Colonialism and Colonisation:

Colonisation:

Derived from the Latin word colere  which means "to inhabit", the
term colonisation is used in biology and ecology to refer to the process by which
species spread to new areas of land. As resources in one area become scarce, the
species needs to expand into new territory for survival (Hampton & Toombs, 2013).
In relation to humans, the term has also been used to describe the expansion into
foreign territory through habitation.

This process should not be confused for colonialism. 

Colonialism:
Is "a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to
another" (Kohn & Reddy, 2017) and is difficult to distinguish from imperialism. In
colonialism, settlers would take up permanent residency in the new territory while
simultaneously "maintaining political allegiance to their country of origin" (Kohn &
Reddy, 2017). Although we tend to associate colonialism with the last few hundred
years of Western civilisation, particularly associating it with the British Empire's 18th
and 19th Century colonies in countries such as India, Australia, New Zealand,
Canada, and South Africa, the take over of one society by conquering and expanding
into another's territory has a long history and is a global phenomenon. For example,
the ancient civilisations of Egypt, Greece, and Rome practiced colonialism, as did the
Normans, Moors, Ottomans, and so on (Kohn & Reddy, 2017).
The primary European colonial period lasted between the 15th Century and the early 20th
Centuries, and roughly corresponds to the "Age of Discovery" when European countries
embarked on global exploration, primarily through sailing, that resulted in the spread of
European culture including religion, international trade, and the expansion of European
empires as a result of colonialism. In addition to the British Empire that influenced Australia,
countries such as Spain, France, Portugal, Russia, and the Netherlands (along with others)
also established colonies during this period.

Image ‘The Founding of Australia 1788’, an oil painting by Algernon

Talmage. Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales

Impacts of Colonialism
From the 15th to the early 20th century, many Indigenous cultures in the Americas,
Asia, Africa, and Pacific region were impacted by European colonialism. Colonialism
brought changes to land access and rights, social and political organisation, religion,
language, and other cultural practices (Hampton & Toombs, 2013). Generally, the
Indigenous populations in colonial countries faced a number of similar difficulties.
In your textbook, Hampton and Toombs (2013, p. 33) identified the following factors
that have affected the capacity of Indigenous peoples to succeed in countries where
there was a colonial presence:    

 "Poverty (imposed and emergent);

 Absence of socio-economic control of resources;
 High unemployment;
 Restricted access to housing and property ownership;
 Lower educational access and attainment;
 Limited access to health services;
  Reduced life expectancy; and
 Social and emotional impacts of racism."

Image Art Gallery of South Australia

You will notice that this list is similar to the social determinants of health identified
by the United Nations State of the World's Indigenous Peoples report from 2015 that
still impact quality of life and access to quality heath care across most of the world's
sociocultural regions, as we discussed in Week 1. Hampton and Toombs (2013) note
that recognition of the disadvantage faced by Indigenous peoples in former colonial
countries is relatively recent; however, many of these countries are now attempting
to make positive change through recognition under treaties and other government
policies. 

Below are some images depicting the internment that occurred of Aboriginal
people, including children. In these missions and homes for children individuals
were forced to take on western ideas of civilisation, which included education and
religion. These internment camps or facilities were often run or managed by
religious groups, as well as state governments. 
Dispossession and Native Title

Key Concept
When the British asserted sovereignty over the continent of Australia, there was no
recognition that the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples had ever held any
claim of their lands (Hampton & Toombs, 2013). On this page, we discuss the
principle of 'terra nullius' that the British used as justification for this conclusion,
and provide a brief overview of 20th century claims to traditional lands and the
subsequent establishment of Native title in Australia.

Terra Nullius
The Latin phrase "terra nullius", meaning "nobody's land", was used in the early
19th century as the basis upon which the British settlement in Australia could be
founded. After the colony of New South Wales was established in the late 18th
century, traditional Aboriginal inhabitants were forced off their land to make way for
free settlers. In 1835, the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, issued
a Proclamation (see the image to the right) that implemented the "terra nullius"
doctrine (NSW Migration Heritage Centre, 2010).

What this doctrine meant was that the land that made up the continent of Australia
was not recognised as having any lawful owners prior to the British Crown taking
ownership of it (NSW Migration Heritage Centre, 2010). In practice, this made it
unlawful for Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander peoples to sell any of their lands
through treaty, to receive compensation for lands lost, or to have their rights to
their traditional 'Country' recognised (Hampton & Toombs, 2013). Instead, only the
British Crown could distribute the rights to the land (NSW Migration Heritage
Centre, 2010). The concept of "Crown land" still exists to this day, with "Crown land"
managed under various State Acts.

As we discussed in Week 2, 'Country' is of immense importance in Aboriginal and

Torres Strait Islander culture. Not only did the loss of land deprive the traditional
custodians of that land of their livelihoods, it also isolated them from the deep
spiritual connection they had to their ancestral lands (Hampton & Toombs, 2013).
This resulted in a significant loss that continues to be felt to this day.

Native Title
It wasn't until 1992 that the High Court of Australia recognised that Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander peoples had occupied the lands of Australia prior to the arrival
of the British in the late 18th century. 

Do you remember looking at the map of the Torres Strait Islands? Far out on the
eastern side is Murray Island or Mer or Meriam island. If you want to look again click
here to take you back to the map.

The Murray Island/Mer (Meriam) people opened proceedings against the

Queensland Government in 1982, led by Eddie Koiki Mabo (Hampton & Toombs,
2013). The landmark Mabo v Queensland case was fought for 10 years before the
High Court recognised the Native title claim. This outcome resulted in the
Parliament of Australia passing the Native Title Act 1993. As explained in your
Hampton and Toombs (2013) textbook, this legislation allowed "Indigenous
Australians to lodge claims to 'ownership' of their traditional lands, providing they
could prove continuous connection to the land" (p. 65).

Let's reflect upon the significance of this...

Given the importance of 'Country' to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples,
write your answer to this question in your Reflection Journal. You may want to copy & paste
it in to your journal.

How do you think the dispossession that resulted from the "terra nullius" doctrine
impacted the health of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders in the 19th century? Provide
some examples of the impacts and effects as well as the impact it may still have on
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People even today,

By clicking the link to your journal, it will open up in a new browser tab, so it will keep this
page open, and once finished, you can continue with the lesson.

Off you go to your Reflection Journal. This page will still be here waiting for you.
In your response to the question, how do you think the dispossession that resulted
from the "terra nullius" doctrine impacted the health of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islanders in the 19th century? Provide some examples of the impacts and
effects as well as the impact it may still have on Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander People even today,  did you include any of the following thoughts?

In terms of the holistic health model discussed in Week 2, the loss of ancestral lands
would have had a major impact on the health of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Peoples. For example, the loss of access to lands that held deep spiritual
meaning would have had significant cultural and environmental impacts, in addition
to negative emotional well-being and mental health outcomes. The conflicts that
resulted from forceful dispossession in certain regions of Australia would have also
had overt impacts on the physical and mental health of Aboriginal Australians.

These effects would continue to have a negative effect on First Nations Peoples, as
the continued loss of identity, connection to kin, family and Country impacts one's
health and well-being. Sense of self and identity, as well as the spiritual need to care
for Country , is crucial as the central concepts of health and well-being for ABoriginal
and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

How do you say that? Babakiureia? What is that?

What if the roles were reversed? What if you were living your life peacefully, and
Aboriginal People were the invaders to your Country? To provide you with a
different perspective, click the drop down box to watch this 1986 satirical film which
portrays Aboriginal men invading 'white mans' babakiureia (otherwise known as
Barbecue Area), and the resultant adjustment to society from their perspective of
'white man'. This film begins to introduce you to the term 'Paternalism', as some of
the concepts are paternalistic, which mirror the treatment of First Nations Peoples
since settlement. We will talk more about paternalism later.

Here is a synopsis of the film:

"Babakiueria (also known under the video-title Babakiueria (Barbeque Area)) is a

1986 Australian satirical film on relations between Aboriginal Australians and
Australians of European descent. Babakiueria revolves around a role-reversal,
whereby it is Aboriginal Australians who have invaded and colonised the fictitious
country of Babakiueria, a land that has long been inhabited by white natives, the
Babakiuerians. (Note that the capital K spelling used above is incorrect.) 
 The opening scene depicts a group of Aboriginal Australians in military uniforms
coming ashore in a land they have not previously been to. In this land, they discover
a number of European Australians engaged in stereotypical European Australian
activities. The Aboriginal Australian explorers approach the group and the
expedition's leader asks them, "What do you call this place"? One of the Europeans
replies, "Er... 'Barbecue Area'".

After around 200 years of Aboriginal occupation, white Australians have become a
minority. Aboriginal people have assumed power, taken all of the available land and
have mostly confined whites to suburban ghettos. They are expected to follow the
laws and customs of the colonisers and their lifestyle is seen through the
patronizing eyes of the majority culture. The latest manifestation of this is in a
'documentary' presented by Duranga Manika (Michelle Torres).  

The remainder of the film follows Duranga Manika as she observes how white
people are disempowered through poverty, are treated unfairly by the police - often
with brutality and indifference, experience arbitrary dispossession, government
inaction on white issues, white tokenism, white children being taken from their
families only to be taught the values of the majority culture and white people being
relocated because the government needs their home for "something". White people
are now often characterized by society and in the media as lazy, unintelligent and
untrustworthy and anyone who protests about the current circumstances is labeled
as a 'troublemaker'. White rituals and cultural values are derided and dismissed as
violent and meaningless. The Babakiuerian government's paternalistic policies are
defended by Wagwan, the Minister for White Affairs (Bob Maza) who was based on
the then Premier of Queensland, Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen. 

The inversion of reality in Babakiueria highlights the unfairness of Australia's past

and present Aboriginal policies and the entrenched racism in society. This
subversion of normality allows viewers to see what is wrong when one group tries
to control and dominate another and questions the fairness of the current power
structure in Australia. 

 Cast: Michelle Torres - (Presenter Duranga Manika) Bob Maza - (Wagwan -

Government Minister) Kevin Smith - (Police Superintendent) Tony Barry - (Father
(Mr. Smith)) Cecily Polson - (Mother) Kelan Angel - (Son) Marguerita Haynes -
(Daughter) Garry Williams - (Explorer) Soul Beliear - (Police Sergeant #1) Terry Reid -
(Police Sergeant #2) Athol Compton - (Newsreader) Kati Edwards - (Grandmother)
Yvonne Shipley - (Wealthy Woman)" . Alexander Cafarella, (2018).