CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE

1. EUKARYOTIC AND PROKARYOTIC CELLS.

2. ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS.
3. LIGHT AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPES.
4. CELLULAR COMPONENTS. Structure and function.
5. ORGANELLES –
6. TECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS IN CELL BIOLOGY – Differential Centrifugation.
7. SPECIALISED PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS.

THE MODERN CELL THEORY

(a) The cell is fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.
(b) All living organism is made up of one or more cells.
(c) New cell are formed by the division of pre-existing cells.
(d) Cells contain genetics material of an organisms which is passed from parents to daughter
cells.
(e) All metabolic reaction take places within cells.
(f) All cells are relatively the same in relation to chemical composition and activity in
organisms of similar species.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
在课本 pg 61&62
3. Cyanobacteria also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria, and Cyanophyta is
a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis.

Anabena sp.
THE EUKARYOTES
在课本 pg 62&63

ANIMAL CELL.
Different between animal cells and plant cells
在课本 pg 65

LIGHT AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPE.

1. Microscopy is the science that studies structure, magnification, lenses and techniques
related to used microscope.
2. Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two seperate points.
3. The limit of resolution of a microscope is the minimum distance between points that
which they are still distinguishable as two separate points.
4. If the two points cannot be resolved, they will be seen as one point.
5. A microscope with a high resolving power will enable two small object close together to
be seen as two separate object.
6.A microscope with low resolving power will cause the two object close together to be seen
as one object.

LI
GHT MICROSCOPES.
1. Light rays passing through a specimen are brought to focus by a set of glass lenses,
image can be seen by human eye.
2. Resolution power 0.2 µm.
3. The visible light used in the optical microscope has a wavelength of about 400-700 nm.
4. The maximum resolution of an optical microscope resolution of an optical microscope is
about 200 nm.
5. In practise this gives a maximum magnification of about 1500 times.
6. Organelle such as chloroplast (about 3000 nm in diameter) are large enough to
interfere with the light waves and can be seen.
7. Ribosomes (about 20 nm in diameter) are too small to interfere with the light waves
and cannot be seen under a light (optical) microscope.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE.
1. The electron microscope uses an electron beam instead of light rays.
2. Electron have short wavelength. The average wavelength is about 0.005 nm.
3. This give a high resolving power to the electron microscope which can resolve two objects
that are only about 1nm apart
4. Electron are negatively charge and can be focused by the use of electromagnets in the
electron microscope.
5. There are two main types of electron microscopes:
(a) Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
(b) Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

1. Have resolving power about 1nm.
2. Used to study the ultrastructure of a cell
3. The filaments of the cathode (electron gun) is heated causing it to emit electrons.
4. The electron beam passes through ultra-thin dehydrated section od dead specimen.
5. It placed in a vacuum to minimise electron scattering due to collision between
electron and molecules in the air.
6. The section are treated with heavy metal such as uranyl, lead acetate or osmium
tetroxide.
7. Electrons are absorbed by the heavily stained parts but pass through the lightly
stained parts. This provides contrast between different parts of the specimen.
8. Electromagnets are used to bend and focus the electron producing an image on a
fluorescent screen or photographic film.
9. A two dimensional view of specimen is produced.
10. An electron micrograph is a photograph taken through an electron microscope.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
1. Is used to produced 3 dimensional view of an object.
2. A narrow electron beam passes rapidly back and forth to scan the surface of a dead
specimen which has been coated with a thin layer of metal , for example gold.

Electron microscope
Comparison of light and electron microscopes
在课本 pg 70

Cellular Component.
PLASMA MEMBRANE
1. Covers the cell and separates the cell content from the extracellular environment.
2. Consist of phospholipid bilayer with various protein molecule embedded and
attached to it.
3. The polar hydrophilic heads points outwards attracted to aqueous surrounding to
form hydrogen bonds with the water molecule.
4. The non-polar hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails will pointed inwards and attracted to
one another by hydrophobic interaction and van der walls forces.

1. The unsaturated phospholipids with kinks in their fatty acids chain prevent close
packing of the molecule and give the membrane its fluidity.
2. Extrinsic protein/ peripheral protein-floating on the outer surface or inner surface
of the membrane.
3. Intrinsic protein –embedded partially in the phospholipid
4. Transmembrane integral protein penetrate through or fully submerged in the
phospholipid.
 5. Some of the protein and phospholipid conjugate with short branched
oligosaccharides to form glycoprotein and glycolipid which important for cell
recognition.
6. Cholesterol molecule are found between the phospholipid molecule to stabilise
the membrane structure and regulate membrane fluidity.
7. The dynamic, fluid structure which is affected by its composition:
(a) the phospholipid molecule and some protein molecules can move laterally or
change place which give the membrane fluidity.
(b) The protein scattered in the fluid phospholipid bilayer give a mosaic
appearance and have different structures and function
(c) the unsaturated fatty acids with double bonds form kinks prevent close
packing of the phospholipid molecules to increase fluidity of movement of
substances across the membrane.
8. High in temperature, high the fluidity of the membrane. At moderate warm
temperature cholesterol molecules reduce the free movement of phospholipid
molecules and make the membrane less fluid.
9. At low temperature cholesterol prevent close packing of phospholipid molecules
and slow down solidification of the membrane.

Cellular Component – CELL WALL

1. Comprises rigid, non living cellulose that determines the shape of the cell, protects
and support the cell.
2. Have pits (plsmodesmata) that enable cytoplasmic strands to pass through and
connects the cytoplasm of one cell to its adjacent cell.
  Cell walls consist of 3 types of layers- fig. 2.10
– Middle lamella: This is the first layer formed during cell division. It makes up
the outer wall of the cell and is shared by adjacent cells. It is composed of
pectic compounds and protein.
– Primary wall: This is formed after the middle lamella and consists of a rigid
skeleton of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a gel-like matrix composed of
pectic compounds, hemicellulose, and glycoproteins.
– Secondary wall: formed after cell enlargement is completed. The secondary
wall is extremely rigid and provides compression strength. It is made of
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The secondary wall is often layered.

STRUCTURE OF CELL WALL 在课本 pg 75

Functions of cell walls:

1. Provide tensile strength and limited plasticity which are important for:

 keeping cells from rupturing from turgor pressure.

 turgor pressure provides support for non-woody tissues.
2.Thick walled cells provide mechanical support
3.Tubes for long-distance transport.
4. Cutinized walls prevent water loss.
5. Provide mechanical protection from insects & pathogens.
6. Physiological & biochemical activities in the wall contribute to cell-cell communication.
Cytoplasm.
1. Cytoplasm is basically the substance that fills the cell. It is a jelly-like material that is
eighty percent water. It is more like a viscous (thick) gel.
2. Cytoplasm, which can also be referred to as cytosol, means cell substance. This
name is very fitting because cytoplasm is the substance of life in which all of the
cell's organelles are suspended. The cytoplasm is found inside the cell membrane,
surrounding the nuclear envelope and the cytoplasmic organelles.

3&4 在课本 pg 75
ORGANELLES - NUCLEUS.

STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS 在课本 pg 76

5-8 在课本 pg 76
9. Functions
i) Storage of hereditary material, the genes in the form of long and thin DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) strands, referred to as chromatins.
ii) Storage of proteins and RNA (ribonucleic acid) in the nucleolus.
iii) Nucleus is a site for transcription in which messenger RNA (mRNA) are produced for the
protein synthesis.
iv) Production of ribosomes (protein factories) in the nucleolus.
v) As the nucleus regulates the integrity of genes and gene expression, it is also referred to
as the control center of a cell.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
在课本 pg 77
• The membrane of ER may connect to the outer membrane of the nucleus , which
may continue to expand to form more ER membrane.
• The ER itself will bud off to form the Golgy Apparatus and certain of it will connect to
plasma membrane through tubule.
• The size of ER depends on the type of cells. In glandular cells and liver cells, the ER is
very big and complex.

2-4 在课本 pg 77&78

GOLGI APPARATUS
在课本 pg 78&79
LYSOSOMES (‘SUICIDE BAG’)
在课本 pg 79&80
RIBOSOMES
在课本 pg 80&81
MITOCHONDRION (plural: MITOCHONDRIA)
在课本 pg 81&82
PLASTIDS
在课本 pg 82
CHOROPLAS
在课本 pg 83
MICROBODIES
在课本 pg 84
CENTRIOLES
在课本 pg 84
FLAGELLUM (plural : flagella) and CILLIUM (plural: cilia)
在课本 pg 84&85
STRUCTURE OF FLAGELLUM AND BASAL BODY 在课本 pg 85

CYTOSKELETON
在课本 pg 85

(c) 在课本 pg 86
MICROTUBULES
在课本 pg 85
THE CYTOSKELETON INTERACT WITH MOTOR PROTEIN MOLECULES 在课本 pg 86

MICROFILAMENTS
在课本 pg 86
VACUOLES
在课本 pg 87&88

TECHNIQUES IN CELL BIOLOGY.

Cell Fractionation/ Differential Centrifugation.
1. Cell fractionation is a combination of various methods used to separate cell organelles
and components. There are two phases of cell fractionation: homogenization and
centrifugation.
i) Homogenization is the process of breaking open the cells.
ii) Centrifugation is the isolation of the cell organelles. Therefore at the end of this process, a
researcher has isolated the mitochondria, the nucleus, the chloroplast and etc.

2-8 & picture 在课本 pg 89&90

The organelles that are separated at different speeds 在课本 pg 90

PLANT CELL
PLANT TISSUE
在课本 pg 91

MERISTEMS
在课本 pg 91

STRUCTURE OF MERISTEMATIC CELL

在课本 pg 91&92

PERMANENT TISSUES – GROUND TISSUES - - Parenchyma, Collenchyma,

Sclerenchyma
Parenchyma
在课本 pg 92&93
Collenchyma
在课本 pg 94

Sclerenchyma
在课本 pg 94&95

SCLEREIDS (Stone Cell)

在课本 pg 95&96

XYLEM VESSELS
在课本 pg 97

TRACHEIDS
在课本 pg 98&99

XYLEM FIBRES
在课本 pg 99

XYLEM PARENCHYMA
在课本 pg 99

Xylem
PHLOEM
在课本 pg 102

SIEVE TUBES
在课本 pg 103

COMPANION CELLS
在课本 pg 103

PHLOEM FIBRE AND SCLEREIDS

在课本 pg 103

PHLOEM PARENCHYMA
在课本 pg 103

FUNCTIONS OF PHLOEM
在课本 pg 103
ANIMAL TISSUES.
I) Connective Tissue.
II) Muscle Tissue.
III) Nervous Tissue.
IV) Epithelial Tissue.
1. Connective tissue
- Connective tissue holds other tissues together such as in the formation of organs, and has
the ability to stretch and contract passively. Bone and blood are examples of specialized
connective tissues.
2. Muscle tissue
- Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the body known as muscle tissue. Muscle
tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within
internal organs. Muscle tissue is separated into three distinct categories: visceral or smooth
muscle, which is found in the inner linings of organs; skeletal muscle, in which is found
attached to bone providing for gross movement; and cardiac muscle which is found in the
heart, allowing it to contract and pump blood throughout an organism.
3. Nervous tissue
- Cells comprising the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified
as neural tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissue forms the brain, cranial nerves
and spinal cord and, in the peripheral nervous system forms the peripheral nerves, inclusive
of the motor neurons.
4. Epithelial tissue
- The epithelial tissues are formed by layers of cells that cover organ surfaces such as the
surface of the skin, the airways, the reproductive tract, and the inner lining of the digestive
tract. The cells comprising an epithelial layer are linked via semi-permeable, tight junctions;
hence, this tissue provides a barrier between the external environment and the organ it
covers. In addition to this protective function, epithelial tissue may also be specialized to
function in secretion and absorption
Epithelial Tissue
1. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines body cavities. Functions include
lining, protecting, and forming glands.
2. Three types of epithelium :
i) Squamous epithelium is flattened cells.
ii) Cuboidal epithelium is cube-shaped cells.
iii) Columnar epithelium consists of elongated cells.
• Any epithelium can be simple or stratified.
• Simple epithelium has only a single cell layer.
• Stratified epithelium has more than one layer of cells.
• Pseudostratified epithelium is a single layer of cells so shaped that they appear at
first glance to form two layers.

Cuboidal epithelium. Epithelium lining the intestine of a rat,

Columnar epithelial cells Glandular epithelium

Connective Tissue
1. Connective tissue serves many purposes in the body:
• binding
• supporting
• protecting
• forming blood
• storing fats
• filling space
2. Adipose, fibrous, blood, lymph, cartilage and bone.

Connective Tissue
1. Adipose tissue -facilitates energy storage and insulation.
2. Fibrous Connective Tissue - tendons, which connect muscle to bone.
- Ligaments connect bone to bone at a joint.
3. Cartilage - forms the embryonic skeleton of vertebrates and the adult skeleton of sharks
and rays.
- It also occurs in the human body in the ears, tip of the nose, and at joints such as the
knee and between bones of the spinal column.
4. BONE

STRUCTURE OF COMPACT BONE 在课本 pg 113

9-10 在课本 pg 114

5. Blood
- is a connective tissue of cells separated by a plasma - transports dissolved glucose,
wastes, carbon dioxide and hormones, as well as regulating the water balance for
the blood cells.
- Two types of cells occur. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) carry oxygen. White blood
cells (leukocytes) function in the immune system.
- Platelets are cell fragments that function in blood clotting.

Adipose tissues Cartilage Bone

Blood
Muscle Tissue
1. Muscle tissue facilitates movement of the animal by contraction of individual muscle cells
(referred to as muscle fibers). Three types of muscle fibers occur in :
i) skeletal (striated)
ii) smooth
iii) cardiac
STRUCTURE OF SMOOTH MUSCLE & CARDIAC MUSCLE

在课本 pg 122
SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBRES

在课本 pg 123

Organisation of muscle tissue

Striated muscle cell Smooth muscle cell Cardiac muscle cell.

Nervous Tissue
1.functions in the integration of stimulus and control of response to that stimulus.
2.Nerve cells are called neurons. Each neuron has a cell body, an axon, and many dendrites.
3.Nervous tissue is composed of two main cell types: neurons and glial cells. Neurons
transmit nerve messages. Glial cells – provide structural support and supply metabolites to
neurone.
4. Humans have about 100 billion neurons in their brain alone!
5. All neurons have three parts.
i. Dendrites receive information from another cell and transmit the message to the cell
body.
ii. Cell body contains the nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles typical of
eukaryotic cells.
iii. Axon conducts messages away from the cell body.

Neurons