LEARNING PACKET 1 | Chemistry for Engineers 1

UNIT 1

Review of Basic Chemistry Concepts 1

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a. Describe the activities that are part of the scientific method.

b. Discuss the difference between mass and weight.
c. Write a conversion factor for two units that describe the same quantity.

1.1 Introduction

The study of chemistry-related courses like organic chemistry, biochemistry, etc. requires
a sound understanding of the basic principles and theories of general chemistry. This is true
because chemistry is considered the central science. The journey in learning chemistry is very
easy provided you have a solid understanding of the basic concepts behind it like what is the
scientific method or what is matter? Regardless of the area of specialization one pursuing,
measurement is always involved. So, before you embark on a long journey with other
chemistry-related courses, it is a must that we review several basic concepts on matter and
measurement.

1.2 Chemistry Unlocked

Erase from your mind any ideas about chemistry that you have learned elsewhere.
Whether you are a STEM or a non-STEM graduate, you have to embrace this new knowledge
which I will be sharing to you.

To start with, what is chemistry? Simply, chemistry is a science which deals with the
study of matter; its properties, structure, composition, changes, and the energy involved during
the change. To help you further understand what chemistry is, I am presenting you another
view of the definition of chemistry as illustrated below.

1.2.1 Chemistry is a Science

To fully understand what chemistry is, you should know the meaning of the terms or
words used to define it, am I right? So, we start with the term “science”. With my 30 years plus
of teaching high school chemistry; engineering chemistry; and chemistry of students majoring
in chemistry, physics or science; this is how students defined “science”:

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“Science is a systematized body of knowledge that is based on facts and principles.”

If we liken “science” to a “coin”, the above definition is just one side of the coin. The question
to the above definition is “how was the body knowledge obtained?” This is the missing part of
the definition that was not emphasized in your elementary and high school science – the how?
The missing side is the “process” aspect of science – performing experiments and conducting
research that results to knowledge.

So, science is both a product (knowledge) and a process (conducting research) as shown
below.

“Science is a systematized body of knowledge that is based on facts and principles” is the
“product” side of science. The “process” side of science is the activities done by scientists like
performing experiments or conducting researches.

The “process” side of science involves the application of what we call the “science process
skills.” These science process skills are grouped into two: basic science process skills and
integrated science process skills. When we say “basic science process skills”, it means
“foundation skills”, in vernacular means “tinikangan”. For example, you will not learn the skill
how to ride a bicycle not unless you have the skill to balance your body relative to the movement
of the bicycle.

On the other hand, the integrated science process skills are the combinations of the
different basic science process skills.

1.2.2 Science Process Skills: The Basic Process Skills

There are six (6) basic science process skills: observing, communicating, classifying,
measuring, inferring, and predicting.

1. Observing – is the process of collecting information or data about an event’s or object’s

characteristics, attributes, properties, similarities, differences and other identification features
using the 5 senses with or without the aid of an instrument. Collecting information or data using
the five (5) senses alone is considered as a “qualitative observation” while the aid of instruments
are considered “quantitative observations.”

Examples: A. The pencil has a yellow color. B. The pencil is 5 inches long.

Example “A” is a “qualitative observation” while example B is a “quantitative observation.” A

qualitative observation is NOT AN EXACT description of the characteristic of the pencil since it
will create debate – how yellow it is? Light yellow? Dark yellow? How light or how dark is the
yellow color? On the other hand, example “B” is a quantitative observation which is EXACT and

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will not create debate among observers. The observation that the pencil is five (5) inches long is
five inches. It is not four (4) inches or six (6) inches.

2. Classifying – is the process of grouping and ordering objects according to a certain

characteristic.

Example: A child placing objects of different shapes or color into one group.

3. Measuring – is the process of “comparing” of an unknown physical quantity to be

measured with a standard physical quantity (instrument or tool) of the same unit.

Example: Using a meter stick to measure the length of a block of wood in centimeters.

If you want to determine the length (unknown physical quantity) of a block of wood, you use a
ruler or meter stick (instrument) since the units of the two quantities being compared are the
same like inch or centimeter as illustrated below. You cannot use a weighing balance since the
unit of a weighing balance is not in inch or centimeter.

So, the length of the block of wood is 8.6 times of an inch or 8.6 inches.

4. Inferring – this involves forming ideas to explain observations about an object or event
based on previously gathered data or information.
Example: Saying that the person who used a pencil made a lot of mistakes because the
eraser was well worn.
5. Communicating – it refers to the use of multimedia, written, graphs, images, action,
objects or event or other means to share observation or findings.

Example 1: Textual communication – “Putting equal amount of fertilizer every end of the
week will cause an increase of a plant growth in terms of height”.

Example 2: Graphical communication

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“The graph is telling us that as we add more fertilizer, the height of the plant increases.”
6. Predicting – making a guess or stating the outcome of a future event based on a pattern
of collected evidence.
Example: Saying something about the height of a plant at the fifth week based on a graph
of the plant’s growth in height on the amount of fertilizer added every week.

The graph shows a linear relationship between height of the plant and the amount of
fertilizer added per week – 1st week, 3 grams; 2nd week, another 3 grams for a total of 6 grams
added; and so on and so forth. However, the available data is only around 10.5 grams (end of
red slanting line). Now, you can predict the height of the plant on the fifth week (total of 15
grams had been added) by extrapolation. This is done by extending the straight line. From the
15 grams on the x-axis, draw a line parallel to the y-axis until it hits the slanting line, draw a
straight line parallel to the x-axis until it hits the y-axis, then you read the value of the height.

Assessment Question 1.1: To say an insect released a dark, sticky liquid from its mouth is
a/an
A. observation. B. communication. C. inference. D. prediction.

1.2.3 Science Process Skills: The Integrated Process Skills

As mentioned above, the integrated science process skills are the combinations of the
different basic science process skills.

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1. Formulating a Hypothesis - stating an expected outcome of an observation or making

a prediction (educated guess) based on evidence of prior observation, research and
investigations.
Example: The greater the amount of fertilizer added to the soil, the greater the bean
growth.

A hypothesis is a temporary explanation or proposed prediction of an observation which needs

to be verified or tested by performing an experiment.

2. Controlling variables - being able to identify variables that can affect an experimental
outcome, keeping most constant while manipulating only the independent variable. (A variable
is something that vary in value or characteristics.)

Example: You want to determine the effect of fertilizer on the growth of a plant. You
know aside from fertilizer, water and sunlight also affect the growth of a plant.
To determine the effect of fertilizer then you have to control the effect of
sunlight and water.

Assessment Question 1.2 below involves controlling variables.

3. Defining operationally - stating how to measure a variable or specific term to describe

what is happening in an investigation based on observable characteristics.
Example: Stating that bean growth will be measured in centimeters per week means you
are defining operationally “bean growth”.

4. Interpreting data - organizing data collected from an investigation, analyzing the data
and drawing conclusions from it.
Example: Recording data from the experiment on bean growth in a data table and
forming a conclusion which relates trends in the data to variables.

Assessment Question 1.2: Which of the following statements could be considered as an

interpretation rather than an observation?
A. Nobody answers the ringing of the doorbell.
B. The windows of the house are all closed.
C. Nobody is in the house.
D. No sound is heard from inside the house.

5. Experimenting - carrying out an investigation to verify a question or hypothesis,

identifying and controlling variables, operationally defining those variables, designing a "fair"
procedure in collecting data, analyzing the data and interpreting the results of the analysis.
Example: The entire process of conducting the effect of fertilizer on the growth of bean
plants.

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Assessment Question 1.3: Which of the following arrangements will determine the effect of
fertilizer on the growth of a plant?

As you can see from the different figures below, there is no single scientific method. The
scientific method is the imaginative, logical, objective, systematic and creative application of the
different science process skills in solving a problem.

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There are many scientific methods, depending on the nature of the specific problem under
study and the area of specialization of the investigator. The sequence or arrangement in the

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application of the different process skills is not uniform and vary from one discipline to another
discipline.

1.2.4 Matter Defined

If you consult dictionaries or general reference books, matter is not being defined in these
sources, but rather the sources would enumerate examples of matter. For example, one book
would describe matter as “the things that’s all around us: the metal and plastic of a cellphone,
the paper and ink of a book, the glass and liquid of a bottle of soda, the air we breathe, and the
materials that make up our body, etc. “ These are examples of matter, it is not a definition.

The question again to these examples of matter is, “what makes the metal and plastic of
a cellphone, the paper and ink of a book, etc.” to be considered as “matter.” The answer to this
question would lead to the definition of what matter is.

A more formal definition (from chemistry books) of matter is, “anything that takes up
space and has mass.” Let’s simplify the definition using a diagram.

Do you know what space is? How about mass? If you do know these terms, then you have the
scientific understanding of what “matter” is. But I doubt, sorry for being skeptical. If this is a
face-to-face encounter, I would ask each one of you what “space” and “mass” are?

Assessment Question 1.4: Consider yourself standing on the ground. Using a stick, you trace
the “area” occupied by your feet. Then you jump away from the marking. Is the
marking previously occupied by your feet “matter”? Explain.

The second characteristic of matter is that it has “mass”. Have you encountered the word
“mass” in your day-to-day activities? I am doubtful. But I am sure you are familiar with the
term “weight”. Matter has a “mass” and it has also a “weight”. So, what is the similarity and
differences of the two terms aside from the spelling?

First, the two terms are similar since both of them have the same “unit” like kilograms,
grams, pounds, etc.

Kindly refer to a dictionary and a chemistry book (available in the computer provided at
the learning center) and look for the definitions of matter, mass and weight. More or less here
are the definitions.

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Mass is the amount or quantity of matter that composes an object or substance.

What do you notice regarding the definition of “matter” and “mass”? Very confusing,
nakakalito! The word “mass” is used to define “matter” and the word “matter” is used to define

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“mass”. There is no end or beginning as illustrated below – binibilog yong utak natin kaya hindi
maintindihan.

A more concrete definition of “mass” would be “the number of particles present in a substance
or object.” We replace the phrase “quantity of matter” with “number of particles” in the
definition. So, the definitions would become clear enough – there is a beginning and an end.

Matter is anything that takes occupies space and has mass.

Mass is the number of particles present in a substance or object.

Now we contrast “mass” with “weight” in order gain a more deeper understanding of
the term “mass.”

Mass is the number of particles present in a substance or object.

Weight is the degree of the gravitational pull of the earth towards the particles of a substance or
object.

The “number of particles” (mass) and “degree of gravitational pull” (weight) have the same unit
- kilogram, gram, pound, etc.

Let us assume that a man is made up of 12 particles equivalent to a mass of 12 kg. The
degree of the pull of gravity to the 12 particles is also 12 kilograms which is the weight of the
man. (Usually, it is assumed that mass and weight will have the same numerical value at the
surface of the earth as illustrated above.) Suppose in the near future, a civil engineering graduate
of Samar State University will be able to construct a bridge that will connect the earth and the
moon as shown below.

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If the man walks towards the moon until he reaches the moon, the mass of the man will
remain 12 kilograms. If a comet hits him, breaking his arms, definitely the number of particles
will decrease so the mass will change. For as long as nothing happens to the man, the number of
particles that composes the man will remain the same. Upon reaching the moon, the mass of the
man will still be 12 kilograms.

On the other hand, as the man walks away from the earth, its pull of gravity decreases.
There is a point between the earth and the moon that the weight of the man will become zero (as
shown in the figure below). As the man continue moving towards the moon, his weight will
start to increase until (let us say) 8 kilograms which is less than the original weight of 12
kilograms. This is because the gravity on the moon is less than the gravity of the earth.

Assessment Question 1.5: Explain why the weight of the man will become zero at some point
between the earth and the moon.

I hope at this point in time you have started “mentally seeing” the difference between
mass and weight. To concretize further your understanding of the two concepts, we shift to how
they are obtained or measured.

Mass is obtained or measured using the device is called a “balance” or “equal-arm

balance” where the unknown mass is compared to a known mass as illustrated above. When
the pans are empty, the pointer is at the zero mark indicating that the device is in a state of
balance. The device is equipped with a “set of masses” of “known mass”.
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When an object is placed on the left pan (figure above), the pan will go down and the
right pan will go up. What would be the position of the pointer? Definitely, it will move or
swing to the right.

For the pointer to return to the zero mark, we have to place a known mass at the right
pan. Let us say, we used the 50-gram and the pointer returned to the zero mark. The device is
again in a state of balance. So, the mass of the ball is 50 grams.

Assessment Question 1.6: Let us call in DARNA and request her to bring the above set-up
(balance state) into outer space. Will the pointer move to the right or to the left? Explain.

On the other hand, weight is obtained by using a “spring scale” or “spring balance”. A
device with a spring that can be stretch due to the effect of gravity on the object place on the
device as shown above.

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Let me simplify how the above devices work. We have a support stand with a spring
attached at the end, and a pan also attached to the spring (left figure below). When the pan is
empty, the pointer coincides with the zero mark of the scale. When an object of unknown weight
is placed on the pan, due to gravity the pan will move downward, so with the pointer (right
figure). The scale mark where the pointer stops corresponds to the weight of the ball. In this
case, the weight of the ball is 75 grams.

Assessment Question 1.7: Let us summon DARNA and request her to bring the above set-up
(right figure into outer space. Will the pointer move up or down? Explain.

Assessment Question 1.8: You enter a grocery store and saw an item with a label “100 grams”.
Does the label “100 grams” refer to mass or weight? Explain.

I did my best and I expect in return that you gained a very clear understanding of what
chemistry is, and the difference between mass and weight. For now, we shift to the mathematical
requirements in the study of chemistry.

1.3 Chemistry is a Science of Measurement

Making observations is fundamental to all science and it was mentioned before that there
are two types of observations – qualitative and quantitative. When we observe quantitatively,
we are measuring a particular characteristic or property of matter like mass and weight as
illustrated discussed above. These properties of matter which can be measured are called
physical quantities.

There are numerous measurable characteristics of matter and according to the

International System of Units or Systeme International (SI), these measurable properties or

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physical quantities originated from only seven (7) fundamental physical quantities (or base
quantities).
Physical Quantity Unit Abbreviation
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s or sec
temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
electric current ampere A
luminous intensity candela cd

The “unit” serves as a label or tag that identifies the specific physical quantity. If you have
heard or read this information “20 meters”, the unit ‘meters’ will inform you that the physical
quantity is length not mass or anything else.

By the way, there are two parts of any measurement – a number and a unit. As mentioned
previously, the unit will tell us the type of physical quantity. The number will tell us the
quantity or amount of the physical quantity at the same time it reflects the certainty to which the
measurement was made.

All other physical quantities, except the 7 fundamental or base quantities are called
derived physical quantities.
Physical Quantity Definition SI unit
Area length x length m2
Density mass/volume kg/m3
Speed length/time m/s
Acceleration speed/time m/s2
Force mass x acceleration kg.m/s2 (newton, N)
Potential energy mass x acceleration x length kg.m2/s2 (joule, J)
Pressure force/area g/m.s2 (pascal, P)

The SI is very advantageous compared to other system of measurements:

• The “units” are based on factors of 10 that corresponds to the particular Greek prefix
unlike other system of units.

Below are the Greek prefixes including their meaning in word and in number. Provided also are
the SI and English equivalents.

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• The “amount” of the physical quantity is very easy to increase or decrease by a factor of
ten (10).

As illustrated below, if we divide one (1) meter by ten (10), each part becomes one (1) decimeter
(dm). Diving one (1) decimeter by ten (10), each part becomes a centimeter (cm).

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If you can memorize the above equivalents much better! Here are the most commonly used
equivalents which you can easily memorize.

1 inch = 2.54 cm; 1 gal = 3.785 L; 1 mL = 1 cm3; 1 kg = 2.205 lb

In measurement, scientists use two word to describe how good the measurements or
quality of measurements.

• Accuracy refers to the closeness of a single measurement to its true value

• Precision refers to the closeness of the set of values obtained from identical measurements
of a quantity.

(GOLF ANALOGY – Powerpoint Presentation)

1.4 Significant Figures

All measurements contain uncertainty. It is important that these numbers be reported in

such a way as to convey the magnitude of this uncertainty. In order to convey the appropriate
uncertainty in a reported number, we must report it to the correct number of significant figures.

(Powerpoint Presentation)

Assessment Question 1.9: Define significant figure.

Reporting measurement is not a haphazard action. Some rules are followed and one
should be familiar with them.

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1. All nonzero digits are always significant.

Examples:
65.2 g - three significant figures
1,265 m - four significant figures
25 L - two significant figures
255.345 g - six significant figures

2. Zero(s) in between nonzero digits is/are significant.

Examples:
29.05 g - four significant figures
1.0087 mL - five significant figures

3. Zero(s) to the right of a decimal point and nonzero digit is/are significant.

Examples:
25.70 cm - four significant figures
3.7500 g - five significant figures

4. Zero(s) to the left of a nonzero digit and decimal point but not to the right of a nonzero
digit are not significant. (The role of the zero/s is just to locate the decimal point.)
Examples:
0.0245 mg - three significant figures
0.008 mL - one significant figure

5. Zeros at the end of a number that contains no decimal point may or may not be
significant. To be significant, express the measurement in scientific notation.

Examples:
2,570 m - three significant figures
1,245,500 m - five significant figures

Assessment Task 1.1: Determine the significant figure(s) in the following measurements.

a. 8.00450 g b. 50.000 min c. 4567 d. 1.23

1.5 Rounding Off Numbers

The following are the rules in rounding off numbers.

Rule 1: If the digit or number to be removed or dropped is 5 or greater, increase by 1 the

preceding number.

Examples:

a) Round off the measurement 5.379 m to three (3) significant figires.

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b) Round off the measurement 1.4278 kg to three (3) significant figures.

Rule 2: If the digit or number to be removed is less than 5, the preceding number is
unchanged.

Example:

a) Round off the measurement 0.02413 A to three (3) significant figures.

Assessment Task 1.2: Round off the following measurements to three (3) significant figures.

a. 8.00450 g b. 50.000 min c. 9766 m d. 1.238

Assessment Question 1.10: Why do we round off the numbers in a given measurement?

1.6 Using Significant Figures in Calculations

When calculations are involved in measurements, the answer must follow the following
rules.

1.6.1 Multiplication and Division

In multiplication and division, the answer (product or dividend) must have the same
number of significant figures as the original number with the fewest number of significant
figures.

Examples:

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The least number of significant figures is four (4) for the measured physical quantity - 456.1 cm.
So, the product must also have only four (4) significant figures. In this case, we have to drop
“49122” but we have to apply our knowledge on rounding off measured physical quantities.

Therefore, the dividend or answer must have three (3) significant figures. We therefore drop the
numbers “287736”.

Assessment Task 1.2: Carry out each calculation and give the answer using the proper
number of significant figures.

a) 10.70 s x 3.5 s b) 0.206 kg/25,993 m c) 1,300 m/41.2 s d) 120.5 m x 26

1.6.2 Addition and Subtraction

In addition and subtraction, the answer has the same number of decimal places to the
right as the original number with the fewest decimal places to the right.

The answer should have one (1) decimal place to the right. So, we have to drop the number “2”.

Assessment Question 1.3: Carry out each calculation and give the answer using the proper
number of significant figures.

a) 27.8 cm + 0.246 cm b) 54.6 mg – 25 mg

c) 102.66 mL + 0.857 mL + 24.0 mL d) 2.35 s – 0.266 s

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1.7 Scientific Notation

The study of chemistry involves the use of very very small and very very large numbers.
Suppose you are required to multiply these two numbers manually.

Of course, you can do it but there would be some hitches. First, you will require a wider
sheet of paper to do the multiplication. Second, it will a longer time do the multiplication. Third,
chances of committing an error on counting the zeros is very high. To avoid these hitches, we
use scientific notation. Scientific notation is a convenient way to express and process very small
and very large numbers.

In scientific notation, numbers are written as a product of a stem (a number between 1

and 10, including 1) and a power of 10 (the number 10 raise to a certain power, or exponent) as
shown in the format above.

Example is the standard number 3240000. For a whole number, the decimal point is not
shown but assumed to be at the right end of the last number.

The value of the standard number is 3,240,000 (three million two hundred forty thousand). If we
move the decimal point one place to the left it becomes 324,000.0 (three hundred twenty four
thousand) which is not a number between 1 and 10. Easily, we can place the decimal point
between the numbers “3” and “2” or “3.2” which is a number between 1 and 10.

We drop the zeros if they are not significant and the stem (M) is “3.24”. Then, we attached the
“x 10n”.
3.24 x 10n

Since we have moved the decimal point six (6) times to the left, the value of “n” is “-6”. We have
transformed a standard number to scientific notation as,

3.24 x 10-6

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Assessment Task 1.4: Write each number in scientific notation: (a) 0.00036, (b) 8

In situations where zeros of a whole number is to be considered as significant, then the number
is expressed in scientific notation. For example, if the zeros in the measurement “3700 m” are
significant then,

Take note that that a single movement of the decimal point changes the value of the stem (M)
and the exponent by “1”. You should also know how to convert scientific notation into standard
number. Try working the assessment task below.

Assessment Task 1.5: Work on the following as indicated.

a) 2.16 x 10-5 → ? standard number b) 6.09 x 104 → ? standard number

c) 7.8 x 108 → ? x 107 d) 5.22 x 104 → ? x 105
e) 2.12 x 10-4 → ? x 10-5

Calculators are available everywhere. Do not fool me because you will be the loser at the end.

1.8 Math Operations Involving Scientific Notation

Another basic skill that you have to master is calculations involving scientific notation.
Still you have to apply your knowledge about significant figures. I will include the ‘units’ is the
examples that will be presented for simplicity.

1.8.1 Multiplication

Multiply the stems (or M’s) and add algebraically the exponents (or n’s). Algebraic
addition means you consider the sign. If the answer of multiplying the stems (or M’s) does not
conform to the ruling that it should be between 1 and 10, including 1; make the necessary
adjustment.
Examples:

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1.8.2 Division

Divide the stems (or M’s) and subtract the lower exponent (lower n) from the upper
exponent (upper n). Again. Be careful with signs of the exponents. If the answer of dividing the
stems (or M’s) does not conform to the ruling that it should be between 1 and 10, including 1;
make the necessary adjustment.
Examples:

1.8.3 Addition and Subtraction

First thing you have to do is to change one or more of the exponents (or n’s) to a common
exponent (or n). Then, you add or subtract the stems (or M’s) and copy the “x 10” and common
“n”. If the answer of dividing the stems (or M’s) does not conform to the ruling that it should
be between 1 and 10, including 1; and make the necessary adjustment.
Examples:

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Assessment Task 1.6: Perform the required math operation.

1. 7.95 x 10392 + 6.76 x 10391 2. 5.24 x 1087 x 8.15 x 10208

3. 8.29 x 108400 ÷ 6.14 x 10-400 4. 62.9 x 1076 - 4.14 x 1077

1.9 Conversion

It is the process of transforming a unit of measurement into another unit of measurement.

It employs conversion factors to cancel units in order to arrive to the desired unit. Conversion
factors are usually ‘equivalent’ (or equal) measurements or quantities expressed as a ratio or
fraction. For example, 1 inch is equivalent to 2.54 centimeters. Two conversion factors can be
formed.

Assessment Task 1.7: Write two conversion factors for each pair of units: (a) meters and
kilometers; (b) seconds and minutes; (c) pounds and kilograms; and (d) minutes and
hours.

The process of converting a unit to another unit are called – Unit Cancellation Method,
Factor Label Method or Dimensional Analysis. These three methods are all equivalent. The aim
of these methods is to cancel a given unit to obtain the required or desired unit as illustrated
below.

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For example, what is the equivalent length in centimeters of a stick that is 20 inches long.
So, the required unit is “cm” and the given unit is “inches”.

To cancel the given unit, we have to choose a conversion factor wherein the denominator is in
“inches”.

Now, let us apply:

Another example: What is the equivalent of 2.5 m/s in km/hr? Since there are two different
units involved, then you need several conversion factors that you have memorized. Its either
you start with the unit “m” or the unit “s”.

The unit is now “km/s”. Next, we convert the time “s” to “hr”. If you are not familiar of a direct
equivalence of “s” and “hr”, then you apply multiple conversions – second to minute, and
minute to hour.

The factor label method, unit cancellation method, or dimensional analysis is also applicable to
problem solving.

Assessment Task 1.8: A kilogram of rice costs PhP40.00. How many kilograms of rice can be
bought by PhP120.00?

1.10 Density

It is a derived physical quantity evidenced from its definition. Its unit depends on the unit
of mass and the unit of volume but the most common one is grams/milliliter (g/mL).

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Density is not about how heavy or light a material is, but rather it pertains to the number of
particles in a given space or volume. Assume we have a uniform volume (1 mL) represented
by a ‘blue square’. Then we place the square in a solid, liquid, and gas representation of matter.

In a solid, more particles are enclosed by a unit volume compared to a gas. So, a solid “more
dense” than a gas; or a gas is “less dense” than a liquid or a solid.

The density of any liquid or solid is an intensive physical property which can help
identify a substance. For example, the density of gold is 19.3 g/mL, lead is 11.4 g/mL, copper is
9.0 g/mL, iron is 7.86 g/mL, and aluminum is 2.7 g/mL. If we want to find out if an unknown
solid is pure gold, all we have to do is measure its density. If the density is, say, 12.3 g/mL, we
know the solid is not pure gold.

Another characteristic of density is that it can serve as a conversion between mass and
volume. For example, what is the volume in milliliters of an irregularly shaped piece of iron has
a mass of 524 grams?

It was mentioned above that a solid is more dense than its liquid form. However, water
is an exemption to this observation. You have observed that ice floats on water because liquid
water is more dense than ice. This also explains why water in plastic pouches placed inside the
freezers of refrigerators are bulging and some have broke open.

This unique behavior of water is due to hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bond is the
attraction between hydrogen atom (O) from one water particle to the oxygen (O) atom and
hydrogen (H) atom of another water particle. Below shows the different representations of a
water particle.

In liquid water, the three atoms forming the hydrogen bond (water particles are not
orderly arranged). In ice (solid water), the three atoms (H-O-H) are linear resulting to orderly
arrangement of the water particles.

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In ice, each water particle is surrounded with four (4) water particles forming a
tetrahedron where the water particles are orderly arranged. In liquid water, the water particles
are disordered.

Again, if we place the blue square in ice and liquid water, more liquid water particles will be
enclosed than in ice.

Imagine a group of 10 students in an open field having their PE class. If we put a sheet
of plywood on top of their heads. Surely, all 10 students will be accommodated or covered by
the plywood.

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Now, your teacher shouts “tonton kanan” and top view of your arrangement is illustrated
below. If we place the plywood on top of their heads, definitely not all students will be covered.

This illustrates why ice floats in water as illustrated further below.

Assessment Question 1.10: (a) Water has a density of 1.0 g/ml and mercury (Hg) has a density
of 13.6 g/ml.
• If the two liquids are mixed, which liquid will be on top?
• Which is heavier, a liter of water or a liter of mercury?
(b) Which is heavier, a kilogram of cotton or a kilogram of metallic block?
(c) Which is larger, a kilogram of cotton or a kilogram of metallic block?

1.11 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity (sp. gr.) is a quantity that compares the density of a substance with the
density of water at the same temperature.

Unlike most other quantities, specific gravity is a quantity without units, since the units
in the numerator (g/mL) cancel the units in the denominator (g/mL). Since the density of water
is 1.00 g/mL at and around room temperature (27oC), the specific gravity of a substance equals

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its density, but it contains no units. For example, if the density of a liquid is 1.5 g/mL at 20°C,
its specific gravity is 1.5.

The specific gravity of urine samples is often measured in a hospital lab. Normal urine
has a density in the range of 1.003–1.030 g/mL, so it has a specific gravity in the range of 1.003–
1.030. Consistently high or low values can indicate an imbalance in metabolism. For example,
the specific gravity of urine samples from patients with poorly controlled diabetes is abnormally
high, because a large amount of glucose is excreted in the urine.

1.12 Temperature

Refers to the hotness or coldness of an object compared to another object. It Indicates that
heat flows from the object with a higher temperature to the object with a lower temperature.
Temperature on the atomic and molecular level is the degree of atomic or molecular motion.
Usually, a thermometer is the instrument used to measure motion and can be thought of
as a type of atomic scale speedometer. As with all motion and speed, temperature is relative to
a frame of reference – pure water at 1 atmosphere.
▪ A mixture of ice and water at atmospheric pressure called the ice point of water.
▪ A mixture of water and steam in equilibrium called the steam point of water.

The Celsius scale, formerly Centigrade scale; was renamed after its Swedish astronomer
inventor, Anders Celsius, in 1948. The difference between 0o and 100o was divided equally into
100 parts and each part was called 1oC.

The same process was done by German instrument maker G. Fahrenheit, but instead of
0 and 100 for the melting point and boiling point of water, he used 32o for melting point and
212o for boiling point of water. The difference of 180o was divided equally and each part was
called 1oF.

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Using the slope intercept equation of a straight line, the relations of the two temperature
is as follows.

After substituting values, the equations becomes:

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1.13 Assignment

1. Identify each of the following as an observation, a hypothesis, an experiment, or a conclusion:

A. One hour after drinking a glass of regular milk, Jim experienced stomach cramps.
B. Jim thinks he may be lactose intolerant.
C. Jim drinks a glass of lactose-free milk and does not have any stomach cramps.
D. Jim drinks a glass of regular milk to which he has added lactase, an enzyme that breaks
down lactose, and has no stomach cramps

2. Suppose in the future, it will be possible to

bore a hole through the earth using a pipe
and then a man will drop a ball through the
hole. Where will the ball stop, A, B (at the
center), C or D (will pass through)?

3. What is the reason behind the rule on addition and subtraction which says “the answer has
the same number of decimal places to the right as the original number with the fewest decimal
places to the right. For example, why do we have to drop the “2” in 273.52 km?

4. (a) What is the length of the given crayon in centimeters?

(b) How many significant figures does this value contain?
(Convert this value to meters, and write the answer in scientific notation.

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5. Explain why a can of diet soft drink floats in water while a can of a regular soft drink inks in
water.

1.14 References
Brown, T., LeMay, H., Bursten, B., Murphy, C., Woodward, P., and Stoltzfus, M. (2015).
Chemistry: The Central Science. 13th Edition. New York: Pearson
Zumdahl, S. and Zumdahl, S. (2014). Chemistry. 9th Edition. United States: Cengage Learning

1.15 Acknowledgement

All figures, diagrams, tables and other information contained in this module were taken
from the references enumerated above.

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