Music psychology

Music psychology, or the psychology of music, may be regarded as a branch of both psychology and
musicology. It aims to explain and understand musical behaviour and experience, including the processes
through which music is perceived, created, responded to, and incorporated into everyday life.[1][2]
Modern music psychology is primarily empirical; its knowledge tends to advance on the basis of
interpretations of data collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human participants.
Music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas, including music
performance, composition, education, criticism, and therapy, as well as investigations of human attitude,
skill, performance, intelligence, creativity, and social behavior.

Music psychology can shed light on non-psychological aspects of musicology and musical practice. For
example, it contributes to music theory through investigations of the perception and computational
modelling of musical structures such as melody, harmony, tonality, rhythm, meter, and form. Research in
music history can benefit from systematic study of the history of musical syntax, or from psychological
analyses of composers and compositions in relation to perceptual, affective, and social responses to their
music.

Contents
History
Early history (pre-1860)
Rise of empirical study (1860–1960)
Modern (1960–present)
Research areas
Perception and cognition
Affective response
Neuropsychology
Processing pitch
Absolute pitch
Processing rhythm
Neural correlates of musical training
Motor imagery
Psychoacoustics
Cognitive musicology
Evolutionary musicology
Cultural differences
Applied research areas
Music in society
Musical preference
Background music
Music in marketing
Music and productivity
Music education
 Musical aptitude
Music performance
Music and health
Journals
Societies
Centers of research and teaching
See also
References
Further reading
Encyclopedia entries
Introductory reading
Advanced reading
External links

History

Early history (pre-1860)

The study of sound and musical phenomenon prior to the 19th century was focused primarily on the
mathematical modelling of pitch and tone.[3] The earliest recorded experiments date from the 6th century
BCE, most notably in the work of Pythagoras and his establishment of the simple string length ratios that
formed the consonances of the octave. This view that sound and music could be understood from a
purely physical standpoint was echoed by such theorists as Anaxagoras and Boethius. An important early
dissenter was Aristoxenus, who foreshadowed modern music psychology in his view that music could
only be understood through human perception and its relation to human memory. Despite his views, the
majority of musical education through the Middle Ages and Renaissance remained rooted in the
Pythagorean tradition, particularly through the quadrivium of astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, and
music.[3]

Research by Vincenzo Galilei (father of Galileo) demonstrated that, when string length was held
constant, varying its tension, thickness, or composition could alter perceived pitch. From this he argued
that simple ratios were not enough to account for musical phenomenon and that a perceptual approach
was necessary. He also claimed that the differences between various tuning systems were not perceivable,
thus the disputes were unnecessary. Study of topics including vibration, consonance, the harmonic series,
and resonance were furthered through the scientific revolution, including work by Galileo, Kepler,
Mersenne, and Descartes. This included further speculation concerning the nature of the sense organs and
higher-order processes, particularly by Savart, Helmholtz, and Koenig.[3]

Rise of empirical study (1860–1960)

The latter 19th century saw the development of modern music psychology alongside the emergence of a
general empirical psychology, one which passed through similar stages of development. The first was
structuralist psychology, led by Wilhelm Wundt, which sought to break down experience into its smallest
definable parts. This expanded upon previous centuries of acoustic study, and included Helmholtz
developing the resonator to isolate and understand pure and complex
tones and their perception, the philosopher Carl Stumpf using church
organs and his own musical experience to explore timbre and
absolute pitch, and Wundt himself associating the experience of
rhythm with kinesthetic tension and relaxation.[4]

As structuralism gave way to Gestalt psychology and behaviorism at

the turn of the century, music psychology moved beyond the study
of isolated tones and elements to the perception of their inter-
relationships and human reactions to them, though work languished
behind that of visual perception.[4] In Europe Géza Révész and
Albert Wellek developed a more complex understanding of musical A brass, spherical Helmholtz
pitch, and in the US the focus shifted to that of music education and resonator based on his original
the training and development of musical skill. Carl Seashore led this design, circa 1890-1900.
work, producing his The Measurement of Musical Talents and The
Psychology of Musical Talent. Seashore used bespoke equipment
and standardized tests to measure how performance deviated from indicated markings and how musical
aptitude differed between students.

In 1963 F. Chrysler was the first one to used the term " science of music" when he was working on his
"year book for musical" knowledge. European musicology was found in Greek. They were focus on the
philosophy, and the concepts of any relations with music. Greek's several theories rose later on to Arab
and the Christians Theories. Although their theories survived, they were also corrupted along the way, in
the Middle Ages of Europe.[5]

Modern (1960–present)
Music psychology in the second half of the 20th century has expanded to cover a wide array of
theoretical and applied areas. From the 1960s the field grew along with cognitive science, including such
research areas as music perception (particularly of pitch, rhythm, harmony, and melody), musical
development and aptitude, music performance, and affective responses to music.[6]

This period has also seen the founding of music psychology-specific journals, societies, conferences,
research groups, centers, and degrees, a trend that has brought research toward specific applications for
music education, performance, and therapy.[7] While the techniques of cognitive psychology allowed for
more objective examinations of musical behavior and experience, the theoretical and technological
advancements of neuroscience have greatly shaped the direction of music psychology into the 21st
century.[8]

While the majority of music psychology research has focused on music in a Western context, the field
has expanded along with ethnomusicology to examine how the perception and practice of music differs
between cultures.[9][10] It has also emerged into the public sphere. In recent years several bestselling
popular science books have helped bring the field into public discussion, notably Daniel Levitin's This Is
Your Brain On Music (2006) and The World in Six Songs (2008), Oliver Sacks' Musicophilia (2007), and
Gary Marcus' Guitar Zero (2012). In addition, the controversial "Mozart effect" sparked lengthy debate
among researchers, educators, politicians, and the public regarding the relationship between classical
music listening, education, and intelligence.[11]
Research areas

Perception and cognition

Much work within music psychology seeks to understand the cognitive processes that support musical
behaviors, including perception, comprehension, memory, attention, and performance. Originally arising
in fields of psychoacoustics and sensation, cognitive theories of how people understand music more
recently encompass neuroscience, cognitive science, music theory, music therapy, computer science,
psychology, philosophy, and linguistics.[12][13]

Affective response
Music has been shown to consistently elicit emotional responses in its listeners, and this relationship
between human affect and music has been studied in depth.[14] This includes isolating which specific
features of a musical work or performance convey or elicit certain reactions, the nature of the reactions
themselves, and how characteristics of the listener may determine which emotions are felt. The field
draws upon and has significant implications for such areas as philosophy, musicology, and aesthetics, as
well the acts of musical composition and performance. The implications for casual listeners are also
great; research has shown that the pleasurable feelings associated with emotional music are the result of
dopamine release in the striatum—the same anatomical areas that underpin the anticipatory and
rewarding aspects of drug addiction.[15]

Neuropsychology
A significant amount of research concerns brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes
underlying music perception and performance. These behaviours include music listening, performing,
composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis
for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. Scientists working in this field may have training in
cognitive neuroscience, neurology, neuroanatomy, psychology, music theory, computer science, and other
allied fields, and use such techniques as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), transcranial
magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), and
positron emission tomography (PET).

The cognitive process of performing music requires the interaction of neural mechanisms in both motor
and auditory systems. Since every action expressed in a performance produces a sound that influences
subsequent expression, this leads to impressive sensorimotor interplay.[16]

Processing pitch
Perceived pitch typically depends on the fundamental frequency, though the dependence could be
mediated solely by the presence of harmonics corresponding to that fundamental frequency. The
perception of a pitch without the corresponding fundamental frequency in the physical stimulus is called
the pitch of the missing fundamental.[17] Neurons lateral to A1 in marmoset monkeys were found to be
sensitive specifically to the fundamental frequency of a complex tone,[18] suggesting that pitch constancy
may be enabled by such a neural mechanism.
Pitch constancy refers to the ability to perceive pitch identity
across changes in acoustical properties, such as loudness,
temporal envelope, or timbre.[17] The importance of cortical
regions lateral to A1 for pitch coding is also supported by
studies of human cortical lesions and functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) of the brain.[19][20][21] These data
suggest a hierarchical system for pitch processing, with more
abstract properties of sound stimulus processed further along
the processing pathways. The primary auditory cortex is one of the
main areas associated with superior pitch
resolution.
Absolute pitch
Absolute pitch (AP) is defined as the ability to identify the
pitch of a musical tone or to produce a musical tone at a given pitch without the use of an external
reference pitch.[22] Researchers estimate the occurrence of AP to be 1 in 10,000 people.[23] The extent to
which this ability is innate or learned is debated, with evidence for both a genetic basis and for a "critical
period" in which the ability can be learned, especially in conjunction with early musical training.[24][25]

Processing rhythm
Behavioural studies demonstrate that rhythm and pitch can be perceived separately,[26] but that they also
interact[27] in creating a musical perception. Studies of auditory rhythm discrimination and reproduction
in patients with brain injury have linked these functions to the auditory regions of the temporal lobe, but
have shown no consistent localization or lateralization.[28][29][30] Neuropsychological and neuroimaging
studies have shown that the motor regions of the brain contribute to both perception and production of
rhythms.[31]

Even in studies where subjects only listen to rhythms, the basal ganglia, cerebellum, dorsal premotor
cortex (dPMC) and supplementary motor area (SMA) are often implicated.[32][33][34] The analysis of
rhythm may depend on interactions between the auditory and motor systems.

Neural correlates of musical training

Although auditory–motor interactions can be observed in people without formal musical training,
musicians are an excellent population to study because of their long-established and rich associations
between auditory and motor systems. Musicians have been shown to have anatomical adaptations that
correlate with their training.[17] Some neuroimaging studies have observed that musicians show lower
levels of activity in motor regions than non-musicians during the performance of simple motor tasks,
which may suggest a more efficient pattern of neural recruitment.[35][36][37][38]

Motor imagery
Previous neuroimaging studies have consistently reported activity in the SMA and premotor areas, as
well as in auditory cortices, when non-musicians imagine hearing musical excerpts.[17] Recruitment of
the SMA and premotor areas is also reported when musicians are asked to imagine performing.[38][39]

Psychoacoustics
Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of
sound perception. More specifically, it is the
branch of science studying the psychological
and physiological responses associated with
sound (including speech and music). Topics
of study include perception of the pitch,
timbre, loudness and duration of musical
sounds and the relevance of such studies for
music cognition or the perceived structure of
music; and auditory illusions and how
humans localize sound, which can have
relevance for musical composition and the
design of venues for music performance.
Psychoacoustics is a branch of
psychophysics.
Deutsch's scale illusion: an auditory illusion in which two
scales are presented with successive tones alternating
between each ear but are perceived as simultaneous,
Cognitive musicology
unbroken scales.[40]
Cognitive musicology is a branch of
cognitive science concerned with
computationally modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and
cognition.[41]

Cognitive musicology can be differentiated from the fields of music cognition and cognitive
neuroscience of music by a difference in methodological emphasis. Cognitive musicology uses computer
modeling to study music-related knowledge representation and has roots in artificial intelligence and
cognitive science. The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to
formulate and test theories.[42]

This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the
brain. Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research, such as neural
networks and evolutionary programs.[43] This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is
represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured computer
environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated.[44]

Evolutionary musicology
Evolutionary musicology concerns the "origins of music, the question of animal song, selection pressures
underlying music evolution", and "music evolution and human evolution".[45] It seeks to understand
music perception and activity in the context of evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin speculated that
music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage,[46] a view which has
spawned several competing theories of music evolution.[47][48][49] An alternate view sees music as a by-
product of linguistic evolution; a type of "auditory cheesecake" that pleases the senses without providing
any adaptive function.[50] This view has been directly countered by numerous music
researchers.[51][52][53]

Cultural differences
An individual's culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition, including their preferences,
emotional reaction, and musical memory. Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar
musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults' classification of the emotion of a musical piece
depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features.[54][55] Additionally, individuals'
musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar
music.[56][57]

Applied research areas

Many areas of music psychology research focus on the application of music in everyday life as well as
the practices and experiences of the amateur and professional musician. Each topic may utilize
knowledge and techniques derived from one or more of the areas described above. Such areas include:

Music in society
Including:

everyday music listening

musical rituals and gatherings (e.g. religious, festive, sporting, political, etc.)
the role of music in forming personal and group identities
the relation between music and dancing
social influences on musical preference (peers, family, experts, social background, etc.)

Musical preference
Consumers' choices in music have been studied as they relate to the Big Five personality traits: openness
to experience, agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness. In general, the plasticity
traits (openness to experience and extraversion) affect music preference more than the stability traits
(agreeableness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness).[58] Gender has been shown to influence preference,
with men choosing music for primarily cognitive reasons and women for emotional reasons.[59]
Relationships with music preference have also been found with mood[60] and nostalgic association.[61]

Background music
The study of background music focuses on the impact of music with non-musical tasks, including
changes in behavior in the presence of different types, settings, or styles of music.[62] In laboratory
settings, music can affect performance on cognitive tasks (memory, attention, and comprehension), both
positively and negatively. Used extensively as an advertising aid, music may also affect marketing
strategies, ad comprehension, and consumer choices. Background music can influence learning,[63][64]
working memory and recall,[65][66] performance while working on tests,[67][68] and attention in cognitive
monitoring tasks.[69][70] Background music can also be used as a way to relieve boredom, create positive
moods, and maintain a private space.[71] Background music has been shown to put a restless mind at ease
by presenting the listener with various melodies and tones.[71]

Music in marketing
In both radio and television advertisements, music plays an integral role in content recall,[72][73][74]
intentions to buy the product, and attitudes toward the advertisement and brand itself.[75][76][77] Music's
effect on marketing has been studied in radio ads,[74][76][77] TV ads,[72][73][75] and physical retail
settings.[78][79]

One of the most important aspects of an advertisement's music is the "musical fit", or the degree of
congruity between cues in the ad and song content.[80] Advertisements and music can be congruous or
incongruous for both lyrical and instrumental music. The timbre, tempo, lyrics, genre, mood, as well as
any positive or negative associations elicited by certain music should fit the nature of the advertisement
and product.[80]

Music and productivity

Several studies have recognized that listening to music while working affects the productivity of people
performing complex cognitive tasks.[81] One study suggested that listening to one's preferred genre of
music can enhance productivity in the workplace,[82] though other research has found that listening to
music while working can be a source of distraction, with loudness and lyrical content possibly playing a
role.[83] Other factors proposed to affect the relationship between music listening and productivity
include musical structure, task complexity, and degree of control over the choice and use of music.[84]

Music education
Including:

optimizing music education

development of musical behaviors and
abilities throughout the lifespan
the specific skills and processes involved in
learning a musical instrument or singing
activities and practices within a music school
individual versus group learning of a musical
instrument
the effects of musical education on A primary focus of music psychology research
intelligence concerns how best to teach music and the effects
optimizing practice this has on childhood development.

Musical aptitude
Musical aptitude refers to a person's innate ability to acquire skills and knowledge required for musical
activity, and may influence the speed at which learning can take place and the level that may be achieved.
Study in this area focuses on whether aptitude can be broken into subsets or represented as a single
construct, whether aptitude can be measured prior to significant achievement, whether high aptitude can
predict achievement, to what extent aptitude is inherited, and what implications questions of aptitude
have on educational principles.[85]

It is an issue closely related to that of intelligence and IQ, and was pioneered by the work of Carl
Seashore. While early tests of aptitude, such as Seashore's The Measurement of Musical Talent, sought to
measure innate musical talent through discrimination tests of pitch, interval, rhythm, consonance,
memory, etc., later research found these approaches to have little predictive power and to be influenced
greatly by the test-taker's mood, motivation, confidence, fatigue, and boredom when taking the test.[85]

Music performance
Including:

the physiology of performance

music reading and sight-reading, including eye movement
performing from memory and music-related memory
acts of improvisation and composition
flow experiences
the interpersonal/social aspects of group performance
music performance quality evaluation by an audience or evaluator(s) (e.g. audition or
competition), including the influence of musical and non-musical factors
audio engineering[86]

Music and health

Including:

the effectiveness of music in healthcare and therapeutic settings

music-specific disorders
musicians' physical and mental health and well-being
music performance anxiety (MPA, or stage fright)
motivation, burnout, and depression among musicians
noise-induced hearing loss among musicians

Journals
Music psychology journals include:

Music Perception
Musicae Scientiae
Psychology of Music
Music and Science
Jahrbuch Musikpsychologie[87]
Music psychologists also publish in a wide range of mainstream musicology, computational musicology,
music theory/analysis, psychology, music education, music therapy, music medicine, and systematic
musicology journals. The latter include for example:

Computer Music Journal

Empirical Musicology Review
Frontiers in Psychology
Journal of New Music Research
Journal of Mathematics and Music[88]
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
 Research Studies in Music Education

Societies
Asia-Pacific Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (APSCOM) (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20060820210754/http://marcs.uws.edu.au/events/conferences/archive/2002/icmpc7/
apscom.htm)
Australian Music & Psychology Society (AMPS)
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Musikpsychologie (DGM) (http://www.music-psychology.de/)
European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM)
Japanese Society for Music Perception and Cognition (JSMPC) (http://www.jsmpc.info/inde
x-e.html)
Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research (SEMPRE, Britain) (http://www.sem
pre.org.uk/)
Society for Music Perception and Cognition (SMPC) (http://www.musicperception.org/)

Centers of research and teaching

Australia:

Music, Sound and Performance Lab, Macquarie University[89]

Music, Mind and Wellbeing Initiative, Melbourne University[90]
Empirical Musicology Group, University of New South Wales[91]
ARC Centre of Excellence for the History of Emotion, University of Western Australia[92]
The MARCS Institute, University of Western Sydney[93]
Austria:

Centre for Systematic Musicology, University of Graz[94]

Cognitive Psychology Unit, University of Klagenfurt[95]
Belgium:

Institute for Psychoacoustics and Electronic Music, Ghent University[96]

Canada:

Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music and Media and Technology, McGill
University[97]
Music and Health Research Collaboratory, University of Toronto[98]
Music Cognition Lab, Queen's University[99]
Auditory Perception and Music Cognition Research and Training Laboratory, University of
Prince Edward Island[100]
SMART Lab, Ryerson University[101]
The Music, Acoustics, Perception, and LEarning (MAPLE) Lab, McMaster University[102]
McMaster Institute for Music and the Mind, McMaster University[103]
BRAMS - International Laboratory for Brain, Music, and Sound Research, University of
Montreal and McGill University[104]
Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, University of Montreal[105]
 Music and Neuroscience Lab, University of Western Ontario[106]
Denmark:

Center for Music in the Brain, Aarhus University[107]

Finland:

Finnish Centre of Excellence in Interdisciplinary Music Research, University of

Jyväskylä[108]
France:

Auditory Cognition and Psychoacoustics team, Claude Bernard University Lyon 1[109]
University of Burgundy
IRCAM, Centre Pompidou[110]
Germany:

University of Halle-Wittenberg
Institute for Systematic Musicology, Universität Hamburg[111]
Institute of Music Physiology and Musicians' Medicine, Hochschule für Musik, Theater und
Medien Hannover[112]
Hanover Music Lab, Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover[113]
University of Cologne
University of Oldenburg
Hochschule für Musik Würzburg
Technische Universität Chemnitz
Iceland:

Centre for Music Research, University of Iceland[114]

Ireland:

University of Limerick
Japan:

Kyushu University
Korea:

Seoul National University

Netherlands:

Music Cognition Group, University of Amsterdam[115]

Norway:

Centre for Music and Health, Norwegian Academy of Music[116]

Poland:

Unit of Psychology of Music, Fryderyk Chopin University of Music[117]

 Music Performance and Brain Lab, University of Finance and Management in Warsaw[118]
Singapore:

Music Cognition Group, Social and Cognitive Computing Department, Institute of High
Performance Computing, A*STAR[119]
Spain:

Music Technology Group, Pompeu Fabra University[120]

Sweden:

Speech, Music and Hearing, Royal Institute of Technology[121]

Music Psychology Group, Uppsala University[122]
United Kingdom:

Centre for Music and Science, Cambridge University[123]

Music and the Human Sciences Group, University of Edinburgh[124]
Centre for Psychological Research, Keele University[125]
Music and Science Lab, Durham University[126]
Interdisciplinary Centre for Scientific Research in Music, University of Leeds[127]
Social and Applied Psychology Group, University of Leicester[128]
Music, Mind and Brain Group, Goldsmiths, University College London[129]
International Music Education Research Centre, UCL Institute of Education, University
College London[130]
Music Cognition Lab, Queen Mary University of London[131]
Faculty of Music, University of Oxford[132]
Applied Music Research Centre, University of Roehampton[133]
Centre for Performance Science, Royal College of Music[134]
Centre for Music Performance Research, Royal Northern College of Music[135]
Department of Music, Sheffield University[136]
United States:

Music and Neuroimaging Laboratory, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard
Medical School[137]
Auditory Perception & Action Lab, University at Buffalo[138]
Janata Lab, University of California, Davis[139]
Systematic Musicology Lab, University of California, Los Angeles[140]
Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego[141]
UCSB Music Cognition Lab, University of California, Santa Barbara[142]
Music Dynamics Lab, University of Connecticut[143]
The Music Cognition Laboratory, Cornell University[144]
Music Cognition at Eastman School of Music, University of Rochester[145]
Center for Music Research, Florida State University[146]
Music Cognition and Computation Lab, Louisiana State University[147]
 Language and Music Cognition Lab, University of Maryland[148]
Auditory Cognition and Development Lab, University of Nevada, Las Vegas[149]
Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Northwestern University[150]
Music Theory and Cognition Program, Northwestern University[151]
Music Cognition Lab, Princeton University[152]
Cognitive and Systematic Musicology Laboratory, Ohio State University[153]
Music Learning, Perception, and Cognition Focus Group, University of Oregon[154]
Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics, Stanford University[155]
Dowling Laboratory, University of Texas at Dallas[156]
Institute for Music Research, University of Texas at San Antonio[157]
Laboratory for Music Cognition, Culture & Learning, University of Washington[158]
Music, Imaging, and Neural Dynamics (MIND) Laboratory, Wesleyan University[159]
Brain Research and Interdisciplinary Neurosciences Lab, Western Michigan University[160]

See also
Cognitive musicology
Cognitive neuroscience of music
Performance science
Psychoacoustics
Psychoanalysis and music
Music and emotion
Music-specific disorders
Music therapy

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Further reading

Encyclopedia entries
Palmer, Caroline & Melissa K. Jungers (2003): Music Cognition. In: Lynn Nadel:
Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, Vol. 3, London: Nature Publishing Group, pp. 155–158.
Deutsch, Diana (2013): Music. In Oxford Bibliographies in Music. Edited by Dunn, D.S. New
York: Oxford University Press. 2013, Web Link (http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/d
ocument/obo-9780199828340/obo-9780199828340-0065.xml)
 Thompson, William Forde (2014): "Music in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, An
Encyclopedia". Sage Publications Inc., New York. ISBN 9781452283036 Web Link (http://w
ww.sagepub.com/refbooks/Book240878)

Introductory reading
Day, Kingsley (October 21, 2004). "Music and the Mind: Turning the Cognition Key". (http://
www.northwestern.edu/observer/issues/2004-10-21/music.html) Observer online.
Jourdain, Robert (1997). Music, the Brain, and Ecstasy: How Music Captures Our
Imagination. New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-14236-2.
Honing, Henkjan (2013). "Musical Cognition. A Science of Listening (2nd edition)." (http://w
ww.transactionpub.com/title/Musical-Cognition-978-1-4128-5292-0.html) New Brunswick,
N.J.: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1412852920.
Levitin, D. J. (2006). "This Is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession." (htt
p://www.YourBrainOnMusic.com) New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-525-94969-0
Margulis, Elizabeth Hellmuth. (2018). ''The Psychology of Music: A Very Short Introduction.
(https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-psychology-of-music-a-very-short-introduction
-9780190640156?cc=us&lang=en&) New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0190640156.
Margulis, Elizabeth Hellmuth. (2013). ''On Repeat: How Music Plays the Mind. (http://global.
oup.com/academic/product/on-repeat-9780199990825) New York, NY: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0199990825.
Purwins; Hardoon (2009). "Trends and Perspectives in Music Cognition Research and
Technology" (http://www.mtg.upf.es/files/publications/PurwinsHardoonEditorialCS.pdf)
(PDF). Connection Science. 21 (2–3): 85–88. doi:10.1080/09540090902734549 (https://doi.
org/10.1080%2F09540090902734549).
Snyder, Bob (2000). "Music and Memory: an introduction" The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-
69237-6.
J.P.E. Harper-Scott and Jim Samson 'An Introduction to Music Studies', Chapter 4: John
Rink,The Psychology of Music, (Cambridge University Press, 2009), pp. 60.
Deutsch, D. (2019). Musical Illusions and Phantom Words: How Music and Speech Unlock
Mysteries of the Brain (https://global.oup.com/academic/product/musical-illusions-and-phant
om-words-9780190206833). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190206833.
LCCN 2018051786 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2018051786).

Advanced reading
Deutsch, D. (Ed.) (1982). The Psychology of Music, 1st Edition. New York: Academic Press.
ISBN 0-12-213562-8.
Deutsch, D. (Ed.) (1999). The Psychology of Music, 2nd Edition. San Diego: Academic
Press. ISBN 0-12-213565-2.
Deutsch, D. (Ed.) (2013). The Psychology of Music, 3rd Edition. San Diego: Academic
Press. ISBN 0-12-381460-X.
Dowling, W. Jay and Harwood, Dane L. (1986). Music Cognition. San Diego: Academic
Press. ISBN 0-12-221430-7.
Hallam, Cross, & Thaut, (eds.) (2008). The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Krumhansl, Carol L. (2001). Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-514836-3.
 Patel, Anirrudh D. (2010). Music, language, and the brain (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9
780195123753). New York: Oxford University Press.
Parncutt, R. (1989). Harmony: A Psychoacoustical Approach. (http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/s
taff/parncutt/hapa.html) Berlin: Springer.
Sloboda, John A. (1985). The Musical Mind: The Cognitive Psychology of Music. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-852128-6.
Lerdahl, F. and Jackendoff, R. (21996) A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. The MIT Press.
ISBN 978-0-262-62107-6.
Jackendoff, Ray (1987): Consciousness and the Computational Mind. Cambridge: MIT
Press. Chapter 11: Levels of Musical Structure, section 11.1: What is Musical Cognition?
Temperley, D. (2004). The Cognition of Basic Musical Structures. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-
0-262-70105-1.
Thompson, W. F. (2009). Music, Thought, and Feeling: Understanding the Psychology of
Music New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537707-1.
Zbikowski, Lawrence M. (2004). Conceptualizing Music: Cognitive Structure, Theory, and
Analysis. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-514023-1.
North, A.C. & Hargreaves, D.J. (2008). The Social and Applied Psychology of Music.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856742-4.

External links
Media related to Music psychology at Wikimedia Commons
MusicCognition.info - A Resource and Information Center (http://www.MusicCognition.info/)

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