ANATOMY – study of the structure or  Lateral – side (ears, eyes)

morphology of the body and how the body
parts are organized.
PHYSIOLOGY - study of the functions of
the body parts, what they do and how they
do it.
PATHOLOGY – study of the diseases of the
body.
 Proximal – nearest point
that connects to our body
 Distal – farthest point to
our body
- Actions Requiring Directions
 Supine – lay down or
nakahiga
 Prone – nakadapa
- Body Parts & Regions

 Anatomical Position of the Body

1. Erect position of the body
2. Face directed forward
3. Arms at the side
4. Palms of the hand facing forward

 Four Basic Reference System

1. Direction
2. Planes
3. Cavities
4. Structural Units

 Direction
- Terms of Direction
 Superior – upper part of
the body
 Inferior – bottom part of
the body
 Anterior or Ventral –
facing forward
 Posterior or Dorsal –
facing backward
 Cephalad/Cranial – head
 Caudal – legs
 Medial – middle (nose,
mouth, spinal cord)
  Transverse / Horizontal
Plane - any plane dividing
the body into superior and
inferior portions

 Longitudinal Section - cut

through the long axis of
an organ
 Transverse / Cross section
 Planes - cut at right angles to the
- 3 Major Planes long axis
 Frontal / Coronal Plane -
plane is one that divides
the anterior (or ventral)
and posterior (or dorsal)
portions of the body at
right angles to the sagittal
plane
 Midsagittal / Sagittal
Plane - vertically divides
the body through the
midline into two equal
left and right portions or
halves.
 Cavities – vessels that has fluids
inside them
- 2 Major Cavities:
 Dorsal Cavity (posterior)
o Cranial Cavity –
contains the brain
o Spinal Cavity –
spinal cord  Parietal – walls of the cavity
 Ventral Cavity (anterior)  Visceral – covering of an organ
o Thoracic Cavity –
(pericardial
“cavity of the
heart”, pleural
“for the lungs”)
o Abdominopelvic
Cavity – (stomach  THORACIC
to pubic area) - Parietal Pericardium – outer
protective walls of our hearts
- Visceral Pericardium – inner
protective walls of our heart
- Parietal Pleura – outer protective
walls of our lungs
- Visceral Pleura – inner protective
walls of our lungs

 Mediastinum
- inside the thoracic cavity, it
is between the lungs
- heart, thymus gland, lymph
and blood vessels, trachea,
esophagus, and nerves.
 Diaphragm Muscle
- separates the thoracic cavity
from the abdominopelvic
 ABDOMINOPELVIC
cavity.
- Parietal Peritoneum – outer
protective walls of the
abdominopelvic cavity
- Visceral Peritoneum – inner
protective walls of the
abdominopelvic cavity
- Mesentery – holds the organs in
place (spider web)
- Peritoneal Cavity – fluid that
protects our organs
 Systems
 Structural Units
- Cells – smallest living units of
biological organization
- Tissues – group of cells
- Organs – group of tissues
- Systems – group of organs
- Human Organism – all of the
organ systems together constitute
a functioning human being.
 Integumentary System
- Provides protection, regulates
temperature, prevents water loss,
and helps produce vitamin D;
outer covering.
- Skin, hair, nails, and sweat
glands.
 Skeletal System
- For protection and support,
allows body movements, produce
blood cells and stores minerals
and adipose tissues.
- Bones, associated cartilages,
ligaments and joints
 Muscular System
- Produces body movements,
maintains posture and produces
body heat. Consists of muscles
attached to the skeleton by
tendons.
 Lymphatic System
- Removes foreign substances
from the blood and lymph,
combats diseases, maintains
tissue fluid balance, and absorbs
 dietary fats from the digestive
tract.
- Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
and other lymphatic organs.
 Respiratory System
- Exchanges oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the blood and
air regulates blood Ph.
- Lungs and respiratory passages
 Digestive System
- Performs the mechanical and
chemical processes of digestion,
absorption, of nutrients and
elimination of wastes.
- Mouth, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, and accessory organs.
 Nervous System
- A major regulatory system that
detects sensations and control
movements, physiological
processes and intellectual
functions.
- Brain, spinal cord, nerves and
sensory receptors.
 Endocrine System
- A major regulatory system that
influences metabolism, growth,
reproduction, and many other
 Characteristics of Life
functions.
- Glands (pituitary), which secretes
the hormones.
 Cardiovascular System
- Transports nutrients, waste
products, gases and hormones
throughout the body; plays a role
in the immune response and the
regulation of body temperature.
- Heart, blood vessels, and blood.
 Urinary System
- Remove wastes products from
the blood and regulates blood ph,
ion balance and water balance.
- Kidneys, urinary bladder and
ducts that carry urine.
 Female Reproductive
System
- Produces oocytes and is the site
of fertilization and fetal
development; produces milk for
the newborn; produces hormones
that influence sexual function
and behaviors.
- Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus,
vagina, mammary glands and
associated structures.
 Male Reproductive
System
- Produces and transfers sperm
cells to the female and produces
hormones that influence sexual
functions and behaviors.
- Testes, accessory structures,
ducts and penis.
 Homeostasis
- State of balance of life
- Negative feedback loop
(responses the revise
disturbances to the body’s
condition, madalas gamitin)
- Positive feedback loop (increase
in function in response to
stimulus) ex. Uterine
contractions during labor
 ribosome and
endoplasmic
reticulum)
 Prokaryotic
cells have
only ribosome

CELL
PARTS OF THE CELL
- Basic unit of life
1. Cell Membrane
 Eukaryotes
- Outer most layer of component
- Made up of millions or trillions
and it is semi permeable
of cells
- Encloses the cytoplasm
- Humans, animals, fungi, plants
- Used in the process of
and protists
phagocytosis.
 Prokaryotes
o Phagocytosis – the cell
- Organisms that are unicellular
uses the cell membrane to
- Bacteria, archea, algae
engulf or ingest large
unwanted particles that is
Common in eukaryotes Differences inside our body.
and prokaryotes 2. Cytoplasm
 They both have  Eukaryotic - Mostly composed of water with
DNA cells are chemical compounds in solution
bigger or colloids.
 Cytoplasm  Eukaryotes o Cytosol – fluid portion of
have nucleus the cytoplasm
(which
3. Nucleus
contains the
- DNA is stored here
DNA)
 Cell Membrane  Prokaryotic - Largest organelle of the cell
cell have - Control center of the cell
cytoplasm o Nucleolus
(which - Can be found inside the nucleus
contains their - Responsible for ribosome
DNA) formation
 Cell walls (except  Eukaryotic  The DNA is responsible
for human and cells have for the appearance of the
animal cells) membrane organism
bound 4. Mitochondria
organelles
- Sausage like organelle
(mitochondria,
- Powerhouse of the cell
golgi
apparatus,
lysosome,
 o Aerobic Respiration –
releasing of energy in the
form of ATP
o Cristae – inner membrane
of the mitochondria
- Project like
shelves
- Where the
cellular
respiration
occurs
5. Ribosome
- Organelle that is responsible for
the production of proteins
- Attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum
o Free ribosomes – not
attached to any organelle
o Amino acids – chains of
proteins; important for
DNA code
6. Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Series of membranes forming
sacks and tubeouls that extends
from the outer nuclear membrane
into the cytoplasm
o Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum – synthesizing
large amount of proteins
o Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum – lipid
synthesis and
detoxification of the cells;
without ribosomes
7. Golgi Apparatus
- Stacks of membrane sacks
- Collects, modifies, packages, and
distributes proteins and lipids
manufactured by the endoplasmic
reticulum.
8. Lysosome
- Clean up and maintenance group
- Contains chemicals used to get
rid of unwanted molecules
- Suicide agents for old and weak
cells
CELL METABOLISM
- Set of chemical reactions that
occur in living organisms in
order to maintain life
 Anabolism – combine or
building up
 Catabolism – breakdown
 Calories
- measure of energy contained in
food
 Adenosine Triphosphate
- most common energy source
available to the cell
- produced in the mitochondria
- produced by aerobic respiration
 3 Steps of ATP production:
1. Glycolysis
- Process of breaking down of
glucose into two pyruvic acids.
- Produces 2 ATPs
2. Krebs Cycle
- Breaking down of pyruvic acids
into carbon dioxide
- Produces 2 ATPs
3. Electron Transport Chain
- Produces most number of ATPs
- Takes place in the mitochondria
 - Uses oxygen
- Produces 34 ATPs

- Chromosomes becomes visible as

chromatids are joined by the
centromere
- Centrioles move to opposite
poles
- Nuclear membrane breaksdown
CELL REPRODUCTION but is still present
o Metaphase
- Process of cell duplication - Chromatids align in the middle
(equator) of the cell
 Mitosis
- Duplication of genetic materials
 Cytokinesis
- Duplication of organelles - Centromere divides
 Meiosis o Anaphase
- Reduction division only in
gonads

- the centromere
 Interphase
pulls chromatids to opposite
pole
- cytokinesis begins; cleavage
furrow
- si Ana may malaking butt
- Longest and most dynamic
o Telophase
part of a cell’s life
- Not part of cell division
- Growth, DNA replication and
cell function

Mitosis - Chromosomes unfoil and

o Prophase decondense
- Spindle apparatus breaks down
- New nuclear membrane forms
- Cytokinesis is nearly complete
- 2 nucleus
 o Cytokinesis
- Division of cytoplasm to produce
two new cells
- Also duplicates the organelles of
the cells
- Two identical daughter cells
Meiosis
- Occurs in the gonads (sex cells)
- Two division resulting 4 new
cells diploid to haploid
o Preparation
- The cell’s chromosomes
duplicate and joins together at the
centromere
o Pairing and Crossover
- Gene swapping
o First 2 daughter Cells
- Cells divides and the 2 contains
half of the chromosomes (23) are
formed
o Four daughter cells
- Each with the half of the original
parent cells and each genetically
unique
TISSUES
- Group of cells with similar
structures and functions.
 Gastrulation
- Formations of tissues started
- The blastula (group of cells)
organizes into layers
 Germ Layers:
- For the development of organs
1. Ectoderm
- Outer layer of the body (skin)
- forms the skin; a portion of the
ectoderm called neuroectoderm
2. Mesoderm
- Middle layer (blood, muscles,
bones, etc.)
- forms tissues such as muscle,
bone, and blood vessels.
3. Endoderm
- Inside layer
- forms the lining of digestive tract
and its derivative
 Histology
 - Study of tissues
- Important for the biopsy and
autopsy
 Biopsy – gets a chunk of tissue thru
needle or surgery
 Autopsy – dead
Four Major Tissues:
- Epithelial tissue
- Connective Tissue
- Muscle Tissue
- Nervous Tissue
 Epithelial Tissue
- It is named based on its
arrangement and shape
- Protection (underlying tissues;
covering)
- Absorbs nutrients
- Secretes hormones, mucus,
enzymes
- Excretes waste
- Filters
 Basement Membrane
- specialized type of extracellular
material secreted by epithelial and
connective tissue cells.
- Acts like an adhesive tile which
anchor cells
Four Major Classification of
Epithelial Tissues Based on
Arrangement
1. Simple
- One cell layer thick
- For the filtration or absorption
process is simple
2. Stratified
- Several layers thick
- Prone to scarring or scars
3. Pseudostratified
- Appears to be several layers but
is not
4. Transitional
- Several layers of easily stretched
cells
Classification Based on Shape
1. Squamous
- flat and slightly irregular
(protection)
- lining of the mouth, blood and
lymph vessels, kidney tubules,
throat, esophagus, anus and skin.
2. Cuboidal
- cube shaped (protection and
secretion)
- has more organelles than
squamous
- glands and lining tissue of gland
ducts (sweat and saliva),
germinal coverings of the ovary,
pigmented layer of the retina of
the eye, bladder (transitional
cuboidal epithelium)
3. Columnar
- tall and rectangular (secretion
and absorption
- mucusa of the stomach, villi of
the small intestine, uterine
(fallopian) tubes, upper
respiratory tract
o Ciliated – mucus
secreting tissue
 Mucous membrane: mucus
production
 Exocrine glands: simple and
compound
 Endocrine: ductless; hormone
secretion
 3 Subgroups of connective
 Endothelium: lines vessels tissue
- Endocardium 1. Loose Connective Tissue
 Mesothelium (serous): lines great 2. Dense Connective Tissue
cavities; no openings outside 3. Specialized Connective
Tissue

 Loose Connective
Tissue
- Fills spaces between and
penetrates organs
- Does not have a specific pattern
o Areolar LCT
- “loose packing”
- material of most organs and other
injury repair, phagocytosis,
inflammatory response
- attaches the skin to underlying
 Connective Tissue
tissues
- To unite or to connect
- Fibroblasts, histiocytes, mast
- Cells with large amount
cells
extracellular matrix
- Temporarily stores water,
- Nourishment
glucose and salt
- Transportation
o Adipose LCT
- Connection movement
- Consists of adipocytes (fat cells)
- Protection and insulation
- Has large amounts of lipids for
- Storage
energy storage
- Attachment and separation
- Insulates the body
o Reticular LCT
o –blast – create matrix
- Tightly packed protein fiber
o –cyte – maintains
- network of reticular fibers and
o –clast – break it down
cells; framework
for remodeling
- liver, bone marrow, lymphoid
organs (spleen and lymph node)
 3 major components of the
matrix:
 Dense Connective
1. Protein fibers (solid) -
Tissue
Collagen, Reticular,
- Relatively large number of
Elastin
protein fibers, which form thick
2. Ground Substance – gel
bundles and fill nearly all of the
like
extracellular space
3. Fluid
 o Dense Regular CT
- Oriented in one direction
- Resistant to stretching
- Tendons (strain is bone to bone)
- Ligaments (sprain is muscle to
bone)
- Aponeuroses
o Dense Irregular CT
- Oriented irregularly
- Allows the tissue to stretch and
recoil
- Muscle sheaths, joint capsules,
fascia
- Ex. Vocal chords and muscle
sheats
 Specialized
Connective Tissue
o Cartilage
- is composed of cartilage cells
(chondrocytes) within an
extensive and relatively rigid
matrix; chondrocytes located in
lacunae
 Perichondrium – surrounds nearly all
the cartilage; cartilage cells arise
from the perichondrium and secrete
cartilage matrix
- Hyaline: ribs & costal cartilages,
nose, trachea
- Fibrocartilage: intervertebral
disks, pubic symphysis
- Elastic: ears, auditory tubes,
epiglottis
o Bone
- Bone cells, or osteocytes are
located within holes in the
matrix, which are called lacunae
- Compact (outer)
Cancellous/Spongy (inner)
- Mineral salts: especially calcium
and phosphorus → HARD
 Teeth
- Dentin - related to bone in
structure but is harder and
denser. Light brown
- Enamel – outer covering of the
crown with white appearance
o Blood
- fluid portion + formed elements
- Formed elements
*Erythrocytes (RBC)
*Leukocytes (WBC)
*Thrombocytes (Platelets)
- Hemopoietic tissue forms blood
cells. In adults, hemopoietic tissue is
found in bone marrow (yellow and
red)
o Lymphoid
- antibody production (B
lymphocytes) and disease
protection
o Reticuloendothelial
System
- Phagocytosis
- System of monocytes and
macrophages
o Synovial
- lines joints, forms bursae,
prevents friction
 Muscle Tissue
- Made for contract and stretching
- Ability to shorten and thicken
- Muscle length > width = Muscle
Fibers
 3 types of Muscle
1. Smooth Muscle
 2. Skeletal Muscle - Cell body: contains nucleus
3. Cardiac Muscle - Dendrites: root-like extensions
that receive stimuli
 Skeletal Muscle - Axons: long thin extensions that
- 40% of a person’s weight (meat) transmit impulse
- Movement by pulling bones
- Voluntary control  Neuroglia: supporting cells
- Multinucleated (one or more  Neurons: have the ability to react to
nucleus), Striated (stripes, aids stimuli
more contraction and can stretch - Irritability – ability of nerve
more) tissue to respond to
- Actin and myosin environmental changes
- Long thin cells - Conductivity – ability to carry a
 Cardiac Muscle nerve impulse (message)
- Muscle of the heart
- Uninucleated (one nucleus) and
striated
- Involuntary control (ANS) TISSUE REPAIR
- Cylindrical shape - substitution of viable cells for
- Connected to other cardiac dead ones.
muscle cells by intercalated disks  Regeneration –
with gap junctions new growth
- Contraction for beating of heart completely
 Smooth Muscle restores portions
- Spindle-shaped, single nucleus of damaged
- Not striated tissues to their
- Involuntary (ANS) normal state.
- Walls of hollow organs  Replacement –
(digestive tract, arteries and repaired by the
veins, ureters); skin and eyes laying down of
- Ex. Peristalsis by contraction of connective tissue,
outer and inner layer emptying of commonly
the bladder, etc. referred to
scarring.
o Labile Cells
- divide throughout life and can
undergo regeneration.
- Squamous epithelium of skin,
 Nervous Tissue mouth, vagina, and cervic
- Conducting cells by action - Columnar epithelium of intestinal
potential tract
- Very long: called nerve fibers - Transitional epithelium of
 Parts urinary tract
 - Bone marrow cells
o Stable Cells
- do not ordinarily divide after
growth is complete but can
regenerate if necessary.
- Liver hepatocytes
- Alveolar cells of the lungs
- Epithelium of kidney tubules
o Permanent Cells
- cannot replicate. If killed,
permanent tissue is repaired by
replacement.
- Neurons
- Skeletal and cardiac muscle
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- Integument – covering
- Protects us and interacts with all
organ systems
- Changes in skin appearance are
used to diagnose disorders in
other systems
- Regulates body temperature
 Melanin – protection from
UV rays and gives pigment to
the skin
 Acid Mantle – kills most
bacteria
 Sensation
- Temperature – cold and hot
- Pressure Receptors – excessive
pressure as pain; mild pressure as
pleasurable
- Combinations – produce burning,
itching, tickling
 Secration
- Sebum – cosmetic gloss,
moisturizer,
antifungal/antibacterial properties
- Sweat – essential in cooling
process
- Vitamin D
 SKIN
- Large waterproof covering
- UV light and chemical protection
o LAYERS OF THE SKIN:
 Epidermis
- Upper layer
- Epithelial tissue is divided into 5
layers
5 sublayers:
1. Stratum Corneum
- Outermost layer
- 25 or more layers of dead
keratinized cells (keratinization:
cells move to surface, lose water,
and nuclei change)
- Barrier to light, heat, chemicals,
microorganisms
2. Stratum Lucidum
- One to two cell layer thick
- Flat and transparent
- Clear, difficult to see
- Present in only a few areas of the
body (palms, soles of the feet)
3. Stratum Granulosum
- Two or three layer
- Flattened, diamond shaped cells
- Active keratinization
- Compact and brittle
- Last layer of epidermis which
contains alive cells
4. Stratum Spinosum
- Spikey
- Eight to ten layers of spiny
shaped cells
- Desmosomes prevalent
  Desmosomes – - Below dermis is the
interlocking cellular subcutaneous layer that is more
bridges on fats called hypodermis
5. Stratum Germinativum
- Rests on the basement membrane
- Lower most layer (stratum
basale)
- Together with stratum spinosum
- Stratum malphigi
- New cells are produced here
(mitosis)
- Melanocytes – produce melanin;
contains the pigment, scattered
through the stratum
germinativum, skin color;
albinism
 Cells:
- Merkel cells – found in hairless
skin; respond to touch
- Melanin – yellow – brown or
black pigment,
- produced by
melanocytes in the stratum
germinativum,
- Stored in transport
vesicles (melanosomes)
- Transferred to
keratinocytes
- protects skin from sun
damage
 Structure:
- Epidermal ridges- fingerprints
- Dermal papillae – tiny mounds,
increase the area of basal lamina;
strengthen attachment between
epidermis and dermis
 Dermis
- Thicker layer
- Dense connective tissue (dense
irregular)
- Connects skin to fats and muscle