Atoms of Life
The key biologically relevant elements are
hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N),
oxygen (O), phosphorous (P), and sulfur (S).
These elements represent over 95% of the
mass of a cell. Carbon is a major component
of nearly all biological molecules.
Trace Elements – Some elements are
found in relatively small amounts. (e.g.,
sodium (Na), potassium (K), chlorine (Cl),
manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn)).
Elements are characterized by their atomic
structure. Atoms are made up of subatomic
particles:
 Proton – is at the center of the
atom and has a mass of 1 atomic
mass unit (a.m.u). Has a positive
charge (+1).
 Neutron – is at the center of the
atom and has a mass of 1 atomic
mass unit (a.m.u). Is neutral (carry
no charge).
 Electron – Has a negative charge (-
1) and zero mass.
Atomic mass, the sum of the number of
protons and neutrons in the atomic
structure, is a particularly useful measure of
each element. By summing the atomic mass
of all the
atoms in a
molecule,
one can
estimate
the
molecular
mass of the
molecule, which is then expressed in atomic
mass units or Daltons.
Atoms Form Molecules
One characteristic of the atoms of the
major elements is that they are able to form
molecules through formation of covalent
bonds with other atoms.
Covalent bonds
(definition) Covalent bonds represent the
sharing of the electrons (negatively charged
subatomic particles between atoms.) The
number of covalent bonds that can form is
dictated by the number of unpaired
electrons in the outer valence shell of the
atom.
Representations of Molecular Structures
Formula gives the chemical formula,
Molecular indicates how the atoms are
bonded together, 2D-Structural provides
some information about the three-
dimensional structure using a two-
dimensional drawing. The solid wedges
indicate the atoms are above the plane of
the page and the dashed wedges indicate
that the atoms are below the page.
 cations, form when a neutral molecule or
atom loses one or more electrons. Ionic
Electronegativity bonds are interactions between oppositely
Another property of the atoms is charged ions. An ionic bond forms due to an
electronegativity. attraction between a positive and a
Electronegativity negative ion. No electron sharing occurs in
the ionic bond.
(definition) The tendency of an atom to
attract electrons to itself. Electronegativity
increases as one moves from left to right,
across the periodic chart. Because the
electronegative atoms have the potential to
attract electrons, i.e., the electrons spend
more time on the electronegative atom, a
molecule containing an electronegative
atom will have partial negative charge
associated with that atom (as indicated by
δ-). The bonding partner in the covalent
bond becomes partially positively charged
(as indicated by δ+).
The presence of polar covalent bonds in
water and in other molecules containing
electronegative
atoms puts these
molecules in a
family of
molecules
referred to as
being polar.

Ionic Bond
Ionic Bond
(definition) An ion is an atom or a molecule
that carries a charge. Negatively charged
ions, called anions,
form when a neutral
molecule or atom
gains one or more
electrons. Positively
charged ions, called