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PRECALCINER KILN SYSTEMS

Return To T.O.C

D BAIRD
 PRECALCINER KILNS

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PRECALCINER KILN PROCESSES - MAIN FEATURES

3. ADVANTAGES OF THE PRECALCINER KILN PROCESS

4. TYPES OF PRECALCINER SYSTEM

4.1 Polysius Prepol Precalciner

4.2 FLS - ILC and SLC Precalciner
4.3 KHD Pyroclon Precalciner
4.4 IHI - NSF and SF Precalciners
4.5 RSP Precalciner Process
4.6 Mitsubishi Fluidised Bed Precalciner, MFC and N-MFC

5. AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF THE PRECALCINER VESSEL

6. FACTORS AFFMHTNG THE OUTPUT OF A-S PRECALCINER

SYSTEMS

6.1 General Considerations

6.2 Comparison of FLS Precalciner Kiln Systems at Cauldon
and Cemento Melon

7. BCI OUTPUT WTINGS FOR PRECALCINER KILNS

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Kiln Shell Output Ratings - Air Separate Precalciner Kilns
7.3 Kiln Shell Output Ratings - Air Through Precalciner Kilns
7.4 Kiln Hearth Gas Velocity Considerations
7.5 Precalciner Vessel Ratings
7.6 The Effect of Fuel Quality upon Precaiciner Performance
 8. THE “BEST” PRECALCINER KILN SYSTEM

9. PRECALCINER KILN UPRATINGS - CASE STUDIES

9.1 General
9.2 Low Cost Uprating - Cemento Melon No. 9 Kiln
9.3 Conventional Plant Uprating - Kanthan No. 3 Kiln

9.3.1 Introduction
9.3.2 Preconversion - Plant Limitations
9.3.3 Kiln Uprating Modifications
9.3.4 Technical Evaluation of Uprating Proposals
9.3.5 Results Obtained from Kanthan No. 3 Kdn Uprating

9.4 Conclusions Drawn From Recent Precalciner Kiln Uprating Exercises

10. OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS WITH PRECALCINER KILNS:

EXAMPLES AND SOLUTIONS

10.1 General
10.2 Practical Examples

11. TYPICAL OPERATING CONDITIONS AND HEAT BALANCES

FOR A MODERN A-S PRECALCINER KILN

11.1 Number of Cyclone Stages

11.2 Typical Operating Conditions and Heat Balance
11.3 Gas Velocity Profiles
11.4 Preheater Cyclone Loadings
11.5 Preheater Cyclone Geometry
11.6 Summary

APPENDIX I CARBON DIOXIDE CONTENT OF THE GASES

LEAVING A KILN AND THE DECARBONATION OF
THE MEAL ENTERING THE KILN
1. INTRODUCTION

Demands for higher outputs from kilns and the need to utilise raw materials which are
less suited to traditional preheater kilns, have resulted in the development of new
cement manufacturing processes. The main area of development has been focused upon
the Precalciner kiln process.

During the 1980’s standard unit kiln size was typically around 3000 tonnes per day
clinker output. The traditional preheater process is less suitable for higher outputs due
to the large kiln diameter required and the resultant problems with bricklife. Since this
time it has become more common to build kilns in the “standard” size range of 5,000 to
7,000 TPD clinker which gives the benefits of scale i.e. a lower capital cost per tonne
clinker. Precalciner kilns have been made with capacities up to 10,000 TPD.

This paper will examine the following aspects of Precalciner kilns:-

(i) Description of the main features of the Precalciner kiln process.

(ii) Types of Precalciner design currently available.

(iii) Factors affecting the performance of Precalciner kiln systems i.e. output,
fuel consumption and process stability. Some typical precalciner kiln
operating problems and their solutions are described in order to assist
engineers with kiln optimisation.

(iv) An examination of the output ratings which have been achieved in

particular, the kiln shell and Precalciner vessel loadings and their
interrelationship.

(v) Precalciner kiln uprating - two recent exarnpl= of cost effective kiln
upratings are described in order to demonstrate practical ways of
overcoming plant bottlenecks.

The main aim of this paper is to concentrate on how to get the best performance from
a Precalciner kiln process. Whilst some of the commercially available systems are
briefly described, this paper is not intended as a description of all the systems currently
available or being developed.

We will now consider the features and categorisation of the various Precalciner kiln
processes.
2. PRECALCINER KILN PROCESS - MAIN FEATURES

Precalciner kiln processes have the following features:-

(i) A proportion of the total fuel input is introduced at a point between the
kiln and the preheater system. A purpose’ designed precalciner vessel
allows the fuel to combust and the decarbonation process to take place.

(ii) Combustion air required for the Precalciner vessel is provided by the
following methods according to the type of Precalciner system used. The
two basic systems are described in greater detail later on in this paper,
but are briefly as follows:-

Air-seuarate (A-S) Precalciner - Combustion air for the Precalciner is

taken from the kiln hood or a take-off from the clinker cooler via the
Tertiary air duct. Typical fuel input i&- 40% to kiln: 60% to
Precalciner.

Air-through (AT) Precalciner - Combustion air for the Precalciner is

obtained by running the kiln with higher levels of excess air. Typical fuel
split is:- 65% to kiln: 35% to Precalciner.

(iii) Material from the preheater cyclone(s) undergoes a greater degree of

calcination than in the conventional preheater kiln process. This is
achieved by exposing the meal to high temperatures for a short period
within the Precalciner vessel. Typically, in an Air separate precalciner
system, some 60% of the total fuel is in combusted in the Precalciner
vessel. The gas residence time is typically 2 seconds and the meal is
exposed to gas temperatures around 860-900°C (typically 880°C). This
residence time is critical to the performance of the precalciner as is the
vessel design. The de-carbonation level of the meal is typically increased
to approximately 92% within the Precalciner vessel.

(iv) Because of the high decarbonation level of the meal leaving the
Precalciner/Preheater system, the thermai load requirements of the kiln
tube are significantly reduced. In the Air separate Precalciner system
some 40% of the fuel is used to:-

complete the decarbonation process

raise the meal to the sintering zone temperature to produce

clinker

(v) Due to the reduced thermal load required in the kiln tube, a higher
specific output is possible from the Precalciner kiln process especially
with the A-S system.
 For example, comparing the similar size kilns at Hope and Rawang Works:-

Hope Rawanq

Kiln System Preheater with A-S Precalciner

riser duct firing

Kiln shell size (m) 4.77 x 70 4.7 x 74

Kiln inside lining

surface area (M2) 961 1000

Peak Clinker
output (TPD) 2350 5070

Kiln shell loading

(TPDiM2) 2.45 5.07

Hence, the Rawang kiln achieved 240% of the loading of the Hope preheater kilns. Whilst
this comparison is not complete and other factors tiect the loadings achieved, it does
illustrate how the Precalciner kiln process can allow large kiln capacities to be achieved.

(vi) It will be noted that the commercially available precalciner kiln systems do not
attempt to achieve 100°/0decarbonation within the precalciner vessel. The reasons
for this are as follows:-

An exponential increase in the gas/meal residence time would be needed

to achieve higher decarbonation levels. Alternatively, the higher operating
temperature would make system less fiel efficient.

Greater risk of build-ups between the precalciner and the kiln inlet.

3
3. ADVANTAGES OF THE PRECALCINER KILN PROCESS

(i) With conventional preheater kiln systems, outputs in excess of 3000 TPD
require large kiln diameters i.e. above 5.Om shell diameter. A feature of
these large kiins is the increase in kiln bricking problems. Hence, the
higher specific kiln shell output achieved by the Precalciner process can
help to overcome these limitations.

(ii) Kiln stability - a correctly designed Precalciner kiln system can have
several advantages over conventional preheater systems by virtue of the
following:-

(a) The major proportion of the meal decarbonation process is

controlled outside of the kiln shell.

(b) Simple process control loops e.g. the automatic control of the
calciner fuel input based upon the exit gas temperature allow a
tight control over the level of meal decarbonation to be achieved.

Both these factors can help to make the Precalciner process generally
more stable than the Preheater process. If correctly designed, controlled
and operated, there is generally less risk of kiln fhishing associated with
the Precalciner kiln process. However, reference is drawn to Section 10
which describes some typical problems associated with Precalciner kilns
operation and the techniques used to analyse and overcome’ these
probhxns.

(iii) The precalciner system is more suitable for materials containing higher
levels of sulphur, chloride and alkalies than are normally acceptable for
stable preheater kiln operation. Where the raw material chemistry
dictates the need for a kiln bleed system, this can be more efficiently
achieved in the Precalciner procm. Figure 1 shows the relationship
between the overall fuel consumption for varying degrees of gas bleed
from the kiln back end. In the Precalciner kiln, the quantity of gas per
Kg clinker leaving the kiln is significantly lower than in a Preheater kiln.
Hence, the concentration of alkalies etc, is higher and approximately only
half of the gas volume needs to be bled off for the same alkali reduction
level.

The flexibility of the Precalciner process allows it to be considered a

more economical process for materials which are borderline on chemistry
for a conventional preheater process.
 Fig. / EST I MATED HEAT CONSUMPTION VS “h GAS BLEED OFF
AT THE KILN BACK END
HEAT CONSUMPTION
(k callkg NETT)
950

./
925 /
/“
,“ 30”10DUST LOSS
●
/ A
900 .
./ ‘
/ ‘
●
/
. 10”/. DUST LOSS
875 .-
30°1. DUST LOSS /“
.
6
,/”
850
—SUSPENSION PREHEATER KILN
(100% FUEL INJECTION INTO THE KILI

,<
—.— PRECALCINER KILN
825 (60”1. FUEL INJECTION INTO THE KILN)

800 Z 20 30
% GAS
60 50
DUST LOSS EX KILN
I
60
BLEED OFF J4TTHE KILN BACK END
I
70
“1. ON CLINKER
1
,
00
1
90 100

ul
(iv) Capital cost - the capital cost differences between Preheater and
Precalciner kiln systems are not clearly defined for the following
reasons:-

(a) New kiln lines tend to be built in standard sizes with unit sizes
tending to increase in recent years. Hence, the upward trend in
outputs from 3000 to 6000 TPD (and above) new kiln lines tends to
automatically dictate the choice of a precalciner system. This is
to permit the lowest capital investment per tonne clinker
produced.

(b) for smaller kiln outputs i.e. below 2000 TPD, the Precalciner kiln
system may have a slight disadvantage over the preheater kiln in
capital cost terms.

Notwithstanding this, the new kiln line for Athi River is an A-S
Precalciner kiln of 1600 TPD. The 1290 TPD No. 9 kiln at Cemento
Melon is an A-S Precalciner kiln though this choice was dictated by the
requirements of a 30% bleed for sulphur. This kiln currently operates at
around 1850 TPD without use of the Bleed. Hence, there are many cases
of small kilns using the Precalciner process in preference to the preheater
process.

(v) The reduction of NOX emission levels through use of precalciner kiln
technology is widely published. The use of the so called De-NOx burners
is a feature of some precalciners, such as the DD furnace and IHI-NSF
designs. Their purpose is to produce local reducing conditions in part of
the precalciner vessel in order to reduce the levels of NOX produced. The
reduction in NOX emission is becoming an increasingly important
environmental requirement.

6
4. TYPES OF PRECALCINER

There are many different designs of Precalciner in operation and classification by type
is difficult. This is due to several designs using various combinations of the different
features. A simplified classification is as follows:

(i) Extended Riser Duct systems such as the KHD PYROCLON and
POLYSIUS PREPOL designs.

(ii) Spouted Bed types such as the FLS+LC and KAWASAKI NKSV types.

(iii) Precalciners with a separate combustion chamber such as the

ONODA/KAWASAKI RSP precalciner.

(iv) Fluidised bed precalciner - MITSUBISHI N-MFC system.

(v) Precalciner vessels employing a swirling gas action, e.g. IHI-NSF and CSF
types.

The above classification is complicated by the numerous design options and modification
possibilities. Hence, separate combustion chambers are now available with the PREPOL
design and ductwork extensions have been added to earlier IHI-SF systems such as
Rawang No.3 Kiln.

In the following section, some of the common designs available will be briefly described.
For further details please refer to the relevant manufacturers 1 sales literature.

4.1 Polvsius Preuol Precalciner

This system is available in A.S. and AT versions and is currently used with the DOPOL-
90 preheater system. The design shown in Figure 2A is of the Extended Riser Duct
type.

A modified version of the PREPOL-AS is the Combustion Chamber (C. C.) type which
is designed primarily for low grade fuel. This uses a separate combustion chamber
which allows combustion to take place in pure tertiary air. Figure 2B also shows this
design.

The PREPOL-AS design is installed at Dunbar and Lichtenburg Works. Both plants
suffered problems with poor kiln stability initially and contributory reasons for this were
as follows:

(i) The meal entering the PREPOL was not well dispersed in the gas stream
and some meal could bypass the PREPOL and enter the kiln directly.
 FIGURE 2 A

PREPOL@-AS

PREPOL”-AS

Thecombustionair for the PREPOL@-AS

(Air Separate) calaner is passed by the
rota~ kiln separately via the tertiary air
duct. The advanta e is that a smaller-
sized kiln can then \ e used.

in the PREPOL@-AS,the fuel feed points

on the calciner are iacated “nthe
transition pieces between the tertiary air
dud and the caianer. The gnition and
combustion condiions are ideal at this
“*
. . . -

:Rli%i%’Ei2!ElfTh;2idad
the kii gases have the effect of
stabilizing the combustion cycle.

lhe raw meai from cyclone stage II is

entrained by the gas stream, separated
‘mstoge I of the preheater and passed
‘do the kiln inlet.

PREPOL”-AS-LC

The PREPOL”-AS- LC aiiows economical

use of high-ash, iow-caiorie fuels and
blends.

In contrast to the PREF!OL”-AS, the iniets

of the two tertia~ air flows of the
PREPOL”-AS- LC (Low-grade Com-
bustible) into the caianer shaft are
iateraiiy staggered. This aiiows optimum
controi of the mixture of fuei partides
and combustion air with a minimum
pressure drop. The combustion speed is
increased and compiete combustion
guaranteed.

~_.._ %J
1
‘J
 ..— . -..-.—— .—

PREPOL@-AS-CC for economical

use of low-grade fuels

FIGURE 2 B

PREPOLe-AS-CC

Po$miusdeveloped the PREPOL%S-CC

(combustion chamber) diner system
to improve combustion when us’ low-
grade fuek This asldnef can also
%!
used to advantage when:

● handlingraw material components

with hardly combustible camtkmh
and
● la e internal alkali cycles- whd
“h% cornbustian- are to be antid-
pateddueto the fuelandrow
material Wnpositkm

‘Theseparate cmbshan
“ chamber,
connectdta thecaldner loop byogas
duct, isthemainfeature of the
PREPOL”-AS-CC system

Cambustianstarts inpuretertia~airat
the -e of the combustionchamber
wimfeahatcare farms inthezaneof
low meal concentration $alii carbon
whddoes not bumatthecoreofthe
chamber isfed “fro the h kilngases
via a chute with the raw meal, where it
reacts with the residual oxygen.

The combustion chamber is fitted with

one tangential and one central tertia~
air inlet. hhaust gases from the kiln and
from the combustion chamber enter the
calaner loop.

The raw meal from cydane stage II

enters the combustion chamber near the
tangential tertia~ air connection.

lb fuel is iniected at the middle of the

combustion chamber. The tip of the
burner is located below the top edge of
the tangential tertiafy air inlet. The
psibitii of controlling the combustion
temperature ensures good calciner
efficiency when using solid fuels.

9
L
a
c
.-
tj
0
u
a)
k
I_
I
10
 (ii) Overdrafting of the preheater system was nec=ary to achieve adequate
meal pick up velocities. At Lichtenburg the ki~ tended to be run with
around 70% fuel spiit to the kiln to ensure a higher gas velocity in the
lower riser. This was prior to the system being modified.

(iii) The design has been modified to inciude more efficient gas accelerators
and dispersion boxes to improve meal pick up and to ensure more even
mixing in the gas stream.

Since these kilns were commissioned in the mid 19801s, Polysius have improved their
design. The Extended Riser Duct design is relatively simpie and can give good r~ulta,
provided that the above design details are resolved. This design is also very suitable for
retrofitting to existing kilns as part of an uprating exercise. FiWe 2C shows the latest
Prepoi design, which overcomes the above problem areas.

PREPOL-AT systems have been installed with capacities in the range of 800 to 4750
TPD. The PREPOL-AS system has been instailed with outputs from 1500 to 7S00 TPD.

4.2 FLS - TLC and SLC Precdciners

F L Smidth supply severai prectdciner designs in A-T and A+ configurations. Their

design features a spouted bed and the designations refer to:-

LL.C. - In Line Calciner

S.L.C. - Separate Line Calciner

See Figures 3A and 3B for details.

The ILC system is installed at Cauidon and Cenmnto Melon works. The SLC system
features a twin stream preheater with different cyclone sizes. The precaiciner vessel
is suppiied with combustion air via the Terthry air duct and is comected to the
Calciner stream cyclones. Material is also fed to the kiln stream cyciones which
feature smaller cyclones than the Calciner stream. Materiai leaving the lowest stage
of the kiln stream is also fed into the precaiciner vessel. This design has a high turn
down rate of capacitiu since it can operate as either single or twin stream system.

The SLC Precalciner thus operates in an oxygen rich environment since it receives air
from the cooler only. Hence, this system is well suited for use with low grade fuels and
gas firing.

In the ILC system, the Tertiary air duct joins the kiln back end riser duct immediately
below the bottom of the spouted bed. The gas velocity reduces from 20-25 m/s down
to around 5-6 nds in the spouted bed. This tends to make the meal recirculated around
the calciner vessel, giving it a longer residence time than the gas.

11
 FIGURE 3A
ILC-E: In - line Calciner
ILC-E: Separate Line Calciner

Double-string cyclone preheater kilnwith a precalcinerplaced parallelto the kiln riser duct
Thus the combustion In the calcinertakes place In heatedatmosphericair drawn from the
cooler through a separate tertiary air duct The exhaustgas from the calciner and the kiln
are conducted through the two independentpreheaterstringswithout being mixed.
Single-string cyclone preheater kiln with precalciner built into the kiln
rtser duct Combustion air for the precalclner Is drawn through a
separate tertiary air duct between the cooler and the calciner.

Features:

. Recommend4 capacity range 3000-5500 tpd Recommendedcapacity range: 1500-4000 tpd

. Fifing In calclneK 55- 6(Y% Ratio of firing in calclrreE55- 65?4.
. Bypass of kiln gas: 0- 3(M Bypassof kilngas: 0- 100?!
-320mmkW -470 mmVW -430mm WG

7
290”C
I30!FC

(
-1

480”C

670”C

740”C
I b’
‘“”u
-$s ‘i
4
620”C 890”C
900”C 880”C
1. Calclner 1. Calciner
2. Dividinggate 2. Damper
3. Changeovergate .-
3. try-pass .. I
4. By-pass 7 I II

780”C
4. w

2*C

T
3rc
The ILC-AS system has given good operational results at Cauldon and Cemento Melon. Two
kilns were also installed at Hermosillo (A-S) and Zapotiltic (AT) works in Mexico, formerly
within the BCI group. Details of the Air Through design (ILCE) using a modem 5 stage LP
cyclone preheater are shown in Figure 3C. General details of the spouted bed design are shown
in Figure 3D.

4.3 KHB Pvroclon Precalciner

The KHD Pyroclon design is an Extended Riser Duct design which is installed at Kanthan works
No. 3 kiln (3350 TPD). A 7000 TPD unit is currently being installed at Yanbu Cement with
BCTC consultancy input.

For outputs of around 5000-7000 TPD, KHD use two Pyroclon Precalciners with twin Tertiary
air ducts and twin preheater streams.

The Pyroclon design is shown in Figure 4. KHD have also developed their Pyrorapid short
Precalciner kiln system which features a two tyred kiln of 10-12 length to diameter ratio. These
kilns have developed very high output loadings and this aspect is discussed in Section 6.

The I?yroclon design is seen as a simple design and has given good service without the complexity
of some other systems.

4.4 IHI - NSF and SF Precalciners

The SF process (see Figure 5A) was developed by IHI and over 30 installations were made before
the process was upgraded to the NSF process. Rawang No. 3 kiln was one of the last SF
processes installed in 1980. This was converted to NSF process with a Trunk Duct precalciner
extension in 1992. Figure 5B shows the NSF process and Figure 5C shows the Rawang
conversion. The Trunk Duct design was developed at Chichibu cement and systems of this type
are also designated the CSF process. The earlier SF design suffered several problems with poor
combustio~ low gadmeal residence time, build ups in the vortex duct, raw meal short circuiting
the Flash Furnace, etc. In the NSF precalciner, many of these fhilings have been resolved by
redesign.

In the NSF procesq some of the meal enters the precalciner vessel directly (see point A in Figure
5C) whilst the remainder enters the riser duct (point B). The latter material quenches the hot
gases leaving the kiln and helps reduce build-ups. D-IIdo not tend to put all the meal into the riser
in order to reduce pressure losses. The Tertiary air enters the base of the precalciner or Flash
Furnace (FF). This sets up a swirling action. The precalciner burners are located either in the
Vortex Chamber roof or the base of the FF.

The new 6100 TPD Precalciner kiln line being installed at Kanthan Works (KK4) is also an IHI-
NSF type.

13
 FIGURE 3C
ILC-E: In - line Calciner usinq Excess air

Single-string cyclone preheater kiln with a small precalciner built into

the kiln riser duct. Combustion air for precalciner is drawn through
the kiln.

Features:

. Recommended capacity range: 900-3300 tpd

- Ratio of firing in calcinec 15 -25%
- Bypass of kiln gas: O - 25°A

- 375 mm WG
1 285°C

‘co
460”C

615°C

746°c

840°C
1. Calciner /
2. By-pass

1.

‘2. ~
1
m
1
200”C
I
 — ---

FIGuRE 3D

Preheated
rawmeal Praheatedraw meal

!-
. ‘k!
Q“
;, TOkilninlet
Gasfromkiln

Gasfromkiln
----- .
ILL--E mkz-na ILC cukinez

Exit gas with

prccaicincd raw meal

Preheatedrawmeal fromC.strirrg

0
Air fromcooler

\ll t *U u
SLC dim
f)
..

15
 _FiGURE 4 KHD PYROCLON PRECALCINER WITH PYRORAPID KILN

PymRAPiD@ -
rapid burning process realized

P\
in an extremely short rota~ kiln
) u
\w with 2 miief stations

I l\ HI Thelength: diameterratii
I l\E/ of a rotarykilnin the PYRO-
RAPID’systemis usually

ll\Yn no morethan 101. This

wows rapidtxeheatin9and
sinteri~ whichis knownto
barseliidlnker fxOPSftleS

● Iiile ~ requirement
castof refractory
● raduoed
metanal
.no morethan W kiln sup
@s tiich reeultain a
statidly definedsystem
/0 lowheat lossesthrough
W8iis

PYROCLON’S@8?71RP wlh
separate kiln gas he WId som-
M qdone sepamor for kdn
ad twr?craW waare 9as

,.6
 FIGURE 5A-IHI SF PROCESS

SF ~CESS. <ECTION THROUGM FURNA~

FIGURE 5B- IHI NSF PROCESS

T = 320°C

5=2=
P = -550 mmWG
preheater blowar .::.W ~
.,

r“”
‘.’,.::
. ...
+
..:-.. ..~’”.”
..-.
. .- / \ .,
.... ,—
,.-

.. ..‘1
,“

.f

‘:”./””

1-
L.P.L.
-t ,
JI
-\ cyclone
bb ,<.
—-CX Ol#et
t
I
I
; I — —,
@-------~/
u

+) L.P.L.
cyclona
IHI NSF-PROCE~s-

Clinker throughput
7200 t.p.d.
Fuel consumption
720 K&l/Kg
FIaeh

Qa,.
Furnaca Type of fuel
Coal only
------ -*
\ Nos. of cyclone stage
I@, -, -\ I
\<-, ~~i j 5-stage
“\ Nos. of L.P. L. cyclone
\ %-~ /’ 2nd, 3rd & 4th stage cyclones
\

\ t ‘WOn~av air ~Uct

\- ““’””” EzEiEi
:

yk
~
\
\ \. ;t

v
\ ~QG c n,,. ”.?.. -

T = 830”C \
\ Kiln burner
13 = 85% \\
\\
--
ROWY kiln
T m 1050”C ‘ : OL
.— ‘%L A 7
u, = Z.mk]
I
~~
Clinkw coolar C1inkor
17
l-l
.
!3
..—
I
The Trunk Duct design relies upon high gas velocities to reduce dust deposition problems
i.e. around 25 m/s velocity. However, this area can be prone to build up if the kiln is
operated at low throughputs for any period when the gas velocities are lower. The
Trunk Duct conversion at Rawang resulted in an increase in gas residence time from 1.1
to 2 seconds.

For new installation, such as the new IHI 1600 TPD kiln plant for Athi River, the
conventional NSF Precalciner process will be installed without any Trunk Duct. The
latter design is more appropriate for upratings or conversions.

4.5 RSP Precalciner Process

The RSP suspension preheater (abbreviation for Reinforced Suspension Preheater) has
been jointly developed by the Onoda Cement Company and Kawasaki Heavy Industries
in Japan.

It consists essentially of a two compartment calciner i.e. the heating shaft supplied with
a swirl burner and the calcining shaft arranged about parallel to it. The combustion
gases and raw material from the calciner are mixed in a mixing chamber before passing
to the lowest stage of the preheater. A typical flow sheet for the system is shown in
Figure 6A.

A more detailed representation of the calciner and mixing chamber is given in Figure
6B where it can be seen that hot air from the cooler enters both the swirl burner and
swirl calciner. The swirl burner burns only a small portion of the fuel used at this point,
but plays the main role in stabilised burning with a relatively large air to fuel ratio.
The swirl calciner is the most important part in the burning process of the RSP. It
enables efficient combustion near to stoichiometric fuel-air ratio and the raw meaI
which enters the system here is rapidly calcined in the swirling flames. The mixing
chamber is designed to mix effectively the gas/meal mixture from the swirl calciner
with the kiln gas to ensure effective heat exchange.

The original installation with a capacity of 240 tpd was located at Onoda’s Tahara Plant
and was basically a test plant. Subsequently, the design as been built under licence by
Allis-Chalmers and CLE and installed world-wide as with other precalciner systems, the
RSP design is suitable for retrofitting to existing kiln plants and an example of one such
retrofit is shown in Figure 6C - the CLE conversion at Lexos, France

4.6 Mitsubishi Fluidised Bed Precalciners. MFC and N-MC

The Mitsubishi Fluidised Calciner (MFC) is a joint development of Mitsubishi Mining and
Cement and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. A separately heated fluid bed reactor located
between the kiln and preheater is used to effect calcination. The fluid bed can be
arranged in two alternative ways; the so called ‘overflow system’ is illustrated in Figure
7A and in this system the calcined raw material in the bed overflows directly into the
kiln. In the carry over system material is carried out of the bed by the upward flow of

19
FLOW SHEET FOR RSP SYSTEM ONODA

RAw MEAL

----+ MATERIAL FLOW

— GAS F LOW

: SWIRLBURNER
b

swiRL CALCINER

MIXING/
,’
CHAMBER

ROTIRY KILN

FIGURE 6B RSP_CALCINER

INER

ATURE

11-p[ ● : MATERIAL FLOW

..
TO ROTARY KIL~ FROM KILN HOOD 20
 RSP KILN CONVERSION BY CLE

LEXOS cement plant

1977 1982 1986

Q!@’!l tpd 1500 1700 2400

Rotary kiln m 3,6 X 70

Slope !4 3.5

Power Kw 330

Rotation speed rpm 3

RSP Dia m 3.050

Gas residential time s 1.8 1.6 2.9

Heat consumption kcallkg 795 805 767

FUEL oil coal coal mixture

LHV kcallkg 9600 4800-5300 4900

VM % 15-25 23

Ashes 540 28-34 35-40

Fineness 70 11.5(1 OOmu) 18(90 mu)

Sulfur ?fO 1.8-2 2

Combustion % 96-97 96
efficiency

Figure 6C

21
 fVIFC PRECALCINER

FLOWSHEET OF MITSUBISHI FLU I DISED CALCINER SYSTEM

—.
.
a) Overflow b) Carry Over

. .

T
/?

EEa
1Q) I PrcciDitator
I 01 fluidization blower ~
I

Vll !3

,,

r
* > (7) Waste ~S duct

(8) Secondary
-w f
air
(From clinker ccdcr)
inlet
1 r YI
=(6) Raw
inlet

fluid bed calcalcincr

s(4) Fluidizea

(5) Burners

ation air inkt

(3) Air chamber (From clinker cooler)
+
(2) Fluidization nazzles 22
gases through the bed and into the kiln back end chamber from which it is carried to the
lowest stage cyclone of the preheater where it is separated and fed to the kiln.

Hot air from the cooler is utilised in the fluidised calciner, part being diluted with cold
air to a temperature of 350°C and used to fluidise the contents of the vessel via
fluidisation nozzles in the base. The remainder having a temperature of 500-600°C is
used as secondary air. Effective calcination of the raw meal is achieved using the
additional heat from fuel directly injected into the fluidised bed. One of the main
features claimed for the MFC is the stability of the calcining operation due to the
uniform temperature distribution, usually ~lO°C throughout the bed.

The fuel used in the MFC may be oil or coal or a variety of waste and low grade fuels,
in the case of coal it is claimed that relatively coarse particles can be completely burnt
due to the long retention time on the bed.

The earlier MFC was superseded by the N-MFC during the early 1980’s Figure 7B. The
fluidised bed was redesigned and installed at Higashidani No. 1 kiln and operating data
is shown for this kiln.

The N-MFC has an extended Precalciner body with, in the case of Higashidani, a loading
of approximately 10.9 TPD/m3. This redesign is an attempt to overcome some of the
problems associated with the earlier MFC. In the early fluidised bed design, the control
of the pressure drop across the bed is critical and overfilling of the bed must be
avoided. Whilst overfilling can be protected against by having overflow facilities, this
increases the risk of under-prepared meal entering the kiln. Although the N-MFC
precalciner vessel is extended, it is not certain how much of this additional volume
contributes to the meal residence time. However, this system is claimed to give a high
meal residence time of around 6 seconds. In general terms, the N-MFC system is seen
as a more complex design which does not have the advantages of simplicity of control
compared with other precalciner systems.

23
 FIGURE-7B V/aste gas &
aw material
tR

N-MFC PRECALCINER

Cooler
extraction
Raw
meal
Coal
,$

Fluidized
bed

mwlnedfaadllm

(1412Udl
Cabificvaluedal (N@
6260kaUkgbk#n
5,760Iu#lq iorIritn
-245 nwnA4
SP-IDF
96.1%NrnJ/h
,/\/l1622w -170-

U
M 63.1dNrnJI / 33910 NnWh

N-k. -,,,

Cal
-----
3.15un
‘“w’ ‘3——
Illustration shows the operating conditions of Higashidani kiln No. 1,
24
5. AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF THE PRECALCINER VESSEL

The stability of the Precalciner process is dependent upon the automatic control loops
which adjust the fuel input. The purpose of these loops is as follows:

(i) To maintain constant operating temperature conditions to ensure an even

degree of meal decarbonation.

(ii) To avoid temperature variations induced by changes in the kiln feed rate
and variations in the clinker cooler operation.

(iii) To ensure complete combustion of the fuel.

The most important control loop is the automatic control of the fuel input according to
the precalciner exit gas temperature. For this loop to be stable, it is essential that
there are adequate excess air levels in the precalciner vessel. If incomplete combustion
took place, the exit gas temperature could be low due to Carbon Monoxide production.

A dangerous situation could arise if the falling exit gas temperature automatically
resulted in more fuel being added without sufficient combustion air. Hence, the need
to protect the system against incomplete combustion and incorporate CO alarms and
trip limits within the control system.

Changes in the Tertiary air temperature leaving the cooler will also affect the heat
input to the precalciner. Similarly, as the feed rate to the kiln is increased, this would
initially tend to reduce the precalciner exit gas temperature until the fuel rate
increases automatically to compensate. It is possible to compensate for both these
changes in the control philosophy. However, in general terms, the latter control actions
may only contribute approximately 10% of the total control action. Hence, the most
important loop, with approximately 90% contribution, is the fuel input/exit temperature
control.

Some precalciner kiln systems have based their control philosophy on control of the
meal temperature, leaving the following cyclone stage (i.e. Stage 5 in a 5 stage
preheater). However, this approach is not recommended for the following reasons:

a) The meal temperature may be affected by hot gas short circuiting from
the kiln back end. The risk of this increases at low feed rates or if the
flap valves do not function properly.

b) If poor gas/meal dispersion arises, the meal temperature my be reduced

by mixing with some cooler meal which has dropped through from an
upper stage. Here again, this is more likely at low kiln feed rates when
the gas velocities are lower than normal.

25
6. FACTORS AFFECTING THE OUTPUT OF A-S PRECALCINER KILN SYSTEMS

6.1 General Considerations

It is important to appreciate that a complete A-S precalciner kiln system consists of

several process units which, together, dictate the overall performance which can be
achieved. Although similar kiln designs may be used at different plants, their age and
design requirements may dictate that different limits apply. This is illustrated by the
A-S Precalciner kiln plants at Cauldon and Cemento Melon. Both plants feature single
stream FLS. In Line Calciner (ILC) designs of a similar period:-

6.2 Commrison of FLS Precalciner Kiln Svsterns at Cauldon and Cemento Melon

Works Cauldon Cemento Melon

Kiln No:- 1 9

Date commissioned 1985 1982

Kiln peak daily

output TPD 3100 1850 (stable)

1900 (absolute max)

Kiln shell size 3.95 X 58 3.6 X 49

Kiln shell surface

area inside lining
(M2) 646.9 492.6

Kiln shell loading

based on peak daily
output 4.81 3.86 max

26
Hence the above kiln shell loadings suggest that the Cauldon kiln is achieving
higher loadings than the Cemento Melon kiln. However, this simple approach
overlooks other key process limitations. For example, comparing the Precalciner
vessel loadings shows the following:-

Cauldon Cemento Melon

Precalciner Vessel
Effective volume (M3) 535 190

Precalciner loadin
(TPD clinker/(M f )) 5.81 10.0 max

Gas residence time in

seconds in Precalciner 2.44 1.64

Stage 4 meal - %
decarbonation 93 85

Hence, the Cemento Melon Precalciner vessel is very heavily loaded and does
well to achieve an 85% decarbonation level with a gas residue time of only 1.64
seconds.

Further comparison of the clinker cooler and preheater cyclone loadings shows
the follows:-

Cauldon Cemento Melon

Clinker Cooler
grate area (M2) 74 37.9

Cooler Loading
(TPD clinker/M2) 42.0 50.1 max

Cyclone Stage 2-4

loading (TPD
clinker/M2) 87.1 86.4

The preheater cyclone loadings are high at both plants and this is shown up by
the high preheater pressure losses measured during site surveys:-

Cauldon = 897 rnmwg at 3075 TPD

Cemento Melon = 842 mmwg at 1817 TPD

27
The Cemento Melon clinker cooler is very heavily loaded at 50.1 TPD/M 2 . Despite this
very high loading, the kiln system achieves a high run factor of 95°A and the cooler
efficiency is good at 68%. Other plant limitation with Cemento Melon No. 9 kiln
include the following:-

(a) The Preheater and Electrostatic precipitator f am are heavily overloaded

(the preheater fan runs at 27% over its normal installed power).

(b) Cemento Melon raw materials feature high alkali and sulphur levels and
the preheater system is prone to very heavy build-ups.

(c) The gas circuit system is heavily loaded, but has been uprated by means
of sonic water sprays in the Gas Conditioning Tower.

(d) The kiln feed system etc is operating at its maximum limit. Hence, if we
are seeking to establish realistic output targets for both plants, it would
be unwise to consider the kiln shell loading alone! For example, a simple
summary of the main output limitations would be:-

Cauldon - The high kiln shell loading is partially compensated for by the
generously sized precalciner vessel. Due to the small kiln inlet area,
operation with high kiln excess air levels will tend to increase dust pick
and recirculation around the kiln hearth. Hence improvements to the kiln
burner operation to allow reduced excess air levels without high CO levels
proved beneficial to achieving the maximum kiln output.

Cemento Melon - The very tightly sized precalciner vessel is partially

compensated by the reasonably well sized kiln shell. However, although
the kiln shell target rating is 2150-2265 TPD, this output cannot be
achieved without some major changes, i.e.

(a) Replace/uprate the preheater and electrostatic precipitator (ESP) f am.

(b) Extend the precalciner vessel and modify the Tertiary air duct entry into
the riser duct.

(c) Uprate the kiln feed weigher and replace the airlift by a bucket elevator
to reduce the specific gas volume per kg clinker leaving the preheater by
4%.

(d) Modify the preheater cyclones to avoid excessive gas pressure losses and
higher inleaking air levels over the preheater.

(e) Uprate the main ESP to avoid high dust emissions.

(f) Uprate the clinker cooler using latest cooler technology.

(g) Uprate the ancillary plant e.g. raw milling, coal milling, etc.

28
Hence, the kiln shell limitation is of secondary importance and significance to the above
major plant limitations. As described in the following section, it is proposed to rate
precalciner kiln plants on the basis of the following unit ratings:-

kiln shell
precalciner vessel
-.
preheater cyclone
Clinker cooler (see relevant CTC papers for further details).

7. BCI OUTPUT RATINGS FOR PRECALCINER KILNS

7.1 Introduction

This section considers the target kiln ratings for A-S and AT Precalciner kilns. As
demonstrated earlier, the achievable output from a Precalciner kiln is dependent upon
many factors. In this section, we shall first examine the output targets for the kiln
shell and later consider the Precalciner vessel rating.

It should be appreciated that these ratings are not independent variables. Hence a kiln
operating with a very high Precalciner vessel loading, is likely to achieve a lower level
of decarbonation (e.g. Cemento Melon No. 9 kiln with 85% decarbonation instead of a
target 92% decarbonation) in the meal entering the kiln. Hence, the kiln is less likely
to achieve the maximum kiln shell target rating as it has to do more work on completing
the meal decarbonation.

7.2 Kiln Shell Outmut Ratirms - Air se~arate Precalciner Kilns

The conventional BCI kiln shell rating is based upon the kiln surface area inside the
lining (i.e. kiln shell diameter less 0.4m for refractory) and is as follows:

Air separate precalciner (A-S) = 4.6 TPD/m2

There are several limitations with usin a single rating based upon the kiln shell surface
area, i.e. (i) the rating of 4.6 TPD/m % for A-S systems is exceeded by several kilns
including Rawang, Kanthan and Cauldon. This rating is very cautious for kilns above 4m
shell diameter.

Table 1 and Figure 8 show the relationship between the kiln shell rating (TPD clinker/m2
versus kiln shell diameter (inside steel in this case).

29
 TABLE 1

AIR-SEPARATE PRECALCINER KILN RATINGS-1

Kiln Shell Kiln Shell Kiln Shell Kiln Shall

works TPD Clinker Kiln Diameter Kiln Length Kiln tJD Surface Area Surface Rating Internal Volume Volume Rating
-Kiln No PC Tym ~e* ~ ~ !@@ UB [m2] I!?Q!EU l/B (m3] TPDIM3

Rawang No.3 NSF 5070 4.7 74 17.21 999.7 5.07 1074.6 4.72
Kedah No.1 NSF 5000 4.7 74 17.21 999.7 5.00 1074.6 4.65
Cauldon ILC 3110 3.95 58 16.34 646.0 4.8f 574.1 5.42
Kanthan No.3 PYROCLON 3350 4.2 57 15.00 680.5 4.92 646,4 5.18
Melon No.9 ILC 1900 3.6 49 15.31 492.6 3.86 394.1 402
/%albor&Rordal SLGS 5500 4.75 74 17,01 1011.3 5.44 1099.8 5.00
Tonasa-Sulawesi SLC-S 7500 5.5 87 17.06 1393.9 5.38 1777.3 4.22
Hoang Thach SLC-S 3300 4.15 64 17.07 754.0 4.38 706.9 467
Siarn-Tabkwan~No.5 SLC 9000 6.0 96 17,14 1688.9 5.33 2364.5 3.81
Siam-Khao Wong SLC 10000 6.0 106 18.93 1864.8 5.36 2610.8 3.83
Gujamt SLC 6000 4.75 75 17.24 1024.9 5.85 1114.6 538
Siam-Tabfa 2 SLC 5500 5.0 80 17.39 1156.1 4.76 1329.5 4.14
Adelaide Brighton SLC 4150 4.57 67 10.07 877.7 4.73 915.0 4.54
Sikka SLC 2300 3.75 75 22.39 789.3 2.91 661.1 348
Ibuki NSF 3045 3.8 79 23.24 843.8 3.81 717.3 4.25
Tochlgi NSF 2640 3.5 66 21.29 842.8 4.4i 498.1 530
Akoh No.2 SF 7600 5.6 94 18.08 1535.6 4.95 1996.3 3.81
Chlchibu No.1 CSF 2400 3.9 54.8 15.66 602.6 3.%8 527.2 4.55
Hachlnode Scs 4500 4.7 75 17.44 1013.2 4.44 1089.2 413
Akoh No.1 Scs 5000 4.7 81 10.84 1094.2 4.57 1176.3 4.25
Gifu KSV 2724 4.1 60 18.22 697.4 3.$1 645.1 4.22
Isa KSV 9900 6.2 105 lB,IO 1913.2 5.17 2774.2 3.57
Saitama DD 5500 5.0 83.1 l&07 1200.9 4.58 1381.0 3.98
Kawara MFC 7200 5.4 95 10.00 1492.3 4.82 1865.3 3.86
Railton PYROCLON 3000 4.0 58 lB.11 056,0 4.57 590.4 5.08
Sangwon PYROCLON 3300 4.8 52 11.82 718.8 4.50 790.7 4.17
RudersdorfN0,5 PYROCLON 5000 5.2 61 12.71 919.9 5.44 1103,8 4.53
Perils PYROCLON 2700 4.0 56 15.56 833,3 4.26 570.0 4.74
Spenner PYROCLON 2136 4.08 40 10.86 462,7 4.62 425.9 5.02
Gtasim PREPOL 3300 4.4 65 15.25 816,8 4.04 816.8 4.04
Merone PREPOL 2510 4.0 54 1:5,00 610.7 4.i’t 549.7 4.57
Danyang PREPOL-CC 6000 5.2 78 113.25 1176.2 5.10 1411.5 4.25
Tong Yang PREPOL-CC 7200 5.6 87 lm73 1421.3 5.07 1847.6 3.90
TPI Saraburi PREPOL-CC 7500 5.6 87 10.73 1421.3 5.28 1847.6 4.06
Lexos CLE-RSP 2400 3.6 60.75 21.80 701.2 3.42 561.0 4,28
 EiQL!BE_B
.—..
—
_——. ——
———
—.
~! KILN SHELL TPD/M2 VERSUS DIAMETER1
71m

TPD/M2=2.6+0.556* Diameter

/
5

:B
❑
❑
❑
4 ❑

El

—A— —
3
3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75 5.25 5.75 6.25 6.75

d
Kiln Shell Diameter (1/S) m

__—. — __— —— _. —.——————

-——
The following should be noted:

(i) Several of the kilns listed exceed the rating of 4.6 TPD/m2. The larger diameter
kilns tend to have the highest shell ratings.

(ii) Plant suppliers tend to size the kiln shell on a volumetric basis (i.e. TPD/m3 of
internal volume inside refractory). Hence, the larger kilns tend to be designed
with a higher shell surface area rating.

(iii) Kilns such as the KHD Pyrorapid design use a short kiln concept with a typical
length/diameter ratio of 10-13. These kilns tend to have high shell loadi~gs, i.e.
RudersdorfNo.5 = 5.44 TPD/m2

The Hualien No.3 kiln (5.0x 55m) with an output of 5300 TPD peak has achieved
a shell loading of 6.67 TPD/m2. This is the highest known shell loading. Such
high figures tend to imply that kiln shell heat transfer limitations may not be the
most important factor affecting AS kiln outputs and gas velocity limits must also
be considered.

Whilst the short kiln concept can achieve very high shell loadings, it would be
unwise to apply the above ratings on conventional A-S Precalciner Kilns with an
LID ratio of 15-18. The short kiln concept can have some limitations when used
with materials with dficuh combinability characteristics. Build ups and high kiln
exit temperatures can also be problem areas.

(iv) Hence, for conventional A-S Precalciner Kilns, a simplified relationship could be
used which relates the kiln output to kiln diameter, i.e.

Kiln Shell Output rating :

TPD/m2 = 2.6 + 0.556 D

Where D = kiln diameter inside steel

TPD/m2 = Rating applied to the kiln surface area inside refractory.

(v) There are some limitations with applying the above output ratings:

a) Whh small diameter kilns, the effect of kiln coating upon the total sutiace
area for heat transfer will be more pronounced than on a larger kiln.

b) If the plant suppliers design the kiln shells on a volumetric loading basis,
the smaller dhmeter kilns may not have been “pushed” to their maximum
output potential. Hence, the limits on kiln output may be dictated by
ancillary plant limits (see example of Cemento Melon No.9 Kiln
comparison in Section 6.2)

32
 c) There is a risk with using a single rating factor such as 4.6 TPD/m2 for all
kiln sizes when larger kilns can clearly exceed this rating. Similarly, this
target rating may not be achievable with smaller diameter kilns due to
coating, as mentioned above.

(vi) The higher the kiln shell rating achieved by a kilm the greater the risk is of the kiln
being limited by gas velocity constraints on the kiln hearth. This aspect is
reviewed in Section 7.4 and it has a bearing on the higher loadings achieved by
larger diameter kilns.

(vii) Hence in summary, it is recommended that both of the above rating figures should
be compared for a given kiln system. The kiln shell ratings should then be
compared with the ratings for the precalciner vessel, the preheater and clinker
cooler before setting any targets.

For small diameter kilns (i.e. 3.6 to 4.Om inside shell diameter), beware of using
both the formula and 4.6 TPD/m2 if the kiln has heavy coating characteristics. In
additio~ check the kiln hearth area and gas velocity limitations as discussed in
Section 7.4.

For kilns above 4.Om diameter inside shell, the “safe” loading is 4.6 TPD/m2.
However, this will give an underestimate of the potential kiln capacity as given by
the formula. Hence the formula will tend to set a maximum figure for the kiln
shell rating.

7.3 Kiln Shell Outwt Ratinm - Air Through Precalciner Kilns

Table 2 and Figure 9 summarise the output and kiln dimensions of several FLS and Polysius A.T.
systems. The following points are noted:

(i) The A.T. output ratings are generally lower than the equivalent A-S kiln shell
ratings for a similar sized kiln.

(ii) Here agai~ the highest shell loadings tend to be achieved by the larger diameter
kilns which reflects the plant suppliers tendency to size on kiln internal volume and
not kiln internal surface area.

(iii) The highest rating is achieved by Ssang Yong Cement Donghae plant at 3.98
TPD/m2 for a 5.2m diameter kiln.

(iv) The Table does not indicate other plant limitations such as preheater size, clinker
cooler size, ancillary plant sizing, etc.

33
 IAIBLE-2

I AIR-THROUGH PRECALG,AER KILN RATII=

Kiln Shell Kiln Shen Kiln Sheii Kiin Sheii

works TPD Clinker Kiln Diameter Kiln Length Kiln LID SurfaceArea Surface Rating intemai Voium~ Voiume Rating
Kih!!kL ec TvRe &* m ❑ IeJ2!! !/B (m3] Ifww

El Atto ILC-E 3500 5,25 86 17.73 1310.4 2.67 1588.8 220

Setubal ILC-E 3500 5.25 83 17.11 1264.8 2,77 1533.4 2.28
Pedro Leopoldo ILC-E 2000 5.25 83 17.11 1264.6 2.29 1533.4 1.89
Zapotlitic iLC-E 2500 4.75 75 17.24 1024.9 2.44 1114.6 224
Castiilejo de Anover ILC-E 2200 4.55 69 16.83 899.6 2.45 933.3 2.36
Merida iLC-E 2200 4.55 68 16.39 886,6 2.48 919.8 2.39
Limerick ILC-E 2100 4,75 17.24 1024.0 2.05 1114.6 1.88
Guangzhou ILC-E 2000 4.55 ;: 17.11 925.7 2.16 960.4 2.08
Pioneer ILC-E 2000 4.35 16.96 831.4 2.41 821.0 2.44
Rlo Bijao iLC-E 2000 4.55 :: 16.38 880.6 2.26 919.8 2.17
La Ccmronne PREPOL-AT 3000 4.6 75 17.86 989.6 3.03 1039.1 2.89
Beocin PREPOL-AT 3000 4.8 60 13,84 820.4 3.62 012.3 3.29
Hanll PREPOL-AT 3000 4.8 60 13.64 829.4 3.82 912.3 3.29
Atien PREPOL-AT 2200 4.0 65 18.06 735.1 2.99 681.6 3.33
Dartca PREPOL-AT 3000 4,8 70 16.67 623.6 3,25 069.8 3.09
SSang Yon*Seoui PREPOL-AT 4200 5.2 70 14.58 1055.6 3.08 1266.7 3.32
Partizan PREPOL-AT 3200 4.6 16.67 923.0 3.48 969.8 3.30
Sllte PREPOL-AT 4700 5.2 i% 16.67 1206.4 3.00 1447.6 325
Tabligbo PREPOL-AT 2400 4.8 85 19.32 1175.0 2.04 1292.5 1.86
Dodam PREPOL-AT 3000 4.8 60 13.64 829.4 3.62 912.3 3.29
Luong PREPOL-AT 3000 4.8 60 13,64 829.4 3.82 9123 3.29
Recife PREPOL-AT 1500 4.0 60 10.67 878.6 2.21 610.7 2.46
Palmeiras de Golas PREPOL-AT 800 3,6 16.88 542.9 4.47 434.3 1.84
Monay PREPOL-AT 1800 4.2 : ‘ 17.11 776.0 2.32 737.2 2.44
SSang Yong-Donghae PREPOL-AT 4200 5.2 70 14.58 1055.6 3;98 1266.7 3.32
Souseias PREPOL-AT 3500 5.0 75 16.30 1083.8 3.23 1246.4 2.81
Loma Negra-Catamarca PREPOL-AT 1600 4.4 70 17.50 870.6. 1.82 8706 182
Balconea PREPOL-AT 2500 4.0 74 17.62 070.4 2.56 10252 244
Cantagalo PREPOL-AT 1500 4.0 60 16.67 678.6 2.21 610.7 2.40
Onaba PREPOL-AT 2400 4.4 65 16.25 810.8 2.94 816.8 2.94
LlchtenburgNo 6 (Phase 1) PREPOL-AT 1300 4,2 63 16,58 752.1 1.73 714.5 182
Pedro Leopoldo PREPOL-AT 2200 4,4 65 16.25 816.8 2.69 816.8 2.69
Perkasa PREPOL-AT 4750 5.4 78 15.60 1225.2 3.88 1531.5 310
Jura-Wlldegg PREPOL-AT 1800 3.8 56 16.47 598.2 3.01 508.4 354
Safi PREPOL-AT 4.2 60 15.79 716.3 2.23 680.5 2.35

L-A-l
4=
 u)
\
\
m
Ui
1/)1
131 \\
u)
K I ‘\
\
■
99
\
\
99
\
\ m
\
❑ ■
\
m
m
35
 (v) The approximate relationship between kiln output rating and kiln diameter
is as follows:

Kiln shell output rating:

TPD/m2 = 0.9 + 0.556D

Where D = Kiln diameter inside steel

TPD/mz = Rating applied to the kiln surface area inside the

refractory.

(vi) The equivalent BCI rating based upon a fixed factor would be
approximately 3.5 TPD/m2 for kilns in the mid size range of around 4.7m
diameter.

(vii) As in the case of the A-S systems, both of these ratings have limitations
and caution should be exercised when applying them to small and large
diameter kilns.

(viii) Gas velocities at the kiln hearth will have a greater influence on the
perf orrnance of AT Precalciner Kilns. This is due to the higher specific
gasflow at the kiln inlet due to the need to run with higher kiln excess air
levels. This aspect is reviewed next.

(ix) A further ef feet of operation with high excess air levels, is the reduction
of the flame temperature and hence the rate of heat transfer in the
burning zone. This limits the maximum output rating of AT systems.

7.4 Kiln Hearth Gas Velocitv Considerations

In the conventional Preheater kiln process, the gas velocity at the Kiln Hearth often
represents a major limitation to increased output. Higher gas velocities at the hearth
tend to result in increased dust pick up and recirculation around the lower cyclone
stages. In addition, preheater gas temperatures can increase as the dust carries
additional heat into the preheater system.

Normally, gas velocities at the kiln hearth are less of a limiting factor in the A-S
Precalciner kiln system due to the reduced fuel burned (40% of total) in the kiln.
However, the comparison of the Cauldon and Cemento Melon kilns, in Section 5.2,
indicated that the Cauldon kiln output can be limited by high gas velocities at the
hearth. In certain cases (e.g. Lichtenburg No.6 and Rawang No.3 kilns), there has been
a tendency to run the kiln hearth at higher gas velocities in order to ensure adequate
meal pick up in the riser ducts, etc. However, this method of operation can limit the
maximum output and cause higher gas pressure losses.

36
There is no fixed limit to the gas velocity at the kiln hearth. The critical velocity will depend upon
several factors, including

Kiln hearth design - e.g. chute and down pipe angles and the transition from
downpipe to hearth and hence kiln shell.

Raw meal fineness and gas temperatures profile.

Degree of buildup present, kiln volatile cycles and cleaning facilities available.

As a guideline, kiln hearth gas velocities in the region of 25-30 m/s are critical to the degree of
dust recirculation.

It is worth looking at the area of the hearth in relation to the kiln diameter by comparing the data
for the Cauldo~ Cemento Melo% Kanthan and Rawang Kilns. This is shown in Table 3 and
Figure 10.

At peak outputs the gas velocities are approaching 30 m/s at Cauldon. The Rawang kiln has the
largest availableflow area in relation to the kiln cross sectional area. However, this kiln tends to
operate at higher back end oxygen levels and a non typical kiln/precalciner fiel split, which
complicates direct comparison. Minimizingthe kiln hearth velocity is a critical area if the Cauldon
kiln output is to be maximised. Kiln capacity was increased to 3100 TPD after improving the fine
coal conveying system to the kiln to achieve adequate pickup velocity. Running with lower kiln ~
excess air levels was then possible without high CO levels. This in turn helped to minimise hearth
velocities and maximise output.

For rating purposes, with A.S. Precalciner Kilns a practical limit of 30 nds is recommended. It
is possible to operate at higher velocities thought this will tend to result in higher gas pressure
losses and higher preheater temperature profiles. The highest reported kiln hearth velocity is
around 40 nis for a preheater kiln with high recirculation around the kiln hearth. Please refer to
the CTC paper on kiln output targets concerning hearth velocities for AS and AT Precalciner
Kilns.

The above illustrates the range of kiln hearth velocities found with A-S systems. Obviously kiln
hearth velocity constraints are more relevant to the A.T. systems, which rely upon overdrafling
the kiln to provide combustion air for the precalciner fbel. Table 4 compares the output versus
gas velocity limitations for similar sized A-S and AT Precalciner Kilns

7.5 Precalciner Vessel Ratinm

Table 5 shows the sizes of Precalciner vessels used with different kiln systems. This shows
precalciner loadings within the range of 16.5 to 4.7 TPD clinker per m3 of effective Precalciner
volume. The effkctive volume is defined as the volume between the meal entry and the exit to the
next cyclone stage. The highest loaded Precalciner vessel listed in Table 5 is the R. S.P. No.3 kiln
at Omi, Japan. However, some of the effective volume data given is as reported by the plant
suppliers. This may not comply with the definition given above.

37
 1[
]TABLE3-AIR sEpARATE PRECALCINER KILNS-KILNHEARTHAREAs

CAULIXM!I l@I!41Mr!4

Kiln Diameter inside 4.7

3.6 3.95 4.2
shell at back end (m)

Cross sectional area of 11.34 14.52

8.04 9.90
Kiln inside lining (mz)

Kiln Hearth area inside 5.08

2.31 2.94 3.64
lining (m2)

Kiln Hearth area as a

percentage of the Kiln 34.98
28.72 29.70 32.10
cross sectional area (“A)

3110 3350 5070

Peak Clinker output TPD 1900

Actual gas velocity at- 30.7

22.1 29.S 28.7
Kiln Hearth (m/s)

Kiln Target Peak output 5212

2267 3103 3358
using formula (TPD)
Note:- this is Kiln Shell
Target only and ignores
other plant limits

w Output as ‘A of peak kiln

m 97.3
‘83.8 100.2 99.7
shell target rating
 FIGURE 10

Kiln Diameter and Hearth Area

6

5 .-m

,/ /“
-,/.
/“”
/
I

4 \

m’-’
3

2 1 I I 1 I

3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8

I

Kiln Diameter at Back End (l/S)-m

I

L
Kiln Hearth Area as% of Kiln C.S.Afl
J
36

/m
34
/
//”
,/”

/ ,/”
,/
,/ /
32
/m
//-’

30

28
[-----’’””””
I

3.6
1

3.95 4.2 4.7

Kiln Diameter at Back End (l/S)-m
20
 TABLE4 AIR SEPARATEAND AIR THROUGH PRECALCINER COMPARISON

Kiln Size:- 4.7m Diameter *74 m]Long Surface Area (mZ)= 999.66
Maximum Kiln Hearth Area is assumed= 6.19 m2 (minimum area is = S.08 m2 )
Assume common 720 net Kcal/Kg Clinker fuel consumption for simplicity

Precalciner AIR AIR

nm IIW!!&W PARAIE

Kiln Output Rating (TPD) 3500 5200

Fuel Split (Yo)

Kiln Fuel 65 40
Precalciner Fuel 36 60

Kiln Fuel-net Kcal/Kg Clinker 468 288

Kiln Back End % Oxygen 7 2

Kiln Back End Gas Flow

Nm3/Kg Clinker 0.934 0.434

Kiln Back End Gas Velocity

mls 31 20

NOTE: -Kiln Hearth velocity is more critical to A.T. Kiln output

Excess air levels with A.T. Kilns has adverse effect upon flame
temperature and heat transfer in burning zone.

4=
I o
 Precalciner Precalciner
Precalciner Peak Vessel Effective Vessel Loading
Kilnplan! W@Xss GIMIJQXIJ?D W~a@3) IPQ/lm3

Rawang No.3 SF 4150 350 11.9

Rawang No.3- Uprated NSF 5070 740 6.9
Kedah NSF 5000 476 10.5
Ibuki NSF 3000 580 5.2
Nanyou No.5 NSF 7100 780 9.1
Chichibu No.2 Plant K DI SF-Oil fired 5000 350 14.3
SF-Coal fired 4600 350 13.1
Edmonton SF 2575 270 9.5
Chichibu No.2 Plant CSF 5300 450 11.8
Chichibu No.1 Plant K6 CSF 2400 260 9.2
Lichtenburg No.6 PREPOL 3200 470 6.8
Dunbar PREPOL 3000 445 6.7
Isa No.2 KSV 9900 890 11.1
Higashidani N-MFC 2050 170 12.1
Omi No.3 RSP-Oil fired 3886 236 16.5
RSP-Coal fired 3849 236 16.3
Banda Aceh DD 3300 346 9.5
Kamiiso No.6 DD 3960 355 11.2
Saitama DD 5500 730 7.5
Rashadiya DD 3400 483 7.0
Kanthan No.3 PYROCLON 2700 478 5.6
Kanthan No.3- Uprated PYROCLON 3350 478 7.0
Malkhed PYROCLON 1500 320 4.7
Davenport ILC 2360 440 5.4
Tagawa-No.l ILC 4360 520 8.4
Cauldon ILC 3110 535 5.8
Melon No.9 ILC 1900 190 10.0
$= Hermosillo ILC 2760 415 6.7
Of interest is the lower ratings achieved at Omi and Chichibu No.2 plant, Kiln Dl, on the
changeover from oil to coal firing.

Whilst the effective Precalciner volume can give an indication of the gas residence time in the
Precalciner, it does not indicate the meal residence time. For example, in a fluidised bed system
such as the Mitsubishi N-MFC Precalciner, the gas residence time may be around 1-2 seconds.
However, the quoted meal residence time is higher at around 6 seconds. Similarly, in the Spouted
bed designs, the meal residence time will tend to exceed the mean gas residence time.

In the SF process such as Rawang No.3 Kilq a Precalciner loading of 11.9 TPD/m3 corresponded
to approximately 1.1 seconds gas residence time, with a decarbonation level of 75-80Y0. In this
syste~ the meal residence time will be close to the gas residence time and this high loading
contributed to the lower meal decarbonation levels achieved. Hence, the Precalciner volume
loading (TPD/m3) and gas residence time parameters are not an absolute guide to a Precalciner
vessel’s performance. Since the meal residence time will vary between the different designs, it is
obvious that certain designs will be able to achieve higher specific loadings than others.

AS a guideline to the sizing of Precalciner vessels, the following figures are recommended for new
lines and upratings:

a) Maximum design Precalciner vessel loading:

6 TPD/m3 effective volume for Extended Riser Duct type Precalciners

7 TPD/m3 effective volume for Spouted Bed type Precalciner.

b) These ratings are based upon the Peak Clinker output. They are based upon an
acceptable loading criteria.

c) Ideally, the Precalciner vessel should be more generously sized provided that this
does not result in too low a gas velocity profile and meal entrainment problems.
A minimum gas residence time of 2 seconds is recommended. This allows some
design margins for

Uprating at a later date

Possible use of low grade fhels

d) It is considered a ftdse economy to undersize the Precalciner vessel in order to

reduce capital. This can prove costly to modifi at a later date if it is planned to
uprate the kiln capacity, e.g. Rawang No.3 Kiln example.

e) The Precalciner size must be considered in conjunction with the kiln shell sizing.
A tightly sized Precalciner vessel with a tightly sized kiln shell may reduce the
capital cost but is less likely to achieve the rated output on a consistent basis.

42
The above loadings assume that the Precalciner vessel operates at a typical gas temperature of
around 870-890 average 880”C. It is possible to compensate for an undersized vessel by
increasing the operating temperature to 900°C or slightly above. However, whilst higher
operating temperatures can partly offset the effects of low gas/meal residence time, this results
in less efficient operation. The higher precalciner exit gas temperature will increase the
temperature profde across the preheater systerq leading to higher exit gas heat losses. The higher
operating temperature also increases the risk of build ups and blockages.

A grett many claims have been made for different Precalciner systems allowing operation at lower
temperature% e.g. 860”Cinstead of 880”C. In practise, too low an operating temperature reduces
the decarbonation level unless the system design allows a high meal residence time. Hence, some
of the claims for low operating temperature Precalciners have not been proven in practical
operation.

In certain cases, the lower precalciner operating temperature maybe possible if the system is
matched with an oversized kiln shell. The generously sized kiln shell can then compensate for the
lower decarbonation level leaving the Precalciner vessel. This feature has been noted with some
of the Japanese Precalciner kilns which result from conversions of Wet/Lepol processes.
Alternatively, being earlier installations, the kiln shell was generous sized as the current loadings
were not foreseen. This fbrther emphasises the need to look at the Precalciner vessel and kiln
shell loadings together and not as separate, independent parameters.

7.6 The Effect of Fuel Oualitv U~on Precalciner Performance

Much of the earlier Precalciner kiln system developments took place in Japan and many of these
earlier systems were designed primarily for oil firing. The changeover from oil to coal firing
showed up several limitations with the earlier designs i.e. inadequate residence time to allow
complete ‘burn out of the fiel. The use of lower &ades of fiel &o demonstrated the need to
increase the size of the precalciner vessel to improve gas/mea.l/fiel residence times.

43
This relationship was demonstrated by the experiences with Rawang No.3 Kiln system.
This kiln used a conventional twin S.F. precalciner vessel design by I.H.I. (see Section
3.4). The original design basis was as follows:

Clinker guaranteed output = 4000 TPD

Fuels used: Kiln - Oil

Precaiciner - Shale and oil

Precaiciner vessel effective volume = 350 m3

Precalciner loading = 4000 = 11043 TPD/m3

350

This loading was high but had been exceeded by other oil fired SF processes.

However, the Rawang process fires Shale containing wound 6% Carbon into the
precalciner vessel. This low grade fuel dictates the precalciner performance and there
were many problems with poor fuel burn out, inadequate combustion, poor ‘air/fuel
mixing, low and variable decarbonation levels, etc. Whilst designed for at least 85%
meal decarbonation, the SF system gave oniy 75% with a high degree of variability.

Kiln output was further adversely affected when the kiln firing system was coqverted
from oil to coal firing.

Figure 11 shows the Precalciner ratings of thr~’ IHI-SF processba and illustrates the
lower loading which can be achieved with lower quality fuels. This figure is a
simplification of the data and other kiln limitations did affect on the overall kiln
performance. As noted earlier, it is possible to compensate for poor precalciner ve&el
performance if a generously sized kiln shell is used, as in the case of the kilns quoted
in Figure 11.

In order to overcome the limitations affecting Rawang No.3 Kiln, as well as allow the
output to be increased to 5000 TPD, the following changes were made:

The twin SF precalciner vessels were modified using a “Trunk Duct” to give a
single precalciner vessel of 740 m3 volume. (see Figure 5)

This reduced the design precalciner loading to

5000 = 6.76 TPD/m3

740

Two new Preheater fans were installed.

Preheater modifications were made to the Stage 2-5 cyclones and four
new Stage 1 cyclones were installed.

44
 WUBE 11-THE EFFECT OF FUEL QUA~Y UPON SF PR ECALCllY~!NGs

. FLASH FURNACE LOADING (TPD CLINKERfm3 FURNACE vQL~EJ

VERSUS NETT FUEL CALORIFIC VALUE “

15

CHICHIBU 011-

14

CHICHIBU COAL
13

12

11
./ RAWANG OIL/SHALE

u a I
I
10 [ I 6 t

7 8 9 10
3 4 5 6
1 2
NETT FUEL CALORIFIC
VALUE (X 10? KCALS/KG)
 The coal firing system was converted from Direct to Indirect firing and provisions ~
were made to burn coal in the precalciner vessel.

Environmental improvements included a new Electrostatic Precipitator,

modifications to the Gas Condhioning Tower, additional Gravel Bed filter units.

The Clinker Cooler was uprated with later conversion to Coolax design.

Whilst this conversion has had some problem areas, it has been improved gradually and the kiln
is currently producing record outputs at high specific loadlngs, i.e. up to 5,200 TPD.

The Rawang uprating exercise demonstrates the following points:

(i) Iflow grade fhels are likely to be used in the process - ensure that the PreCalCiner,
vessel is generously sized.

(ii) The use of a single precalciner vessel is preferable to twin vessels in order to avoid
gas/meal/fiel mixing and balancing problems.

8. ~E “BEST” PRECALCINER KILN SYSTEM

A frequently asked question is “which is the best precalciner kiln system?” To answer this, the
“best” system available is the one which combines the following characteristics:-

(i) When selecting anew Precalciner kiln plant from several alternative tenders, the
“best” system is that which is the most economical in terms of capital cost per
tonne clinker produced. Differences between fiel and power consumption are
usually of secondary importance to rninimising investment costs. Hence, the
“best” technical solution may not be the “best” commercial solution.

(ii) The preferred system should feature the following design requirements, as
described within this paper:-

The gas and raw meal residence time must be sufficient to achieve a high
degree of meal decarbonation i.e. around 92%. A minimum gas residence
time of 2 seconds is recommended.

If the process utilises low grade fiels, then the gas residence time maybe
increased to ensure complete bum-out without CO.

46
 Avoid designs which give insufficient meal dispersion in the gas
stream due to too low a gas velocity or the lack of a dispersion
device (e.g. splash plates, gas accelerators, dispersion boxes etc).

Avoid designs which require a high operating temperature to

achieve adequate fuel burn-out (i.e. 900° plus)

(iv) The design should be of a proven reliable type - check the tenderers
experience base for similar plant references.

(v) The preheater system must use a proven cyclone design. Check the
preheater gas velocity profiles and predict cyclone pressure losses. Check
for areas of low gas velocity without dispersion devices which could allow
raw meal to bypass critical areas.

(vi) The precalciner must feature full automatic control of the precalciner
exit gas temperature. This should control the precalciner fuel input(s) and
include the features described in Section 4.

(vii) Current BCTC preference is for the Spouted Bed design instead of the
Extended Riser Duct design. The Spouted Bed design generally tends to
achieve a higher output loading due to the meal recirculation
characteristics. Notwithstanding this, the Extended Riser Duct design can
be equally effective provided attention is paid to adequate meal, gas and
fuel distribution/mixing.
(vii) Preference is given to these designs using a single precalciner vessel
instead of twin units. This is to avoid uneven fuel, gas, meal distribution
in twin stream precalciner vessels with outputs above 3,400 TPD clinker.

(ix) Evaluate the precalciner kiln process as a whole with due reference to the
BCTC output ratings described in this paper. It is considered to be a false
economy to undersize either the kiln shell of precalciner vessel size.
These can prove costly or impractical to rectify at a future date if kiln
uprating is required.

47
9. PR.ECALCINER KILN UPRATINGS - CASE STUDIES

9.1 General

The following sections describe two examples of precalciner kiln upratings carried out
in recent years. The first example; Cemento Melon No. 9 kiln, demonstrates how
uprating can be achieved, in certain cases, without high capital expenditure. This
represents one of the lowest cost kiln upratings carried out within the BCI group.

The second example, Kanthan No. 3 kiln, is a more typical example where more
extensive modifications were needed to overcome plant bottlenecks.

9.2 Low Cost Um-atinE - Cemento Melon No. 9 Kiln

No. 9 kiln was commissioned in 1982 as a 1290 TPD as a precalciner kiln with ‘a 30%
Bleed for sulphur. Commissioning of the kiln subsequently showed that the Bleed was
not required as some 45% of the sulphur was present in the form cf sulphide and was
lost in the preheater exhaust gases.

The main limitations to achieving higher clinker outputs were found to be as follows:-

(i) Inadequate raw meal conveying capacity from the blending silos to the
kiln feed weigher.

(ii) Higher outputs produced problems with high dust emissions and blockages
of the Gas Conditioning Tower (GCT).

(iii) Blockages of the Stage 4 cyclone downpipe and kiln inlet.

(iv) Poor clinker cooler performance and kiln/cooler dust recycle.

(v) Poor kiln burner flame characteristics.

To overcome these limitations, the following changes were made (see figure 12):

(i) The pneumatic conveying line between the silos and the kiln feed weigher
was uprated by removing bends, modifying pipework etc. The kiln feed
airlift was also uprated.

(ii) The spill back water spray nozzles in the GCT were replaced by Sonic
Water Sprays. This allowed the GCT exit temperature to be reduced to
around 140°C. The reduction in operating temperature has allowed the
very tightly sized electrostatic precipitator (ESP) to achieve acceptable
outlet dust emissions without the need for extensive upgrading.

48
 w
E!
f
.--— -— h
I
I
I
-J
49
f
t
 (iii) The Stage 4 cyclone downpipe was modified by removing the bend in it. Air
cannons were installed at critical areas of the kiln back end riser duct. Additional
access points were provided to improve the preheater cleaning.

(iv) An additional cooler fan was installed and the cooler quench fan was uprated. The
cooler roof was raised in order to reduce the cooler throat air velocity.

(v) The kiln burner pipe was modified to increase the flame momentum. The primary
air fan was uprated to avoid the previous unstable operating point which caused
an unsuitable flame.

These were the main areas of modifications. Minor improvements were made as and where
necessary to the ancillary plant. In addhiou there is a high motivation to “push” output at
Cemento Melon. Similarly, great emphasis has been placed upon ma.ximisingkiln run times up
to 95.8% currently (1994 annual average).

The benefits of this uprating and the other operational improvements areas follows:- ~

(a) For simplicity, it has been assumed that a common kiln run time of 95% applied
before and after. In practise this high run time has been achieved by ongoing
improvements:-

BEFORE AFTER

Clinker Peak Output (TPD) = 1,300 1,850

Clinker annual average

output at 950/0run time
and 0.95 average/peak
output ratio = 428,240 609,410

Capital cost in US$ = 418,000

Increased output TPA clinker = 181,170

Output increase = 42.3%

Capital cost per Tonne extra
clinker = 2.31 US$/tonne

It should be appreciated that the ancillary plant at Cemento Melon was reasonably well sized to
support the additional output. However, on-going improvements to the raw milling and coal
milling plant allowed these units to keep up with higher clinker outputs from No. 9 and No. 8
kilns. Hence, raw mill outputs were increased from 65 to 80 tph.

50
The capital cost per tonne for this uprating is extremely low and compares with
investments costs of around 130-170 US$/tome clinker for a similar sized new kiln line
with all ancillary plant. The uprating was possible because the key plant items were
reasonably well sized. New kiln plants which are sized on the basis of minimum
investment cost/tonne may not have a similar design margin for such large output
increases.

A more typical uprating exercise is shown in the following example.

9.3 Conventional Plant Umatin~ - Kanthan No. 3 Kiln

9.3.1 I.nlmduction

Kanthan No. 3 kiln was commissioned in 1984-5 and achieved an output of 2,500
TPD clinker. The A-S Precalciner kiln system included a Pyroclon Precalciner
of KHD d~ign. During 1990, feasibility studies were carried out which examined
how the kiln capacity could be uprated. The BCI target rating for the 4.2x 57m
kiln at this time was 3250 TPD and this was used as the basis for the Tender
enquiry. The Tender enquiry specified the areas of the kiln system where
modifications were required to improve output/fuel consumption. Surveys of the
kiln system were carried out by APMC/BCI and the following limitations were
noted:-

9.3.2 Preconversion - Plant Limitations

(i) Kiln operation - the poor performance of the kiln enlarged hood and
tertiary air duct system resulted in the duct being partially blocked. This
meant that the kiln had to operate with higher excess air levels to provide
combustion air in the precalciner. Thus, the kiln was operating between
A-S and AT modes of operation. For maximum output, it was essential
to achieve full Air Separate Precalciner operation.

(ii) The preheater pressure drop survey showed the following:-

There was a high gas pressure loss over the duct from the Stage 1
cyclones to the preheater fan.

The pressure loss here was around 8.5 mbar (87 mmwg) compared
with an expected 3 to 4 mbar.

The pressure loss over the Precalciner (Pyroclon) exit and Stage 4
cyclone inlet was comparatively high.

51
 Inleaking air levels over the preheater system, as indicated by the
gas oxygen content was comparatively low. However, the kiln exit
oxygen was high (5%). Due to the Tertiary air duct problems, the
kiln had to be run with higher excess air levels to provide
combustion air to the precalciner.

The total gas pressure losses over the Stage 1 cyclone and Stage
2 cyclone outlet was high and would increase rapidly if output was
increased.

(iii) Other plant bottlenecks included the following areas:-

Clinker cooler fan capacity.

Cooler exhaust system - Gravel Bed Filter size.
Raw milling capacity.
Gas Conditioning Tower and Main Electrostatic precipitator
capacity.

These areas were investigated and provisions were made for their uprating
within the overall uprating proposals.

9.3.3. Kiln Uprating Modifications

(i)

To overcome the Tertiary air duct problems, a new dedusting system was
installed. This allowed the clinker dust to be settled out before entering
the Tertiary air duct.

(ii) The preheater was modified as follows:

Sta~e 1 cyclones - Two new 5.Om diameter Low Pressure drop cyclones
of KHD design were installed. These replaced the existing twin 4.4m
diarnetw cyclones of conventional design.

Duct to Preheater Fan

A new preheater of 2250 kw replaced the existing 1400 kw fan. To avoid

high gas pressure losses, new ductwork was installed between the Stage
1 cyclones and the fan. The new fan was also located at ground level
instead of in the tower smcture. This allowed a smoother ductwork
arrangement into and out of the new fan and avoided the high pressure
losses previously found.

Staize 4 Cvclone

The upper part of the Stage 4 cyclone was removed and an enlarged new
section was installed. This converted the cyclone to a low pressure drop
design with a sloping inlet shelf.

52
 Previously the area where the Pyrochm precaiciner duct joined Stage 4
inlet was prone to build ups and this resulted in the higher gas pressure
losses. By modifying the Pyroclon duct to marry the Stage 4 sloping inlet
shelf, it was possible to reduce the gas pressure losses.

Kiln Back End Riser

The tertiary air duct used to enter the kiln back end riser duct after a
series of bends. This was modified to ailow a smoother gas entry.

Other Modifications

New segmented Vortex finders were fitted together with other

modifications to permit the new equipment to be installed.

The above modifications are illustrated in Figures 13-15.

9.3.4 Technical Evaluation of Uprating Proposals

The proposals for uprating the plant were evaluated using the f ollowing approach:

(a) Heat balances were constructed for the before and after conditions.

(b) Cyclone pressure drop and gas velocities are predicted from (a) for the
following cases:

existing cyclone data

modified cyclone data

(c) The preheater fan capacity was checked with allowances for the
following:

Higher gas voiumes resulting from less efficient kiln operation

Allowances for preheater and riser duct build ups

These checks r~ulted in the preheater fan size being increased from 2100
to 2250 kw.

53
 FIGURE 13 KANTHAN PREHEATER MODIFICATIONS
HIGHLIGHTED AREAS SHOWN BOLD DENOTE CHANGESTO ORIGINAL PREHEATERARRANGEMENT

..

I I I
I
I

\
1 t i
+’+ r ,

I I
I n --1 --Y

I \
I JI dldtl

R
t I t
1.1 1,1 I , I

:
.W 1 , ! , 1

54
 TERTIARY AIR DEmJSTiNG MODIFICATIONS
-.

-----
(

+
I
I
I

TERTLARY AIR

55
 FIGURE 15 KANTHAN NO 03 KILN-RISER DUCT MODIFICATIONS
STAGE 3 STAGE 3
HEAL HEAL

> I 4 I

BE I
\ \

Bll
GAS
r I
1.1u
I

I \L II I l\ 1 a

{I’: I Ill\’. I II { ffi I

BUI;D UP TERTIARY
OF tlATERIAL AIR

1 I
1

ORIGINAL OESIGN INITIAL REDESIGN FINAL DESIGN

HIGH PRESSURELOSS OF TERTIARY AIR TERTIARY AIR ENTERS ABOVE

DUE TO BENOS ENTRY TO RISER STAGE 3 IIEAL LEVEL
56
 (d) It was essential that the kiln could achieve the uprated capacity even if the process
did not achieve its guaranteed fiel consumption i.e.

Fuel consumption by heat balance for

No.3 Kiln prior to conversion = 789 net kcal/kg clinker

Guaranteed fiel consumption for

conversion (maximum) = 755 net kcal/kg clinker

Hence the cyclone sizing gas velocities and pressure losses were checked for 789
rather than 755 net kcallkg clinker.

(e) The Tenderer proposed to extend the Pyroclon precalciner by 11 metres.

However, this proposal was rejected by APMCIBCTC on the following grounds:

The existing precalciner volume was adequately sized according to BCTC

ratings.

It involved additional costs and was not practical from civil engineering
considerations.

(0 APMC/13CTC checked the proposals for modi@ing the kiln back-end riser duct
and tertiary air. It was noted that there was a risk of Stage 3 material short
circuiting into the Tertiary air duct at low kiln tonnage. Hence, it was agreed to
modifi the design of this area as shown in Figure 15 (see final design).

(d Several other proposals for uprating the cooler and cooler exhaust system were
rejected on the grounds of cost, of unproven design or as non-essential. It is
essential to minimisekiln conversion costs to the minimurn essential requirements.
All too oflen costs are escalated to include items which are desirable, but are not
essential to the uprating requirements. Tenders should be critically reviewed in
order to establish the essential and non-essential items.

9.3.5 Results Obtained from Kanthan No. 3 Kiln Upgrading

Following commissioning and optimisationwork No. 3 kiln has achieved peak outputs of around
3370 TPD compared with APMC/BCI expectation of 3250 TPD peak output. A comparison of
the preheater operating conditions and gas pressure losses is shown in Table 6. This shows that
the overall pressure drop was 97 mbar at 3370 TPD.

57
 393 97 374
Stage 1 cyclone exit 69

631 80.4 557

Stage 2 cyclone exit 50

768 54 728
Stage 3 cyclone exit 40

888 33.5 900

Slage 4 cyclone exit 28

10.2 15.2
Stage 4 cyclone inlet

19 16.6
Pressure loss across Stage 1 26.4
Pressure loss across Stage 2 10
12 20.5
Pressure loss across Stage 3
17.8 18.3
Pressure loss across Stage 4
10.2 15.2
Pressure loss across KilnlPrecalciner
69 97
Total

2500 3370
CLINKER OUTPUT (TPD)

ul
03
Prior to conversion, the overall preheater pressure drop was around 69 mbar at 2500
TPD. If the preheater had not been modified, the pressure 10SS would have increased
significantly as the gas velocities approached 30-32 m/s. The predicted gas pressure
loss at 3370 TPD would have been at least 115 mbar. Hence, the preheater
modifications saved at least:-

Minimum savings = 115-97 = 18 mbar pressure loss.

If the kiln had continued to operate with partial Air Through operation, the pressure loss
at 3370 TPD would have been higher due to higher dust recirculation at the kiln hearth,
etc. In this case, the overall losses may have risen to around 121 mbar making the
savings worth:-

Maximurn savings = 121-97 = 24 mbar pressure loss.

Operating the preheater at high pressure losses of around 121 mbar would have resulted
in higher inleaking air and higher power costs.

9.4 Conclusions Drawn From Recent Precalciner Kiln Urratin~ Exercises

The following is a summary of some of the conclusions which can be drawn from these
and other Precalciner uprating exercises:-

(i) Always carry out accurate surveys of the existing plant performance
before considering modifying the system. The surveys should include the
following:-

Full preheater/precalciner swey including gas temperatures,

pressures, oxygen, CO and C02 analyses, meal temperatures and
loss on ignition results to estimate decarbonation and dust recycle
levels.

(ii) Construct accurate heat balances for the present and likely uprated cases.
Take realistic targets for any improvements made to, say, clinker cooler
efficiency by modernizing the cooler design.

(iii) Identify those areas of the preheater, which will give the most benefits.
As in the case of Kanthan No. 3 kiln, these may include some “untypical”
areas, such as the precalciner exit duct and the ductwork between the
Stage 1 cyclones and the preheater fan.

(iv) Check gas pressure losses at the inlet and outlet of each cyclone stage.

(v) Do not accept, at f ace value, that Tenderers proposals will automatically
produce the savings claimed. Check these independently and consult
BCTC for advice.

59
 (vi) Avoid unproven cyclone design modifications which risk poor collection
efficiencies, etc. The Tender evaluation process should examine
parameters such as:-

The ratios of the cyclone inlet and outlet g= ~e~ comp~ed with,
the cyclone body areas.

Gas velocity profiles into and out of each cyclone stage.

Inlet duct design e.g. degree of wrap around and shelf design
(sloping or horizontal).

Depth of vortex finder compared with inlet duct depth.

Meal downpipe sizes and loadings.

Reference lists of similar installations.

(vii) Allowance should be made in the design of the cyclones and fans for less
efficient operation such as:-

Higher than expected fuel consumption.

Higher gas pressure losses due to build-up.

Remember that the uprated kiln has to operate under adverse, as well as
theoretical, efficiencies.

(viii) Avoid modifications which are desirable, costly and non-essential. Avoid
designing to the “wish list”. Subject desirable items to a financial analysis
which examines their justification on an incremental benefit basis.

(ix) Always examine the low cost approach to uprating f irst before considering
full phmt uprating schemes. Exampl= such as Cemento Melon No. 9 kiln
and Aberthaw No. 6 kiln uprating show that high capital expenditure is not
always necessary if basic plant sizings are adequate.

The above list is not intended as full guide to all the areas which have to be examined
when considering a major kiln uprating. BCTC can provide guidance and advice on these
and other aspects of kiln uprating exercis=. The establishment of realistic output
targets and identification of the major plant limitations is an essential part of this
process.

60
n
J
z
1
v
s
62
10. OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS WITH PRECALCINER KILNS AND SOLUTIONS

10.1 General

Since 1980, several precalciner kiln plants have been commissioned within the Blue
Circle Group, its associated companies and through its consultancy services. The
following examples are taken from several of these commissioning to serve as
examples. The problems were real ones, but have been simplified here to illustrate the
main problem areas and their solutions.

10.2 Practical ExamDles

10.2.1 Build-up Problems in Kiln Back-end Riser

Problem:- During operation of a 2500 TPD, 4 stage A-S precalciner kiln,

repeated blockages of the riser duct occurred when the material
was introduced into the upper riser duct (see Figure 16).

Solution:- The raw meal from the Stage 3 cyclone was introduced into the
kiln back-end riser duct at a lower point. This meal effectively
quenches the hot gases (1050-1 10°C) leaving the kiln and helps to
significantly reduce the level of build-up.

Notes- The introduction of meal at a lower point in the riser is a feature

of several precalciner processes such as the FLS-ILC and IHI-NSF.
In the latter process, the meal tends to be split to the vessel and
the riser. If all the meal enters the lower riser, it can cause
higher pressure losses and there is also more risk of underprepared
meal entering the kiln directly. Hence, a flow splitter device is
often used.

10.2.2 Overdrafting of the Kiln and High Fuel Input for the Maximum Kiln Output

Problem:- In order to achieve the maximum output froma3150 TPD, 4 Stage,

A-S precalciner kiln system, the operators found it necessary to
operate with 70% fuel to the kiln and 30% fuel to the precalciner.
Kiln stability remained poor with frequent kiln flushing.

Testwork:- Carry out full preheater survey gas pressure, temperature, oxygen,
CO and C02 analysis tests. Measure raw meal loss on ignition
levels at each stage. Obtain dimensions of riser ducts and cyclone
inlets and outlets. Estimate the meal decarbonation levels
(apparent) at each stage. Construct heat and mass balances for
kiln system.

63
 Results:- The meal entering the kiln appeared to be well prepared with a
high apparent decarbonation level of 94%. However, the C02
leaving the kiln was found to be 22%. Theoretically, from heat and
mass balance estimates, the C02 leaving the kiln should have only
been around 17%. It was suspected that the Stage 4 cyclones were
not collecting all of the meal entering the precalciner vessel.
Some material was short circuiting these cyclones by entering the
kiln directly.

The gas velocity checks showed that the pick-up velocity in the
riser duct was only 14 m/s. Hence, some of the Stage 3 meal was
not being entrained in the riser and was entering the riser directly.
This unprepared meal was contributing to the kiln stability
problems and its decarbonation resulted in the higher than
expected C02 levels in the kiln exit gases.

Solution:- The riser duct was modified by fitting a refractory restriction (i.e.
gas accelerator, see Figure 17) below the level where the Stage 3
meal entered. This accelerated the gases to approximately 25 m/s
before the entry of the Stage 3 meal. A BCI dispersion box was
also fitted in order to disperse the meal across the full cross
section of the riser duct.

By operating the system with 70°A fuel input to the kiln, the
operators were artificially increasing the gas velocities in the kiln
back-end riser. However, this measure was not fully effective
since some unprepared meal could still short-circuit into the kiln.
Hence, the need to design the gas accelerator and dispersion box.
Please refer to Appendix I for an example of how the C02 in the
kiln exit gases can be related to the meal decarbonation level.

10.2.3 Kiln is Unable to Produce a satisfactory Clinker Quality

Following a Major Uprating

Problem:- Following major plant modifications to a 2500 TPD, 4 Stage, A-S

precalciner kiln plant, difficulties were found in achieving a
satisfactory free lime. If the kiln feed was increased above 2000
TPD, the kiln flushed. At lower outputs the free limes were
variable and high.

Testwork:- The key area where modifications were made were the riser duct
and Stage 4 cyclone. Hence, these areas were targeted first by
testing the following:-

(a) Measure the gas temperature entering and leaving Stage 4 cyclone.

(b) Measure the meal temperature leaving Stage 4 cyclone.

64
 3
—--
tn -
/“
q \
0 w
4 a
g
I
w \\ f
m --~,
[
4-.
——— _ ,.
-=-J \
●—— — A.\ .’
F)
>
*0
/
y +E \-
\
65
 (c) Carry out a gas temperature and pressure survey of the riser above
and below the point where Stage 3 meal enters the riser.

Results and Conclusions:

Stage 4 Temperature Results

Before (°C) After (°C)

Adjustments Adjustments

Gas entering 918 876

Gas leaving 797 875

Meal leaving 850 856-868

Difference between Gas

Temperature Entering
and Meal Temperature
Leaving Stage 4 68 20-8

The precalciner was operating at a high exit temperature in order to improve the Stage
4 meal decarbonation levels. However, this high temperature was ineffective, as some
Stage 2 meal was not being picked up in the riser duct between Stage 4 exit and Stage
3 inlet. This was indicated by:-

The local low temperature of 797°C. This was due to cooler Stage 2 meal
at 585°C dropping downwards into the cyclone exit. This area of the
preheater was enlarged so gas velocities here were thus lower for a given
clinker output. (See Figure 18)

The Stage 4 meal temperature was 68°C lower than the inlet gas
temperature. This indicated that the Stage 4 temperature was reduced
by mixing with cooler meal from Stage 2. To overcome this problem, the
following changes were made:-

(a) The splash plate for Stage 2 meal dispersion was fully inserted into
the gas duct leaving Stage 4 cyclone. Later results showed that
the temperature difference between the gas entering, leaving and
in the body of Stage 4 became closer to the meal temperature
leaving Stage 4. This situation was improved as the kiln capacity
was increased and the gas velocities increased.

(b) Similar tests showed that a similar problem was arising with the
Stage 3 meal entering the riser duct. Hence, some unprepared
meal was entering the kiln directly giving a lower overall
decarbonation level. Hence, the Stage 3 meal dispersion plate was

66
Meal from Sta e 2 cycione

1 After 876 C

918 C

87$ C
..
.
.
“.
,
.
u Before_
Stage 2
u

%
i Meal shortclrcu~s to kiln

STAGE 4 CYCLONE

STAGE 4 Before 850 C

Meal i After -c

67
 fully inserted into the duct. This was prone to heat distortion so
a thicker heat resistant plate was used. Alternatively, a dispersion
box design could be considered.

10.2.4 Kiln Outputs Restricted Due to High Gas Pressure Losses and Other Limitations

Case 1
Problem:- A 3000 TPD, 4 Stage, A-S precalciner kiln suffered reduced output
for a period. Inspection of the preheater system does not show up
any obvious areas of unusual build-up. However, the preheater
pressure loss was higher than normal.

Testwork:- A stage by stage preheater gas pressure and temperature survey

was carried out.

Results and Conclusions:-

The pressure drop results pointed to the higher restriction being
between the kiln exit and Stage 4 cyclone exit.

Static Pressure (mmwd Surveys

Kiln Output Maximum

Case Restricted OUtDUt

Clinker output TPD 2300 3075

Kiln Shell & Hearth 11 33

Lower Riser Duct

Below Precalciner 127 63

Precalciner Base 173 9’1

Stage 4 Cyclone Roof

Before Exit 208 133

Hence, the overall pressure drop over the kiln, precalciner and
Stage 4 cyclone inlet plus body was 208-133 = 75 mmwg more than
normal. The loss in clinker output was 3075-2300 = 775 TPD below
the maximum potential.

The area of high pressure loss was in the upper riser and base of
the precalciner vessel. Subsequently, a heavy build-up was found
in this area. Once this had been cleaned, the pressure losses
returned to normal. This exercise pointed to the need to improve

68
 the automatic and manual cleaning facilities in the riser-
precalciner base area. Hence, additional air cannons and
inspection ports were provided. Due to the lack of suitable
inspection ports, the area of build-up could not be detected or
cleaned. However, the pressure drop survey pinpointed the
problem area. It is recommended that all preheater/precalciner
kiln plants should have regular surveys carried out since this helps
early identification of potential problem areas.

Case 2
Problem:- A 2600 TPD, 4 Stage, A-S precalciner kiln could not achieve
outputs above 2440 TPD due to preheater fan capacity limitations.
Checks upon the preheater fan showed that it was performing in
accordance with its design fan curve and there were no obvious
mechanical defects such as too high an impeller to inlet cone
clearance etc.

Testwork:- Initially check fan to confirm actual and design operation. Check
the overall preheater pressure loss and gas flow at fan against
design. Check cooler performance. This showed that the gas
volume was higher due to the clinker cooler efficiency being only
50% instead of the designed 63%. Separate studies were carried
out to optimise the cooler. The overall preheater pressure loss was
75 mbar compared with an expected 68 mbar. An oxygen survey
showed that the preheater inleaking air was very low.

A stage by stage pressure loss survey was carried out. This showed
that at outputs above 2100 TPD, the pressure losses increased
rapidly, especially over the Stage 2 and 3 cyclones (see Figure 19).

Preheater Inspection:-
A full preheater inspection was carried out at the major kiln stop.
It was found that the cyclone inlets at Stages 2 and 3 had been
incorrectly constructed. A refractory spoiler was fitted at each
cyclone inlet which was designed to reduce the width from 2.625m
to 2.2m. Unfortunately, these had been cast incorrectly and the
inlet ducts were only 2.0 m wide. The spoilers were modified and
the ef feet upon the preheater pressure loss is shown in Figure 19.
The kiln achieved 2620 TPD clinker. Subsequent optimisation of
the clinker cooler gave a further increase to 2700 TPD.

69
 FIGURE 19 CYCLONE PRESSURE DROP REDUCTION

Width increased from 2.0 to 2.2 m

/
2[
/{
Cast “spoiler”
I / /
at cyclone inlet ‘ ~
/

1!

$/’
&
f
/

10

,
12EEEEl ‘––

lzEEicl —
100 120 t40 160 180

KILN FEED RATE (TPH MEAL) 70

11. TYPICAL OPEIWTING CONDITIONS AND HEAT BALANCES
FOR A MODERN A-S PRECALCINER KILN

11.1 Number of Cvclone Stares

The overall fuel consumption and gas pressure loss characteristics of a precalciner kiln
process will depend upon several factors. Foremost amongst these is the selection of
the number of preheater stages. During the 1970’s and early 1980’s, it was more
common to install 4 stage single stream preheaters for capacities up to 3000 TPD.
Exceptions to this with the group were:-

Dunbar:- 5 stage preheater selected due to carbon in raw materials.

Additional stage required to avoid high exit temperature and
recover heat.

Rawang:- 5 stage twin preheater selected since shale is not preheated and
meets limestone plus sand in precalciner v~el. Additional stage
required to avoid very high exit temperature.

More recently, the adoption of 5 stage preheater has become more common. The
development of LP (low pressure drop cyclones) has allowed the use of 5 or 6 cyclone
stages without excessive pressure losses. For a new kiln line, a 5 stage preheater would
normally be specified, except in the following areas:-

At new plants such as Lakshmi in India, a 6 stage preheater was specified

in order to minimise the waste gas handling and fuel consumption
requirements. Availability of water for gas quenching, etc, is a problem
area due to the plants location.

The limit on drying capacity with a modern 5 stage preheater system is

around 5 to 6%. Hence, if the raw materials are higher (7-80A) 4 stage
operation may be required. However, there are ways round this problem
as follows:-

(a) Operate 5 stage preheater as a 4 stage system, using kiln feed

entry before Stage 2. This allows higher drying capacity to be used
for periods of high moisture (e.g. winter or monsoon conditions).

(b) Incorporate a hot gas generator in the raw material drying and mill
circuits.

(c) Use cooler exhaust gases ducted to the raw milling circuit (cf. the
ATOX boost system installed at Cauldon Works).

Hence, for simplicity, the following data relates to a modern 5 stage

precalciner system.

71
11.2 @eratinr Conditions and Heat Balance

Figure 20 shows some typical operating conditions and heat balance for a 5 stage A-S
precalciner of 6000 TPD output. These conditions are based on the following:-

Raw materials of average combinability characteristics.

Modern clinker cooler design used to give a cooler efficiency of around

72-75%.
,,

Kiln fuel consumption is typically 720 net Kcal/Kg clinker for 5 stage
operation. This would increase to around 750-760 net Kcal/Kg clinker for
a modern 4 stage precalciner process.

11.3 Gas Velocitv Profiles

Assuming a preheater exit gas oxygen content of 3.5%, tie gas volumes at each stage
are typically as follows (subject to the plant suppliers d~ign):-

Gas F1OW
Stage Exit Nm3/K~ Clinker

5 1.44
4 1.41
3 1.38
2 1.35
1 1.31
Kiln 0.43

For modern LP cyclones, the gas velocity profiles are typically as follows:-

Cyclone inlets = 12-18 m/s

Cyclone outlets = 10-16 m/s

11.4 Preheater Cyclone Loadimzs

The cyclone loading is defined as the TPD clinker per m2 cyclone body cross sectional
area (inside refractory). This empirical figure gives a rough indicator to the relative
size of the cyclones for a given clinker output. The higher the loading, the higher the
gas velocity profile is likely to be. Typical figures for new LP preheater supplied by
KHD, Polysius, UBE and IHI are:-

Preheater Cyclone Loading

(TPD/m2) for stages 2-5 = 70-80 TPD/m2

72
FIGURE 20 FIVE STAGE A.S. PRECALCINERt_KILN
tiPICAL PREHEATER GAS TEMPERATIJRE AND pRESSLJRE PROFILE

Gos- stat.
Temp. press.
expected
‘c mbar
waste gas 310 47
after Dopo L
pre CI+ Lone S

gosduct 5R

gosauct s 490 38

pre cycLone 4

gOSducL 4R

gOSducL 4 660 30

pre cycLone 3

gosduct 3R

gasaucL 3 7e5 23

pfe cycLone 2

gosduct 2R

gasd~c: 2 880 16

pee cycLone I 10

caLclnator 880

caLcleatoF- ~l~o 4
Inl-ec

Left .alr

~lLninle:

k~Ln 1200 2

73
FLS LP cyclones feature a generally smaller cyclone body area with a greater
enlargement of the upper cyclone body area. Hence, the FLS loadings are higher i.e.

FLS Loading for Stages 2-5 = 105-115 TPD/m2

The cyclone loading is estimated as follows:-

Stage 2-5 cyclone diameter = 7.90m

Lining thickness (mm) = 215

Cyclone diameter inside lining = 7.9-0.43

= 7.47m

Cross sectional area inside

lining = m J7.47)2
4
= 43.83 m2

Clinker output = 3500 TPD

Cyclone loading stages 2-5 = 3500

43.83

= 79.9 TPD/m2

Since this cyclone design is not of the FLS geometry, it complies with the BCI guideline
of 75-80 TPD/m2. This loading can be exceeded, but at the cost of higher gas pressure
losses.

When checking a preheater design, the heat and mass balances are used to arrive at the
actual gas volumes through each cyclone stage. From this the cyclone pressure loss can
be roughly calculated. The cyclone gas inlet and outlet duct dimensions as well as the
expected operating gas temperatures and pressures are used to estimate the gas velocity
profile. These must be checked to ensure @at adequate pick-up velocities are achieved.
Whilst raw meal can be carried over at low velocities (5-6 rids) through spouted bed
precalciners, such low velocities would cause short circuiting problems in the riser ducts
since this velocity is too low to pick-up the meal. Hence; the riser duct design should
be closely examined to ensure adequate dispersion devices and gas accelerators are
used. Minimum preheater velocities are around 10 m/s at the cyclone outlets before
meal enters the riser duct. Higher gas velocities are usually used to pick-up the meal.

74
Care has to be taken that preheater are correctly sized since:-

Undersized cyclones - Pressure loss= are high and fan capacity may
be insufficient.

Oversized cyclones - Pressure losses are low, high risk of short

circuiting and poor heat exchange causing
unstable operation. System may have to be
“overdrafted” to function correctly. This
costs fuel and fan power.

11.5 Preheater Cyclone Geome~

In addition to the above constraints,
of a proven design. It is possible to produce a
bodies with very large cyclone inlet and outlet
but will be inefficient by having a high dust
where cyclones have been modified to reduce
being used.
it is essential to check that preheater cyclones are
low cost preheater by using small cyclone
ducts. This will give low pressure losses,
loss. There have been several examples
dust loss due to incorrect sizing criteria

As a simple check, the cyclone inlet and outlet areas are compared with the cyclone
body area (inside lining). For example cyclone exarnple:-

Cyclone body area = 43.83m2

Cyclone inlet area = 10.96m2
Cyclone outlet area = 12.79m2

The critical ratios are thus:-

Cyclone Inlet area/

Cyclone body area = 10.96
43.83

= 0.25

Cyclone Outlet area/

Cyclone body area = 12.79
43.83

= 0.295

75
These ratios are acceptable and compare with the following guidelines for cyclone inlets
for Stages 2-5.

Inlet/Body Ratio

Older preheater designs

(1970’s) high pressure
loss 0.18- 0.21

1980’s medium to low

pressure loss cyclones 0.20-0.27

1990’s LP cyclones 0.21 -0.34

In the case of current Stage 1 cyclones, the above ratios for Stage 1 cyclone inlets are
lower i.e. around 0.21-0.25.

FLS LP cyclones with their narrower cyclone body size tend to have higher inlet/body
ratios i.e.

Stages 2-5 - 0.42-0.44

Stage 1 - 0.43

11.6 Summarv

The above guidelines are provided as a cross reference when checking new and existing
preheater cyclone designs. Whilst the use of empirical data is no absolute guarantee as
to whether or not a cyclone will function efficiently, these guidelines can help to
identify suspect or unproven designs.

In one recent case, at Stage 1 cyclone modification was found to give an inlet/body
ratio of around 0.33 which was too high for a non-FLS cyclone geometry. Subsequent
tests showed preheater dust loss levels of over 15% on clinker i.e. twice the expected
level. The cyclone inlet area was reduced at the expense of pressure loss to improve
collection efficiency and half the dust loss. Fortunately, the preheater fan was large
enough to cope with the higher pressure loss.

When assessing the performance of a precalciner system, it is thus important to examine

carefully the limitations of its component parts which include the preheater cyclone,
precalciner, kiln, clinker cooler and ancillary plant. Always ensure that preheater fans
have a generous design margin to cope with any adverse pressure losses.

76
 APPENDIX I

CARBON DIOXIDE CONTENT OF THE GASES LEAVING A KILN

AND THE DECARBONATION OF THE MEAL ENTERIN G THE KILN

Carbon Dioxide in the gases leaving the precalciner kiln are generated by the following-

(a) C02 from fuel combustion

(b) C02 from decarbonating the meal from approximately 85-92% to 100%
decarbonation before sintering.

If the precalciner vessei is inefficient and the meal do= not receive adequate
preparation/decarbonation prior to the kiln, this will be indicated by higher kiln exit
C02 levels. The C02 generated from the meal decarbonation in the kiln is greater than
the C02 from fuel combustion.

The attached graphs show the low and variable decarbonation level of the Stage 5 meal
entering Rawang No. 3 kiln. These results were taken after the kiln was uprated to
5000 TPD. This was attributed to material short circuiting the enlarged precalciner
vessel by two possible routes:-

(a) Stage 4 meal not being picked up in the riser duct.

(b) Stage 3 meal short circuiting through the Stage 5 cyclones.

Overdraf ting the kiln appeared to help (a) but the highly cohesive nature of the raw
meal (limestone mainly up to stage 4) can make it difficult to disperse efficiently in the
riser ducts.

Please note that the C02 graph is derived from Heat Balance data specific to each kiln.
Hence, this graph is a guideline only. If similar problems are suspected for any
precalciner kiln system, then this graph should be constructed from Heat Balances using
the fuel characteristics, fuel consumption and gas analysis data.

77
 APPENDIx I
——

Rawang Works Kiln inlet C02 content - vs Decarbonation

(at different 02 content)
0/
/0 decarbonation
95

90

\ “.., ‘.
85 \* “(J ‘N~
\ .. \\
\ “.., \2%
“..

\ “’”.,, “’,
\ .,.. \.
.=\
80 \ ..: *. \. . . . . .
\ ,, .
\\ ...ti
..*m
*.= \
.. .
\ .. \
\ \
.
75
2%02 3%02 4%02
“k== “k’ ,.. ‘L\
\
5.3%02 \ “. x\
-~ -- A -- .....~..-. —+— \ .. .
.. .
.. .
\ ,. .
,.
\ \
70 I I I I I ,.Y \

14 16 18 20 22 24 26 20 30

% c02 (dry basis - Orsat)

VARIATION OF CALCINATION %
INSTHSTACECYQLONEIFRM7 AM-245?W
28,
9s -
94
93
%2 -
m
-
-
II
90 -
89
88 -
87 -
08
85
84 -
83
02 -
81 -
80 -
x
T!31 I 1
7.ml l’I’I’I’ l’I’I’I’ +ti’l’l’l’l’~
1
2PM
Date: 16/12/92
TIME
Cllnker produced : 1512 ~ (Ist. Shift)
Kiln Feed : 345 tph a A cyaom + B cya-
5th. Stage temp. : EIso”c
78