THE PRINCIPLES OF COAL PREPARATION Stuart K Nicol Editor ‘Andrew R Swanson ISBN 0616-34112 Copyright 1997: The Australian Coal Preparation SocietyTHE PRINCIPLES OF COAL PREPARATION. CONTENTS COAL GROLOGY 11 Background. 1.2 Formation of coal. 1.21 Peat formation... 1.22 Coal seam formation 1.23 Theories of deposition 124 Coalfield formation... 13 The nature of C04 nnn 13.1 Rank and type of coat. i 14 Petrographic constiwents of biuminous Coal ve. svnsensnannnsnsld 141 Vitinte.. 142° Liptinite 143° Inerinite 14a Maceral analysis. 15 Non-carbonaceous matter in coal 15.1 Moisture in coal... 152. Mineral matter eo 1.6 Rocks ane minerals mined with coal. 17 Middtings. 18 Rurof-mine coat 181 Rock content. 1.82 Moisture content ‘COAL MINING AND HANDLING. 21 Mining methods. ae 21 Underground mining... 2.12 Surface mining 2.13 Selective mining... 7 22. The impact of mining method on coal preparation 22.1 Preparation contol in underground mining 22.2 Preparation contol in open cut mining 23 Partial washing. 24 Handling and transport 24.1 Background .. 242 Stockpiling een 2A3 — StOCKINg on snsennnomennn244 Reclaiming 38 24.5 Blending wenn 37 25 Coal transport os 7 38 251 Port coal handing faites 39 252 Cargo assembly for export H 40 253 Coal export... 40 SAMPLING OF COAL... 31 Backgrownd.. 32 What is sampled? 3.3. Precision and bias 33.1 Precision. 332 Bilson 44 How much coat is ake forthe sample? 34.1 The sample increment 3.42 Number of Increments. 35. Sample location and collection. 3.5.1 Sampling from conveyors. 35.2 Sampling from stockpiles... 353 Sampling from trucks and wagons... 35.4 Sampling from sereens 5.6 Mechanical sampling. 37 Sample preparation. a7. — 3.72 Panice size reduction... 373 Mixing 3.74 Division. 3113 Minimura ass of sample to be retuned ater division. 38 Final not i COAL ANALYSIS... 4 Background. 42 Chemical analyses... 42.1 Proximate analysis. 422 Ubimate analysis 42.3 Total moisture. 43. Reporting of analytical results 44 Physico-chemical ess. 44.1 Spocific energy. 442 Caking and fluidity tests. 483° Priabili PHYSICAL CHARACTERISATION OF COAL sone 51 Density 5.1.1 Units of measurement... 5.12 The mass, volume and density contin 52 Relative density, —_ 52.1 Relative density and ash 52.2 Relatiye density and other properties of coal 53 Bulk density. a 33.1 What is bulk density? . 53.2 Use of bulk density. SA Size ANAS. onsen 5.4.1 The sieving method. 5.42 Presentation of results. LIBERATION AND WASHABILITY, 61 Coal washability issues G11 Toe conoeptof liberation. 6.12 Specific washebilty related sampling issres 6.13 Sie degradation an sample peprion ses, 62. Float and sink analysis - 6.2.4 Float and sink testing apparatus. 62.2 Float and sink liquids ve 63 Treatment of washability dara nee 64 Washabitty rable. 65 Washabilty curves. 2 : 65.1 The cumulative floats curve. 65.2 The cumulative sinks C12V8..-. 653 Therelative density curve 654 The instantaneous ash CUt¥E on 65.5 Thex0.1 relative density curve. 65.6 The combined curves graph. 65 Partition curves 66.1 The cut point. 662 The probable exor.. 657, Prediction of reparation plant performance ‘THE ELEMENTS OF METALLURGICAL ACCOUNTING nen 74 Background. 72. Measurement of flowrate 7.21 Volumetric flowrate. 722 Mass flowrate 73 Mass balancing.TBA Process yield. 73.2 Process recovery. 733 Thovseof sie distibuton in mas balancing 734 The use of dilution ratios in mass balancing. 74 Sowces of error and misinterpretation in mass balancing on 124 75 Process flowsheeiseowanansonnrs 124 8 CRUSHING AND SCREENING... 1130 81 Crushing 130 82 Types of crusher. 131 82.1 Primacy crus 82.2 Secondary crushing. 83 Screening wl 83.1 Primary screens 139 83.2 Secondary screens 139 83.3 Sizing $e1€2N8 seem 7 140 834 Dewatering and medium recovery sereens... 140 83.5 Basic principles of screening 141 84 Design and construction of screens 342 85 Rfcecy and cpacy of sens. tat BE Types of sree evn 14 86.1 Fixed or static screens Pot 147 8.62 Mechanically vibrated S010€08 ss enrnrsnnnn 149 8.63 Flectically vibrated screens. so 52 87 Types of sereen deck 152 87.1 Pesforated plates. 152 87.2 Bar deck or static grizay sreen 152 873 132, 874 153 87.5 Twin deck screens se S3 8.7.6 Screen deck materials. vo 53 88 Screening of fines. 7 154 881 Dry seraning of ine sls. 155 8.82 Rotating probability screen ian 155 8.8.3 Heated deck screens. Sceecce 136 B84 Ball deck screens. 157 885 Otherscrens forse with we os. AST 8.86 Estimation of required screen ares... 137 9 GRAVITY SEPARATION OF COARSE COAL PART 1 -JIGS sn S8 9.1 Introduction. 1158 | 10 92 Types Of fg onenen 92.1 The Baum jig... 92.2 Under-Airlig.. 93 The jigging action. 9.3.1 Upward currents. 932 Factors affecting the action 94 Plant conditions .n.on a 7 94441 Uniformity of feed t0.veu rr 942 Uniformity of feed distribution 943 Mobility of bed. 95 lig operation. 9.6 Reject extraction 9.611 Simonacco automate sale contre. 9.62 Hirst automatic shale contro 9.6.3 MeNally ejects ejector and float contr. 9.6.4 Balac jig shale discharge contol 9.65 General. 9.7 Small coal cleaning ins... - 9.8 Efficiency of g separation. nuenensnsnnrnonen GRAVITY SEPARATION OF COARSE COAL PART 2- DENSE MEDIUM PROCESSES, 102 Dense medium baths. BOLI Chance cone 10.12 Barvoys bath 10.13 Drewboy bath enon 10.14 ‘Tromp shallow bath 1015 Leebar bath 10.16 Wemeo drum 30.17 Teska bath 10.1.8 Daniels Bath 10.2 Dense medium cyciones.. 102.1 Beckground 7 10.22 The principe of dense medium cyclone separation a 102.3 Construction and operation ofa dense meaium cyclone ...n.198 10.2.4 Dense medium cyclone flowshees 103 Developing technologies. 103.1 The Larcodems separator 103.2 The Tri-Flo separator, 104 Dense medium r2c0Very rn oe 104.1 Systems for dense medium recovery. so 9Tun 2 B GRAVITY BASED SEPARATION OF SMALL COAL... se 20 ILL Hydrocyetones 201 11.1. Factor ialvencing cyclone operations 203 11.1.2. Thesizing of cyclones. 11.1.3 Water washing eyelones.. 112. Flowing itm separators. 208 PO 112.1 Shaking surface concentrators. 2d 112.2. Spiral concentrators. 214 113. Teetered bed separators 221 113.1 Testered bed separstor performance. 2 113.2. Teetered bed separator operation 226 1133 Advantages of tectered bed separators 227 FINE COAL CLEANING . 228 12 Introduction onsensnsnnn 12.2 Whatis{ine coal? 7 ns 123 Fine coal cleaning ~ gravity method 124 Froth flotation... 12.8.1. Surface properties of coe and minerl mater. 1242 Action of collectors and frthers. 12.43 Astessment of flotation characteristics 125 Froth flotation plants. 7 125.1 Preparation of feed eau 125.2 Addition of reagents 1253 Mechanical flotation machines. 1254 Theestimation of flotation capacity 125.5 Choice of cell configuration 125.6 Other types of flotation cll 125.7 Efficiency of froth flotation. 125.8 Pyrite and froth flotation 12.6 Oil agglomeration. i DEWATERING OF COAL... 43,1. Intreduction i 7 132 Themode of occurrence offre water coal 255 13.3 Dewatering of product coal - coarse coal nnn 6 133.1 Drainage and sereening nes 156 134 Dewuering of roc coal - mel coal. 258 13.4.1 Coal centrifuges... sen DSB 135. Dewatering of product coal - fine coal... 260 135.1 Sluny screens... 135.2 Dowetering cyclones 14 16 1353. Filtration 1354 Screen bowl centrifuges, 136 Dewatering of fine tailings: 136.1 Thickening. aoe 1362 Solid bow! centrifuges. 13.63. Filtration of tailings 13,7 Closed water circuits. am 272 219 283 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL. 14d Background. 414.2 Instrumentation, 142.41 Measurement of mas fo. 142.2 Measurement of level 142.3 Volumetric Nowrate 1424 Measurement of density 1425 Analytical monitoring 1426 Elemental analysis an 14.2.7 Moisture meesurement.. 14.2.8 Coal slurry ash analysers M3. Process control. 143.1 Background . 1432 Herdware. 1433 Alarm and data logging processors 143.4 The contol system nn IN-PLANT HANDLING. 15,4) Background. 152 Feeders 153 Chutes 154 Conveying ISS Pumps and pumping 155.1 Pump sizing 156 Valves PROCESS SELECTION 161 Background. 462. Theinftence of cal properties on equipment section 163 Metaliurgical comparisons of coal treatment circuit. 164. Flowstieet selection ..x.s1onn 7 sone 38S 165° Illustrative exercise : enn BS 165.1 Information provided... 335 1652. Derived information on enenrn 338—————————————————— i Goal geoioy i APPENDIX Chapter 1 TREE ANALYSIS PROCEDURE... ws : BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX cose eee i on ' COAL GEOLOGY 1.1 Background In past years, coal has been defined humorously as ‘anything black, or anything that can be made to appear black’. In modem times, with the advent of more discriminatory markets, coal has become a better defined material particularly in terms of end-user application. Scientifically speaking, coal is a combustible organic sedimentary rock derived from vegetable matter that accumulated under conditions which prevented complete decay. However, this organic rock is always found, and mined, in association with inorganic mineral matter, which forms ash and clinker when the coal is burned. The inorganic matter may be mixed intimately withthe coal or be present as discrete articles. Coal is formed from plants and parts of plants such as woody material, bark, leaves and spores. Although these plants are commonly referred to as trees they were, striedy speaking, giant fern-like plants differing from mest of the trees familiar to | tus today. Their remains are sometimes found preserved in the coal and associated } shale and sandstone deposits in the form of fossils as illustrated in Figure 1.1. Hi Bod Coal measure fossils | OS ee f areanopuie —“Spharapert—” Vonata | icunE 131.2 Formation of coal 4.2.4 Peat formation Plants growing on dry Jand die, then decay, and in time, very little or no ‘evidence of their growth remains. The appearance of any upland forest that bas been growing for thousands, or even millions of years, illustrates this fact. When plants grow in swampy conditions, however, itis a different matter. The dead plants fll into bogey waters, which tend to exclude ar an Kill certain bacteria, fand here the plant remains to become only partilly decomposed. The product Formed by this initial decomposition of vegetable matter is known as peat. Extensive poorly drained coastal area, river deltas, sluggish rivers and shallow lakes were ideally suited for peat formation, Peat beds are stil being formed ia many areas of the world today but a great deal of further alteration is necessary to produce coal, The transformation of peat into coal is believed to be largely uo to overburden pressure over a reasonable period of time. 4.9.2 Coal seam formation Forest growth in the peat swamps was interrupted from time to time by subsidence of the arca, This sinking of the swamp system caused areas to become completely flooded over, killing the plant life. Lagoons, or even seas, were formed where the forests once grew. As the vegetation cycle progressed, fallen plant debris accumulated, becoming submerged sometimes in a marine cevironment and sometimes under freshwater conditions. Figure 1.2 gives an impression of how part of a forest swamp might have appeared during coal forming epochs. Silt, sand and other matter carried by rivers are very evident in Australia today at times of flood, and the same applied to the water inflow into the submerged peat swamp. The suspensions were deposited when the rivers slowed down on reaching the wide level areas where the forest grew end the plant debsis gradually became covered with mud and sand, This sort of action can be seen taking place today at any river mouth. For example, the siting atthe mouth of the Hunter River, the sand bars across the mouth of the Hunter River and the sand bars across the mouth of the Shoalhaven River are partially caused by the sediment which is eared down by the rivers and dropped where the rivers slow on meeting the sea. ‘These sediments continued to pile up on top of the peat and caused it to become ‘more and more compressed under the increasing mass of the deposits. As the rate of subsidence of the coal basin was not constant, this cycle of swamp followed by FIGURE 1.2 ‘A forest swamp during coal forming epochs submersion was often repeated a number of times, with the result that a sequence of horizontal bands of peat and inorganic sedimentary layers of quite varied thickness was built up. Thus, coal seams occur in sequence separated by thicknesses of rock. Within coal seams themselves, there are bands of shale-tike material that have been formed from a mud deposit laid down over a comparatively short period of time before the forest onze again flourished and caused more peat to form on top of the muddy layer. As cosl preparation is very much concemed with separating the organic coal material from the inorganic shales and sandstones, it is therefore of value to understand their respective origin,‘The particle size or grain size, of mineral material deposited on, or in, the peat in the coal swamp varied from time to time. Any part of the earth's surface ‘which stands above sea level tends to be weathered and eroded away, with the eroded material being carried towards the see, mainly by rivers, The material transported may be finely grained clays or muds of if the river runs quickly and is turbulent, much coarser matetial, such as sand or gravel, is carried along. The fine material is deposited in areas of still water, ultimately to form claystones, ‘mudstones and shales. ‘The sediments carried into the coal swamps tended to be finely grained so that “dirt ands’ in coal seams are usually ofthese types of rock. Sands or gravel were deposited in areas of higher water turbulence and when consolidated became sandstones and conglomerates. Where the coarser grained sediments encroached ‘upon a coal swamp, there obviously had been a drastic change from the quiescent ‘conditions necessary forthe accumulation of peat. These changes of conditions are thought to be caused by subsidence of the area. As the subsidence and subsequent building up of the layers of solids in the swamp proceeded, the alteration of conditions resulted eventually in 2 thick sequence of coal measures. Thus coal seams, claystones, sandstones, mudstones and conglomerates are interbedded with ‘one another. A section of coal measure strata might be as follows: a Sata Formed from Mudstone Mud Coal seam Vegetation Chaystone Clay Sandstone Sand Conglomerate Gravel ‘As the deposits of mineral sediments increased in thickness above the peat beds ‘and as side pressures occurred, the layers of peat were altered by the action of pressure and temperature over millions of years, to form coal as we know it today. As much as a {wenty-fold reduction in the thickness ofthe original plant deposit ean occur. 1.2.3. Theories of deposition While most theories agree that peat, and later coal, are formed from decaying, vogetation, there are several divergent theories regarding the manner in which the peat beds were laid down from the dead vegetation. The two most important are the ‘drift? and the ‘in-situ’ theories. Both theories ean be used! to explain the formation of coal in Australia. Covi geoiogy 5 1.23.1 Drifttheory According to the drift theory, the trees and other plants which grew on land areas were carried at times of flood in large quantities down to the lakes where they were deposited and later formed coal. 1.23.2 inst theory ‘The in-situ theory supposes that the ttees and other lants grew in shallow swamps and then fell, accumulated and decayed on site, thus forming the peat ‘bed and later the coal seam where the original forest had grown, Most Australian ‘coals were formed in this way. 1.24 Coalfield formation rom the preceding sections, a picture has been built up of many metres of strata comprising coal seams separated by thicknesses of rock, all of which are reasonably horizontal and undisturbed except for tne effects of the continually increasing vertical pressure caused by the weight of stita above. However, the coal forming sequence can be affected by another type of disturbance - side pressures which cause the strata to fold. Figure 1.3 is « section through typical coal measure strata which have been folded by the e'fects of side pressures. Sometimes, the lateral forces exerted were so great as to fracture the strata in addition to folding, leaving what are known as faults. When faults occurred whole series of strata fractured in a vertical, or near vertical, plane and the strata ‘on one side of the facture moved upward, or downward, relative to the other. Faulting can frequently be seen in the exposed working faces at opes-cut mines, An llustration is given in Figure 1.4, Folding and uplift can raise the once deeply buried coal bearing strata to a level ‘where, after erosion, it may outcrop at the surface (as shown in Figure 1.4). In the ‘Sydney Basin (N.S:W.), where such movements were no: gteat, outcrops occurred ‘mainly around the margins of the basin only. In the Bcwen Basin (Queensland) _movements were more severe and coal outcrops occur well within the basin, Jn some places overseas, folding and erosion caused the coal measures to be dissected so that they occur in isolated basins Known as coatfields. In general this has not occurred in Australia and coelfields her> are not limited by the ‘extent of the coal measures, bt rather by such considerations as accessibility for mining and coal quality. Figure 1.5 shows « map of Australia with known coal basins marked.1.3 The nature of coal 4.3.4 Rank and type of coal From the above discussion on how peat was formed and then graduslly became covered by sand and silt, it can be appreciated that this process brought increasing pressure on the pest which gradually densified it and made it become harder. In addition, chemical seactions occurred which caused the peat to lose ‘some oxygen, hydrogen and sulphur in,the form of gases and vapours. This ‘consequently brought about a relative increase in carbon content. This is the process of cosifiction and the term ‘rank’ is used as a measure of the degree of coalification of a coal FIGURE 13 Folding with fault FIGURE 14 Cross section of a typical coal field = OS FIGURE 15 Coal basins in Australia Coalification was not brought about by pressure alone, Heat was generated by the folding of the strata. It is well known that when a fiece of metal or wire is bent backwards and forwards several times the portion nearest the bend becomes heated by internal friction between the atoms constituting the metal. Similarly, when strata moved heat was generated, In this manner coals of different ranks nave been formed. As the rank of coal has an important influence on its end-usage, it is of significance to coal preparation, as rank can influence the response of the coal to certain preparatory techniques. Thus, it can also influence the process economics of preparation of a given coal for a particular market. The lowest rank coal occurs at its most immature stage, which is brown coal in the coal series. Peat, from which lignite was formed, is a mass of decayed vegetable matter and cannot truly be called a coal, The highest rank coal is anthracite which hasThe principles of coul preparation undergone more change than any other coals. Between these extremes, there arc various other stages of rank in a continuous range, but the most important, as far 1s coal preparation is concerned in Australia, s bituminous coal. Tis most important not to confuse rank with age since quite ‘young’ coals may have undergone sufficient coalification to make them into coals of high rank, ‘The following is a brief description of the important stages in the formation of coal. Each separate rank is defined by its analysis. ‘The Australian Standard for the coal classification (AS 2096) divides coal into, higher and lower rank based on specific energy limit - 21.00 MJ/kg gross, ash- free moist basis or 27.00 Mi/kg dry, ash-frce basis. The more traditionally categories of coal are sct out below, based on the ASTM D 388: ClassiGroup Volatile matter Specific energy Milks, Agglomerating % dmg. moist ram Bateman ee Peeper ee OSE Semianhracite ald - No Low volatile bituminous 1422 ‘Commonly ‘Medium volatile bituminous 22-31, : ‘Commonly “igh volatile bituminous >31 3326 Commonly . 26.1-32.6 ‘Commonly : 244-267 Yes Subbituminous : 193-244 No ignite - 147.193 No 167 No —_— In Australia, coal with a specific energy of less than 19.0 MI/kg ashfree moist basis has been termed brown coal. ‘An international coding system based on 11 digits has been developed (REVCAS and REVMAS) to allow an initial evolution of a coal The digits refer to parameters stich as reflectance specific energy, volatile mater, CSN, ash and sulphur (detsils available from AS 2096-1987). 13.11 Peat Peat is the precursor material from which coal js formed. It varies in colour from light brown to nearly black and shows litte sign of consolidation but abundant evidence of the plant material of which it is composed. Because it is so close to the vegetable state, peat is not considered to be a coel. Peat is comparatively rare in Australia, with minor quantities occuring adjacent to Botany Bay. Overseas, Coal geology however, quite extensive deposits occur, for example in the peat bogs of Ireland. It exists in a very wet state, or in more technical terms, it has a high moistare content. The moisture is held in what might loosely be described as the pores and capillaries of the peat. Since peat has undergone very litle compression, itis in some ways rather like an open sponge having quite a large amount of pore volume. If a wet sponge is squeezed some of the water is forced out of the pores and the sponge itself becomes more solid: Similarly inthe coal formation process, the pressure of the material deposited above the peat bed squeezed out the ‘moisture in the peat leaving it more soli. Unlike sponge however, peat does not have the property of being able to expand again even if the pressure could be released. Compared with true coal, peat has a low thermal value, that is, there is less heat obtained by burning one kilogram of peat than by burning one kilogram of coal. 13.12 lignite Lignite is commonly called brown coal and is the first stage in the coal rank series, In colour it is brown (woody) to black (with almost the normal appearance of coal), Although more than balf its mass is water, nevertheless it has a lower moisture content and is more consolidated than peat, but yet is not as hard as coal mined in NSW and Queensland. Lignite is abundant in Victoria ‘where itis mined and burned directly in power station boilers. It can be expected that in the future other low rank coals found elsewhere in Australia will also be mined more extensively for power generation. 1.3.13. Subsstuminous coals Some coals ofthis rank are exported as steaming coals The main use for these coals is power production, mainly in South Australia and West Australia, 13.14 Bituminous cosls Bituminous coals re the general purpose coals which are mined and prepared in this country. The bituminous classification covers fairly wide range of coal rank 48 defined by analytical and physical properties, and consequently fofils @ wide range of market requirements. Bituminous coals are used for metallurgical coke manufacture and, because of the stringent limits and requirements pat upon this specialised use, preparation of coe forthe metallurgical market has become highly Gevelopedl in Australia, Competition and economics have also extended the application of coal preparation practice to coals for use in power generation, particularly for expor.10 The of com ton Bituminous coals are black in colour; they are more compact and therefore harder than peat or lignite, They are not of uniform composition but show dull ‘and bright bands, the existence of which influence the properties of the coal. ‘Moisture held as part of the coal structure is generally less than 10%. 1.3.18 Anthracite Anthracite is the highest rank, or the most mature, coal in the series. It is black and shiny. Since it has suffered the maximum pressure it occurs as 2 ‘comparatively hard material, usually with litle visual banding in contrast to bituminous coals. The pressure and temperature to which anthracite has been subjected during coalification have resulted in the almost complete disappearance of any banding, and a very low volatile matter. Anthracite is not yet an important factor in coal production in Australia. Some was mined near Mittagong in NSW rank is due to igneous intrusion. Deposits also occur in the Bowen Basin where mining has been carried out in the past, and is currently heing mined on a modest scale at Yarrabee. It will be noted from the above sections that as rank increases from the immature peat stage to the much altered anthracite, the coal has been subjected to continually greater pressures and/or temperatures so that it has become harder, less banded, drier, more black and shiny and, very importantly, contains less Coal Carbon | Volatile rank content __{matter se a 7 leo ps9 Brown coal lop 7 ee 2B bituminous coal W-77 |ao-42 Bituminous a coal (7-07 | [0-00 nth S Anthracite Ig7.01 20-8 By oy Dy lash-res basie Jesh-tree basis | ach-roo basis |_ In-situ FIGURE 1.6 Changes in coal properties with increasing degree of coalification Coal geology 1 volatile compounds and hes a higher heating value. A graphical illustration of the changes in coal properties with increasing degree of eoalification, or rank, is presented in Figure 1.6. In Australia, it has become the custom in the coal indastry to refer to coal as either brown coal (which is a correct name accordiag to the-International (Classification) or as black coal (Which the International Classification terms hard coal). The term “black coal’ is completely subjective and is used in the sense of indicating rank in Australia only. Coal mined in all Stats other than Victoria is called black coal whatever rank it actually holds. 1.4 Petrographic constituents of bituminous coal As previously stated, bituminous coals do not occur as one solid and homogeneous piece of material, but are made up of bands or layers, which appear as brighter or duller material in the coal seam and in the larger particles of mined coal. These bands were identified and classified many years ago on their appearance to the eye. However, modem technique is to define these brighter and duller entities according to their microscopic properties. There are three main petrographic types that may be identified in coal under the microscope. These are known as maceral groups, which are optically homogeneous and are analogous to minerals in inorganie rock. They have origin in the different plant materials that went into the formation of the coal and also the extent of the decomposition in the early stages in the peat swamp. Macerals are commonly classified under the names vitrinite, liptinite and inertinite. At the time of microscopic examination, nte is also taken of the inorganic minerals present. 144 Vit Vitrinites are coalified woody tissues derived from stems, roots, bark and vascular tissues of leaves. Vitrinite occurs in several forms and is the most important maceral in coal, accounting for from about 40% to over 90% of the as- mined coal substance. After preparation, this proportion may be raised considerably. However, because of the relative friability of this constituent ‘ends to accumulate in the finer size fractions and sometimes there have been considerable losses of vitrinite in the fine reject streams from some plants.12. BH ___Ihe princioies of con reparation Bituminous coals of certain rank are called coking coals because of their ability to fuse, decompose and then re-solidify into coke when heated out of contact with air. Rank notwithstanding, for 2 good quality coke, suitable for ‘metallurgical use, there must be vitrinite present between certain maximum and ‘minimam limits. If this does not exist in any one coal, which is frequently the ‘case, then the vitrinite proportion can be adjusted by blending with other coxls. Ina simplistic way, coke making is analogous to the making of concrete in which the vitrinite plays the role of cement, and inertinite the role of aggregate. A highly specialised empirical technology has been developed to control coke quality by blending and the vitrinite proportion and quality are Key parameters in this process. Vitcnite is an important facior in Australian coal commerce. The ‘preparation of a coal can be, and frequently is, arranged 50 as to maximise the ‘amount of vitrinite inthe product. In later chapters, it wll be shown that this is a particular part of the particle size/quality/peparation technique relationship. 14.2 Uptinite ‘The macerals of the liptinite group are derived from the resinous end waxy material of plants, including resins, cuticles, spores, pollen and algal remains. Liptinte plays a much lesser part in coke quality than vitrinite and actually most of the liptinite present is driven off with the by-products during coke manufacture. However, in general, liptinite is only a very minor constituent of “Australian bituminous cols. 1.43. Inertinite ‘This maceral represents the most highly altered plant remains in coal. It is, derived from charring of plant tissues and from intensive biochemical action. Inertinite derives its name from the fact that it is inert or semi-inert during ‘normal carbonisation processes in a coke oven. Part of the maceral does appear to assist carbonisation. The proportion of inertinite in Australian coals is relatively high compared with those of the Northem Hemisphere, although the reactivity of inertinite is higher in Australian coals. 444. Maceral analysis ‘A normal petrographic analysis under the microscope will subdivide these three petrographic groups, vitsinite, liptnite and inertinite, into a total of 10 individual constituents, To these should be added the clay minerals, carbonates, sulphides, etc, the amount of which depends on the type of coal concemed and the degree to Cool geology 8 which any preparation has been taken. For the purpose of this coal preparation text, and for most commercial purposes, the petrographic constituents are classified into the three named groups, plus mineral matter. Note: that @ ‘microscopic analysis returns percentage by area, not by mss. 1.5 Non-carbonaceous matter in coal Notwithstanding the degree to which coal bas been prepared before dispatch to its market, there is always inorganic material in, and associated with, any particle, or parcel, of coal. The non-carbonaceous component will not burn or react in a fumace and so it reduces the value of the coal. One principle objective ‘of coal preparation is to reduce this component 0 as Iowa level as is prectial or ‘economic. Therefore itis important to know the nature cf the incombustible part Of coal which, in general, consists of water and mineral matter, each of which can be broadly divided into two kinds, inherent and extraneous. 1.5.1 Moisture in coal ‘The water in, of on, coal is always spoken of as its moisture content. It reduces the thermal value of coel in two ways. Firstly, the water itself will not bum as itis inert. ‘Therefore the quantity of heat - usually measured in joules, J, or megajoules, MI, or kilocalories, k.cal, in one kilogram of coal - will be reduced in proportion to the ‘amount of moisture it contains, Secondly, the water consumes some of the available heat in the coal 2s itis heated and vaporised during combustion of the coal. Within the context of inherent moisture there are at least two sub-categories, namely, chemically bound water and connate water held within closed pores. Examples of these are water of hydration of mineral matter and fo some extent bed moisture, Both are unimportant in a coal preparation context as they are related to the nature of the coal. 1511 Inherent moisture ‘Water is a product of the coalification process and inherent moisture can be considered a component of the coal itself. It is contained in the very finest cavities or pores, which are part of the structure of the coal substance. The moisture is so completely a component that it cannot >e removed by draining screening or by centrifuging, Its not normally lost by evaporation at ambient temperatures, although, once the coal is broken and exposed to the air, some is lost by evaporation, so that the “air-dry” moisture is always less than the inherent moisture. This “air-dry” moisture value in the ground analysis sample (212 um) fluctuates with changes in humidity. ——————Z The principles of coal preperation Coal never dries out completely, however, unless the temperature is raised over 100°C. A crushed coal sample so dried will re-absorb moisture from the air when it is exposed 0 normal temperatures again. Inherent moisture is not normally measured and should not be confused with ‘air-dry’ moisture which is the equilibrium moisture of a prepared laboratory sample (see section 4.2). 15.1.2 free moisture Free, or extraneous, moisture as its name suggests, is moisture external to the internal microstructure of the coal and possesses the properties of the bulk liquid. Its presence reduces the thermal value of the coal in the same manner, and for the same reasons, as inherent moisture. Such moisture has many sources because of the central role of water in both coal mining and coal preparation. Thus, dust sprays used during mining, water contact during preparation and rain during stockpiling are all major sources of extraneous moisture. Such moisture may be controlled and removed wholly, or in part, by evaporation, drainage screening, centrifuging and filtration, Since water is the most effective dust suppressant, raw coal to a coal preparation plant is seldom dry. ‘This fact has always been the ‘main obstacle to dry cleaning methods, Also for this reason, coal is always sold ‘on the basis of some free moisture. Normally, the allowable consignment moisture is betweon 8-10% with contractual penalties for water in excess of this amount. For commercial purposes, itis seldom necessary to determine inherent and free jsture separately, and analyses are normally required only on an is-dry basis (elated to inherent moisture) and on total moisture basis. 4.5.2 Mineral matter ‘This non-carbonaccous material consists largely of silicates, aluminates, sulphates, carbonates and sulphides of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, titanium and iron. However, there is a long list of elements existing in trace {quantities (parts per million or parts per billion) which may be of importance as pollutants when the coal is bummed. Mineral matter in coal mine output can be Givided into two types, inherent and extraneous. AS in the case of moisture ‘content these two are seldom, if ever, determined as such. The total mineral ‘matter in any sample can be readily determined, whether in its original form as it occurs in the coal or, more normally for commercial purposes, as ash (the combustions residue). foc 15 Extrancous mineral matter can be removed from any bulk of coal by various techniques, of which ‘float and sink’ (a method based on differences in density. je the mass per unit volume, of coal and mineral mater) isthe most common in the Inboratory. It is necessary to understand the moaning and origin of inherent and extraneous mineral matter even if they are seldom presented on an analysis sheet. [A residue of ash is left after all ranks of coal are burned. It is well recognised that the coal itself does not contain ash and that ash is merely the result of the thermal decomposition’of contained mineral matter during the combustion process. A useful approximate relation exists between mineral matter and ash, namely Mineral matter % = 1.1 x ash % ‘The constant 1.1 varies somewhat from coal seam to coal seam depending on the specific nature of the mineral matter within the coal. All mineral matter, like ‘moisture, reduces the thermal value of the coal, but also may cause problems in both metallurgical end uses and in the operation of boiless. 15.2.1. Inherent mineral matter ‘This is mineral material intimately mixed with the coal and sometimes is, actually combined chemically with the organic coal, It was formed from the ‘mineral constituents taken up by the plants as food froma the soil, ‘This material cannot be removed in coal preparation, The term is often extended to cover all mineral matter so intimately mixed with the coal that the two cannot be separated and, in this context, the particle size of the coal is important. 15.22 _Exreneous mineral matter ‘The mineral matter which is extrancous, or distinct, from the organic coal may hhave been derived from the roof or floor of the seam or from dirt bands or pockets within the seam. This sort of material can be mostly removed by coal reparation techniques, depending on the particle size of the coal concerned. Other types of extraneous mineral matter are pyrites, calcite and siderite, which ‘most frequently occur as pockets, nodules and deposits on the surface of cleats ‘They were formed as a result of chemical reactions between aqueous solutions of ‘substances atthe time the peat bed wes being laid down.Renee n aaa SRE e ee 16 Ihe, of coal preparation 1.6 Rocks and minerals mined with coal ‘The rocks which are mined with coal are usually the finer grained types such 2s laystone and muéstone. Claystone isthe finest grained rock, consisting mainly of clay material, and is relatively soft. It can contain large amounts of carbonaceous material. Mudstone is only slightly coarser grained and is mixture of clay and silt and it too can contain considerable quantities of arbonaceous material. Tt also is commonly soft and poorly consolidated, Where “laystone and mudstone ate fissile and free splitting, they are referred ro as shale. “The coatser grained rocks such as sandstone and conglomerate can also find theit sway into the mined coal, bot they are not encountered as frequently asthe finer gruined rocks because the higher energy conditions necessary for their formation fre quite different irom those that form coal and did not oveur very often inthe peaty swamps in Australia when the peat beds wore laid down, As explained previously, pyrite, calcite and siderite are found in Australian coals as well es Elaystones and mudstones. The rocks and minerals are heavy, ot more correctly, dense, compared to coal. This property is of fundamental importance in coal preparation and will be discussed in detail in a later chapter 1.7 Middlings When the coal is mined mechanically, as it is throughout Australia, the product {nun-of-mine coal) contains free particles of both coal and shale in a wide range of particle sizes. It's also common to find particles of coal intimately associated with ehale. These composite pieces, containing both coal and shale, because they areneithr of the two ‘constituents but somewhere between, are logically called middlings. If such material is crushed into smaller particles the coal and shale portions can be largely berated from each other and then separated inthe preparation plant (see Figare 1.7). Se ge #4 » a a» Froats is Clean Coe! Density 14 glen Donsty 04.8 en Dansiy>= 209k FIGURE 1.7 Coal, middlings and reject Hoda eerees oe CECE eee eee eee Z ‘There is another type of middling where the clay material is very intimately ‘mixed with the organic coal and there are no discrete attachment surfaces. Such middlings occur when the peat bed was partly saturated with a heavy clay suspension, the clay impregnating a thickness of the pea:. When coalified this layer retained the intimate mixture of clay and coal. Middlings from which coal and shale portions cannot be liberated by crushing are sometimes called “true middlings’. Whatever the type of middlipg, it will be found that if its mass is compared with pieces of coal and shale, all tree being of the same volume, the coal will be lightest, the shale the heaviest and the middling, true to its name, ‘will be somewhere between. Cosl preparation is very concerned with this fact ‘and the subject is dealt with in later chapters. 1.8 Run-of-mine coal Coal as delivered from the mine mouth, or pit head, and before any treatment or preparation is carried out, is often referred to as run-of-rine (ROM) coal, It is raw material for the preparation plant, consisting of coal middlings, rocks and minerals, which are mixed together quite heterogeneously. This heterogeneity ‘extends through the full range of particle sizes which might vary from perhaps several hundred millimetres to particles of the order of 1 um in diameter. In other words, the proportions of coal, middiings and rock in the particle size range of 100-200 mm will probably be quite different from the relative proportions at 10-20 mm and different again in the particles sizes 0.1-0.2 mm. ROM coal is noticeably wet, due in part to dust suppression activities in the mine. The particle size grading of ROM coal is not necessarily constant over short periods of time, although the average on a shift basis, might well be fairly constant, The same might apply to the relative proportions of coal, middlings and olher constituents of ROM output. Its this complex mixture of substances ‘which must be prepared in the preparation plant to a specified particle size grading and to a specified and consistent quality 1.81 Rock content ‘The composition and variability of a ROM coal output is a result of the composition of the coal seam itself, the condition of the seam roof and floor, geological features such as faulting, and the system of mining employed. Commonly, more than one seam is mined at a given colliery, although many mines would be extracting one seam only at any particular time, albeit probably from a number of faces simultaneously. The variability to be found in ROM coal8 the principles of coal preparation must be handled by the preparation plant and will have been allowed for in design, Data used to design preparation plants will have been obtained from Samples, either of mine output or of exploration bore cores, supplemented pezhaps by results from existing plants treating similar coal. The question of taking these samples willbe considered ina Iater chapter. Tis a very extensive task to examine enough samples to cover all the variability tobe expected in the feed to a preparation plant atthe time of design and, for this reason, factors of safety are frequently applied when there are insufficient sample data available. Thus, the reject handling system must be of sufficient capacity to deal with dirt and stone in the worst cases, and the fines handling plant should deal with the most friable coal containing most fines, not just the average input. The types of clays, shales or mudstones which are included in a preparation plant feed can have a profound influence on the plant operation. If the rock material is hard and well consolidated itis usually stable in water, and is not affected to any great degree by mixing with water. Tis is the best situation 1s far as the plant is concerned and it presents little difficulty with separation. When, however, the shales, or mudstones are poorly consolidated they usually break up and degrade in the preparation plant circuit water forming eopious ‘quantities of fine clay in suspension, called slimes. Handling and treatment of slimes can be carried out provided proper care has been taken in the plant design. ‘This is an important aspect of coal preparation in Australia, particularly in the Hunter Valley. 1.8.2 Moisture content Modern mining is very demanding with respect to water consumption. Dust suppression is imperative in all situations and is the subject of an important part of the NSW and Queensland Statutory requirements for operating coal mines. From the continuous miner to the pit head, at every transfer point in the coal transportation system and at every dust producing site, water sprays are applied copiously. The final moisture content of the run of mine coal entering the preparation plant may be of the order of 8% or more for low rank coals. This ‘moisture, however, is not distributed evenly throughout the bulk of the product. ‘Coal of this moisture can be visibly wet. While this moisture does not affect the ‘bulk of the subsequent coal cleaning operations it does have a negative affect on any initial pre-screening operations. For this reason dry screening of run-of-mine coal is very inefficient for particle sizes less than about 15 mm, Coal mining ana hendli 9 CHAPTER 9 COAL MINING AND HANDLING 2.1 Mining methods In the early days of coal mining, all coal was cut, loaded and transported by hand. The coal face was often undercut by a man lying an his side using a pick, then the coal was loosened working upwards from the first eut using a pick or hammer and wedges (Figure 2.1). With the advent of dynamite in 1860, explosives were introduced to perform the loosening furction at the face. After mbers had been set to support the roof, the coal face wes undercut to allow the coal to expand and break up from the force of the explosion. The coal face was drilled, the holes filled with an explosive charge and fied. The coal was then manually shovelled to skips or wagons and transported to the surface either ‘manually or with horses. Fortunately, this process has now been replaced by continuous mechanical ‘methods. Various machines were introduced in the late 1800's, many of which used chains or horizontally rotating wheels armed with cutting teeth. ‘Compressed air was used as the source of motive power, followed by electricity. Drilling equipment was subsequently developed, followed by coal cutting and loading machines. Open cut mining began in Australia with the use of a stall ragline at Lidsdale near Walleravang in 1932. It has now become the favoured method of mining coal in Australia. FIGURE 21 ‘arly coal mining techniques (Cures Asan Coa AssociationEEN =e 20 The principles of coal preperation Establishing a mine is a costly process. In NSW, the development of an ‘underground or open eut mine to produce 3 or 4 million vy can be expected to take between 3-5 years. The development of an open cut in Central Queensland is more expensive then in NSW because of the need to construct housing and infrastructure. Pay-back times on investment are of the order of 10-15 years. ‘Modern mining methods in Australia are now divided into essentially two general types, surface and underground. Surface mining is used in preference to underground mining wherever possible as it Tends to maximum recovery of the resource and is economically more attractive. According to the Australian Coal Association, the output of coal per manshift is two to three times higher for open cut mines compared to Underground mines. However, open cut mines are limited to shallow seams (60 m deep) and the associated capital costs of development are higher. 2.4.4. Underground mining If the coal is buried deep in the ground, it is extracted by underground mining, Such mining today is fully mechanised, with complex machines doing the work previously done by many hand miners (Figure 2.2). Underground coal seams ean be reached from the surface in two ways; either through a vertical hole, called a “shaft,” sunk fom the surface through the rock strata to the coal seam, or by sreang of inclined tunnels o “érifs’ driven from the surface until they reach the ‘coal seam. Drift coal mines are generally preferred, where geological conditions FIGURE 22 ‘Mechanised mining as exemplified by the continuous miner Couey ausan Coa sicion Coal mining ana henchng an permit, as coal can be bought straight to the surface by conveyor belt from the ‘mining machines, in a continuous operation. ‘Most Australian underground coal mines are operating at depths of between 150 ‘and 300 m. The deepest shaft ever sunk at an Australian zolliery was at the old Balmain Colliery in Sydney, which was some 900 m deep. The two systems of ‘underground coal mining used in Australig are described telow. 21.1.1 Bord and pillar mining ‘The basis of this system is a self-propelled, electrically powered machine called ‘2 continuous miner, which cuts into the coal face with powerful rotating picks. ‘These rip coal from the face, picking it up by automatic gathering-arms and transferring it in @ continuous stream to rubber-tyred trarsporters. These shuttle cars carry the coal to the conveyor or rail haulage system which will take it out of the mine. ‘The coal seam is mined by cutting a sesies of tunnels on a rectangular pattern, ‘The tunnels into the seam are headings and those crossing them at right angles axe called cut-throughs. The headings are about 5 m wide and 20 to 30 m apar. Between any two headings and the cut-throughs which intersect them, there remains a portion of the seam which is removed in a later operation, but which meanwhile forms a pillar of coal left standing to suppor the weight of rock strata above the coal seam. Later, the pillar of coal is also mined and the mine roof allowed to collapse into the emply space left by removing the cosl. The mining ‘operation is then complete. While mining is proceeding, timber or steel supports are used to help contol the tunnel roof, and a system of roof bolting is also ‘widely used. Roof bolts about 2 m long are inserted into holes drilled in the roof and tightened up to tic the roof strata together into one strong, solid mass. This system of mining in which pillars of coal ate left behind as a support in the first ‘workings is called the bord and pillar system. Traditionally, the majority of the coal mined underground in Australia was produced in tis way but the Jongwall method is presently the preferred method. The wethod is illustrated schematically in Figure 2.3. 21.1.2 Longwell mining ‘The second system of underground mining is called the longwall method of ‘mining. Two tunnels, or headings, are cut into the coal seam at a spacing of 100 to.200 m. The headings are joined by a third connecting tunnel atthe farther end,92. The principles of coal preparation FIGURE 23 ‘The bord and pillar method of coal mining Reprint om Can ection. Ste Copyright 1991, Sore for Mig, Mealy and Cploaion ‘This third tunnel now represents the coal face and the block of coal lying between the two main headings is mined away. ‘The coal is cut by a machine, called a shearer, (Figure 2.4) that acts in a similar way to a wood plane removing. ‘a shaving of wood, although of course, on a much larger scale. A steel conveyor running along the coal face takes the coal away. [At the same time, hydraulic steel props and beams are arranged to hold up the roof parallel to the coal face so that men can safely drive the machinery. As coal is cut away from the scam and removed, the roof supports move forward, to provide continuous protection over the coal cutting machinery. The transport system used to carry coal from the mine varies according to conditions underground, but conveyor belts are used in all mines in one form or another. In deeper mines, where the seam is reached through a vertical shaft, automatic hoisting systems are employed to lift coal to the surface. Diesel or electric locomotives are used underground to haul trains of mine cars carrying supplies into the mine, and also to transport miners to their working places. FIGURE 24 Longwall mini owt Ana Cet Neen 92.4.2 Surface mining 2121 General Surface mining is preferred in Australia when coal is at cepths of less than about 660 m, or where the coal is present in multiple seams and is relatively shallow. “The depth limit to which it is economic to mine a deposit is determined by comparing the quantity of overburden (topsoil and overlying strata needing removal to gain access to the coal) with the quantity of oal to be obisined as & result. This is referred to as the Overburden or Strip Ratio, with favourable levels being 4:1 of less, and with 10:1 often quoted as the economic limit, The thicker the scam, the greater the depth at which it can be mined economically, within the limits of equipment capacity. There are two principal mehods of surface mining, referred to as ‘strip’ mining and ‘open pit” mining, Generally, the strip method is used to recover a single, horizontal seam at depths up fo 60 m, while open pit Working is applied to multiple seam deposits. Open pit mining is capable of extending to depths greater than 60 m. 2122 Stip mining ‘The first stage in strip mining isto cut an elongated trench or ‘box cut’ to expose ‘the coal seam, usually atthe point where itis nearest to the surface. Overburden isPa The principles of coal preparation then removed from the exposed strip of coal, which is more of les parallel to the suberop (the strike) of the seam and runs the length of the mine. The overburden (or spoil) from this first cutis usually deposited at a pre-selected nearby location, shaped and vegetated to sereenfuriner development ofthe mine. After the exposed coal scam has been mined, the overburden from the next cutis back-filled into the first cut, at the same time exposing a further strip of coal. In this way mining proceeds in a series, minimising the distance over which spoil is transported. The site is progressively recontoured, covered with topsoil and revegetsted, thus ‘minimising the area whichis disturbed at any one time (Figure 2.5). 2123. Opencit mining Open pit mining typically involves the exposure of a large area at the one time (igure 2.6). As open pit operations proceed to greater depths, there is increased need to engure that water dcainage is efficient and that the exposed faces of the pit remain stable, The sedimentary rocks associated with the coal seams are often comparatively soft, tending t0 crumble and slide, so that the condition of the walls and floor of the pit must be monitored continuously. If difficulties are anticipated, drainage can be improved, or the structure ofthe pit can be altered, through methods such as changing the slope of the walls to improve stability With careful planning and supervision it is anticipated that depths of 270 m will soon be attined in Australie, Dragline operation Usually, the topsoil must be removed and a level area prepared before a dragline, assisted by explosives where necessary, can begin removing the overburden and exposing the coal seam. A typical dragline curently in use has a boom length of up to 80 m, and a bucket capable of lifting up to 100 t of material at one time Figure 2.7), Draglines remove overburden in a series of sips, the dimensions of which are govemed by the length ofthe boom and the depth of the coal seam. Depending upon the hardness of the coal, explosives may also be used to loosen it, The coal is then loaded by power shovels, or front-end loaders, into large ‘trucks, with capacities of up to 220, which carry it to the preparation plant, Truckand shovel operation Tt may not be economic to use a dragline to mine coal deposits with only & shallow covering of overburden, or with several seams interspersed with other thin strata. Large capacity power shovels, serapers and dump trucks constitute a more flexible system for developing multiple seams, again used in conjunction Se ee Coal mining and hands with explosives where necessary to loosen successive layers (Figure 2.8). Soveral seams may be mined in a series of benches, or Wo or more seams may ‘be worked simultaneously and blended at the mine to suit market specifications More commonly, however, the mine produces coking and steaming coal from different seams. ‘The truck and shovel method forms part of the operation at Saxonvale Mine in NSW. Bucket wheel excavators ‘A method already in use overseas, and being brought into operation in Queensland, is a bucket wheel excavator to strip softer overburden, The bucket whee! excavator is capable of cutting benches 40 m wide and 25 m deep, by advancing horizontally into the soft overburden and cuting in a series of semi- circular steps (Figure 2.9). The excavator may then be followed by a dragline, removing a further 45 m of overburden, so that together they can work to a depth of 70 m, using only a single pass of each machine, Bucket wheel excavators can be designed to remove and transport approximately 1500 m? of material per hour. ‘The overburden is loaded by the excavator onto a coaveyor belt, and can be carried (o a disposal site several kilometres away if necessary. The unit cost of such machines is very high but the high productivity offered by these units is ‘expected to make them economically atractive for removing softer overburden. 2.4.3 Selective mining ‘The minimisation from included mineral matter should star atthe working faces Of surface or underground mines. This can be achieved by:- ‘+ mining only those seams which meet certain quality standards + not mining seams which may have 2 deleterious effect on the overall coal quality + using a mining method which allows selective mining of coal areas or horizons either underground or on the surface. Since these methods can effectively improve the quality of coal before it reaches the preparation plant, they can be considered as pre-cleaning. If pre-cleaning is effective enough, it can lead to the situation where the rin-of mine coal meets, or is better than, the consignment specifications. In these circumstances, this coal may by-pass the coal preparation plant and be consigned to cither « special stockpile or be blended directly into the prodivet coal. For this reason, such coal is referred to as by-pass coal.7 Buyuus yd uly oc aMNOLT 1096 0801 epimers UNGFEL aaa ‘ean ‘uotr urea : supaq MS som worse el g § voneossy ees wotasny dete urpysAs jaxoys pue yonsy pue aulfdeap paurquiog - souonbas Suguru ding stand a i opm eg staan 5 fanny imp | SossamonThe principies of coal preparation FIGURE 2.7 Dragline operation Casey sur baby FIGURE 28 ‘Truck and shovel operation CouresyBHP Col Py Lt (Coal mining and handll 2 FIGURE 2.9 Bucket wheel excavator ‘Coury BHP Coal ry a 2.2 The impact of mining method on ccal preparation Because of the high capital cost of mining equipment compared to coal preparation equipment, it was common in the past to maximise its utilisation at the expense of efficient coal preparation practice, However, itis now recognised that it is clean coal that is sold to meet the ever more demanding competitive specifications of the international marketplace. This situation has led to increasing liaison between mine managers and coal preparation managers to optimise the overall economics of the operation on a systems basis. The nature of the mining method impacts on coal preparation in two principal ways, namely + the amount of out-of-seam dilution in the raw coal + the size distribution of the raw coal feed to the preparation plant. 2.9.1 Preparation control in underground mining ‘The principal problem encountered between underground mining operations and ‘coal preparation is the economic offset between the productivity of the cutting head and the size distribution of the product. Thus, it has been found, in general, that higher cutter speeds lead to finer ROM products with high attendant coal30 The principies of coal preparation preparation costs. Cutter speed is not the only parameter controlling size distribution but also such factors as bit sharpness and design, and depth of cut ‘Apart from the choice of equipment, the nature of the coal seam as well as the structural features of the roof and floor material, have @ bearing on both the size distribution and the amount of out-of-seam dilution (Figure 2.10), 2.2.9 Preparation control in open cut mining ‘There are basically two choices of feed quality control strategy in the case of ‘open-cut mining. These are to selectively mine blocks of coal based on extensive bore core drilling information or to install homogenising raw coal stockpiling facilities. Many of the older mines in Central Queensland have opted for the former strategy while some of the newer mines have extensive raw coal blending iacilites based on the use of COALSCAN ash analysers. Quite apart from these matters there are a number of common features in surface mining which impact om the subsequent operation of the eoal preparation plant. Historically, mechanical mining equipment has been used to remove overburden ‘material but the concept of throw blasting with explosives enables a reduction in the highwall height thereby leaving less material for shovel/truck or dragline Intorbeds ~ Sangstone ‘Sandstone Musistone 7 FIGURE 2.10 ‘Typical mining variables (exaggerated for emphasis) Reqrne fms Cal Pepa, Se Copyeght 1991, Sent oe Mise, Mealy nt Exploraon (Coal mining and hsncling aH removal. However, the use of explosives in any form tends to lead to additional fines generation due to various degrees of overblasting as illustrated in Figure 2.11 (Overblasting can also lead to overburden being pushed irto the coal. Both of these latter factors cause difficult seam cleaning conditions prior to dispatch to the preparation plant. Typically, the overburden material is removed in single or multiple passes across the seam and set aside as spoil. So called spoil ‘encroachment may result in contamination and coal losses (ib losses) if pits are poorly designed. This effect is illusicted in Figure 2.12 for a dragline operation. ‘Cleaning and surface preparation of the exposed coal is often carried out once the burden is removed. 23 Partial washing Obviously the overall process economics will alwayé favour maximising the amount of by-pass coal. Yield losses commence as soon as the coal is wetted and allowed to pass through any kind of separation process. This fact gives rise to the concept of partial washing, to various degrees as determined by the raw coal properties. The general rules for partial washing a + relatively small difference between the ROM ash and the product ash + the majority of the high ash material isin the form of coarse rock + arcasonably efficient dry size separation must be possible at 6-10 mm + the feed should be relatively coarse. rer Blast hole Pea weasel ti Origirat coal surface FIGURE 2.11 Overbiasting leads to additional fines generation Reprinted om Coe Puan, Sh Coyigh 1991, Sox oe Mla, Meg) and Explaraion{As the raw coal ash increases the following options are available: - + wash part of the feed and by-pass the remainder + wash all ofthe feed. Partial washing is most common with energy coals as the additional cost of complete washing is often more easily justified with metallurgical cosls. Furthermore, the above considerations neglect the gross effects of small amounts of oat-of-seam material on the overall consignment ash, particularly for otherwise very low ash ROM coal. Obviously, careful economic analysis is required when considering partial washing. 2.4 — Handling and transport 24.1 Background ‘The handling and transport of coal is a key part of the preparation, sales and utilisation process. Raw coal stocks need to be held prior to the preparation plant to smooth out variations in mine production, and also to homogenise coals with different washability characteristics. Single coals are not always ideal for a given Spoil pile Highwall angle Rib loss, Coal deposit FIGURE 2.12 Coal losses from poor pit design Rept from Cos pation Shed Copa 1991, Soe fr Mining, Meagan splonton Coal mining and hancling Es} application and cannot always meet an export specification, Also, the production from a preparation plant can vary from day to day as -aw coal characterises ‘change. Under these circumstances, product coals need to be blended. As a buffer against variations in production, coal mines and coal users store large quantities of clean coal to ensore continuity of supply. At coal loading and transhipment centres, coal blending and stockpiling facilities are available for cargofconsignment assembly (Figure 2.13). 24.2 Stockpiling Stockpiling, in its simplest form, involves building up a heap by dumping truck loads of coal and pushing it up with mobile equipment; or allowing coal to fall from a conveyor boom onto a conical heap. While -hese methods may be FIGURE 2.13 Coal stacking area at coal loader ‘Cores Astin Cox! Asacision‘The principles of coal preperation satisfactory for small or intermittent operations, they are inefficient for medium to large scale continuous stockpiling and reclaiming operations for raw or washed coal. The rapid handling of large tonnages, the need to automate the process, the homogenisation of single coals and blending of different coals, all demand efficient stockpiling and reclaiming methods, ‘At the coal mines, large capacity storage facilities are required with rapid reclaiming and train loading, Stockpiling of coal can be carried out by travelling ‘ovethead trippers or ground mounted single or double boom stackers. Trippers are being used less frequently due to a range of factors. The supporting truss structure has to be of robust construction to support the weight of the conveyor and the tipper, high winds cause problems with the conveyor belt, discharge of coal from the high clevation creates a dust problem, and the trestles supporting the conveyor trusses are an obstruction in the stockpile and subject to damage by ‘obile machines. A ground mounted traveling stacker has the advantage that its feeder conveyor is a relatively low cost ground mounted installation, readily accessible for maintenance. The stacker may be single or double boom and the booms may be fixed or lffing types. ‘A single boom stacker can be arranged to feed two stockpiles by making the ‘boom the slewing type. The luffing type boom is desirable for minimising dust nuisance by reducing the height of fall, and is necessary if blending operations ‘are requited, particularly windrow layer blending as described in a later section. ‘The greater the height and width of a coal stockpile, the greater the capacity, with a lower ground area needed per tonne of storage. However, the risk of coal spontaneous combustion increases with the stockpile height due to the reduction in the rate of heat loss. Stockpiles up to 20 m high are not uncommon. If coal is. to be stored for any length of time, however, particularly with high volatile ‘matter, lower rank coals, the height of the heap should be limited to 3-4 m to minimise the possiblity of spontaneous combustion. The coal should aiso be pot down in ayers, compacted, and the sides contoured to low slope angles. For efficient handling, stockpiling of coal should be carried out by the FIFO (Gist in, frst out) principle, particularly for coking coals. This system minimises the degree of oxidation, loss of coking properties and the potential for self heating. Coal stockpiles should be located on firm ground, with a permanent coal base to prevent contamination of the coal during reclamation. Careful attention should be paid to drainage of the area before stockpiling is commenced, Ia a well Coo! mining endl hancting 5 rained area coal will tend to lose moisture during storage but, if poorly drained, the lower section of the stockpile will accumulate moisture. In wet weather the ‘moisture content of stockpiled coal can increase considerably. 2.4.3 Stacking ‘The most commonly used stacking equipment for coal blending applications comprises traveling, luffing boom stackers. The simplest stockpile is a single ‘cone, ‘This has limited capacity, but its greatest drawback is the size segregation’ that occurs (see Figure 2.14) promoting more rapid self heating by allowing ait freely into the coarse sides. Cones need to be placed sequentially next to each other as shown by the three cones in Figure 2.14. Raw cone ply stacking starts with a cone, and then the stacker moves and adds ‘plies’ to the original cone. Cone crescent stacking places multiple cones in a crescent. Chevron stacking (Figure 2.14) can be carried out with a fixed, travelling stacker and involves continuously laying down coal deliveries above the longitudinal axis of the stockpile, for its full length. Windrow stockpiling achieves the highest degree of ‘mixing and involves laying down small triangular ribboas of coal along the full length of the stockpile (Figure 2.14). Longitudinal wind-ow stacking minimises size segregation and so reduces the probability of self heating. However, windrow stacking requires the stacker boom to reack the full width of the stockpile, Compared to the previously described stacking methods, a larger ‘machine, and hence higher capital expenditure, is therefore required. 244 Reclaiming ‘The recovery of coal from stockpiles can be carried out simply by use of front- ‘end loaders or by a tunnel conveyor beneath the stockpile. Tunnel conveyors can have a continuous slot hopper above them with a trevelling plough feeder ‘operating over the full stockpile length. Depending upon the angle of repose of the coal, this type of feeder can provide approximately 25% to 30% live reclaim from a stockpile on a flat surface. ‘The live reclaim capacity can be increased by providing sloping concrete or compacted earthen walls on one or both sides, but this type of construction is expensive and reduces the tonnage of coal which can be stored per metre length of stockpile. A series of small hoppers and vibratory feeders situated in the ‘tunnel provide limited live reclaim capacity due to the problems encountered ‘with gravitational flow from bins and bunkers.