High Speed Aerodynamics

Mach = TAS ÷ LSS

LSS = 38.95 x Ö OAT in K (°C + 273)

LSS = 644 + (1.2 x Temp)

Above Tropopause: LSS, Mach, TAS is constant;

Speed of sound varies with the square root of the absolute temperature in Kelvin;

Temperature is proportional to Speed of sound;

VMO is an IAS and descending at a constant Mach will require an increase in TAS which
will increase dynamic pressure;

MMO – Maximum Operating Mach number VS VMO - Maximum Operational Speed: a

pilot wants to fly as fast as possible: at first the airplane in limited by MMO, thereafter –
below a certain altitude – by its VMO;

Subsonic: up to MCRIT

Transonic:
a) From MCRIT to Mach 1.3;
b) Region around Mach 1;
c) Both subsonic and supersonic speeds exist in the flow around the aircraft;

Supersonic:
a) From Mach 1.3 to 5;
b) The air flow everywhere around the aeroplane is supersonic;
c) Pressure distribution is rectangular;
 • Shockwave

Shockwave:
a) Local Mach > M1;
b) Upper Side Of The Wing;
c) Maximum Thickness;
d) Wing root;
e) Trailing edge;
f) Will travel with the same GROUND SPEED of the aircraft;
g) On a lift wing will move slightly AFT in front of a downward deflection aileron;
h) Increasing mass = increases shockwave intensity;

Oblique Shockwave:
a) Increase: Temperature; Static Pressure; Density; LSS;
b) Decrease: Total Pressure; Mach number;

Normal shockwave:
a) Can occur at different points on the aeroplane in transonic flight;
b) Is a discontinuity plane that is always normal to the local flow;
c) Has higher compression/loss in total pressure than an oblique shockwave;
d) Mach number in front is small but still supersonic;
e) The airflow changes from supersonic to subsonic;
Expansion Shockwave:
a) Increase: Speed;
b) Decrease: Temperature; Static Pressure; Density;

Supersonic flight: any disturbance around a body effects the flow only within the
Mach cone;

As Mach number increases – Mach cone angle decrease;

Sin mu = 1/M (mu – Mach angle)

Sonic Boom: Flying at supersonic speed is created by shock waves around the
aeroplane;
 • Effects of exceeding MCRIT

MCRIT – Critical Mach number:

a) Flight speed below M1; Airflow over the upper surface of the wing first reaches
a LOCAL SONIC FLOW – M1; At flight speeds above the MCRIT will be supersonic
and shock waves start form;
b) Is the free stream Mach number at which somewhere Mach 1 is reached
locally;
c) The AC moves approximately 25% to about 50% of the chord;
d) Highest speed without supersonic flow over the wing;
e) Will decrease by deflecting a control surface down;
f) Wave Drag:
a. Additional increase of drag at speeds above MCRIT;
b. Minimum Wave Drag: subsonic;
g) Exceeding/above:
a. Stick force decrease, due to loss of lift in the wing root area;
b. In a swept-wing: buffeting and tendency to pitch down;
c. L/D ratio decrease;
h) Higher Mass = lower MCRIT due to greater AofA;
i) Lower Mass = Higher MCRIT due to a smaller AofA;

MCDR – Drag Divergence Mach number:

a) Is the Mach number at which with increasing flow speed, the drag rises rapidly;
b) MCDR > MCRIT;
c) Determined by: AofA and Profile of the aerofoil;
d) AofA constant, the CD will start to increase rapidly above the MCDR;

Mach Trimmer:
a) Prevent instability and tuck under;
b) Minimize the effects of changes in the position of CP;
c) Corrects insufficient stick force stability at higher Mach numbers;
d) Adjusts the stabilizer, depending on the Mach number;
e) Compensate for tuck under affected by: Decrease the incidence of the
timmable tailplane;
f) Stick force gradient will be maintained;
g) At transonic Mach numbers the aeroplane displays an unacceptable decrease
in longitudinal stick force stability;
h) To counteract: a pitch up input of the stabilizer is needed;
i) In case of failure: Mach number must be limited – to stay below MCRIT.

Mach Tuck:
a) CP moves AFT – Nose down;
b) Reduction in the downwash angle at the location of the horizontal stabilizer;
c) Only above the MCRIT;
Increasing Mach number:
a) CP moves AFT in the transonic region (about Mach 0.89 to 0.98).
b) At Subsonic speed, the CP is further AFT;
c) Symmetrical Aerofoil: sub to supersonic, the Center of Lift move AFT to the
mid chord;

Shock stall:
a) Occurs when the CL reaches its maximum value (for a given AofA);
b) AofA have the smallest value;
c) Separation of the boundary layer behind the shock wave;

Shock induced separation: decrease in lift;

Shockwave vs control surface hinge moment: Rapid fluctuation of hinge moments,

causing a high frequency “BUZZ”;

Movement of the aerodynamic center of the wing when an aeroplane accelerates

through the transonic range causes an increase in static longitudinal stability;

In the transonic range CLMAX will decrease and the 1g stalling speed will increase;

Altitude increases, the stall speed will increase due to increasing compressibility
effects;

Aileron deflection only partly affects the pressure distribution around the wing;
 • Buffet Onset

Buffet Free Range:

a) Decreases: Straight to turn;
b) Increases: Push-over maneuver;
c) Inversely Proportional to: Mass; altitude; Load Factor;
d) Speed has nothing to do with;

Buffet Onset Boundary Chart: Gives the values of the Mach number at which low
speed and Mach buffet occur at different weights and altitudes;

Mach Buffet:
a) Occurs following boundary layer separation due to shockwave formation;
b) Aircraft accelerates at high altitude;
c) Only above the MCRIT;

High speed buffet:

a) Induced by interaction between shock wave motion and flow separation;
b) Must be completely avoided;

The speed range between high and low speed buffet increases during a descent at a
constant IAS;

Altitude increases = Margin decreases;

Altitude Decreases = Margin increases;

Maximum Cruise Altitude:

a) Exceeding: turbulence may include high speed or low speed buffet;
b) A maneuver with a load factor of 1.3 will cause buffet onset;

Aircraft pulls up: Low Mach number increases; High Mach number decreases;

VA is reduced at high cruising altitudes because buffet onset limitations normally

become limiting;

Coffin corner: is where the speed is too low and too high at the same time;

An aeroplane Should NOT operate at a higher Mach number than the buffet-onset
Mach number in 1g;

­¯
 • Means to Influence MCRIT

Sweepback:
a) Proportional to: MCRIT/MCDR;
b) Slower onset of the transonic drag rise and a higher CD in supersonic flight;
c) A wing with a sweepback angle of 25° has the least effective high lift devices;
d) Delays shock waves due to decrease of the velocity of the air, perpendicular
to the leading edge;

MCRIT:
a) Increased by:
a. Sweepback;
b. Thin aerofoils - thickness to chord ratio should be reduced;
c. Area Ruling;
b) Decreased by:
a. Thick aerofoils;
b. Large Camber;
c. Large Angles of Attack;

Vortex Generators:
a) Decrease wave drag/shock wave induced separation;
b) Reduce boundary layer separation Drag when shock waves form;

Area rule:
a) “Coke bottle”
b) Decrease wave drag;

Supercritical:
a) Has a flatter top surface;
b) Will develop NO noticeable shock waves when flying just above MCRIT;
c) Larger nose radius, flatter upper surface and negative as well as positive
camber;
d) Allows a wing of increased relative thickness to be used for approximately the
same cruise Mach number;

Compared to a straight wing of the same airfoil section a wing with 30° sweepback
should theoretically have an MCRIT 1.154 times the MCRIT of the straight wing. However,
in practice the swept wing will gain half that increase;

Reducing the thickness/chord ratio on a wing:

a) Delay the onset of shock wave formation;
b) Reduce the transonic variations in CL;
c) Reduce the transonic variation in CD;
Stability

Inversely proportional to maneuverability;

• Static Stability

Tendency to return to equilibrium;

Can be Dynamic stable, neutral or unstable;
Static Unstable = always Dynamic unstable;

• Dynamic Stability

Dynamic Stability: Static + Damping;

Dynamic stable = static stable;
 • Static and Dynamic Longitudinal stability;

Neutral Point: is the point where the aeroplane becomes longitudinally unstable when
the CG is moved beyond it in an AFT direction;

CG Static Margin: distance between CG Datum and CG Neutral Point;

The magnitude of the stick force required to pitch, for an aircraft with manual controls
is determined by the distance the CG is forward of the neutral point;

CG behind CP –the horizontal tail loading is upwards;

CG ahead of CP – the vertical load on the tail will be downwards;

Positive contribution to static longitudinal stability:

a) Horizontal tail plane - Increase the horizontal stabilizer surface area
b) Nacelles;
c) Depends on CG location relative to the wing AC – Aerodynamic Centre;
d) Positive Camber when CG is ahead AC – But does not effect, because camber
of the airfoil produces a constant pith down moment coefficient, independent
of AofA;

Negative Contribution to static longitudinal stability: fuselage; down

Elevator trim has NO effect on static longitudinal stability - Trim adjustment – Stick
position stability remains the same;

CG AFT
­ Controllability; maneuverability;
¯ Longitudinal static stability; Control
forces; maneuver stability;
If in behind Aft limit - insufficient maneuver
stability;
CG FWD
­ Longitudinal static stability; maneuver
stability;
¯Less controllability/maneuverability;
Positively affected by: stick force stability
and maneuver stability;
Lowest value of Lift: Aft CG and high thrust;
Highest value of Lift: FWD CG and Low Thrust;

Short Period of oscillation Phugoid - Long Period of oscillation

Oscillation about the Lateral axis;
Altitude approximately constant;
Heavy damped;
Speed constant;
Oscillation about the Lateral axis;
Altitude Varies significantly;
Damping is very weak for a long period;
Speed increases and decreases the aircraft can
be easily controlled by the pilot;

Damping:
a) Property that slows the rate or diminishes the amplitude of vibrations;
b) At constant EAS as height increases (TAS ­) Damping in all axes is reduced;

A bob weight and a down spring have the same effect on the stick force stability;

Stick Force Gradient:

a) Is the force required to change the load factor of the aircraft;
b) Stick force ÷ 1 – Load Factor (level flight load factor =1)

Stick forces per G:

a) Dependent on CG location and Altitude;
b) Increases when CG moves forward;
c) Must have both an upper and lower limit to ensure acceptable control
characteristics;
d) A high limit load factor enables the manufacturer to design for a lower stick
force per g;
e) Is not a limitation on the use of an aeroplane;

Load Factor:
a) In flight = 1;
b) Limit Load factor = 2.5;

Horizontal stabilizer:
a) Purpose – give sufficient longitudinal stability;
b) In straight and level flight are directed downwards and will reduce in
magnitude as the CG moves AFT;

Maximum elevator up deflection is required when the flaps are fully down and the CG
is fully forward;

Recognize static force stability during flight:

a) To maintain speed above the trim speed requires a push force;
b) To maintain speed below the trim speed requires a pull force;
 • Static Directional Stability – Normal Axis

Is the tendency of an aeroplane to recover from a disturbance in the yawing plane

without pilot input;

Positive contribution:
a) Dorsal or Ventral Fin;
b) Sweep wing;

Aspect Ratio is Negligible;

Sideslip angle between speed vector and the plane of symmetry;

Airflow coming from LEFT Airflow coming from RIGHT

Nose to the Left; Nose to the Right;
Right Wing Down Left Wing Down;

Ventral Fin:
a) Longitudinal – No effect;
b) Lateral – Negative;
c) Directional – Positive;

• Static Lateral Stability – Longitudinal Axis

Determined by aircraft response to sideslip;

Positive Contribution:
a) Dihedral;
b) High Wing;
c) Sweep Back;
d) Large Fin;
e) Aspect Ratio;

Sideslip:
a) Left: Left wing down + Right Rudder;
b) Right: Right wing Down + Left Rudder;

Flaps are inversely proportional to lateral stability;

Positive Static Lateral Stability is the tendency of an aeroplane roll to the left in case
of sideslip (with the nose pointing to the left)
Horizontal Tail Plane on top of the Vertical Fin improve the aerodynamic efficiency of
the vertical fin;
Excessive Stat. Lat. Stab. it would impose demands on roll control during a sideslip.
Should not be too large because too much aileron deflection would be required in a
crosswind landing;
Bank Angle: Lateral axis + Horizontal Plane;
 • Dynamic Lateral/Directional Stability;

Duth Roll:
a) Combined lateral and directional Periodic motion;
b) Can happen at Mach numbers below the MCRIT;
c) Lateral Stability > directional stability;
d) Reduced by: Anhedral;
e) Rolling and Yawing;

Yaw Damper:
a) When fail its recommended: reduce altitude and Mach number;
b) Corrected by a Dutch Roll;

Spiral Dive:
a) Combined lateral and Directional Aperiodic Motion;
b) Spiral Unstable means that the aircraft enters a spiral dive. Happens when the
bank angle increases;
c) Directional stability > Lateral Stability;

IAS constant – Increasing altitude: Static Lateral stability will increase and Dynamic
Lateral-Directional stability will decrease;

Increasing altitude - Static Lateral stability will remains the same and Dynamic Lateral-
Directional stability will decrease;
Control

Pitch angle = AofA + Flight path angle

 • Pitch

Ice on the stabilizer, deflection of flaps may cause the stabilizer to stall and a vertical
dive;

CG AFT: CG FWD:
­Range; maneuverability; ­Stability; Fuel; Control forces in pitch; VREF;
¯Stability; Fuel; Control forces; ¯Range; maneuverability;

Conventional Stabilizer on a Stable Aeroplane:

a) Contributes to the total lift of the aeroplane;
b) May Stall before the wing in icing conditions;
c) Necessary to balance the total pith moment of the aeroplane;

All-Flying Tail:
a) Backward movement of the control wheel in flight
causes a decrease in tail plane incidence and nose
up pitch;
b) Variable incidence tailplane has less trim drag
and maximum elevator authority retained;

Engines on the rear fuselage:

a) The thrust line is in close proximity to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft;
b) Thrust will exercise a smaller pitching moment;
c) Longitudinal trim is less affected by changes in thrust;
d) Fairings of tail mounted engines give positive pitch moment;

Engines below the low wing:

a) Low speed pith-up is caused by a significant thrust increase;
b) Thrust is suddenly increased, to maintain level flight the elevator must be
deflected downward;

Lowering the Landing Gear, to maintain level flight, the download must increase;

Elevator Deflection:
a) Larger for: low airspeed; FWD CG;
b) Smaller for: high speed;

• Yaw

A full rudder deflection could cause an excessive load on the structure of the
aeroplane;

The vertical fin could stall if the fin AofA is to great;

 • Roll

Adverse yaw:
a) Is caused by the difference in drag between the up and down ailerons;
b) Is the tendency to yaw in the opposite direction of turn mainly due to the
difference in induced drag on each wing;
c) Reduced by a Frise aileron being effective on the left wing; (rolling to the left);
d) Counteracted by the use of differential ailerons;

Raised wing - down aileron: increase lift, Induced Drag and AofA;
Lowered wing - up aileron: decrease lift and induced drag; spoiler extends;

Differential ailerons:
a) The up going aileron moves more than the down going aileron;
b) Equalizes the drag of the right and left aileron;
c) Reduce the drag on the up going wing;

Outboard ailerons:
a) Are needed at “low speed” – not needed in the cruise;
b) Typically used only when flaps are extended;

Inboard Ailerons:
a) At cruise Mach number is active;
b) Reduce wing twist at high speed;

Roll control during cruise is provided by inboard ailerons and roll spoilers;

Spoilers:
a) Installed on the upper wing - symmetrical or asymmetrical;
b) Reduce Lift;

Constant IAS with increasing altitude increase the rate of roll;

Flaperons: flaps + ailerons;

• Roll/Yaw interaction:

Yawing motion generated by rudder deflection causes a speed increase of the outer
wing, which increases the lift on that wing so that the aeroplane starts to roll in the
same direction as the yaw;
 • Means to Reduce Control Forces

Aerodynamic Balance:
a) Reduce hinge moments;
b) Reduce the load required to move the control;
c) Obtained by an internal balance;
d) Control forces are reduced by: Servo tab; Horn balance; spring tab; Balance
Tab; seal between trailing edge and the leading edge of control surface;
e) Inset hinge – give assistance to the pilot to move the control;

Horn Balance:
a) Purpose: decrease stick forces;
b) Prevents over balance resulting from excess balance at high speed;

Balance Tab:
a) Move in the opposite direction to control surfaces and the same direction as
trim tabs;
b) It’s a form of aerodynamic balance;
c) Reduce control forces;

Anti-Balance Tab:
a) Moves in the same direction as the control surface and increases control
effectiveness;
b) Provide aerodynamic balance;

Servo Tab:
a) Opposite of the control surface;
b) Only reduce stick force;
c) On the rudder moves when the rudder pedals are moved;
d) If external locks are fitted to the main control surfaces: they will prevent
movement of the control surfaces but not the control wheel or the servo tabs;
e) The position is undetermined during taxiing, in particular with tailwind;
f) Commonly used in case of manual reversion of fully powered flight controls;
g) By elevator: when only the elevator jams – pitch control reverses direction;

Trim Tab: Reduce continuous stick force to zero;

Spring Tabs:
a) Provide a reduction in the pilots effort to move the controls against high air
loads;
b) At high IAS it behaves like a servo tab;
c) Reduce control forces;

Artificial Feel:
a) Is required with fully powered flight controls;
b) Q feel unit are from pitot and static pressures;
c) Primary input : IAS;
Stick forces depend on: elevator deflection and Dynamic pressure (IAS);

When power assisted controls are used for pith control – a part of the aerodynamic
forces is still felt on the column;

The aerodynamic force on a control surface increases as speed increases;

If a control surface hinge is placed too far back from the control surface leading edge
control surface CP may move ahead of the hinge and cause overbalance;

• Balancing

Mass-balancing of control surfaces is used to prevent flutter of control surfaces;

A bobweight in the control system which pulls the stick forwards – in front of the
hinge;

A fully hydraulic powered flight controls there is NO need for trim tabs;
 • Trim

Trim Tab:
a) Bring the control forces to zero in steady flight;
b) Reduce hinge moment and control efficiency;
c) Only moves when the trim control is operated. Merely deflecting the elevator
will not change the trim tabs position relative to the elevator;
d) Jammed trim tab causes less control difficulty;
e) Less suitable for Jets;
f) When trimmed for zero elevator stick force – causes more drag;

Elevator Trim: More sensitive to flutter;

Aileron trim:
a) Left wing low: trim tab on the left aileron up – left aileron down – right aileron
up;
b) Right Wing low: fixed tab on the left will be moved down causing the left
aileron to come up;

Trimmable Horizontal stabilizer:

a) The position depends on speed, the position of slats and flaps and the CG;
b) Is more suitable for JET – Enables larger CG range;
c) Jammed stabilizer requires a higher speed – causes more control difficulty;
d) An aeroplane with forward CG requires the stabilizer leading edge to be lower
than for one with an aft CG in the same trimmed condition;
e) Less sensitive to flutter;
f) Position of the elevator in relation to the Trimmable Horizontal stabilizer with
fully hydraulic – elevator deflection is zero;

Fully powered hydraulic controls does not change with increasing speed;

Adjustable Stabilizer is a more powerful means to generate the tail loads required for
these kinds of aircrafts;

Aircraft equipped with an “all flying tailplane” combined anti-balance and trimming
tab. Trim is moved forward – the tab moves up, so that more effort is required when
the pilot attempts to move to the control column to the rear;
Limitations

Flutter:
a) Wing flutter: combination of bending and torsion of the wing structure;
b) Aileron Flutter: cyclic deformations generated by aerodynamic, inertial and
elastic loads on the wing;
c) Moving the engines from the wing to the fuselage does not improve;
d) Excessive free play reduces the speed at which flutter will occur;
e) Increases by: Aero-elastic; increasing IAS; wing stiffnes;
f) Prevented by:
a. Reduced IAS; engines ahead of the wing – CG ahead of its torsion axis;
b. Mass balancing of the control surface;
g) Control surface is:
a. A destructive vibration that must be damped out within the flight
envelope;
b. A divergent oscillatory motion of a control surface caused by the
interaction of aerodynamic forces, inertia forces and the stiffness of the
structure;
c. Rapid oscillation of the control surface in flight;

Aileron Reversal:
a) Twisting of the wing above reversal speed;
b) Reducing incidence when the aileron is lowered;
c) At high CL results from the down-going aileron increasing the semi-span AofA
beyond the critical;

Flaps fully extended at a speed greater than VFE: flap movement will typically be
prevented by the flap load relief system;

VLE Maximum Landing Gear Extended Speed;

VNE Never Exceed Speed;
VMO IAS/is a CS-25 aeroplane speed that may not be deliberately exceeded in
any regime of flight, unless a higher speed is authorized for flight test;
MMO Mach number;

Climbing at VMO is possible to exceed MMO;

VMO at lower altitudes - MMO at higher altitudes;
 • Maneuvering Envelope

Stall Speed: VS1g new = VS1g OLD Ö (New weight ÷ Old Weight)

Stall Speed line in the maneuvering load diagram:

a) speed = VA, Load factor = limit load factor;
b) Speed = VS, load factor = +1;
c) Originate from: Speed = 0, load factor = 0;

VA – Maximum Design Maneuvering speed:

a) Is the maximum speed at which maximum elevator deflection up is allowed;
b) Is the speed at which the aeroplane stalls at the maneuvering limit load factor
at MTOM;
c) Depends on mass and altitude;
d) Above: A full elevator deflection could cause structural damage;
e) VA ³ VS x Ö(n);
f) Is determined by Maneuvering limit load factor;

Limit Load Factor

Category From to
Large -1 g + 2.5 g (+2 g with flaps)
Normal -1.52 g + 3.8 g
Utility -1.76 g +4.4 g
Aerobatic -3 g +6 g

VC is a speed which is chosen by the designer and which is used to assess the strength
requirements in cruise;

Load factor > 1 = when lift > weight;

Ultimate Load Factor: if exceeded structural failure may occur;

VMO should NOT be greater than VC;

 • Gust Envelope

Gust Load Factor:

a) Proportional:
a. Aspect Ratio/wing area;
b. Speed;
c. Slope (steeper)
b) Inversely proportional:
a. Mass;
b. Altitude;
c. Wing loading;

Speed = 0, load factor = +1.

Load Factor is increased by upward gust;
Gust limit load factor can be higher than the maneuvering limit load factor;

Turbulence:
a) Least affected: swept, low aspect ratio;
b) VRA is the recommended turbulence speed;
c) VB is the design speed for maximum gust intensity;
d) Load factor may fluctuate above and below 1 and can even become negative;
e) Flight in severe turbulence may lead to stall and/or structural limitations being
exceeded;

Extending flaps in turbulence reduces the stall speed but will reduce the margin to
structural limitations;

1. Öload factor > VS0 = Stall

!"# %&""' !"# ),-' .-/0,123
2. New Load Factor = ()' *&""' = ()' ),-' .-/0,123 Û
3. Load Factor + 1 = (VNEW ÷ VOLD) x old load factor -1

!"# %&""'
Load factor = ( ()' *&""' )2 Û VNEW = Ö load factor x VOLD
aPropellers

Blade angle:
a) 75% of blade radius;
b) Propeller chord and the plane of rotation of the propeller;
c) Angle between the chord and the relative airflow;
d) Is the varying of the blade angle from the root to tip of a propeller blade;
e) Provide a constant AofA from root to tip;

Geometric pith is the theoretical distance a propeller would advance in one revolution
at zero blade AofA;

Effective pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances in one revolution;

Propeller slip is the difference between geometric and effective pith;

Fine pith = Small blade angle – Climb – engine develop maximum power – low speed;
Coarse Pith = Large Blade angle – Cruise – high speed;
Fixed pitch propeller:
a) Blade angle fixed;
b) Is usually at too coarse an angle for take-off;
c) TAS increases = AofA decreases;
d) RPM increases = AofA increases;
e) Efficiency is maximum at only one value of TAS;
f) Full throttle with the nose into a strong wind = higher RPM than in still air;
g) AofA:
a. Highest at take-off run;
b. Optimum when stabilized cruising flight;
c. Decreases during take-off;
d. Can become negative during high-speed idle descent;

Constant speed propeller:

a) Automatically adjust its blade angle at different flight speeds to maintain the
ideal AofA;
b) Improves take-off. Reduces fuel consumption;
c) Speed increase = Blade angle increases = torque remain constant;
d) Throttle increase = propeller pitch decrease and rate of descent increase;
e) The pitch angle in medium horizontal turbulence will vary slightly;
f) Better performance than fixed-pitch because operate at a relatively high
propeller efficiency over a wider speed range than a fixed pitch propeller;

Propeller icing:
a) Increases drag; reduces lift;
b) Reduces propeller efficiency;
c) Can reduce efficiency up to 20%; thrust will decrease;

Propeller torque is caused by the forces caused by the airflow on the propeller;

Propeller efficiency:
a) Is the ratio of power available (thrust x TAS) to shaft power (Torque x RPM);
b) Power output ÷ input;

For any propeller thrust is the component of the total aerodynamic force on the
propeller parallel to the rotational axis;

Propeller runaway: close the throttle;

Aerodynamic loads on a propeller which produce forward thrust will tend to bend the
tips forward;
 • Engine Failure

Feathered propeller:
a) Minimum Drag;
b) 90°;
c) Improves the handling of a multi-engine aeroplane with one engine
inoperative;

Windmilling propeller:
a) Produces drag instead of thrust;
b) Pitch is decreased during a glide at constant IAS the Drag will Increase an the
rate of descent will Increase;
 • Design Features for Power Absorption;

Power absorption:
a) Proportional to:
a. Number of blades;
b. Mean Chord of the blades – Camber;

Propeller Efficiency:
a) Decrease by
a. Increasing Camber;
b. Excessive propeller blades;
c. Increase speed;

Noise:
a) Increase as speed increase;
b) Is reduced by Increasing propeller blades;

Supersonic speed:
a) Affect propeller noise;
b) Decrease propeller efficiency;

Solidity:
a) Area ratio = area of all propeller blades to the total circular surface;
b) Proportional to the number of propeller blades;

The more blades a propeller has, the more power it is able to absorb. The limitation
on blade number from an aerodynamic standpoint is the loss of efficiency of one
blade if it follows to the path of the preceding blade too closely;
 • Secondary Effects

Asymmetrical blade:
a) Proportional to power;
b) Increases when the angle between the propeller axis and the airflow through
the propeller disc increases;
c) Induced by the inclination of the propeller axis to the relative airflow;

Pitch down = Left yaw;

Pitch up = Right yaw;
Left yaw = pitch up;
Right yaw = pitch down;

Gyroscopic effects:
a) Occurs at varying altitude – yaw/pitch changes;
b) Most noticeable during high speed flight low RPM and vice versa;
c) RPM change the magnitude;

Counter Rotating Propeller:

a) Propeller of a twin-engine aeroplane rotate in opposite directions;
b) Cancel torque and gyroscopic effect;

Contra Rotating Propeller: two propellers rotating in the opposite direction on the
same shaft;

Counteract the effect of slipstream on a single engine aircraft the fin should be placed
as far as possible from the propeller;

Maximum torque reaction on a fixed pitch propeller is at low speed and maximum
engine power;

Propeller has more roll tendency over Jet in an engine failure;

Flight Mechanics

Turn:
a) Horizontal component of lift;
b) Lift is greater than straight and level flight, because it must balance the
weight and generate the centripetal force;
c) Banked turn:
a. lift = centripetal force and a force equal or opposite to weight;
b. Lift = resultant of weight and centripetal force;
d) Slipping turn: Bank angle is too big and the ball is towards the low wing;
e) Skidding turn: Bank angle is too small and the ball is towards the high wing;
f) Co-ordinated turn:
a. When the longitudinal axis at the CG is tangential to the flight path;
b. Thrust = Drag, equilibrium of forces along the direction of flight;
c. To maintain constant speed: increase thrust and AofA (to compensate
for the reduction in the vertical component of lift)
g) Rate of turn:
a. Depends on TAS and AofA;
b. For a specific Angle of bank and airspeed the rate and radius of turn will
not vary;
c. Weights;
d. Inversely to airspeed;
h) Bank angle proportional to speed;
i) Turn radius:
a. TAS2 ÷ g x tan q
b. Proportional to speed;
c. Weight;
d. Minimum turn radius will be smaller for the lighter aeroplane;
j) Centripetal force:
a. > 45° centripetal > weight;
b. < 45° centripetal < weight;
c. 45° centripetal = weight;

Maximum glide range: dependent on the maximum L/D ratio according to AofA;

Load Factor:
a) Lift ÷ weight
b) Speed;
Lift = Weight ÷ cos q
Thrust = Drag + Weight sin q
Weight:
a) = W x cos q
b) Acts parallel to the gravitational force;
Lift and Drag are parallel to the relative airflow;

In steady level flight:

a) Load factor = 1;
b) Lift = Weight and Thrust = Drag;
c) Opposite forces are equal;

In climb:
a) Weight is balanced by thrust;
b) Flight path angle decreases, AofA increases, speed decreases;
c) Thrust > Drag because it must also balance a component of weight;
d) Thrust = Drag + Weight
e) Lift = weight component perpendicular to the flight path; Lift is the same as
during a descent at the same angle and mass;
f) Lift < weight;
g) Load Factor < 1;

In a descent:
a) Weight > Lift; load factor < 1; (lift only needs to balance weight perpendicular
to the flight path);
b) Sum of all forward forces = sum of all rearward forces;
c) Gliding –speed for minimum rate of descent < speed for maximum glide range;

For shallow flight path angles in straight and steady flight: sin = T/W – CD/CL

Gliding angle – Descent angle: dependent of the L/D and AofA;

Minimum Glide angle: (CL/CD)MAX
Flight path angle: angle between speed vector and horizontal plane;

Radius = TAS2 ÷ g x tan q *0.5144

Circle = 2PR
Time = S ÷ TAS;

Climb gradient = (Thrust ÷ Weight - L/D) x 100

(678 × :.<3==)>
Load Factor = 3: × ?@A B@AC
=> tan-1 => Cos

(678 × :.<3==)>
Turn Radius = 3: × ?@A B@AC
(m)

Glide Distance= height x Lift = c x 0.000165

 • Asymmetric Thrust

VMC - decrease with altitude;

VMCA – Minimum Control Speed in Take-off configuration with gear up:

a) Is the speed at which directional control can be maintained at engine failure
on take-off using the primary flight controls;
b) Depends on density altitude, and the location of the engine on the aeroplane;
c) Maximum take-off thrust and 5° bank angle;
d) Inversely proportional to Bank angle;
e) Fin stall by bank angle increased beyond 5°;
f) Equilibrium moments:
a. Normal axis: rudder deflection;
b. Lateral axis: bank angle or sideslip or both;

VMCG – Minimum control speed on the ground:

a) No nose wheel – the value of VMCG must be applicable on wet runways;
b) AFT CG;
c) Determined using rudder control alone;
d) Decrease with increasing elevation and temperature;
e) Lateral deviation from center line = 30ft;
f) Gear down;

VMCL – Minimum control speed on approach and landing with all engines:
a) Limited by the available maximum roll rate;

Critical engine Failure: to maintain straight and level flight you must rudder and bank
towards the live engine;
AFT CG provide the least ability to oppose the yaw moment when engine fails;

Directional controllability with one engine inoperative:

a) Favorable effects:
a. High temperature;
b. FWD CG;
c. High altitude;
b) Adversely affected by:
a. Low temperature;
b. AFT CG;
c. Low altitude;

Crosswind from the right the failure of the right outboard engine will cause the
greatest problem;
• Polar Curve