to have a very short review for the benefit of the
non-STEM senior graduates. A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture of two or more
different substances. Usually, one of the many substances in the mixture is called the “solvent”
and the rest are considered the “solute or solutes”. The solvent is usually defined as the
substance that is present in “greater” while solutes are substances in “lesser” amount or
quantity. Generally, the solvent is water unless otherwise stipulated.

In practice, a solution of known molarity is prepared by weighing an appropriate amount

of solute and placing it in a container called a volumetric flask. Enough solvent is added to
dissolve the solute, and further solvent is added until the accurately calibrated final volume is
reached. The solution is then shaken unit it’s uniformly mixed.

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Let us say, you want to prepare 250 mL of a 1.00 M of copper sulfate (CuSO 2) solution.
What you will do is to weigh out 39.9 grams of copper sulfate and put the same inside a
volumetric flask. Add enough water to dissolve the copper sulfate. Finally, add more water until
the liquid level reaches exactly the 250-mL mark. (Figure shown above.)

The question now, “how was the 39.9 grams obtained or why 39.9 grams? Well, you
determine it from the definition of the mole by substituting the known quantities – volume of
solution, concentration of the solution, and operational definition of moles.

Applying dimensional analysis (by unit cancellation),

The equation derived from the definition of molarity becomes,

Formula mass of CuSO4 = 64 amu + 32 amu + 4(16 amu) = 160 amu

Substituting known values:

If you analyze the solution of the sample exercise above, you will notice than “molarity”
functions as a “conversion factor” to relate a solution’s volume to the number of moles of solute.

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If we know the molarity and volume of a solution, we can calculate the number of moles of
solute. If we know the number of moles of solute and the molarity of the solution, we can find
the solution’s volume.

Sample Exercise 2.8: Calculating the molarity of a solution

What is the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 2.355 g of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in water
and diluting to a final volume of 50.0mL?

Given: solute = 2.355 g H2SO4 volume of solution 50.0 mL

Required: molarity of the solution
Solution:
Formula mass of H2SO4 = 2(1 amu) + 32 amu + 4(16 amu) = 98 amu
By definition:

Substituting values into the definition of molarity:

Sample Exercise 2.9: Calculating number of moles

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is sold commercially as a 12.0 M aqueous solution. How many moles
of HCl are in 300.0 mL of 12.0 M solution.
Given:
commercial HCl = 12.0 M
volume of solution = 300.0 mL
Required: moles HCl in 300.0 mL of commercial HCl
Solution: (It is better if you can make an illustration or diagrammatic representation of the
problem like the one below.)

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By definition of molarity:

Rearranging in terms of what is required and substituting values,

Sample Exercise 2.10: Calculating volume of a solution with the required amount of solute
How many milliliters of a 0.20 M glucose (C6H12O6) solution are needed to provide a total of
25.0 g of glucose.

Given:
concentration = 0.20 M glucose
mass equivalent = 25.5 g
Required: volume of the solution which contains 25.0 g glucose

Solution:
formula mass C6H12O6 = 6(12 amu) + 12(1 amu) + 6(16 amu) = 180 amu
By definition,

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Rearranging in terms of the unknown and substituting values,

Sample Exercise 2.11: Diluting a solution (addition of water to a solution)

You are given a solution of 14.8 M NH3. How many milliliters of this solution do you require
to give 100.0 mL of 1.00 M NH3 when diluted?

Given:

Required:

Solution:

First you determine the number of moles present in the 100.0 mL of 1.00 M NH3 using the
definition of molarity. Once you have determined the number of moles, using the definition
again of molarity, determine the volume of the 14.8 M NH3 solution. This is because the
number of moles does not change but it is the volume of the solvent.

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(Actually, there is a shortcut method of solving this and the above sample exercises. But I do
not want you become robots. I have to produce engineers with critical and analytical thinking
abilities.)

In the 100.0 mL of 1.00 M solution:

In concentrated sol’n (14.8 M):

Assessment Task 2.18: How many milliliters of 3.0 M H2SO4 are needed to make 450 mL of
0.10 M H2SO4 solution?

2.8.2 Solution Stoichiometry

So far, we have taken up chemical calculations that involved pure substances where
masses were obtained by weighing through the molar masses of the substances involved in the
reactions. In this topic, we employ substances in solution where their amount or quantity are
measured by volume instead of mass. The balanced chemical equation still holds true in this
respect.

Sample Exercise 2.12: Diluting a solution (addition of water to a solution)

A flask contains a solution with an unknown amount of hydrogen chloride (HCl). A 0.207 M
of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was added to the unknown HCl solution. It took 4.47 mL of the
NaOH solution to complete the reaction. What is the mass of HCl present in the unknown
solution?
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

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Given:

Required: amount (mass) of HCl in the unknown solution

Solution:
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

From the volume and concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution, you calculate the moles
present.

Then, calculate the moles HCl that will react with 0.00925 mole of NaOH. Using molar mass
of HCl, convert the mole to mass.

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Assessment Task 2.19: A 5.00 g sample of vinegar (contains acetic acid) is titrated (reacted)
with 0.108 M NaOh. If the vinegar requires 39.1 mL of NaOH solution for complete
reaction, what mass percentage of acetic acid (HC2H3O2), in the vinegar? The reaction
is
HC2H3O2 + NaOH → NaC2H3O2 + H2O

2.9 Assignment

1. Given the reactant mixture and product mixture in making a triangle. Using the first letters of
the colored sticks (R for red and G for green) as symbols and formulas, write the balanced
equation in making a triangle.

2. Coke (C) is an impure form of carbon that is often used in the industrial production of metals
from their oxides. If a sample of coke is 95% carbon by mass, determine the mass of coke
needed to react completely with 1.0 ton of copper oxide (CuO). ( 1 ton  1000 kg)

2 CuO + C → 2 Cu + CO2

3. You react nitrogen gas (N2) and hydrogen gas (H2) in a container to produce ammonia, NH3.
The following figure depicts the contents of the container after the reaction is complete.

a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

b. What is the limiting reagent?
c. How much molecules of the limiting reactant would you need to add to the container
in order to have a complete reaction (convert all reactants to products)?

4. Which (if any) of the following is (are) true regarding the limiting reactant in a chemical
reaction?

a. The limiting reactant has the lowest coefficient in a balanced equation.

b. The limiting reactant is the reactant for which you have the fewest number of moles.
c. The limiting reactant has the lowest ratio of moles available/coefficient in the
balanced equation.
d. The limiting reactant has the lowest ratio of coefficient in the balanced equation/moles
available.

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Justify your choice. For those you did not choose, explain why they are incorrect.

5. Consider the equation 3A + B → C + D. You react 4 moles of A with 2 moles of B. Which of

the following statement is true?

a. The limiting reactant is the one with the higher molar mass.
b. A is the limiting reactant because you need 6 moles of A and have 4 moles.
c. B is the limiting reactant because you have fewer moles of B than A.
d. B is the limiting reactant because three A molecules react with each B molecule.
e. Neither reactant is limiting.
Justify your choice. For those you did not choose, explain why there are incorrect.
6. Lithium oxide (Li2O) is used aboard the space shuttle to remove water from the air supply. If
80.0 kg of water is to be removed and 65 kg of Li2O is available, which reactant is limiting?
How many kilograms of the excess reactant remain?

Li2O + H2O → 2 LiOH

7. After lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is produced aboard the space shuttle by reaction of Li2O with
H2O, it is used to removed exhaled carbon doxide (CO2) from the air supply. How many
grams of CO2 can 500.0 g of LiOH absorb?

LiOH + CO2 → LiHCO3

8. What does it mean to say a reactant is present “in excess” in a process? Can the limiting
reactant be present in excess? Does the presence of an excess of a reactant affect the mass of
products expected for a reaction?

9. What is the molarity of the 300.00 mL solution in Sample Exercise 8?

10. Diethyl ether (C4H10O), the “ether” used medically as an anesthetic, is prepared commercially
by treatment of ethyl alcohol (C2H6O) with an acid. How many grams of diethyl ether would
you obtain from 40.0 g of ethyl alcohol if the percent yield of the reaction is 87%?

2 C2H6O → C4H10O + H2O

11. A 250 ml of 0.5 M H3PO4 solution was boiled until it’s volume decreased to 100 ml. What is
final or new concentration of the solution?

12. Stomach acid, a dilute solution of HCl in water, can be neutralized by reaction with sodium
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) according to the equation

HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2 O + CO2

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How many milliliters of 0.125 M NaHCO3 solution are needed to neutralize 18.0 mL of 0.100
M HCl?
2.10 References

Brown, L. and Holme, T. (2015). Chemistry for Engineering Students. 3rd Edition. United States:
Cengage Learning.
Brown, T., LeMay, H., Bursten, B., Murphy, C., Woodward, P., and Stoltzfus, M. (2015).
Chemistry: The Central Science. 13th Edition. New York: Pearson
Zumdahl, S. and Zumdahl, S. (2014). Chemistry. 9th Edition. United States: Cengage Learning

2.11 Acknowledgement

All figures, diagrams, tables and other information contained in this module were taken
from the references enumerated above.

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