Name: Trimoth Emmons

Student ID: 814003975

Course Code: SOCI 3006

Course Title: The Third World in Global Development: Current Social Issues in Development

with Special Reference to the Anglophone Caribbean.

Assignment: Coursework Essay

Date: 22/03/19

Topic: The Poverty Debate

 The “culture of poverty” argument has caused much debate within the Global South and

Global North. Below a literature review of the information that will be presented in the counter-

proposal for a post-development plan of action shall be outlined for a state agency and it will

focus on a select issue being, women and the feminization of poverty as it relates to gender in the

Caribbean. Through this proposal women who are predominantly marginalized in a region like

the Caribbean can take a plan of action and slowly come to terms with the patriarchal nature of

the society that exists in the Caribbean and bit by bit break down the intersectionality that exists

even between them and in turn this will lead to new opportunities and an opening for a shift in

the culture of poverty and the post-development plan below shall outline this. Poverty and Post-

Development are intertwined in a sense, “poverty has been quite an integral part of the post-

development analysis of development. It has figured prominently in some of the canonical texts

of the tradition, including Arturo Escobar's Encountering Development and the two others listed

above. Accordingly, it is somewhat surprising that no detailed assessment of the post-

development analysis of poverty has appeared in the literature” Shaffer (2012).Shaffer (2012)

Also notes in their assessment on poverty and post-development that it is important to note that

where poverty representations are concerned modern conceptions of poverty have limited

relevance across the global South in that they denigrate simplicity and frugality, eulogize wealth

and riches, and do not agree to the needs of local communities. Shaffer also notes that, where

marginalization is concerned, processes of modernity, in particular industrialization, urbanization

and the weakening of communal ties have led to a massive increase in new forms of poverty,

which have been worsened through schemes of 'development' such as poverty reduction

strategies. According to Girvan (1997) Poverty centers around economics and income, but its

roots are most often found in the political and social development patterns adopted by countries.
Girvan stated that this ‘private’, income related aspect of poverty has been exacerbated by a

parallel rise of ‘public’ poverty, as expressed by decreasing social investments in the number of

quality public services disadvantaged groups have access. The social development patterns he

fails to mention at this time are those of Gender which many other authors see as a prime

indicator of poverty causes.

While the extent of poverty varies from country to country, throughout the region have evolved

similarities centered on three definite categories of poor and conceptions of poverty. This refers

to those who are born poor and remain poor over their life time, mainly because of the manner of

their insertion into the system of production and asset ownership. Another group can be referred

to as the newly poor, or structurally adjusted poor. This refers to those persons who while not

being born poor, have become poor largely because of the various stabilization and adjustment

programs in operation. The implications of this for how poverty is measured can vary on a case

by case basis as the World Bank has a certain measure but it cannot be fully comparable as each

region in the world. It takes time, energy and money to measure poverty, since it can only be

done properly by gathering survey data directly from households. This is the purpose of a

poverty profile, which sets out the major facts on poverty (and, typically, inequality), and then

examines the pattern of poverty, to see how it varies by geography (by region, urban/rural,

mountain/plain, etc.).

Oscar Lewis (1997) stated that People with a “culture of poverty” seem to have a very little sense

of their history. When the poor become class conscious or members of trade union organizations,

or when they adopt an internationalist outlook on the world they are, in Lewis’ view, no longer

part of the culture of poverty although they may still be very much poor. The idea of a culture of

poverty that cuts across different societies enables us to see that many of the problems we
perceive of as typically our own or typically “Negro problems” (or that of any other special

racial or ethnic group) According to Lewis (1997), also exist in countries where there are no

ethnic groups involved. In the less developed countries of the world, however, the people who

live in the culture of poverty may one day become organized into political movements that seek

fundamental radical changes and that is one reason why their existence significant problems.

In Lewis’ (1997) brief outline of the basic psychological aspects of the culture of poverty is

essentially sound, then it may be more important to offer the poor of the world's countries a

genuinely revolutionary ideology rather than the promise of material goods or a quick rise in the

standards of living. It is conceivable that some countries can eradicate the culture of poverty (at

least in the early stages of their industrial revolution) without at first eradicating impoverishment,

by changing the value systems and attitudes of the people so they no longer feel helpless and

homeless-so they begin to feel that they are living in their own country, with their institutions,

their government and their leadership. Lewis’ initial proposal and argument on the culture of

poverty can relate to the marginalization women face in Caribbean society. Reddock and Foster

(2011) noted that, there has been much concern with the impact of the crisis on the poor and

gains made towards improving social development (including progress towards the Millennium

Development Goals in the economic South), Any analysis of the true impact of the financial

calamity, they argue, needs to include a gendered impact assessment of the social and economic

effects in order for responses to be adequately designed and effectively target populations. Their

assessment was facilitated by the use of secondary data from different Caribbean countries

including employment data, policy responses from a national, regional and global level, and

informal interviews. They eventually concluded that with a critique of the responses to date, a
call for empirical data and with recommendations for a more gender-sensitive response to the

global financial crisis and poverty is essential.

Thus it can be seen that a gendered/feminized approach to poverty and analysis of such can be

essential as a post-development plan to helping alleviate poverty and restructure the society from

the bottom up/inductive approach. The main benefits they obtained from their previous jobs are

acquiring management experience and developing better relations with staff and clients.” Some

researchers in the Caribbean have seen poverty as a cycle and gender based, and while many

agree there are points of contention with earlier scholars failing to note that women can be

marginalized and affected the worst by the poverty crisis and this failure to note can be seen as

the point of contention between the old Caribbean scholars on Poverty and the modern scholars

approach to discussing poverty.

Bowen (2007), noted that poverty and related social problems have presented a longstanding

challenge to policy makers and development planners throughout the Caribbean. It presented a

comprehensive overview of poverty and attendant problems, examines the social welfare

approach and poverty reduction strategies, and outlines practical proposals for pursuing social

development and that the solutions lie in strategies should involve a variety of stakeholders,

engaging them in comprehensively broad and versatile programmes to reduce poverty, develop

human capital and improve social wellbeing. Strategies should reflect a balanced approach to

development – an approach that harmonises social policies with economic goals; addresses

diverse community needs and helps people meet those social, economic, educational and health

needs that are fundamental to the maintenance of society.

Gender and Poverty are also synonymous according to Alcock (1997) and they describe poverty

and its relation to gender under the Feminization of Poverty, stating that “even when individual
income is used, measurement tends to treat all individuals similarly as recipients of income

without comparing their different circumstances or obligations.” When referring to how poverty

may be measured. Generally one cannot use or put everyone into the same bracket when

measuring poverty. The assumption is that whilst income and expenditure are matters of public

knowledge and concern, and thus amendable to public scrutiny and measurement, households

and family circumstances and obligations are private matters that cannot and should not be the

focus of public research. It is increasingly widely recognized, however, that differences in

individual and family circumstances are crucial to determining the impact and extent of poverty,

and that rather than being excluded or ignored they should be a central feature of any

understanding of poverty this is particularly true to the differences associated with gender. The

predominant focus on household and family income has obscured, or in Millar and

Glendenning’s (1989) words rendered ‘invisible’, the differences between men’s and women’s

experiences of poverty – and differences in the extent and depth of poverty between men and

women. The effect of this has most frequently been seen in the tendency to regard poor women

as the wives or partners of poor (low-paid or unemployed) men rather than as the poor (low-paid

or unemployed) wives or partners of men who may themselves be in well-paid employment,

(Alcock, 1997).

Gender and Urbanization are also factors one can discuss when talking poverty. In some towns

and cities in Latin America and the Caribbean, and parts of South East Asia, rural out-migration

is female selective, urban sex ratios usually show more women than men and levels of female

household headship are higher in urban than rural areas. There is limited consideration of gender

issues with respect to measuring urban poverty, and identifying the urban poor. Official

indicators of urban poverty often do not take into account gender-biased aspects of household
impoverishment or coping strategies, such as limiting expenditure or resource use in times of

economic crisis. Conventional poverty lines give scant attention to health and social indicators,

hence failing to demonstrate the social and health dimensions of urban poverty which are heavily

borne by women. In general, urban women’s priorities have often been ignored in the design of

human settlements, the location of housing, and the provision of urban services (Masika, De

Haan, Baden, 1997).

Shaffer (2012) saw that most of the post-development critique of 'modern' poverty resulted from

the most comprehensive data source on consumption poverty are not consistent with those

versions of the marginalisation thesis which claim that 'modern' poverty has worsened in recent

times continuing to note that, there is little empirical basis for the more rhetorical positions

associated with some of the 'signature' work within the post-development tradition. It is

important to consider the implications of these new approaches to addressing the issue of poverty

in the Caribbean but it can be noted that “The opposite of poverty is not wealth/riches but

consumption adequacy. In fact, a standard critique of the poverty line, and in particular the food

poverty line, is that it represents a very meagre level of living indeed. It is worth quoting here

from the seminal text on the history of poverty in sub-Saharan Africa, John Iliffe's The African

Poor, which Rahnema draws on extensively when outlining the multiple meanings associated

with the term 'poverty'. In rejecting the argument that 'poverty implies the opposite, riches', Iliffe

states: 'This is surely not true. The opposite of poverty is non-poverty, ie sufficiency.” Shaffer

(2012). And this is what the proposal below will strive to justify given the approaches and

literature discussed above.

Draft Proposal

The Poverty Debate: Women & the Feminization of Comments

Poverty
A Post Development plan of action for Poverty.
 In Post-Development is important to note that where Shaffer (2012)

poverty representations are concerned modern

conceptions of poverty have limited relevance across

the global South in that they denigrate simplicity and

frugality, eulogize wealth and riches, and do not

agree to the needs of local communities.

 Poverty centers around economics and income, but

its roots are most often found in the political and Girvan (1997)

social development patterns adopted by countries.

 The idea of a culture of poverty that cuts across

different societies enables us to see that many of the

problems we perceive of as typically our own can be Oscar Lewis (1997)

seen in other societies

 Any analysis of the true impact of the financial

calamity, they argue, needs to include a gendered Reddock and Foster (2011)

impact assessment of the social and economic effects

in order for responses to be adequately designed and

 effectively target populations.

 The women suggest the educational system can Barriteau (2001)

better prepare individuals for entrepreneurship by

designing and offering business programs in schools,

creating projects for students to manage, and

ensuring there is skill training for the non-academic

student.

 Measurement tends to treat all individuals similarly Alcock (1997)

as recipients of income without comparing their

different circumstances or obligations/ the

differences between men’s and women’s experiences

of poverty.

 In some towns and cities in Latin America and the

Caribbean, rural out-migration is female selective, Masika, De Haan, Baden, (1997)

urban sex ratios usually show more women than men

and levels of female household headship are higher

in urban than rural areas.

Proposals & Recommendations

 Education and knowledge spread through Public
 Service announcements, educating the public on

female issues.

 Changing the patriarchal nature of society through

education and spreading knowledge in the country.

 Minimizes and eventually equality in the wage gap

for men/women

 Ensuring intersectionality does not affect women in

society. E.g all races are treated fairly despite

upbringing/background and given fair chances

 Restructuring Social Institutions such as Education,

Workplace.

 Designing and offering business programs in schools,

community projects for locals, and ensuring there is

skill training for the non-academic inclined members

of society.

Works Cited

Alcock, Pete. Understanding Poverty. Basingstoke: Palgrave Mac Millan.

Barriteau, Eudine, NetLibrary, Inc, and Palgrave Connect. The Political Economy of Gender in
the Twentieth-Century Caribbean. International Political Economy Series (Palgrave (Firm)).
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire ; New York: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2001.

Bowen, Glenn A. "The Challenges of Poverty and Social Welfare in the

Caribbean." International Journal of Social Welfare 16, no. 2 (2007): 150-58.

Foster, Juliana S., and Rhoda R. Reddock. "The Global Financial Crisis and Caribbean Women:
A Gender Analysis of Regional Policy Responses." Social and Economic Studies 60, no. 3/4
(2011): 67-99.

Girvan, Norman, and University of the West Indies Development Endowment Fund
Collection. Poverty, Empowerment and Social Development in the Caribbean / Edited by
Norman Girvan ; with a Foreword by Owen S. Arthur. Kingstown, Jamaica: Canoe Press,
University of the West Indies for the Consortium Graduate School of Social Sciences and
UNICEF, 1997.

Lewis, Oscar. "The Culture of Poverty." Society 35, no. 2 (1998): 7-9.

Masika, Rachel, Arjan De Haan, and Sally Baden. "Urbanisation and urban poverty: A gender
analysis." (1997): 1-18.

Shaffer, Paul. "Post-development and Poverty: An Assessment." Third World Quarterly 33, no.

10 (2012): 1767-782.

World Bank. 1995. Poverty and Unemployment in an Oil based Economy: Report No.14382-TR,
1995.

"INTRODUCTION TO POVERTY ANALYSIS - World Bank." Accessed March 1, 2019.

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PGLP/Resources/PovertyManual.pdf.