CHAPTER - 00

EVOLUTION

Evolution is the ‘history of life forms in our environment’.

Concept of evolution proposed by -Empedocles
Term, Evolution proposed by Herbert Spencer
Charles Robert Darwin - Father of evolution
Ernst Mayr - Darwin of the 20th century
Based on observations made during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S Beagle round the world,
Darwin concluded that existing living forms share similarities to varying degrees not only among them-
selves but also with life forms that existed millions of years ago.
On the basis of this Darwin defined evolution as “Descent with modification”. ie, all the present
forms of organisms are branched out from a common ancestor.
First form of life in our earth evolved in water about 4 bya/4000mya/400cya
Origin of Universe
Huge clusters of galaxies comprise the universe
Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas and dust.
According to Big-Bang theory universe was formed about 20bya/20000mya/2000cya by a huge singu-
lar explosion occured unimaginable in physical terms. As a result universe expand and temperature
came down.
Hydrogen and Helium were the first gases formed sometime later
Gradually exploded particles (gases) condensed under their gravitation to form as present day galaxies
of universe
ORIGIN OF SOLAR SYSTEM AND EARTH
According to Nebular hypothesis proposed by Kant and Laaplace, our solar system and earth were
formed about 4.5bya/4500mya from a spinning mass of disc called “solar nebulae”.
Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth. ie, almost four billion years back
PRIMITIVE CONDITIONS OF EARTH
There was no atmosphere on early earth
Primitive atmosphere was a “reducing type”/ “simulating type” due to the;
• absence of free oxygen
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• abundance of hydrogen
• reducing temperature
• gradually certain free atoms were formed, from that hydrogen was the highly reactive. It reacts with
others to form CH4, NH3 and H2O(g)
H2O(g) broke up into hydrogen and oxygen by the presence of UV-rays
Lighter H2 escaped, but oxygen coined with NH3 and CH4 to form water and CO2 and others.
As a result CH4, NH3, CO2 and H2O(g) released from molten mass covered the surface.
Later ozone layer was formed
All these components reacts with each other by the presence of energy from lightning, thundering, UV
-rays, X-rays volcanic eruptions etc to form simple organic substances like aminoacids, fattyacids,
sugars, pigments, N2 bases etc.
As the atmosphere is cooled, then water fell as rain to fill all the depressions and form oceans.
Within the ocean water all these simple organic compounds reacts with each other to form first form of
life [RNA, Proteins, etc].
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE (Conventional religious literature)
1) Theory of Special creation - By Hebrew and Father Suarez. According to this,life forms are
created by supernatural power. This theory has 3 connotations. They are;
i) All living organisms that we see today were created as such
ii) Diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in future also.
iii) At the time of creation earth was about 4000 years old.
2) Theory of spontaneous generation - [Abiogenesis]
By Aristotle, Plato, Van Helmont etc.
¨ Life originated from non - living things such as decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud, dew
etc by spontaneously.
¨ Louis Pasteur disproved this through Swan Necked Flask experiment.
3) Theory of Biogenesis : By Louis Pasteur
¨ life forms are evolved from pre existing living things.
¨ However it does not explains the origin of first form of life.
4) Theory of Panspermia (Arrhenius) / Cosmozoic origin (Richter).
It states units of life called spores were transferred to different planets including earth. Most of
the Greek thinkers and Astronomers believed this idea still this time also.
5) Theory of chemical evolution - [Chemogenesis] / Biochemical origin / Protobiogenesis.
By A.I Oparin from Russia and J. B. S Haldane from England . [“ Origin of life”]  Oparin
¨ First form of life evolved in water from pre-existing non-living organic molecules by series of chemi-
cal reactions takes place in air and H2O. ie; formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic
constituents.
It explained through chemical evolution and biological evolution
Chemical evolution - Chemogenesis
Biochemical Origin / Oparin - Haldane Theory

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Chemical Evolution

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Biological Evolution

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The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till about 2000mya.
This version of biogenesis ie; the first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces from non-
living molecules accepted by majority.
EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION
¨ Simulation / Millers experiment by Stanley Miller with the support of Harold .C. Urey in 1953.
¨ Recreated all the primitive conditions of earth in laboratory with the help of Spark Discharge
Apparatus.
In 1953 Stanley Miller experimentally proved chemical evolution through a simulation experiment.
Miller recreated all the primitive conditions of earth in a laboratory with the help of Spark Discharge
apparatus. He created electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, H2, NH3 ( 2 : 1 : 2) and H2O
(g) at 8000C temperature. [Spark chamber]. With the help of electrode wires created energy in spark
chamber and promote chemical reaction. After this, formed components are collected through a con-
denser. Finally he observed the formation of Aminoacids. [ Glycine, Alanine & Aspartic acid]
In similar experiments others observed the formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigments and fats.
Analysis of meteorite content also proves that chemical evolution is more or less accepted.
EVIDENCES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION:

The process of cumulative change in living population and in the descent population of organisms is
called organic evolution. But it can be studied only through certain evidences.

According to this Charles Darwin concluded that, existing living forms share similarities to varying

degrees not among themselves along with the existed group of animals millions of years ago. It

indicates their close relationship (CR) and common ancestry (CA).

A) PALAENTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES : -
Leonardo Da Vinci - Father of palaeontology
Georges Cuvier - Father of modern palaenotology.
¨ It is based on the comparative study of fossils
¨ Fossils are the petrified dead remains of the body or body parts of ancient organisms preserved in
sedimentary rocks, volcanic ash, amber of plants, icebergs etc.
¨ Determination of the age of fossils - “Dating of fossils”.
¨ “Radioactive carbon dating” is the widely accepted method.
In this age of fossil determined by calculating decomposition time of radioactive isotope C14 present
in the fossil / surrounding medium.
* Electron Spin resonance is the most modern method.
Most of the fossils are formed in oceans.
¨ Rocks form sediments and a cross section of earth’s crust indicates the arrangement of sedi
ments one over the other during the long history of earth. Different aged rock sediments contain
fossils of different life forms who probably died during the formation of particular sediment.
¨ A study of fossils in the different layers in sedimentary rocks indicates that evolution starting from
more simple level to highly complex level and the geological period in which they existed.
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¨ ie, from the origin of earth it passed through many age periods with different organisms. The origin,
dominance and extinction of organisms are takes place at different time periods. From that some are
restricted to a particular time period only. The study showed that life forms varied over time.
¨ Based on this palaeontologists proposed
“ Geological history of earth closely correlated with the biological history of earth.”
¨ However, ancestors of present day organisms were present at different periods in the history of
earth.
¨ Fossils are Written Documents and Direct evidences of Evolution.
¨ Based on the comparative study and dating of fossils palaeontologists prepared a tabulated form
at which the origin, dominance and extinction of organisms from the origin of earth to this time.
¨ It is called “Geological Time Scale”.
¨ In this time durations are classified into many Eras, Periods and Epochs.
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
¨ About 2000 mya the first cellular forms of life appeared on earth.
¨ By the time 500mya, invertebrates were formed and active.
¨ About 350 mya fish with stout and strong fins (coelacanth / lobe fin fishes) could move on land and
evolved into Amphibians.
¨ However, these were ancestors of modern day frogs and salamanders.
¨ A coelacanth fish named Latimeria caught in South Africa in 1938.
¨ Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya
¨ At the end of Carboniferous period ie 300 mya giant ferns present but they all fell to form coal
deposits slowly.
¨ About 200 mya (Triassic period) some land reptiles went back into water and evolved as fish like
reptiles (Ichthyosaurs).
¨ Major types of Dinosaurs lived during jurassic period were;
Brachiosaurus  Herbivorous with elongated neck and tail
Stegosaurus  Herbivorous with Horny plates on body and horned tail.
Triceratops  Herbivorous with 3 - horned head.
Tyrannosaurus rex : Giant carnivorous Dinosaur with 20 feet in height and had huge fear some.dagger
like teeth.
¨ Pteranodon - Flying reptile.
¨ At the end of cretaceous period ie 65 mya. dinosaurs extinct due to - Climatic changes, and some
of them are evolved into birds.
¨ Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.
¨ Crocodiles and birds are the modern day counter part organisms of dinosaurs.
B) BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCES:
It is based on the comparative study of biological substances and biochemical reactions in the body of
different vertebrates.

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¨ Different vertebrates having similar type of proteins, Hormones, Enzymes, genes etc. and they
perform similar functions. It indicates their CR and CA.
¨ Similarity in the structure of biochemical substances indicate molecular homology, while similarity in
the function of biochemical substances indicates molecular analogy.
C) MORPHOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL EVIDENCES
It based on the comparative study of external and internal characteristics of organisms.
1) HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS :
Organs which have similar structure and origin but different in appearance and function ie, the same
structure developed along different directions due to adaptations to different needs.
Similarity indicates CR and CA but differences occurs due to Divergent evolution. Homology is
based on divergent evolution.
Eg: 1) Comparative anatomy of Heart and Brain of different Vertebrates
2) Thorn of Bougainvillea and Tendril of Cucurbita
3) Forelimb bones of Man, Bat, Whale and Cheetah
ADAPTIVE RADIATION [Divergent evolution]
Here evolution starting from a point and literally radiated to other areas of geography based on the new
habitat organisms are adapted and evolved into new species.
¨ Divergent evolution leads to the origin of Homologous organs.
Eg : 1) Marsupial mammals in Australia
2) Placental mammals in Australia
3) Darwin’s finches in Galapagos islands.
¨ Galapagos islands are the “Living laboratory of evolution”
¨ In Galapagos Darwin identified certain small, black coloured passerine birds in different regions.
¨ Mostly insectivorous but some are vegetarian.
¨ “Shape of Beak” in these birds differentiate due to the type of food they are eating,absence of
enemies, lack of competition and geographical isolation
¨ All have similar size and colour, it indicates their CR and CA
¨ All these birds are diverged from a common
Seed eating ground finches in South America through Intraspecific competition
2) ANALOGOUS ORGANS:
Organs which have similar function but different in structure and origin
¨ Functional similarity occurs due to similar habitat or convergent evolution ie; different structures
evolving for the same function and hence having similarity.
¨ Differences indicates different ancestry not common ancestry
¨ Analogous organs and convergent evolution are least useful to determine CR and CA
¨ Analogous organs are a result of convergent evolution.

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Eg: 1) Wings of BIrd and Butterfly

2) Eye of Octopus and Mammal (whale)
3) Lungs of Man and Trachea of insect
4) Flipper of Penguin and Dolphins
5) Tuber of potato and sweet potato
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION :
Different organisms came from different ancestors into a common habitat and leaded similar way of
life is called convergent evolution.
“OR”
When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated geographical area
with different habitats is called convergent evolution.
Eg : 1) Birds, Bat, Butterfly and Pteranodon (Flying reptile)
2) Fishes, Whale, Octopus and Ichthyosaurs(Fish like reptile)
3) Placental and marsupial mammals in Australia

PLACENTAL MARSUPIAL
MAMMALS MAMMALS

MOLE MARSUPIAL MOLE

NUMBAT (Banded
ANTEATER (Pangolin)
ant eater)
MARSUPIAL MOUSE
MOUSE
(Bandicoot)

LEMUR SPOTTED CUSCUS

FLYING PHALANGER
FLYING SQUIRREL
(Sugar glider)

BOBCAT TASMANIAN TIGERCAT

WOLF TASMANIAN WOLF

¨ Convergent evolution leads to the origin of analogous organs.

D) EMBRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCES :
It is based on the comparative study of embryos and embryological stages in different vertebrates.
1) Similar early developmental stages:
Cleavage  Morulation  Blastulation  Gastrulation
2) Similar early vertebrate embryos

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3) RECAPITULATION THEORY [BIOGENETIC LAW]

Proposed by Earnst Heckel (1868) and it defined as;
“Ontogeny Recapitulates phylogeny”
¨ Ontogeny is the developmental history of an organism.
¨ Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of an organism.
“It means all organisms repeating their ancestral characteristics during early stages.”
¨ Heckel proposed every descendant embryos repeat their ancestral adult characteristics (fishes)
during early stages. So ancestral adult and descendant embryo are exactly similar.
¨ Based upon the observation, Heckel proposed, certain features during embryonic stage common
to all vertebrates that are absent in adult.
eg : Presence of row of vestigeal gill slits in all vertebrate embryo, but it is functional only in adult
fish.
Eg 2) Fish like tadpole larva of frog
3) Protonema stage of moss resembles algae
4) 2- Chambered heart of fish and 3 - chambered heart of amphibia and reptilia repeated in 4
chambered heart of mammals
¨ Karl Earnst Von Baer (1828) proposed every descendant embryo repeating their ancestral
embryonic character during early stages, not adult characters. So all vert. embryos are similar
during early stages. Generalised features like brain, spinal cord, axial skeleton, aortic arches are
earlier developed than external species characteristics. So we cannot distinguish them during early
stages. This also proves CR and CA.
Eg. Presence of gill slits in all vertebrate embryos
E) BIOGEOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCES :
It based on the comparative study of organisms distributed to different parts of the world.
This geographical distribution is occured due to CONTINENTAL DRIFT.
It leads to :
1) Extinction of animals : eg. Extinction of Horse, Hippopotamus, Bear and Rabbit in South
America due to competition with North American fauna.
2) Restricted Distribution : Some organisms are restricted to a particular land area only. In
other areas they are completely wiped out. Eg.Survival of marsupials and prototherians in Australia
due to lack of competition
3) Discontinuous Distribution : Closely similar species are distributed to widely separated
places without any representatives in intervening territory.
Example :
1) Existence of lung fishes in Africa, Australia & South America
2) Llama in South America & camel in Asia
3) Alligators in Eastern China and North America
4) Through Geographical distribution organisms are separated to different places and evolved into new
species.
Eg. Darwin’s finches in Galapagos islands [Adaptive radiation]
It indicates that through continental drift organisms are distributed to different parts of world and evolved
into new species. But at the same time they are sharing some similarities. It indicates their CR and
CA.

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THEORIES OF EVOLUTION :

1) LAMARCKISM [Theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics] / “USE & DISUSE THEORY”

¨ First theory about origin of species proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck through a book named
“Philosophic zoologique” (1809).
¨ Based on the changed environmental conditions and internal vital forces, organisms acquiring new
features by the overuse or disuse of organs and it inherited to the next generations through
“Somatic cells”.
¨ Due to the overuse such organs became more extended or elongated and the disuse of organs
they became reduced or disappears. It leads to speciation after a number of generations.
Examples :
1) Elongated neck and forelimb in Giraffe
2) Webbed toes in aquatic birds
3) Origin of snakes
4) Origin of flightless birds
5) Absence of pigments in the eyes of cave dwellers
Later it was disproved by August Weismann through a Tail cutting / Mutilation expt. in mice and he
proposed “Theory of continuity of Germ plasm”.
* Germplasm Theory - Characters influenzing the germ cells are only inherited. There is a continuity
of germplasm but the somatoplasm is not transmitted to next generations, hence it does not carry
characters to next generation.
2) DARWINISM - Theory of Natural selection / Darwin - Wallace theory :
¨ Charles Darwin proposed it along with the support of Alfred Russel Wallace.
[conducted Expts in Malay Archepelago].
¨ Darwin’s Book - “ On the basis of origin of species by means of Natural selection” publised
in 1859 Nov. 24th.
¨ “Branching descent and Natural selection” are the two key concepts of Darwinian theory
¨ It means all the present forms of organisms are branched out from a common ancestor through
N.S.
¨ N.S is the major reason for evolution.
¨ Natural selection : It is the process by which the selection of more fitted individuals from a mixed
population by changing environmental conditions.
¨ Fitness is the major criteria for this selection, it is the end result of the ability of an organism to
adapt and get selected by nature. Or the ability of an organism to adapt on the changed conditions.
¨ Darwin considered it as “ Reproductive fitness”. It is the ability of an organism to adapt on the
changed conditions and produce more number of offsprings or ability of an organism to contribute
their gene pool. These, therefore, will survive more and hence are selected by nature.
¨ This would continued for a long time and results the origin of new species after a number of
generations.
¨ Darwin called it natural selection and implied it as a mechanism of evolution.
Salient features of Darwinism :
1) Over production
2) Limited food and space
3) Competition ( Struggle for existence)
4) Variations (useful)
5) Survival of the fittest - [Herbert Spencer] or Natural selection - [Darwin]
6) Inheritance of useful variations
7) Speciation

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¨ Darwin explained over production mainly under the influence a book named “ Essay on principles
of population” written by Thomas Malthus.
¨ Malthus proposed “ population size increased in a geometric ratio while food supply increases in
an arithmetic ratio”.
¨ It leads to an imbalance between nature and population, and competition between organisms.
¨ Darwin considered these competition as; Intraspecific, Interspecific and Extra specific
¨ In that competition some are attaining useful variations and survived but others are eliminated.
¨ Variations are the chief cause of evolution
¨ Such variations are ; small, slow, gradual or continuous and directional (pre - determined)
¨ These variations are inherited to next generations and results the origin of species after a number
of generations.
¨ So, “ Evolution is a small, slow, continuous and directed / predetermined process”.
Supplementary theory of N.S
¨ Artificial selection programmes performed by man is a supplementary idea of N.S
¨ Man selected organisms having desirable qualities within a short time of period through artificial
breeding programmes. Similar thing perform nature by taking millions of years.
Criticism of Darwinism :
Darwin failed to explain,
1) Cause and inheritance of variations
2) Cause of discontinuous variations
3) Presence of vestigeal organs in descendants
4) Arrival of the fittest
¨ Darwin explained only Survival of the fittest.
Examples of Natural selection:
1) Industrial melanism in Biston betularia
On the first time of collection(1850), before industrialisation, more white winged moth present on
treebark due to the presence of Lichens on it. But during industrialisation lichens disappears and the
tree bark became more darkened due to the deposition of soot and smoke. Now the white winged
moth are eaten by predatory birds. In that unfavourable condition some are attaining useful variation
(cryptic camouflage) and survived. They are called Melanised moth. Now the condition is favourable
to melanised moth. In that condition they continuously reproduce, their offspring with useful variations.
¨ So a collection made after industrialisation (1920) more dark winged moth present on tree bark. It
is due to N.S
¨ Here some white winged moths are survived due to mutations.
2) DDT - Resistance mosquitoes
3) Antibiotic resistant bacteria
¨ These are example of N.S by anthropogenic actions
¨ Here new resistant varieties evolved within a much lesser time scale not after a number of genera
tions.
¨ This determinism shows that “ Evolution is not a directed process” but it is a stochastic ( no
predetermination) process.
¨ It occurs due to ;
1) chance events in nature
2) chance fertilization
3) recombination of genes
4) genetic drift
5) chance mutation in individuals
¨ Mutations are pre adaptive but it is effective only by means of N.S.

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Types of Natural selection

It is of 3 types;
1) Balancing / Stabilising Natural selection [More individuals acquire mean character value]
In this type nature selected organisms with Medium phenotypic value (mean chamber value) and
eliminated two different extremes. It reduces variation and hence does not promote evolutionary change.
However it maintains the mean value from generation to generations. Here the graph is bell-shaped.
eg : Hawk with optimum wing length conserved in a particular environment through differences in
breeding potential, will eliminate those hawks with wing spans larger or smaller than this optimum
length.

2) Directional (Progressive Natural Selection) [More individuals acquire value other than mean
character value]
In this type, the population changes towards one particular direction. Here nature favours either
large (High extra) or small (Low extra) individuals of a population. So more individuals of selected type
will be present in next generations. Here the peak - shift to one direction.

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eg : 1) Industrial melanism
2) DDT - Resistant mosquitoes
3) Evolution of Giraffe

or

3) Disruptive Natural selection [ Diversifying Selection]

Here nature selected organisms with two different extremes or peripheral character value at both
ends of the distribution curve and eliminated mean character value. So it leads to the development of
two different populations. It is opposite to stabilizing natural selection. Here evolutionary chance is
very high.
eg : In a pond ecosystem black and white coloured snails are conserved where as brown coloured
snail eliminated by predators.

3) MUTATION THEORY
¨ It proposed by Hugo de Vries (1901) after conducted experiments in “Oenothera lamarckiana”
( Evening primrose).
¨ Mutations are the chief cause of variations .
¨ Such mutable variations are ;
“ Sudden, large, Heritable, Random, Discontinuous and Directionless”.
¨ Through these, new species evolved suddenly ie; on the very first next generation within hundreds
of years not after millions of years.
¨ Such new species are called “Elementary Species”.
¨ Based on this De Vries proposed;
“ Evolution is a sudden, large single step / Saltatory, Discontinuous and Directionless
process” or It is a Jerky process.

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¨ Through mutation both progressive and retrogressive evolution takesplace.

4) MODERN SYNTHETIC THEORY ( NEO - DARWINISM)
¨ It is the Reconciliation of Darwin’s N.S and mutation theory of de Vries.
¨ According to it only genetic variations (mutations) are inherited but it takes place through N.S
¨ Population play an important role in evolution
¨ Every population has built with genetic constancy over a number of generations. If any change in
this constancy results evolution.
¨ 5 postulations are ;
1) Genetic variability in population
2) Heredity
3) Natural selection
4) Reproductive isolation
5) Speciation
HARDY - WEINBERG PRINCIPLE:
¨ It is used as a tool by the population geneticists for identify evolution in a population.
¨ According to this total number of genes and their alleles (gene pool) in a population remains con
stant over a number of generations. It is called Genetic stability / Genetic equilibrium / Hardy -
Weinberg equilibrium.
¨ The sum total of allelic frequency in a population is taken as ‘1’
¨ Individuals in population is represented as ‘p’ and ‘q’
¨ Individual ‘p’ represent Dominant allele ‘A’ while individual ‘q’ represent recessive allel-‘a’.
¨ Frequency of alleles ‘AA’ of Homozygous Dominant individuals are taken as- p2
¨ Frequency of alleles ‘Aa’ of Heterozygous individuals are taken as - 2 pq
¨ Frequency of allele ‘aa’ of Homozygous Recessive individuals are taken as - q2

¨ The sum total of alleles ‘AA’ , Aa and ‘aa’ of individuals are p2  2pq  q 2  1 or

(p  q)2  1 or (p  q)  1

¨ Factors affecting Hardy - Weinberg equilibrium and cause evolution are;

1) Mutation

2) Natural selection

3) Recombination of Genes

4) Gene migration - through migration and immigration between 2 different population

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Gene flow - Continuous gene migration between 2 different population

5) Lack of Random mating

6) Genetic Drift (Sewall Wright effect)

¨ It is the Drastic change in the allelic frequency of a population by chance alone.

¨ It is effective in an isolated small population

¨ It eliminate certain genes from the mother population and it is opposite to N.S.

eg: 1) Founder effect

Founder Effect

¨ A new group of colonisers evolved from a mother population through genetic drift into a new habitat
with changed characteristics are called Founders.

¨ These founders do not have all the alleles in their mother population. They are different from mother
population.

¨ Founders can repeatedly multiply to produce offsprings with all the features of founders.

¨ If founders have any genetic disorder that is also inherited to their offsprings.

¨ Finally formed offsprings are different from mother population. It is called Founder effect.

Eg: Darwin’s Finches in Galapagos islands

¨ When we describe the story of this world we describe evolution as a process.

¨ On the other hand when we describe the story of life on earth, we treat evolution as a consequence
of process called natural selection.

HUMAN EVOLUTION:

Human evolution begins at the Oligocene epoch of tertiary period.

Most fossils of human ancestors were collected from Tertiary rocks of Aftrica. So Africa is the cradle
of Human evolution.

Homosapiens arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed into different races. So
human evolution is also an example for divergent evolution.

Major ancestral forms of humans are;

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