KAPS NEW .Gen. Psy & Thor. of Per

UGC NET/ JRF COACHING- KAPS IDUKKI
KAPS NEW
GENERAL PSY
&
THEORIES OF PERSONALITIES
Introduction
• The term psychology derives from the Greek
roots Psyche, meaning “soul” or “mind” and
logos, meaning “word”; thus, psychology is
literally the study of the mind or soul.
• Now it is a systematic study of behavior and

experience.
AIMS AND PURPOSES OF

PSYCHOLOGY
.The first aim of scientific psychology is the

establishment of facts and principles through
which behavior can be better understood.
• Secondly, Understanding of behavior leads

logically to better prediction and control of
behavior.
Psychology as Science
Psychology is, first of all, a science, because it is empirical. By
empirical we mean that it is founded on experiments, surveys,
and proven facts as distinguished from argument, reasoning and
opinion.
• Second, Psychology is science, because we can do scientific
researches in the field of psychology.
• Third, Psychology is science, because it has a systematic

approach.
• Fourth, Psychology is science because it also uses method of
natural observation.
• Fifth, psychology is a science because it uses experimental
methods. In order to establish facts, we need experimental
method. In experiment we can repeat the phenomenon, it can
be done by another person, and it also provides control.
• Sixth, psychology is science because we can use clinical
methods.
• Finally, psychology is a science because some of the
psychological tests can be measured.
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
• Naturalistic- Observation Method
• This technique involves observing subjects in
their natural environment.
The experimental method

• The independent variable is the treatment that the experimenter
manipulates. This variable is assumed to cause some type of effect
on another variable. If a researcher was investigating how sleep
influences test scores, the amount of sleep an individual gets
would be the independent variable. The independent variable is
the cause.
• The dependent variable is the effect that the experimenter is

measuring. In our previous example, the test scores would be the
dependent variable. Dependant variable is the effect.
• Another example would be the type of soda or cola you drink

(independent) and your blood sugar level is effect (dependant).
• Lab experiments, Field experiments, and Quasi Experiments

The correlational method

• Correlational research involves measuring two
variables and assessing the relationship
between them, with no manipulation of an
independent variable.
SENSORY PROCESSES
• Sensory processing is the process that
organizes sensation from one's own body and
the environment, thus making it possible to
use the body effectively within the
environment.
• Or in other words, sensory processing refers to
the way the nervous system receives messages
from the senses and turns them into
responses.
Perception-attention
• Perception is that organizing process by which we come to
know objects in their appropriate identity, as trees, men,
buildings, machines and so on.
• Attention precedes perception and the attention is active
behavior, a process of give and take with the environment.
• Attention can shift or select.
Humans can perceive the wavelength between 400 to 700
nanometers (nm) and anything shorter than 350nm is invisible
to humans.
Thus we have visual perception of objects and things. We also
hear in our daily usages that are connected with dark
adaptation, blind spot, short sight, long sight, color vision, etc.
Other non-visual perceptions are hearing, taste, smell, optical
illusion (misinterpretation of a visual stimulus).
Perceiving Distance and depth

• Perception distance is the distance your
vehicle travels from the time your eyes see a
hazard until your brain recognizes it.
• The perception time for an alert driver is
about 3/4 second. At 55 mph, you travel 60
feet in 3/4 second.
• Depth perception, size, and distance are
ascertained through both monocular (one
eye) and binocular (two eyes) cues.
• Depth perception is the visual ability to
perceive the world in three dimensions (3D)
and the distance of an object.
Perceptual organization
• Perceptual organization is a process that
groups the visual elements so that it is easy to
determine the meaning of the visual as a
whole. It is an essential concept because it
allows individuals to make sense of the things
that they see at a rapid pace.
Perceptual constancy
• Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to
perceive objects as relatively stable and
unchanging, despite changing sensory
information.
• Eg. A white house is perceived as a white

house by day or night and from any angle. We
see it as the same house. The sensory
information changes, but the object is
perceived as constant.
Illusion
• Common usage suggests that an illusion is a
discrepancy between one's awareness and
some stimulus
• Or in other words, Illusion, a misrepresentation
of a “real” sensory stimulus—that is, an
interpretation that contradicts objective
“reality” as defined by general agreement.
• For example, a child who perceives tree
branches at night as if they are ghosts may be
said to be having an illusion.
Memory
• Memory refers to the process of retaining
information and to the information retained.
• Memory includes skill, (such as how to ride a
bike and how to eat with spoon and fork) and
facts that never change (birthday) and facts
that seldom change (your mailing address)
and facts that frequently change (parking lot).
• You also remember repeated events,
important events, and less important events.
Methods of testing memory:

• Free recall: The simplest method for the tester is to ask for free recall. To
recall something is to produce a response, as you do on essay tests or short
answer tests.
• In Cued recall, you receive significant hints about the material. (For ex, a
photograph of the children in your third grade.)
• With recognition, someone is offered several choices and asked to select
the correct one. Multiple choices use the recognition method.
• Savings method or relearning method detects weak memories by
comparing the speed of original learning to the speed of relearning. All
these four types of memories are called explicit memory or direct memory.
Or in other words, explicit memory means someone who states an answer
regards it as a product of his /her memory.
• In implicit or indirect memory, an experience influences something you

say or do even though you might not be aware of the influence. For ex, you
listen to others say or do while you are having a conversation with another
person. Procedural memories, memories of motor skills are examples of
implicit memory.
• Declarative memories are those memories we can readily state in words.

According to the information-processing model of

memory, human memory resembles that of a computer:
Information enters the system, is processed, coded, and
then stored. Information first enters a sensory store (brief
storage of sensory information), and some of its
information is stored as short term and long term memory.
• Short-term memory means temporary storage of recent

events and long-term memory means a relatively
permanent store.
• Working memory is a system for processing or working

with current information.
• Sensory memory is the shortest-term element of memory.

It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information
after the original stimuli have ended.
How can we improve our memory?

• One method would be repetition.
• Another method is association of words and ideas.
• According to the levels-of-processing principle, how easily we can
retrieve a memory depends on the number and types of associations
we form
• According to encoding specificity principle, the associations you
form at the time of learning will be the most effective retrieval cues.
• State-dependant memory is the tendency to remember something
better if your body is in the same condition during recall as it was
during the original learning.
• A mnemonic device is any memory aid that relies on encoding each
item in a special way. The word mnemonic (nee-MAHN-ik) comes
from the Greek root meaning memory. The same root appears in the
word ‘amnesia’-lack of memory. Some mnemonic devices are simple
like “Every Good Boy Does Fine” to remember the music notes
EGBDF.
• Another mnemonic device is the method of loci (method of places-
locus, locate). First you memorize a series of places, and then you
use a vivid image to associate each of these locations with something
you want to remember.
Thinking process
• Thought (also called thinking) is the mental process in which human beings
form psychological associations and models of the world.
• Cognition means thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge.
A major part of thinking is the formation of categories or concepts. Many
categories are best described by familiar or typical examples called
prototypes. For ex, we define the category ‘vehicle’ by examples: car, bus,
train boat etc.
• The tendency to read the word, instead of saying the color of the ink as
instructed is known as the Stroop effect. Looking at RED and say green. You
look the color and read the word with color.
• Change blindness is a frequent failure to detect changes in parts of a scene.

• Attentional blink means during a brief time after perceiving one stimulus, it
is difficult to attend to something else.
• Expertise is a high level of thinking and knowledge in a particular field and
therefore an example of outstanding cognition. Expert performance can be
extremely impressive. Practice is the best way to reach up to the expert
level
Problem-solving
• Problem solving can be described in terms of
four phases: understanding the problem,
generating hypothesis, testing the hypotheses,
and checking the result.
• Heuristics are methods of simplifying a
problem. We have limited knowledge, limited
memory, and limited time to collect information
and reason out an answer. During such a time
heuristics would be very helpful.
Decision –making
• In psychology, decision-making is regarded as
the cognitive process resulting in the selection
of a belief or a course of action among several
possible alternative options; it could be
either rational or irrational.
• Decision-making process is a reasoning process
based on assumptions
of values, preferences and beliefs of the
decision-maker.
Intelligence
• Modern studies of intelligence began with the brain. We cannot see the
complex mental processes that are involved in the intelligence. We have to
approach the subject more indirectly by watching what people do in
situations that require the use of intelligence.
• IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests attempt to measure an individual’s
probable performance in school and similar settings. That is by dividing the
mental age by chronological age and then multiplying by 100. For ex, an 8
year old who performed like an average 10 year old would have a mental
age of 10, a chronological age of 8, and an IQ of 10/8 X 100 = 125. Two
French psychologists, Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon, devised the first IQ
tests. An IQ score measures performance; it does not explain it.
• Psychologists have drawn up different lists of abilities that make up
intelligence. Some define intelligence fairly narrowly in terms of academic
skills; others include such abilities as social attentiveness, musical abilities
and motor skills.
Creativity
• Creativity is not, of course, limited to inventors and artists. There are
many ordinary people who are very creative in their daily life and
activities.
• Guilford speaks of creativity as a form of intelligence. He says certain
abilities like flexibility, originality, fluency with words, associations
and ideas needed for creativities. There are not only different ways
of being creative; there are different aspects of creativity such as
sensitivity to problems, originality and ingenuity (the discovery of a
solution in an unusually cleaver ways).
• Creativity is the ability to make or do something new that is also
useful or valued by others. The “something” can be an object (like
an essay or painting), a skill (like playing an instrument), or an action
(like using a familiar tool in a new way).
• An important form of creativity is creative thinking, the generation
of ideas that are new as well as useful, productive, and appropriate.
And creative thinking can be stimulated by other’s efforts.
Nature and Nurture controversy

• Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by
genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is
generally taken as the influence of external factors after
conception, e.g., the product of exposure, life
experiences and learning on an individual.
• There is good evidence that personality disorders as revealed

in atypical and unusual behavior are in part hereditary.
• Heredity influences some trait more than others. Inheritance is

apparently more potent in determining the level of
intelligence, physique, and motor and sensory equipment.
Environment has greater influence in shaping specific habits,
personality characteristics, believes and values.
Measurement
• Measurement is the assignment of scores to
individuals so that the scores represent some
characteristic of the individuals.
• (Psychological measurement is often referred

to as psychometrics.) eg. Personality test,
career test, IQ test, etc
THEORIES OF
PERSONALITY
Introduction
• The study of the human personality is the area
from which our ideas and studies about
motivation, locus of control, aggression, mental
disorders, interpersonal attraction patterns,
personal styles, individual differences, and other
domains of study emerge.
• Personality is the field within the scientific
psychology that studies individuals. How are one
person different from another, or are people
fundamentally similar rather than different.
• Personality may be defined as the underlying
causes within the person of individual’s behavior
and experience.
The Psychoanalytic Perspective

• The psychoanalytic perspective on personality has
become one of the most widely known approaches in
the scientific field. The central idea of the
psychoanalytic perspective is the unconsciousness.
Simply put, this concept says that people are not aware
of the most important determinants of their behavior.
Some of the common characteristics of psychoanalytic
are:
• 1. Personality is strongly influenced by unconscious
determinants.(repressed feelings, hidden memories, habits, thoughts,
desires, reactions etc)
• 2. The unconscious is dynamic or motivational, and is in
conflict with other aspects (unconscious bias, implicit memory,
implicit attitude etc)of the unconscious and with
consciousness.
• 3. The unconscious originates in early experience.
SIGMUND FREUD (1856-l939)

• The conscious mind is what you are aware of at any particular
moment, your present perceptions, memories, thoughts,
fantasies, feelings, what have you.
• Working closely with the conscious mind is what Freud called the
preconscious or subconscious, what we might today call ‘working
memory’. That is anything that can easily be made conscious
even though you may not think right now but can bring to your
mind very fast. These two are smallest parts, according to Freud.
• The largest part is the unconscious. It includes all the things that
are not easily available to awareness, including many things that
have their origins there, such as our drives or instincts, and things
that are put there because we can’t bear to look at them, such as
the memories and emotions associated with trauma.
• According to Freud, the unconscious is the source of our
motivations, whether they are simple desires for food or sex,
neurotic compulsions, or the motives of an artist or scientist.
Freudian Ideas
• Free Association of ideas
• Id- pleasure principle, Ego- Reality principle,
and Super Ego- Moral Principle
• Freudian slips- slip of the tongue
• Dynamic forces: death instinct, Life instinct
and Sexual instinct- Libido
• Three kinds of anxieties: Realistic anxiety- fear
Moral Anxiety- shame, guilt, fear of punishment
Neurotic Anxiety- loosing control, temper,
rationale, and mind
Self- Defense Mechanism

• Denial: It is refusing to acknowledge painful or
threatening circumstances.
• Repression: It is the most powerful form of blocking
painful feelings and experiences. In repression we block
out unacceptable impulses or thoughts. It is a form of
forgetting, and its most extreme form is amnesia-total
inability to recall a part of the past.
• Intellectualization: It is a subtle form of denial. We
realize that we are threatened but detach ourselves
from our problems by analyzing and intellectualizing
them.
• Reaction Formation: It refers to a behavioral form of
reaction. The person express emotions that are the
opposite of what he or she really feels.
Defense mechanism……..
• Displacement: It is the redirection of energy from
unsatisfied drives into objects.
• Sublimation: According to Freud, the sublimation, the
transformation of drives into more socially acceptable
forms, is essential to personality development and to
civilization.
• Projection: The displacement of one’s own motives into
others is known as projection.
• Identification: The reverse of projection is identification.
Through identification, we take on the characteristic of
someone else in order to share in that person’s triumphs
and avoid feelings of personal incompetence.
• Regression: When individuals are under severe stress,
they may revert to childlike behavior and primitive
defenses.
Psycho-Sexual Stages
• First stage is the oral stage: This stage lasts
from birth to 18 months. The focus of pleasure
is, of course, mouth. Sucking and biting are
favorite activities.
• The second stage is the anal stage: This stage
lasts from 18 months to three or four years
old. The focus of pleasure is anus. Holding it in
and letting it go are greatly enjoyed.
• The third stage is the phallic stage: This stage
lasts from three to five or even up to seven
years old for some. The focus is on the genital
and the pleasure of masturbation.
• The fourth stage is the latent stage: It lasts from

seven to puberty. During this stage, the sexual
impulses are suppressed in the service of learning.
Most of the time kids at this level play with their
own sex.
• The last stage is the genital stage: It begins with
puberty and during this time, our sexual impulses
are reawakening. In lovemaking, the adolescents
and adults are able to satisfy their unfulfilled
desires of childhood.
• During the Phallic stage, the child develops a
marked attachment to parent of the opposite sex
and becomes jealous of the parent of the same
sex. Freud called this Oedipus complex (in the
case of a boy. Greek mythology- Oedipus killed his
father and married own mom) and Electra
complex (in the case of a girl).
Therapy
• Relaxed Atmosphere
• Free Association
• Resistance
• Dream Analysis
• Para praxes- slip of tongues
• Transference and Counter-Transference
• Catharsis-Catharsis is the sudden and dramatic
outpouring of emotion that occurs when the trauma is
resurrected
• Insight-Insight is being aware of the source of emotion,
of the original traumatic event.
• Freud used to say that the goal of therapy is “to make
the unconscious conscious”.
ERIK ERICKSON
The epigenetic principle
• This principle says that we develop through a
predetermined unfolding of our personalities in
eight stages. Our progress through each stage is
in part determined by our success, or lack of
success, in all the previous stages. Each stage
involves certain developmental tasks that are
psychosocial in nature.
• If a stage is managed well, we carry away a
certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will
help us through the rest of the stages of our lives.
On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may
develop maladaptations and malignancies as well
as endanger all our future development.
Eight stages
• The first stage is called infancy or the oral-
sensory stage, which is first or first and half-
years of our life. The psychosocial crisis at this
stage is trust vs mistrust and the significant
relationship is with the mother.
• At this stage the psychosocial modalities are to
get and to give in turn and the psychosocial
virtues or ego strength we can see is that of
hope and faith in the other person. We find
some sort of maladaptations and malignancies
in the form of sensory distortion and
withdrawal.
• The second stage is called the anal-muscular

stage of early childhood, which is about 18
months to 3 years of our life. The psychosocial
crisis at this stage is autonomy vs shame and
doubt and the significant relationship is with the
parents.
hold on and to let go and the psychosocial
virtues or ego strength we can see is that of will
and determination. We find some sort of
maladaptations and malignancies in the form of
impulsivity and compulsion. Obesity is thought
to stem from disturbances during the oral and
anal stages of psychosexual stages.
• The third stage is called the genital-locomotor

stage or play age, which is about 3 years to 6
years of our life. The psychosocial crisis at this
stage is initiative vs guilt and the significant
relationship is with the family.
go after and to play and the psychosocial
virtues or ego strength we can see is that of
purpose and courage. We find some sort of
maladaptations and malignancies in the form
of ruthlessness and inhibition.
• The fourth stage is called the latency stage or

school- age, which is about 7 years to 12 years of
our life. The psychosocial crisis at this stage is
industry vs inferiority and the significant
relationship is with the neighborhood and school.
According to Erickson, adequate training, sufficient
education, and good models during age range six
to eleven years will lead to industriousness.
complete and to make things together and the
psychosocial virtues or ego strength we can see is
that of competence. We find some sort of
narrow virtuosity and complexes.
• The fifth stage is called the adolescence stage

which begins with puberty and ending around
18 or 20 years of our life. The psychosocial crisis
at this stage ego-identity vs role confusion and
the significant relationship is peer groups and
role models.
be oneself and to share oneself and the
psychosocial virtues or ego strength we can see
is that of fidelity and loyalty. We find some sort
of maladaptations and malignancies in the form
of fanaticism and repudiation
• The sixth stage is called the young adult stage

which begins with 18 years or 20 and ending
around 30 years of our life. The psychosocial
crisis at this stage intimacy vs isolation and the
significant relationship is partners and friends.
lose and to find oneself in another and the
is that of love. We find some sort of
of promiscuity and exclusivity.
• The seventh stage is called the middle adult

stage which begins with 30 years ending around
59 years of our life. The psychosocial crisis at
this stage generatively vs self-absorption and
the significant relationship is household and
workmates.
make be and to take care of and the
is that of care. We find some sort of
overextension and rejectivity.
• The eighth stage is called the old adult stage

which begins with 59 years and beyond. The
psychosocial crisis at this stage integrity vs
despair and the significant relationship is
mankind or my kind.
be and to face not being of and the
psychosocial virtues or ego strength we can
see is that of wisdom. We find some sort of
of presumption and despair.
Analytical psychology
V.CARL JUNG (1875 – 1961)
• Jung’s theory divides the psychic into three parts. The First is
the ego, which Jung identifies with the conscious mind.
• The second is the personal unconscious, which includes anything
which is not presently conscious, but can be. The personal
unconscious is like most people’s understanding of the
unconscious in that it includes both memories that are easily
brought to mind and those that have been suppressed for some
reason.
• Finally, then Jung adds the part of the psyche that makes
his theory stands out from all others collective unconscious. You
could call it your 'psychic inheritance.’ It is the reservoir of our
experiences as species, a kind of knowledge we are all born with.
And yet we can never be directly conscious of it. It influences all
our experiences and behaviors, most especially the emotional
ones.
• Archetype: The contents of the collective unconscious are called

archetypes. Jung also called them dominants, images, mythological or
primordial images, and a few other names. An archetype is an unlearned
tendency to experience things in a certain way. The archetype has no form
of its own, but it acts as an organizing principle on the things we see or do.
It works the way that instincts work in Freud's theory.
• The mother archetype: The mother archetype is a particularly good
example. All of our ancestors had mothers
• Mana is a spiritual power and not just a sex symbol for Jung
• The shadow: sex and the life instincts in general are, of course,
represented somewhere in Jung's system. They are a part of an archetype
called the shadow. It derives from our prehuman, animal past, when our
concerns were limited to survival and reproduction, and when we weren‘t
self-conscious. It is the 'dark side' of the ego, and the evil that we are
capable of is often stored there. Shadow is the deepest and darkest part of
collective unconscious and contains all of the animal instincts. Symbols of
the shadow include the snake (as in the Garden of Eden), the dragon,
monsters, and demons. It often guards the entrance to a cave or a pool of
water which is the collective unconscious.
• The Persona: The persona represents your public image. The word is,
obviously, related to the word person and personality and comes from a
Latin word for mask. So the persona is the mask you put on before you
show yourself to the outside world
• Anima and animus: A part of our persona is the role of male or female we
must play. For most people that role is determined by their physical gender.
In short, anima is the femininity that is the part of the unconscious of every
man (man’s inner women) and animus is the masculinity that is part of the
unconscious of every woman (woman’s inner man The most important
archetype of all is the self. The self is the ultimate unity of personality and is
symbolized by the circle, the cross, and the mandala figures that the Jung
was fond of painting. Mandala is a drawing that is used in meditation and it
takes out attention back to the center.
• Psyche: Jung did not use the term personality, rather psyche, a Latin word
which is originally meant ‘spirit’ or ‘soul’. Jung often refers to the total
integrated personality as the Self. The goal of life is to realize the Self.
• EGO: The ego is the most conscious aspect of our personality. Nothing can
become conscious without going through the ego, which serves as the ‘gate
keeper to the consciousnesses. The ego is also the center of our will.
• Introversion and extroversion: According to Jung, we find two kinds of
personalities in general: introvert and extrovert. Introverts are people, who
prefer their internal world of thoughts, feelings, fantasies, dreams, and so
on, while extroverts prefer the external world of things and people and
activities.
Personality types
Jung identified eight personality types based on
two attitudes and four functions. The two
attitudes are introvert and extrovert and four
functions are thinking, feeling, sensing and
perceiving.
The eight personality types are extraverted
thinking, introverted thinking, extraverted
feeling, introverted feeling, extraverted
sensation, introverted sensation, extraverted
intuition and introverted intuition.
Individual Psychology
VI.ALFRED ADLER(1870-1937)
• Theory: Adler postulated a single drive or
motivating force behind all our behavior and
experience. This drive is our striving for perfection.
He says that we cannot reach the perfection or
ideal.
• Many people, in fact, live very sad lives trying to
be perfect. Before bringing the concept of striving
for perfection, he brought the idea of the
aggression drive and in fact, it is a reaction when
all other drives are frustrated.
• Another word Adler used for basic motivation was
compensation or striving to overcome our
limitations and problems. He also mentions about
the striving for superiority in our everyday life
situations.
• Teleology
• another point - that lifestyle is 'not merely a
mechanical reaction' — is a second way in which
Adler differs dramatically from Freud. For Freud,
the things that happened in the past, such as early
childhood trauma, determine what you are like in
the present.
• Adler sees motivation as a matter of moving
towards the future, rather than being driven, by
the past. We are drawn towards our goals, our
purposes, and our ideals. This is called teleology.
• Moving things from the past into the future has
some dramatic effects. Since the future is not here
yet, a teleological approach to motivation takes
the necessity out of things.
• Social Interest: Another important

contribution of Adler, after the concept of
striving for perfection, is the concept of social
interest or community feeling. As social
beings, we cannot attain anything without the
help of other people and social environment.
Social concern, according to Adler, is not
something inborn or just learned but a
combination of both.
• Inferiority: Adler also speaks about the

inferiority complex, which describes being
overcome by a feeling of lack of worth. It may
not be his term, but he popularized this term.
According to him, the basic human motivation
is to strive from weakness to strength, from
inferior to superior etc.
• He sometimes called inferior as ‘felt minus.’
We all begin our life as infants, and we need
others for everything. From then onwards, we
begin to feel our inferior nature.
• He says the first one is organ inferior, which is the lack of physical
senses or organs like hearing problem (inferior in auditory
capacity), weak limbs ( legs inferior), delayed puberty (always
consider as child) etc. Then we compensate this inferior feeling
through healthy adjustment. If these compensative methods fail,
we develop inferiorly complexes.
• The second term is aggressive drive. In order to overcome this
difficulty, we use the form of fighting, anger and cruelty. Also we
see the striving for dominance, including in politics.
• The third term, he used is the masculine protest, which is shown
through greater competence, superiority, and control. The
feminine form is the submissiveness and obedience.
• The fourth term is the superiority striving which is an effort to
achieve improvement in oneself.
• And the final term is the perfection striving, which is an inherent
growth process within the individual. It is an effort to improve
that is realistic, in contrast to the neurotic perfectionism.
• Psychological types
• Although all neurosis is for Adler, a matter of insufficient social interest, he
did note that three types of personalities in people. The first is the ruling
type. They are, from childhood on characterized by a tendency to be rather
aggressive and dominant over others. They try to get rid of anything on the
way. They bully others, hurts others and even less energetic ones hurt
others by hurting themselves, and include alcoholics, drug addicts and
suicides.
• The second type is the leaning type. They are sensitive people who have
developed a shell around themselves which protects them, but they must
rely on others to carry them through life's difficulties. They have low energy
levels so become dependent. When overwhelmed, they develop what we
typically think of as neurotic symptoms: phobias, obsessions and
compulsions, general anxiety, hysteria etc.
• The third type is the avoiding type. These have the lowest levels of energy
and only survive by essentially avoiding life -- especially other people. When
pushed to the limits, they lend to become psychotic, retreating finally into
their own personal worlds. Neurotic people often try to escape from the
problems through distancing.
• There is a fourth type as well: the socially useful type. This is the healthy
person, one who has both social interest and energy.
• Childhood: Adler, like Freud, saw personality or life style as something

established quite early in life. In fact, the prototype of your lifestyle
tends to be fixed by about five years old. Adler felt that there were
three basic childhood situations that most contribute to a faulty
lifestyle.
• The first is one we’ve spoken of several times: organ inferiorities, as
well as childhood diseases. They are what he called overburdened.
• The second is pampering. Many children are taught by the actions of
others, which they can take without giving. Their wishes are
everyone’s command. These children do not learn to do anything for
themselves and feels inferior later and also they become commanders
down the road. Society’s reaction to these children will be that of
hatred and rejection.
• The third is the neglect child. A child who is neglected or abused learns
what the pampered child learns, but learns it in a far more direct
manner: They learn inferiority because they are told and shown
everyday that they are of no value; they learn selfishness because they
are taught to trust no one. They are not only the orphans but also all
those who are do not have their parents with them, and the ones
raised in a rigid, authoritarian manner.
• Birth order
Adler must be credited as the first theorist to include not only a child’s parents and elders, but the
child’s brothers and sisters as well. According to Adler, a child ‘s birth order is important in shaping
his/her personality and there are unique experiences associated with birth order of every child
• The only child is more likely than others to be pampered, with all the ill results we‘ve discussed. After
all, the parents of the only child have put all their eggs in one basket, so to speak, and are more likely
to take special care – sometimes anxiety-filled care - of their pride and joy. If the parents are abusive,
on the other hand, the only child will have to bear that abuse alone.
• The first child begins life as an only child, with all the attention to him- or herself. Sadly, just as things
are getting comfortable, the second child arrives and 'dethrones' the first. At first, the child may battle
for her/his lost position. S/he might try acting like the baby - alter all, it seems to work for the baby-
only to be rebuffed and told to grow up. Some become disobedient and rebellious, others sullen and
withdrawn. Adler believes that first children are more likely than others to become problem children.
More positively, first children are often precocious. They tend to be relatively solitary and more
conservative than the other children in the family.
• The second child is in a very different situation: She/he has the first child as a sort of 'peace-setter’
and tends to become quite competitive, constantly trying to surpass the older child. They often
succeed, but many feel as if the race is never done, and they tend to dream of constant running
without getting anywhere. Other 'middle' children will tend to be similar to the second child, although
each may focus on a different ‘competitor.'
• The youngest child is likely to be the most pampered in a family with more than one child. After all,
s/he is the only one who is never dethroned! And so youngest children are the second most likely
source of problem children, just behind first children. On the other hand, the youngest may also feel
incredible inferiority, with everyone older and therefore superior. But, with all those 'pace-setters'
ahead, the youngest can also be driven to exceed all of them. Who is a first, second, or youngest child
isn’t as obvious as it might seem. If there is a long stretch between children, they may not see
themselves and each other the same way as lf they were closer together. As with everything in Adler‘s
system, birth order is to be understood in the context of the individuals own special circumstances.
Radical behaviorism
VII.B.F. SKINNER (1904-1990)
• Theory
• B.E. Skinner’s entire system is based on operant conditioning. The organisrn is in the
process of operating on the environment, which in ordinary terms means it is bouncing
around the world, doing what it does. During this 'operating,' the organism encounters a
special kind of stimulus, called a reinforcing stimulus, or simply a reinforcer. This special
stimulus has the effects of increasing the operant — that is the behavior occurring just
before the reinforcer. This is ’operant conditioning’: “the behavior is followed by a
consequence, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organisms tendency to
repeat the behavior in the future.'
• Image a rat in a cage. This is a special cage (called, in fact, e 'Skinner Box') that has a bar or
pedal on one wall that, when pressed, causes a little mechanism to releases foot pellet into
the cage. The rat is bouncing around the cage, doing whatever it is rats do, when he
accidentally presses the bar and-hey-a food pellet falls into the cage! The operant is the
behavior just prior to the reinforcer, which is the food pellet, of course.
• In no time at all, the rat is furiously peddling away at the bar, hoarding his pile of pellets in
the corner of the cage. A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in an
increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future. What if you don’t give the
rat any more pellets? Apparently, he's no fool, and after a few futile attempts, he stops his
bar-pressing behavior. This is called extinction of the operant behavior. A behavior no
longer followed by the reinforcing stimulus results in a decreased probability of that
behavior occurring in the future
• Shaping
• A question Skinner had to deal with was how we get to
more complex sorts of behaviors. He responded with
the idea of shaping, or 'the method of successive
approximations.” Basically, it involves first reinforcing a
behavior only vaguely similar to the one desired. Once
that is established, you look out for variations that
comes a little closer to what you want and so on, until
you have the animal performing a behavior that would
never show up in ordinary life (Practice makes
perfect!).
• Aversive stimuli
• An aversive stimulus is the opposite of a
reinforcing stimulus, something we might find
unpleasant or painful. A behavior followed by
an aversive stimulus results in a decreased
probability of the behavior occurring in the
future.
• Primary reinforces and Secondary reinforces: Primary

reinforces (or unconditioned reinforces) are reinforcing
because of their own properties and secondary
reinforces (or conditional reinforces) are which
became reinforcing because of previous experiences.
Food and water are primary reinforces. Coins or gifts
are secondary reinforces.
• Every reinforcement increases the probability of a
response, where as Punishment is an event that
decreases the probability of a response. A positive
reinforce is the presentation of something (like food)
and negative reinforcement is removal of something
(like pain). A punishment also can be in two ways like
presentation of something (like pain) and removal of
something (like food).
• Behavior modification
• Behaviour modification is an application of operant conditioning.
Behavior modification often referred to as b-mod — is the therapy
technique based on Skinners work. It is very straight-forward:
Extinguish an undesirable behavior (by removing the reinforcer) and
replace it with a desirable behavior by reinforcement. It has been
used on all sorts of psychological problems addictions, neuroses,
shyness, autism, even schizophrenia - and works particularly well
with children
• There is an offshoot of b-mod called the token economy. This is

used primarily in institutions such as psychiatric hospitals, juvenile
halls, and prisons. Certain rules are made explicit in the institution,
and behaving yourself appropriately is rewarded with tokens -·
tickets, funny money, recorded notes, etc. Certain poor behavior is
also often followed by a withdrawal of these tokens. The tokens can
be traded in for desirable things such as candy, cigarettes, games,
movies, time out of the institution, and so on. This has been found
to be very effective in maintaining order in these often difficult
institutions.
Personological Trait Theory

VIII.GORDON ALLPORT(1897-1966 )
• Personality Traits: According to him, the primary unit of personality is the

trait. Listing a person’s traits provides a description of that person’s
personality. Trait is a charteristics of a person that makes a person unique,
with a unique style of adapting to stimuli in the world. Traits develop over
time, with experience. They may change as the person learns new ways of
adapting to the world. There are different kinds of traits.
• Allport distinguished individual traits, which are possessed by only one
person, from common traits, which are possessed by many people, each to
a varying extent. He intended to distinguish "the study of persons on the
one hand and the study of person variables, that is, variables with respect
to which persons have been differentiated, on the other. For example, we
may describe Walt Disney as more creative than others or Albert Einstein as
more intelligent than the rest of us. Creativity and intelligence, and many
other traits, too, can be applied to all of us in common, although some have
more of each trait and others have less.
• However, such common traits are not the ultimate real units
of personality in Allport’s theory. The real units of personality
are unique traits, which exist within an individual and have
status as psychophysical realities.
• There is also something called expressive traits, which is
concerned with the style or tempo of a person’s behavior.
• According to Allport, there are many characteristics for a
healthy, mature personality. They are the extension of the
sense of self, warm human interaction with others, emotional
security which is nothing other than self-acceptance, realistic
perception, skills, and assignments, insight, humor, and
unifying philosophy of life which is an attitude or set of values,
often religious, that gives coherence and meaning to life. He
also suggested ‘proprium,’ which is the all aspects of a person
that make for unity; a person’s sense of self or ego.
Cognitive Social Learning Theory

IX.ALBERT BANDURA(1925-
• Theory: Learning is a change in behavior, or potential
for future behavior, as a result of experience.
Behaviorists are the group interested in learning
processes. Behaviorists insist that psychologist should
study only observable, measurable behaviors, not
mental processes.
• Bandura speaks of Observational Learning where the
attention comes in the first place and then comes
retention or keeping in our memory which then
followed by production or result which pave way for a
motivation.
• Reciprocal determinism is the interacting mutual
influences of the person, the environment, and the
behavior. It recognizes that the environment influences
our behavior.
• It also recognizes that characteristics within a
person influence the behavior and behavior also causes
changes in the environment
• Choosing goals is an important step in self-regulation.

Higher goals generally produce higher performance.
People can self regulate their emotions as well as their
behavior. He also speaks about the self-efficacy, which
believes that one can organize and execute given course
of action required to deal with prospective situation.
• A person who has a high self-efficacy expectation in a
particular situation is confident of mastery. According to
him outcome expectation is based on our behavior. He
narrates the processes that influence our learning such
as observing the behavior, then remembering it, then
doing it and wanting it.
Behavior changes that results from exposure to models
are variously called modeling. Vicarious learning is
learning by observing others, without being directly
rewarded oneself. In modeling, we learned by observing
others.
Need Hierarchy Theory

X.ABRAHAM MASLOW(1908-1970)
• 1. The physiological needs. These include the needs we have for
oxygen, water, protein, salt, sugar, calcium, and other minerals and
vitamins. They also include the need to maintain a pH balance
(getting too acidic or base will kill you) and temperature (98.6 or
near to it). Also, there’s the needs to be active, to rest, to sleep, to
get rid of wastes (CO2, sweat, urine, and faeces), to avoid pain, and
to have sex.
• 2. The safety and security needs. When the physiological needs are
largely taken care of, this second layer of needs comes into play. You
will become increasingly interested in finding safe circumstances,
stability, and protection. You might develop a need for structure, for
order, some limits. Looking at it negatively, you become concerned,
not with needs like hunger and thirst, but with your fears and
anxieties. In the ordinary adult, this set of needs manifest
themselves in the form of our urges to have a home in a safe
neighborhood, a little job security and a nest egg, a good retirement
plan and a bit of insurance, and so on.
• 3. The love and belonging needs. When physiological needs and safety needs are, by
and large, taken care of, a third layer starts to show up. You begin to feel the need for
friends, a sweetheart, children, affectionate relationships in general, even a sense of
community. Looked at negatively, you become increasing susceptible to loneliness
and social anxieties
• 4. The esteem needs. Next, we begin to look for a little self-esteem. Maslow noted
two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the
need for the respect of others, the need for status, fame, glory, recognition,
attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity, even dominance. The higher form
involves the need for self-respect, including such feelings as confidence, competence,
achievement, mastery, independence, and freedom. The negative version of these
needs is low self-esteem and inferiority complexes All of the preceding four levels he
calls deficit needs, or D-needs. If you don‘t have enough of something — i.e. you
have a deficit ·- you feel the need.
• 5. Self-actualization: The last level is a bit different. Maslow has used a variety of
terms to refer to this level. According to Maslow, the self-actualizing tendency is
growth motivation (in contrast to deficit motivation), being needs (or B-needs. in
contrast to D-needs), and self-actualization. These are needs that do not involve
balance or homeostasis. Once engaged, they continue to be felt. In fact, they are
likely to become stronger as we 'feed' them! They involve the continuous desire to
fulfill potentials, to 'be all that you can be.' They are a matter of becoming the most
complete, the fullest, 'you' - hence the term, self-actualization.
Person- centered Theory

XI.CARL ROGERS(1902-1987)
• Theory
• Roger’s theory is a clinical one, based on years of experience dealing with
his clients Rogers sees people as basically good or healthy or at very least,
not bad or ill. In other words, he sees mental health as the normal
progression of life, and he sees mental illness, criminality, and other
human problems, as distortions of that natural tendency.
• The entire theory is built on a single 'force of life' he calls the actualizing
tendency. It can be defined as the built-in motivation present in every life
form to develop its potentials to the fullest extent possible. We're not just
talking about survival: Rogers believes that all creatures strive to make the
very best of their existence. If they fail to do so, it is not for a lack of desire.
• Culture and society are not intrinsically evil! Our elaborate societies,
complex cultures, incredible technologies, for all that they have helped us
to survive and prosper, may at the same time serve to harm us, and
possibly even destroy us.
• Rogers tells us that organisms know what is good for them. Evolution has
provided us with the senses, the tastes, the discriminations we need:
When we hunger, we find food - not just any food, but food that tastes
good. Food that tastes bad is likely to be spoiled, rotten, and unhealthy.
That what good and bad tastes are - our evolutionary lessons made clear!
This is called organismic valuing.
• Among the many things that we instinctively value is positive regard,

Rogers umbrella term for things like love, affection, attention,
nurturance, and so on.
• Another thing that we all value is the positive self-regard that is, self-
esteem, self-worth, a positive self-image. We achieve this positive
regard by experiencing the positive regard others show us over our
years of growing up. Without this positive regard, we feel small and
helpless.
• Getting positive regard on 'on condition' Roger’s calls conditional
positive regard. Because we do indeed need positive regard, these
conditions are very powerful, and we bend ourselves into a shape
determined, not by our organismic valuing or our actualizing
tendency, but by a society that may or may not truly have our best
interests at heart.
• A 'good little boy or girl" may not be a healthy or happy boy or girl.
Over time, this ‘conditioning’ leads us to have conditional positive
self-regard as well. We begin to like ourselves only if we meet up
with the standards others have applied to us, rather than if we are
truly actualizing our potentials. And since these standards were
created without keeping each individual in mind, more often than
not we find ourselves unable to meet them, and therefore unable to
maintain any sense of self-esteem.
• Incongruity
• The aspect of your being that is founded in the actualizing
tendency, follows organismic valuing, needs and receives
positive regard and self-regard, Rogers calls the real self. It is the
'you' that, if all goes well, you will become.
• On the other hand, to the extent that our society is out of synch
with the actualizing tendency, and we are forced to live with
conditions of worth that are out of step with organismic valuing,
and receive only conditional positive regard and self-regard, we
develop instead an ideal self.
• By ideal, Rogers is suggesting something not real, something

that is always out of our reach, the standard we can't meet. This
gap between the real self and the ideal self, the 'I am' and the ‘l
should' is called incongruity. The greater the gap, the more
incongruity and the more incongruity, the more suffering. In fact,
incongruity is essentially what Rogers means by neurosis: Being
out of synch with your own self.
• The fully functioning Person

• Rogers, like Maslow, is just as interested in describing the healthy person. His term is
‘fully-functioning’ and involves the following qualities:
• 1. Openness to experience. This is the opposite of defensiveness. It is the accurate
perception of one‘s experiences in the world, including one‘s feelings. It also means
being able to accept reality, again including one‘s feelings
• 2. Existential living. This is living in the here-and-now. Rogers, as a part of getting in
touch with reality insists that we not live in the past or the future- the one is gone,
and the other isn’t anything at all, yet.
• 3. Organismic trusting. We should allow ourselves to be guided by the organismic
valuing process. We should trust ourselves; do what feels right, what comes natural.
This has become a major sticking point in Roger’s theory. People ‘say, sure, do what
comes natural - if you are a sadist, hurt people; if you are a masochist hurt yourself. If
the alcohol makes you happy, go for it; if you are depressed, kill yourself. This certainly
doesn't sound like great advice. In other words, organismic trusting assumes you are
in contact with the actualizing tendency.
• 4. Experiential freedom. Rogers felt that it was irrelevant whether or not people really
had free will. We feel very much as if we do. This is not to say, of course, that we are
free to do anything at all; It means that we feel free when choices are available to us.
• 5. Creativity. If you feel free and responsible, you will act accordingly, and participate
in the world. A fully-functioning person, in touch with actualization, will feel obliged
by their nature to contribute to the actualization of others, even life itself. This can be
through creativity in the arts or sciences, through social concern and parental love, or
simply by doing one‘s best at one‘s job.
Existential Theory
XII.VICTOR FRANKL(1905-1997)
• Theory
• Viktor Frankl‘s theory and therapy grew out of his experiences in Nazi death camps.
Watching who did and did not survive (given an opportunity to survive!), he
concluded that the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche had it right: 'He who has a why
to live for can bear with almost any how’. He saw that people who had hopes of
being reunited with loved ones, or who had projects they felt a need to complete,
or who had great faith, tended to have better chances than those who had lost all
hope.
• He called his form of therapy logotherapy, from the Greek word logos, which can
mean study, word, spirit, God, or meaning. It is this last sense Frankl focuses on,
although the other meanings are never far off.. Logotherapy postulates a will to
meaning.
• Frankl also uses the Greek word ‘noos’, which means mind or spirit. In traditional
psychology, he suggests, we focus on “psychodynamics,’ which sees people as trying
to reduce psychological tension. Instead, or in addition, Frankl says we should pay
attention to ‘noodynamics’, wherein tension is necessary for health, at least when it
comes to meaning.
• Psychology, too, promoted reductionism: Mind could be best understood as a 'side
effect' of brain mechanisms. The spiritual aspect of human life was (and is) hardly
worth mentioning at all. Frankl believed that entire generations of doctors and
scientists were being indoctrinated into what could only lead to a certain cynicism
in the study of human existence. He set it as his goal to balance the physiological
view with a spiritual perspective, and saw this as a significant step towards
developing more effective treatment.
• Conscience
• One of Viktor Frankl's major concepts is conscience. He
sees conscience as a sort of unconscious spirituality,
different from the instinctual unconscious that Freud
and others emphasize. The conscience is not just one
factor among many; it is the core of our being and the
source of our personal integrity. He puts it in no
uncertain terms: Being human is being responsible —
existentially responsible; responsible for one's own
existence. It is conscience that 'sniffs out' that which
gives our lives meaning.
• Meaning is something to discover rather than to invent.
It has a reality of its own, independent of our minds.
Meaning is not tied to society’s values. Certainly, each
society attempts to summarize meaningfulness in its
codes of conduct, but ultimately, meanings are unique
to each individual.
• The Existential vacuum

• This striving after meaning can, of course, be frustrated, and this
frustration can lead to nooogenic neurosis, what others might call
spiritual or existential neurosis. People today seem more than ever
to be experiencing their lives as empty, meaningless, purposeless,
aimless, adrift, and so on, and seem to be responding to these
experiences with unusual behaviors that hurt themselves, others,
society, or all three. One of his favorite metaphors is the existential
vacuum.
• If meaning is what we desire, then meaninglessness is a hole,
emptiness, in our lives. Whenever you have a vacuum, of course,
things rush in to till it.
• Frankl suggests that one of the most conspicuous signs of existential
vacuum in our society is boredom. He points out how often people,
when they finally have the time to do what they want, don't seem to
want to do anything! students get drunk every weekend; we
submerge ourselves in passive entertainment every evening. The
"Sunday neurosis," he calls it.
• Finding meaning `
• Frankl discusses three broad approaches. The first is through
experiential values, that is, by experiencing something - or
someone- we value. This can include Maslow’s peak experiences and
aesthetic experiences such as viewing great art or natural wonders.
The most important example of experiential values is the love we
feel towards another.
• A second means of discovering meaning is through creative values,
by doing a deed,' as he puts it. This is the traditional existential idea
of providing oneself with meaning by becoming involved in one's
projects, or, better, in the project of one's own life. It includes the
creativity involved in art, music, writing, invention, and so on.
• The third means of finding meaning is one few people besides
Frankl talk about: attitudinal values. Attitudinal values include such
virtues as compassion, bravery, a good sense of humor, and so on.
But Frankl’s most famous example is achieving meaning by way of
suffering.
• Transcendence
• Ultimately, however, experiential, creative, and attitudinal values
are merely surface manifestations of something much more
fundamental, which he calls supra-meaning or transcendence.
Here we see Frankl's religious bent: Suprameaning is the idea that
there is, in fact, ultimate meaning in life, meaning that is not
dependent on others, on our projects, or even on our dignity. It is
a reference to God and spiritual meaning.
• This sets Frankl's existentialism apart from the existentialism of
someone like Jean Paul Sartre. Sartre and other atheistic
existentialists suggest that life is ultimately meaningless, and we
must find the courage to face that meaninglessness.
• His God is not the God of the narrow mind, not the God of one
denomination or another. It is not even the God of institutional
religion. God is very much a God of the inner human being, a God
of the heart. Even the atheist or the agnostic, he points out, may
accept the idea of transcendence without making use of the word
'God.'
• Therapy
• Viktor Frankl is nearly as well known for certain clinical details of his
approach as for his overall theory. The first of these details is a technique
known as paradoxical intention, which is useful in breaking down the
neurotic vicious cycles brought on by anticipatory anxiety and hyper
intention. Paradoxical intention is a matter of wishing the very thing you
are afraid of. A young man who sweated profusely whenever he was in
social situations was told by Frankl to wish to sweat. ‘I only sweated out a
quart before, but now I'm going to pour at least ten quarts,' was among
his instructions. Of course, when it came down to it, the young man
couldn't do it. The absurdity of the task broke the vicious cycle.
• ‘Humor’ was another of the soul's weapons in the fight for self-
preservation. Another example concerns sleep problems: lf you suffer
from insomnia, according to ’Frankl, don‘t spend the night tossing and
turning and trying to sleep. Get up! Try to stay up as long as you can!
Over time, you'll find yourself gratefully crawling back into bed.
• A second technique is called dereflection. Frankl believes that many
problems stem from an overemphasis on oneself. By shifting attention
away from oneself and onto others, problems often disappear. If, for
example, you have difficulties with sex, try to satisfy your partner without
seeking your own gratification. Or don‘t try to satisfy anyone at all.
THANKS………
• Rev. Fr.Berny Varghese Capuchin
• Director, San Pio Psychological Institute,
• Kovilthottam, Chavara.Kollam.
• Kerala, 691583.
• Ph. No. 8606123331
&
National Secretary,
Conference of the Catholic Psychological
Association in India(CCPI)

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UGC NET/ JRF COACHING- KAPS IDUKKI

• Now it is a systematic study of behavior and

AIMS AND PURPOSES OF

.The first aim of scientific psychology is the

• Secondly, Understanding of behavior leads

• Third, Psychology is science, because it has a systematic

The experimental method

• The dependent variable is the effect that the experimenter is

• Another example would be the type of soda or cola you drink

• Lab experiments, Field experiments, and Quasi Experiments

The correlational method

Perceiving Distance and depth

• Eg. A white house is perceived as a white

Methods of testing memory:

• In implicit or indirect memory, an experience influences something you

• Declarative memories are those memories we can readily state in words.

According to the information-processing model of

• Short-term memory means temporary storage of recent

• Working memory is a system for processing or working

• Sensory memory is the shortest-term element of memory.

How can we improve our memory?

• Change blindness is a frequent failure to detect changes in parts of a scene.

Nature and Nurture controversy

• There is good evidence that personality disorders as revealed

• Heredity influences some trait more than others. Inheritance is

• (Psychological measurement is often referred

The Psychoanalytic Perspective

SIGMUND FREUD (1856-l939)

Self- Defense Mechanism

• The fourth stage is the latent stage: It lasts from

• The second stage is called the anal-muscular

• The third stage is called the genital-locomotor

• The fourth stage is called the latency stage or

• The fifth stage is called the adolescence stage

• The sixth stage is called the young adult stage

• The seventh stage is called the middle adult

• The eighth stage is called the old adult stage

• Archetype: The contents of the collective unconscious are called

• Social Interest: Another important

• Inferiority: Adler also speaks about the

• Childhood: Adler, like Freud, saw personality or life style as something

• Primary reinforces and Secondary reinforces: Primary

• There is an offshoot of b-mod called the token economy. This is

Personological Trait Theory

• Personality Traits: According to him, the primary unit of personality is the

Cognitive Social Learning Theory

• Choosing goals is an important step in self-regulation.

Need Hierarchy Theory

Person- centered Theory

• Among the many things that we instinctively value is positive regard,

• By ideal, Rogers is suggesting something not real, something

• The fully functioning Person

• The Existential vacuum

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