COMMON ELEMENT TYPES

&
FINITE ELEMENT MESHING

Zubair Imam Syed MIEAust

PhD (Structural Engineering, Uni of Melbourne)

1
 Elements in Finite Element Method
Finite elements are small interconnected geometrical entities
connected to other elements through nodes (1D), boundary lines
(2D), and boundary surfaces (3D).

Elements contain the material information and determine how the

loads are transferred into displacements for all connected nodes.

FEM is actually displacement analysis for structural analysis:

{F}=[K]{u}
with node displacements determined by element "stretching",
followed by load and stress calculations for the elements based
on the nodal displacements and the material properties.
2
 Element selection in FEM

 For an accurate analysis in FEA, selection of the

proper elements is very important.
 The selected elements must represent the
engineering structure as close to the original structure
as possible.
 Elements represent the behaviour of the structure
under load/stress.
 The deformation behaviour of within the element also
needs to be represented properly.
3
Element Types

4
Common Elements

5
 Common Elements

In addition to these basic elements, there are some special application

elements, e.g., mass element and contact element.
Almost all other special purpose elements can be derived from the three basic groups of the
elements described above.

6
 Discretization Examples

Three-Dimensional
One-Dimensional Two-Dimensional Brick Elements
Frame Elements Triangular Elements
7
 Shape Functions
In FEA we discretize the solution region into finite elements.

To conduct the analysis we assume a displacement model to

approximately indicate the variations of the displacement
within the element.

The polynomial chosen to interpolate the field variables over

the element are called shape functions.

Denoted by[N], they establish the relationship between the

displacement at any point in the element with the modal
displacement of the element.
8
9
Shape Function of Simple element

10
11
 Quadratic Quadrilateral Element
■ The 8 noded quadratic quadrilateral element uses quadratic
functions for the displacements

A quadratic quadrilateral : Shape functions N2 and N6 12

13
 Direct Stiffness Derivation (DSM)
u1 u2

F1 F2
1 2
k

Equilibrium at Node 1  F1  ku1  ku2

Equilibrium at Node 2  F2  ku1  ku2

or in Matrix Form

k  k  u1   F1 
Stiffness Matrix  k    
 k  u2   F2 
Nodal Force Vector

[ K ]{u}  {F } 14
 BEAM ELEMENTS

The matrix [Ke] links forces and moments (a vector F) to

displacements and rotations (a vector u) at each end (each node).

F = [Ke]u

In 3D 3 force components and 3 moment components act on each

end - hence the element matrix is 12 by 12.

15
 Terms in a stiffness matrix
■ One column of [Ke] get multiplied by a particular element in the vector of
displacements and rotations, u.

■ Hence one column corresponds to those forces/moments causing unit

movement of one component of displacement or rotation, at one end of a
beam only.

■ Eg: for unit transverse displacement at the left end of the beam below
(but no rotation), the forces and moments acting as shown below - for
Euler-Bernoulli beam theory.

12EI/L3 12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
1

L 16
 Unit rotation of one end of a beam element

■ The forces and moments acting are as follows (for small angles)

6EI/L2
4EI/L
1

2EI/L

6EI/L2
These terms become a column of [Ke]
Find these in the energy methods assignment.

17
 The full matrix for transverse deflection

For bending about one principal axis only, the transverse deformation can
be described by 4 equations:

 Fy1   12 EI / L3 6 EI / L2  12 EI / L3 6 EI / L2   u y1 
 M   6 EI / L2 4 EI / L  6 EI / L2

2 EI / L   z1 
 z1   
 Fy 2    12 EI / L3  6 EI / L2 12 EI / L3  6 EI / L2  u y 2 
M    
 z 2   6 EI / L
2
2 EI / L  6 EI / L2 4 EI / L   z 2 

Note this assumes the cross-section does not change.

Fy1 Fy2

Mz2
Mz1
L

18
 GTS - Training of Finite Element Modeling, January 2014

Frame Element
Generalization of Bar and Beam Element with Arbitrary Orientation
w1 w2
1 
u1 W 2
u2
P1 P2
(1) L (2)
M2
M1
V1 V2
 AE AE 
 L 0 0  0 0 
L
 12EI 6 EI 12EI 6 EI   u   P 
 0 0   1 1
 L3 L2 L3 L   w  Q 
2

 0 6 EI 4 EI 6 EI 2 EI   1   1 
0  2
 L2 L L L   1   Q2 
 AE AE   u2   P2 
 L 0 0 0 0    
 L  w  Q 
12EI 6 EI 12EI 6 EI   2   3 
 0   0  2    2  Q4 
 L3 L2 L3 L 
 0 6 EI 2 EI
0
6 EI
 2
4 EI 
 L2 L L L 

Element Equation Can Then Be Rotated to Accommodate Arbitrary

19
Orientation
 Plate elements
■ Shell structures are common in engineering (drums, vehicle bodies, ship hulls,
etc.)
■ A plate element has the thickness implied. Geometrically it is a surface
representing the mid-surface of the real plate.
■ Stiffness of a plate element can only be found approximately, by assuming
polynomial variations of displacement or of stress related quantities such as
bending moment per length over its area.
■ Accuracy improves as more elements are used.
■ Force/moment - deflection/rotation relations are again written at node points.
■ Linear polynomials lead to an element with corner nodes only, and sides that
remain straight lines.

20
 Solid elements
■ Such solid elements typically use linear interpolation of displacement between
nodal values, giving corner nodes only, or quadratic interpolation giving mid-edge
nodes as well.

■ Only displacements, not rotations, are present as unknowns at the nodes.

Rotations are only needed to describe bending and twisting, not explicit in the
geometry of an element. Rotations imply the variation of axial displacement
through the depth of a beam or the variation of in-plane displacement through the
thickness of a plate.

Linear solid elements - edges remain straight lines.

21
 Plate and shell finite elements
■ A plate is a 2D analogy to a beam permitting bending in both transverse
planes. Plate theory concentrates on the bending and twisting behaviour
associated with out-of-plane displacements.

■ The in-plane behaviour of a flat plate is that of a plane stress problem.

The stresses associated with the in-plane deformation are called
membrane stresses.

■ If the plate becomes doubly-curved, then the in-plane deformation

becomes coupled to the bending and twisting deformation (i.e it cannot
stretch without bending and vice versa - true of an egg shell).

■ When a finite element can represent a curved surface it is referred to as

a shell element.

22
 Advantage of Plate elements
■ A structure like a car body could always be modelled with solid elements. However, at
least 2 solid elements must always be used through the plate thickness, in order to
capture bending behaviour adequately. The elements become ill-conditioned if the side
lengths in the plane of the plate are much larger than the through-thickness dimension,
so many small elements are needed.

■ A plate model leads to many fewer equations, and a much lower bandwidth than an
alternative solid model, where thicknesses are low.

■ The variation of in-plane displacements through the thickness is captured by 2 rotation

degrees of freedom at each node on the mid-plane.

Solid - 3 displacement d of f per 5 d of f per node

node - 9 through the thickness Plate - midsurface modelled
23
 Plate elements
■ Only the two rotations about in-plane axes are used to describe the
bending/twisting stiffness of a plate element.

■ The 3rd rotation, about the normal to the plane, is not needed, as in-plane
displacements can be described just by interpolating displacements at the
nodes (as for a 2D plane stress element).

■ This missing rotation has been called the drilling degree of freedom - the
rotation of a drill bit drilling a hole in the plate.

■ The missing stiffness associated with these rotations leads to a singular [K]
matrix. To avoid this, packages search for singularities and add corrective
stiffness terms, decoupled from the other terms, to prevent singularity.

24
 Meaning of the in-plane rotation d of f.

■ The rotation degrees of freedom represent the rotation of a line initially

normal to the plate surface. This can represent both bending and
transverse shear.

Cross-section of a plate in pure Cross-section of a plate in shear -

bending - normals remain normal normals rotate relative to surface

The second case of deformation in shear is an approximation, as shear

strain is actually distributed quadratically, leading to the normal deforming
into a cubic curve.

Shear strain Deflection of normal

25
 In-plane stress variation through the plate thickness
■ Plate theory ignores direct stress acting normal to the surface.

■ As the normal is assumed to remain a straight line, in-plane stresses vary

linearly through the thickness, and transverse shear stress is
approximated as constant (rather than quadratic).

■ This linear variation can be regarded as the average (the membrane

stress) plus bending stress in each transverse plane

■ The bending stress is related to bending moments per length of plate, in

each plane. For unit length of plate, along the axis of the moment, the
peak stress on the surface is
M xx y M (t / 2) 6M
x     xx3   2 xx
I (1xt / 12) t
26
 Moments per length
■ Moments per length measure the variation of in-plane direct stress
through the plate thickness. (Stress times distance from the mid-
surface integrates to give the moment per length).

Top surface
Arrows indicate
axis of moment.

6M xy
 xy 
t2

All 4 moments per length are collectively the internal quantity Mxy
It causes in the top surface and minus this in the bottom surface.
27
 Curvature and twist
■ Just as moments per length can capture the stress variation through the
thickness of a plate, we also need measures of the strain variation
through the thickness, as the geometry is just that of the mid-surface
(the xy plane in local axes).

■ The direct strain variation due to bending is proportional to curvature (as

in a beam). Here there are curvatures for both in-plane axes. Both are
changes in rotation of the normal perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
(eg y changes with x).

■ The shear strain variation due to twisting moment per length is

measured by twist, which is the change in rotation of the normal along
the axis of rotation. (eg y changes with y).
z
plate z
plate y y

normal x
y normal x
Curvature - y /x Twist - y /y
28
 Meshing in FEM

The geometric domain is divided into finite elements

using mesh.
Meshing is often called as the discretization of structure.
29
 Few important aspects of Meshing

The mesh need to be able to get

small near “sensitive spots"

High density of elements where

high gradient of strain and /or
stress
• Near corner or sharply curved
edges
• In vicinity of concentrated load,
reaction, cracks and cutouts
• Interior of structure where
abrupt change in thickness,
material property or cross-
section 30
Few locations where high density meshing is
required

31
 Mesh need to adapt to local features
Figure Source: http://people.sc.fsu.edu/jbudt/classes/fem2011/. . .. . . femmeshing.pdf
32
 Few important aspects of Meshing

Aspect Ratio:
The ratio between largest and
smallest dimensions.

When discretizing 2D and 3D

problems, avoid finite
elements with high aspect
ratio.
Physical Interfaces:
Physical interfaces need to be modelled carefully

33
 Compatibility in meshing

■ Compatibility means that things fit together when deformed.

■ With finite elements this means displacements agree between

neighbouring elements, not only at the nodes, but all along common
edges in 2D or all over common surfaces in 3D.

■ This means that one element can only join one other element, not 2 to 1
or 3 to 1.
This node is not
connected to the top
element, as it has no mid-
side node.
Hence it can move up and
down independently and
we have a model of a This is incompatible.
crack. 34
 Preferred Shapes:
In 2D FE modelling, if you have a choice between triangles
and quarilaterals with similar nodal arrangement, prefer
quadrilaterals.

Triangles are convenient for mesh generation, mesh

transitions, rounding corners and similar situations. But
with some thoughts and planning sometimes triangles can
be avoided altogether.

35
Common Modeling errors

36
Too coarse a mesh

2 elements: stiff FE model,

deflected shape under load will
not be representative

8 elements: flexible FE model,

deflected shape under load will be
more representative 37
 Wrong choice of elements

Bending problems with plate-like geometries such as walls, where the

thickness is less in comparison to its other dimensions, should be
modeled with either shell elements or quadratic solid elements like the
20 node hexahedron or the 10 node tetrahedron. Shell, beam and
membrane elements should not be used where their simplified
assumptions do not apply. For example beams that are too thick,
membranes that are too thick for plane stress and too thin for plane
strain, or shells that are initially
twisted out of their plane. In each of these cases solid elements should
be used.

38
 Linear elements
Linear elements (elements with no mid-side nodes) are too
stiff in bending so they typically have to be refined more
than quadratic elements (elements with mid-side nodes) for
results to converge.

39
Severely distorted elements

Avoid large aspect ratios. A length to breadth ratio

of generally not more than 3.

Highly skewed. A skewed angle of generally not more

than 30 degrees.

A quadrilateral should not look almost like a triangle.

Avoid strongly curved sides in quadratic elements.

Off center mid-side nodes.

40
 Mesh discontinuities

Element sizes should not change abruptly from fine to coarse.

Rather they should make the transition gradually.

Improper Idealisation of Boundary conditions

Failure to represent the rigidity or flexibility of support. Improper modeling

of the boundary conditions can lead to inaccurate FE model.
41
Concluding Tips
• Use the simplest type of finite element that will do the job.
• Never, never, never mess around with complicated or
special elements, unless you are absolutely sure of what
you are doing.
• Use the coarsest mesh you think will capture the dominant
physical behavior of the physical system, particularly in
design applications.

42
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
&
IDEALISATION OF LOADING
MODELLING ERRORS

43
 Boundary Conditions in FEM

• FEM is a computational technique used to obtain

approximate solutions of boundary value problems in
engineering.
• Boundary value problems are also called field problems.
The field is the domain of interest and most often
represents a physical structure.
• The field variables are the dependent variables of interest
governed by the differential equation.

• The boundary conditions are the specified values of the

field variables (or related variables such as derivatives) on
the boundaries of the field. 44
 Boundary Conditions in FEM
Boundary Conditions are the loads and constraints that represent
the effect of the surrounding environment on the model.

A key strength of the FEM is the ease and elegance with which it
handles arbitrary boundary and interface conditions. This power,
however, has a down side. A big hurdle faced by FEM newcomers is
the understanding and proper handling of boundary conditions.

45
 Boundary Conditions

One of the most difficult topics for FEM program users is the
proper defining the boundary conditions
Often said: “the devil hides in the boundary”
Two types
1. Essential
2. Natural
• Essential BCs directly affect DOFs, and are imposed on the left-
hand side vector u.
• Natural BCs do not directly affect DOFs and are imposed on the

right-hand side vector F. {F}=[K]{u}

46
 Boundary Conditions
• In structural problems formulated by the DSM, If it is directly
involves the nodal freedoms, such as displacements or rotation,
then it is essential BC. Otherwise it is natural. Conditions
involving loads are natural.

• The simplest essential BC are support and Symmetry

conditions.

Problem domain needs to be discretized so that the boundary

conditions are applied only at the nodes.

47
 Essential boundary conditions

Essential boundary conditions in mechanical problems involve

displacements.
Support conditions for a building or bridge problem furnish a
particularly simple example.
But there are more general boundary conditions that occur in practice.
A structural engineer must be familiar with displacement B.C. of the
following types.

Ground or support constraints

Directly restraint the structure against rigid body motions.

48
Symmetry conditions
To impose symmetry or antisymmetry restraints at certain points,
lines or planes of structural symmetry. This allows the
discretization to proceed only over part of the structure with a
consequent savings in modeling effort and number of equations to
be solved.

Ignorable freedoms
To suppress displacements that are irrelevant to the problem.
Even experienced users of finite element programs are sometimes
baffled by this kind. An example are rotational degrees of freedom
normal to smooth shell surfaces.
49
 Support Conditions
Supports are used to restrain structures against relative rigid
body motions. This is done by attaching them to Earth ground
(through foundations, anchors or similar devices), or to a
“ground structure” which is viewed as the external environment.

If a body is not restrained, an applied load will cause infinite

displacements.
50
• Engineers doing finite element analysis should be on the lookout for conditions
of symmetry or antisymmetry. Judicious use of these conditions allows only a
portion of the structure to be analysed, with a consequent saving in data
preparation and computer processing time.

• Recognition of symmetry and antisymmetric conditions can be done by either

visualization of the displacement field, or by imagining certain rotational to
reflection motions

51
 Utilization of Symmetric Condition
Although the structure may look symmetric in shape, it must be kept in mind
that model reduction can be used only if the loading conditions are also
symmetric or antisymmetric.

52
 Simple 2D problem

Quarter of the member can be modeled for symmetry.

Nodes long the vertical line of one edge can be restrained and P
load can be applied at the other end.

**How many degrees of freedom to be constrained to at the

nodes where support condition is to be simulated?
53
 Application of Constraints
For 2D problems there are two translational (along the X- & Y-
axes) and one rotational (about the Z-axis) rigid body motions.

For 3D problems there are three translational (along the X-, Y- &
Z-axes) and three rotational (about the X-,Y- & Z-axes) rigid
body motions.

54
Application of Support conditions

55
Effort in FEM for realistic idealization of support. 56
 Notation of Constraints

At nodes or on solid body the constraints are applied

Common notation used in ANSYS as:

•UX for translation in the X direction

•UY for translation in the Y direction
•UZ for translation in the Z direction
•ROTX for rotation about the X axis
•ROTY for rotation about the Y axis
•ROTZ for rotation about the Z axis
•ALL for all six of the above
•VOLT for voltage
•TEMP for temperature
57
Application of Loads in FEM

58
 Common loads

• Structural: displacements, forces, pressures, temperatures

(for thermal strain), gravity
• Thermal: temperatures, heat flow rates, convections,
internal heat generation, infinite surface
• Magnetic: magnetic potentials, magnetic flux, magnetic
current segments, source current density, infinite surface
• Electric: electric potentials (voltage), electric current,
electric charges, charge densities, infinite surface
• Fluid: velocities, pressures
59
 Load Idealization
Loads are commonly divided into six categories:
DOF constraints
Forces (concentrated loads)
Surface loads
Body loads
Inertia loads
Coupled-field loads.

A DOF constraint fixes a degree of freedom (DOF) to a known value.

Examples of constraints are specified displacements and symmetry
boundary conditions in a structural analysis, prescribed temperatures in
a thermal analysis, and flux-parallel boundary conditions. 60
• A force is a concentrated load applied at a node in the model. Examples are
forces and moments in a structural analysis, heat flow rates in a thermal
analysis, and current segments in a magnetic field analysis.
• A surface load is a distributed load applied over a surface. Examples are
pressures in a structural analysis and convections and heat fluxes in a thermal
analysis.
• A body load is a volumetric or field load. Examples are temperatures and
fluences in a structural analysis, heat generation rates in a thermal analysis,
and current densities in a magnetic field analysis.
• Inertia loads are those attributable to the inertia (mass matrix) of a body, such
as gravitational acceleration, angular velocity, and angular acceleration. You
use them mainly in a structural analysis.
• Coupled-field loads are simply a special case of one of the above loads,
where results from one analysis are used as loads in another analysis. For
example, you can apply magnetic forces calculated in a magnetic field analysis
as force loads in a structural analysis. 61
 How to Apply Loads
You can apply most loads either on the solid model (on keypoints, lines, and
areas) or on the finite element model (on nodes and elements).
Solid-Model Loads:

Advantages
• Solid-model loads are independent of the finite element mesh.
• Mesh modifications and mesh sensitivity studies can be done without having to
reapply loads each time.
• The solid model usually involves fewer entities than the finite element model.

Disadvantages
• Elements generated by ANSYS meshing commands are in the currently active
element coordinate system. Nodes generated by meshing commands use the
global Cartesian coordinate system. Therefore, the solid model and the finite
element model may have different coordinate systems and loading directions.
62
Finite-Element Loads:
Advantages
• Reduced analyses present no problems, because you can apply loads
directly at master nodes.
• There is no need to worry about constraint expansion. You can simply
select all desired nodes and specify the appropriate constraints.
Disadvantages
• Any modification of the finite element mesh invalidates the loads,
requiring you to delete the previous loads and re-apply them on the new
mesh.
• Applying loads by graphical picking is inconvenient, unless only a few
nodes or elements are involved.
• The next few subsections discuss how to apply each category of loads-
constraints, forces, surface loads, body loads, inertia loads, and coupled-
field loads-and then explain how to specify load step options. 63
 Loading Options available in ANSYS
DOF constraints:
Forces:
Degree of ANSYS
Discipline
Freedom Label Discipline Force ANSYS Label
UX, UY, UZ Forces FX, FY, FZ
Translations Structural
Structural ROTX, Moments MX, MY, MZ
Rotations
ROTY, ROTZ
Thermal Heat Flow Rate HEAT
Thermal Temperature TEMP
Current CSGX, CSGY,
Vector Segments CSGZ
Potentials AX, AY, AZ Magnetic
Magnetic Magnetic Flux FLUX
Scalar MAG Electrical Charge CHRG
Potential
Current AMPS
Electric Voltage VOLT Electric
Charge CHRG
Velocities Fluid Fluid Flow Rate FLOW
Pressure
VX, VY, VZ
Turbulent Body Loads:
PRES
Fluid Kinetic Energy
ENKE Temperature TEMP
Turbulent
ENDS Structural
Dissipation Fluence FLUE
Rate

Surface loads:
Structural Pressure PRES 64
MATERIAL MODELLING

65
 Material models in FEM
• Constitutive material models are incorporated into finite elements
to specify the material behaviour.

• For example, in a linear elastic bar element it is sufficient to

specify the elastic modulus E and the poisson's ratio ν or thermal
coefficient of expansion α depending on the loading conditions of
the bar.

• In FEM, elements need to contain the material information and

determine how the loads are transferred into displacements for all
connected nodes.

• Material models are used to impart material information to

elements and shape functions are used to determine how the loads
are transferred into displacement of the connected nodes.
66
 Material models in FEM
• Selecting the most suitable material model together with
inputting the required material parameters is one the most
important but also one of the most difficult tasks when modeling
structures using the finite element method.

• A material model requires to describe the material behaviour as

close to reality as possible.

• Material models can be divided into two basic groups – linear

and nonlinear models.

• These models can be used in cases, where only the stress or

deformation states of a soil mass are of interest. They provide
no information about locations and possible mechanisms of
failure. 67
 Material models in FEM
Most element types require material properties. Depending on the
application, material properties may be:
Linear or nonlinear
Isotropic, orthotropic, or anisotropic
Constant temperature or temperature-dependent.
Material models that aid the user in simulating various kinds of
material behavior, such as elasticity, viscoelasticity, plasticity,
viscoplasticity, cast iron plasticity, creep, hyperelasticity, gaskets and
anisotropy.
Constitutive material models are used to simulate various kinds of
materials such as metals, rubber, plastics, glass, foam, concrete, bio-
tissues and special alloys. 68
 Common Material Models
Linear Model / Elastic models:
In these models the stress-strain relationship is assumed to be
linear upto the peak load. So, the load and unloading follows the
same straight line relationship.

• the stress state only depends on the instantaneous strain state and not
on the stress path
• The isotropic, elastic material law is characterized by means of two
material parameters, i.e the modulus of elasticity E and the Poisson
ratio ν
• Relatively fast, but not very accurate estimate of the true material
response when the applied load can cause large deformation or69
 Common Material Models
Other Elasticity based models include:
Hyperelastic models
Hypoeleastic model

Viscoelastic model:
The stress at a given instant depends not only on the current strain but also on th
previous strain history.

Plasticity Based models:

Plasticity models can capture the non-linearity of material closely.

An initial yield surface, a hardening rule and a flow rule is often used in plasticity
based models.
70
 Example: Plasticity based concrete model

Failure surfaces in 3D stress space

Concrete model meridian (Brannon & Leelavanichkul, 2009)
profiles (Malver et al., 1997)

Many plastic models originate from the classical Mohr-Coulomb failure

criterion.
In particular, the Drucker-Prager, Mohr-Coulomb and Modified Mohr-
Coulomb models fall in this category.
These models can also model the hardening and softening. 71
 Sample models
Stress 
tension comp. ft
1/4 model fyd
Eh
0
1 2
Strain Es
yd 

  fc

fc

Concrete stress-strain model Uniaxial stress-strain diagram

of steel reinforcement

72
How Material models are Implemented in FE model?
An Example for Concrete
Concrete in Compression:
According to Hognestad (1951) concrete model, the stress-strain
relationship between for concrete can be presented by the following
expression:
fs

f´c
0.15f´c

c

o=1.8 f´c /Ec u

73
Hognestad (1951) recommended expressing the parabola curve in the
form:
 2   
2
f c  f ' c  c   c  
 o  o  
 
and the straight line over branch BC can be expressed by

f c  f ' c 1  Z  c   o  fs
f´c
0.15
f´c
in which fc is the compressive stress, f'c is the ultimate
compressive strength, Z is the slope of the linear falling
branch, c is the concrete strain, and o is the concrete c
strain at peak strength that can be obtained by the
o=1.8 f´c u
formula given below: /Ec

 o  1.8 f ' c / E c

where Ec is the modulus of elasticity of

concrete. 74
In FE program, if you want to model concrete using Hognestard model, the
equations are to be the put in a program sub-routine to define the material model
and tie it with the main program.

fs
f´c 0.15f´c

c
o=1.8 f´c /Ec 
u

Most of the famous material models are already built in the commercial
programs, so if the Hognestard model is in-built in the material library
of the package your are using, you just need to input the value of Ec and
f ’c of concrete.
 Fy1 Fy2

Mz2
Mz1
L
Now for a beam element, the transverse deformation can be described by
4 equations:  Fy1   12 EI / L3 6 EI / L2  12 EI / L3 6 EI / L2   u y1 
 M   6 EI / L2 4 EI / L  6 EI / L2

2 EI / L   z1 
 z1   
 Fy 2    12 EI / L3  6 EI / L2 12 EI / L3  6 EI / L2  u y 2 
M    
 z 2   6 EI / L
2
2 EI / L  6 EI / L2 4 EI / L   z 2 

Note this assumes the cross-section does not change.

The value of Modulus of Elasticity, E dictates the deformation of

that beam element.
The value of E is the relationship between stress and strain of
them beam material. So, if you are using Hognestard model the
model will dictate the relationship between stress and strain 76
Sample properties of Structural Steel in ANSYS:

77
INTRODUCTION TO NONLINEAR AND
TRANSIENT DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

78
 Analysis Types
Linear static/dynamic analysis:
the most common and the most simplified analysis of structures is
based on assumptions:
• static = loading is so slow that dynamic effects can be
neglected
• linear = a) material obeys Hooke’s law
b) external forces are conservative
c) supports remain unchanged during loading
d) deformations are so small that change of the
structure configuration is negligible

Non-linear static/dynamic analysis

79
 Linear Static analysis
• displacements and stresses are proportional to loads,
principle of superposition holds.

• in FEM we obtain a set of linear algebraic equations for

computation of displacements

Ku  F
where
K – global stiffness matrix

u – vector of unknown nodal displacements

F – vector of external nodal forces
80
 Sources of Non-linearity
■ A nonlinear analysis is needed if the loading on a structure causes
significant changes in stiffness, then the load-deflection curve becomes
nonlinear.

■ Typical reasons for stiffness to change significantly are:

– Strains beyond the elastic limit (plasticity)
– Large deflections, such as with a loaded fishing rod
– Contact between two bodies (boundary nonlinearity)

Stress

81
Strain
Types of Non-linear structural Problems
• geometric non-linearities
large deformation kinematics

• material non-linearities
non-linear constitutive law
non-linear σ-ε relationship
• non-linear boundary conditions
contact problems
82
Geometric non-linearity

83
Material Non-linearity

84
 Non-linear response
External Load
180

160
Linear Response
140

120

Midspan Deflection (mm)

Nonlinear Response 100

80

60
Elastic
40
RDLM
20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-20

Displacement -40
Time (ms)

Load-deflection relationship or
Displacement time history of
resistance function
beam under dynamic load
85
 So, how the actual response looks like!!!!
180

160

140

120
Midspan Deflection (mm)

100

80

60
Elastic
40
RDLM
20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-20
160
-40
Time (ms) Midspan Deflection (mm) 140

120

100

80

60

40 Experiment
RC-IMPULSIVE
20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (ms) 86
 Linear Static Vs Non-linear Static analysis

Instead of set of linear algebraic equations

Single K matrix inversion Kd F

we obtain a set of nonlinear algebraic

equations
R (d )  F
Solution is based on incremental methods.

87
 Consequences of nonlinear structural behaviour that
have to be recognized are:
1.The principle of superposition cannot be applied. For example, the
results of several load cases cannot be combined. Results of the
nonlinear analysis cannot be scaled.
2. Only one load case can be handled at a time.
3.The sequence of application of loads (loading history) may be
important. Especially, plastic deformations depend on a manner of
loading. This is a reason for dividing loads into small increments in
nonlinear FE analysis.
4. The structural behaviour can be markedly non-proportional to the
applied load. The initial state of stress (e.g. residual stresses from heat
treatment, welding etc.) may be important. 88
 Solving nonlinear problems
■ One approach is to apply the load gradually by dividing it into a

series of increments and adjusting the stiffness matrix at the end of

each increment.

■ The problem with this approach is that errors accumulate with each

load increment, causing the final results to be out of equilibrium.

Error
External Load

Nonlinear Response
Calculated
Response

89
Displacement
Incremental – iterative solution
Assumption of large displacements leads to nonlinear
equation of equilibrium
R(d )  F
For infinitesimal increments of internal and external forces
we can write
R (d  d d )  F  d F
R
R (d  d d )  R (d )  d d  R (d )  K T d d
d
R
where KT  is tangent stiffness matrix
d

K T dd  d F
90
 Incremental method
The load is divided into a set of small increments DFi .
Increments of displacements are calculated from the set of
linear simultaneous equations

KT (i 1) Dd i  DFi

where KT(i-1) is tangent stiffness matrix computed form

displacements d(i-1) obtained in previous incremental step.

Nodal displacements after force increment of DFi are

d i  d i 1  Dd i
91
 Incremental method

GTS - Training of Finite Element Modeling, January 2014 92

 Iterative methods
Newton-Raphson method
Consider that di is estimation of nodal displacement. As it
is only an estimation, the condition of equilibrium would not
be satisfied

R (d i )  F
This means that conditions of equilibrium of internal and
external nodal forces are not satisfied and in nodes are
unbalanced forces

ri  R (d i )  F
93
Correction of nodal displacements can be then obtained from
the set of linear algebraic equations

KT ( i ) Ddi  ri

and new, corrected estimation of nodal displacements is

d i 1  d i  Dd i
The procedure is repeated until the sufficiently accurate
solution is obtained.

The first estimation is obtained from linear analysis

Kd1  F
94
GTS - Training of Finite Element Modeling, January 2014

Standard Newton-Raphson (NR) method

95
Modified Newton-Raphson (MNR) method - the same stiffness
matrix is used in all iterations

96
 Handling Material nonlinearities

Nonlinear elasticity models

For any nonlinear elastic material model, it is possible to

define relation between stress and strain increments as

d σ  DT d ε

Matrix DT is function of strains . Consequently, a set of

equilibrium equations we receive in FEM is nonlinear and
must be solved by use of any method described above

97
Elastoplastic material models

The total strains are decomposed into elastic and plastic

parts
ε ε ε
e p

The yield criterion says whether plastic deformation will

occur.
The plastic behaviour of a material after onset of plastic
deformations is defined by so-called flow rule in which is the
rate and the direction of plastic strains is related to the
stress state and the stress rate. This relation can be
expressed as Q
d ε  d
p
σ 98
Constitutive equation can be formulated as

d σ  DT d ε
The tangential material matrix DT is used to form a tangential
stiffness matrix KT. When the tangential stiffness matrix is
defined, the displacement increment is obtained for a known
load increment

K T Dd  DF
As load and displacement increments are final, not
infinitesimal, displacements obtained by solution of this
set of linear algebraic equation will be approximate only.
That means, conditions of equilibrium of internal and
external nodal forces will not be satisfied and iterative
process is necessary.
99
 GTS - Training of Finite Element Modeling, January 2014

The problem - not only equilibrium equations but also

constitutive equations of material must be satisfied.
That means that within the each equilibrium iteration
step check of stress state and iterations to find elastic
and plastic part of strains at every integration point
must be included.

The iteration process continues until both, equilibrium

conditions and constitutive equations are satisfied
simultaneously.

The converged solution at the end of load increment

is then used at the start of new load increment.
100
GTS - Training of Finite Element Modeling, January 2014

101
Non-linear Analysis in ANSYS
ANSYS uses the Newton-Raphson algorithm
– Applies the load gradually, in increments.
– Also performs equilibrium iterations at each load increment to drive the incremental
solution to equilibrium.
– Solves the equation [KT]{Du} = {F} - {Fnr}
[KT] = tangent stiffness matrix [KT]
{Du} = displacement increment F
4 equilibrium
Fnr 3
{F} = external load vector 2 iterations

{Fnr} = internal force vector 1

Du
– Iterations continue until {F} - {Fnr}
(difference between external and internal
loads) is within a tolerance. Displacement

– Some nonlinear analyses have trouble converging. Advanced analysis techniques are
available in such cases (covered in the Structural Nonlinearities training course).

102
 GTS - Training of Finite Element Modeling, January 2014

FEM MODELLING OF LAP/PIN CONNECTION

Sample Model – Bearing failure with deformation and von Mises stress contours.

103
Transient Dynamic Analysis

800

700

600
Impact Load (kN)

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
GTS - Training of Finite Element Modeling, January 2014
Time (msec) 104
 GTS - Training of Finite Element Modeling, January 2014

Transient dynamic analysis

• Transient dynamic analysis is a technique used to determine
response of a structure under a time-varying load.
• Transient Dynamic analysis is used to determine the time-varying
displacements, strains, stresses, and forces in a structure as it
responds to any combination of static, transient, and harmonic loads.
• sometimes called time-history analysis
• Due to the type of time frame the inertia or damping effects of a
structure become important.
• If the inertia effect are negligible for a loading condition being
considered, a static analysis can be performed instead
105
 GTS - Training of Finite Element Modeling, January 2014

The basic equation of motion solved by a transient dynamic

analysis is
n  Cu n  Pu n   Fn
Mu

where:
[M] = mass matrix
[C] = damping matrix
[K] = stiffness matrix
= nodal acceleration vector
= nodal velocity vector
{u} = nodal displacement vector
{F(t)} = load vector
106
 FE FORMULATION OF TIME INTEGRATION TECHNIQUE

In practical finite element analysis, the procedures for

numerical solution of the dynamic equilibrium equations
given below can be divided into two groups: modal
superposition technique and direct integration methods.

n  Cu n  Pu n   Fn

Mu

In a transient analysis, multiple load steps apply different

segments of the load history curve.

107